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THE

CYCLOPADIA;

OR,

Universal Dictionary

OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, AND LITERATURE.

VOL. XXXI.

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THE

CYCLOPA DIA;

OR,

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

OF

Arts, Sciences, and Literature,

BY

ABRAHAM REES, D.D. F.RB.S. F.L.S. S. Amer. Soc.

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF

EMINENT PROFESSIONAL GENTLEMEN.

ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS,

BY THE MOST DISTINGUISHED ARTISTS.

—$—$——— rrr ——_—__—_—

IN THIRTY-NINE VOLUMES.
VOL. XXXI.

a ———

LONDON:

Pointev vox LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, & BROWN, Parernostenr-Kow,

¥.C. AND J. WIVINGTON, A. STRAHAN, PAYNE AND FOSS, SCATCHERD AND LETTERMAN, J. CUTHELL,
CLARKE AND SONS, LACKINGTON HUGHES HARDING MAVOR AND JONES, J- AND A. ARCH,
CADELL AND DAVIES, 8. BAGSTER, Je MAWMAN, JAMES BLACK AND SON, BLACK KINGSBURY
PARBURY AND ALLEN, it. SCHOLEY, J. BOOTH, J- BOOKER, SUTTABY EVANCE AND FOX, BALDWIN
CRADOCK AND JOY, SHUEMWOOD NEEBELY AND JONES, R. SAUNDERS, HURST ROBINSON AND CO,,
J. DICKINSON, J. PATERSON, HE. WHITESIDE, WILSON AND SONS, AND BRODIE AND DOWDING,

1819.

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CVCLOPEDIA:

NEW

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

Oo

F -

A Pet Sand. SCTENC ES.

S

A confonant, and the eighteenth letter of the al-
S phabet, the found of which is formed by driving
the“ breath through a narrow paflage between the palate
and the tongue elevated near it, together with a motion of
the lower jaw and teeth towards the upper ; the lips being a
little way open, with fuch a configuration of every part of
the mouth and larynx, as renders the voice fomewhat

S = therefore, accounted one of the three hifling con-
fonants ; the other two being z andj. Itisalfo held a femi-
vowel, as forming a kind of imperfect found, without the
affiftance of any of the vowels: and one of thofe femi-vowels
denominated airate, See Semi-voWEL.

S has two different founds, viz.a foft and flat found, like
%, 28 difmal, and a tharp hifling found, as /ifler.

It is the peculiar quality of s, that it may be founded be-
fore all confonants, except x and z, in which s is comprifed,
a« being only és, and zahard or grofss. This s is, therefore,
coxaetiey ammarians fue poteflatis litera. In the beginning
of words it has invariably its natural and genuine fharp found ;
in the middle it is fometimes uttered with a ftronger appulfe
of the tongue to the palate, like z, as rofe, bu/y, &c. and
fometimes it keeps its natural found, as /oo/ey defignation, &c.
In the end of monofyllables, it is fometimes fharp, as shis
and al/o; and fometimes foft, like z, as as, and generally
in verbs where es flands for eth, as gives. A fingle s feldom
ends any word, except the third perfon of verbs, as /oves,
the plural of nouns, as trees, the pronouns this, his, ours,
yours, us, the adverb thus, and eis derived from the Latin,
asrebus: the clofe being always cither in /2, as houfe, or /t,
as grafz. It founds like ~ before ion, ifa vowel goes before,
as mtrufion ; and like s » if it follows a confonant, as
converfion. It founds like z before e mute, as refufe, and be-

Vor. XXXI.

Printed by A. Strahan,
New-Stureet Square, London.

Ss

fore y final, as rofy. S is mute injffe, ifland, &c. Johnfon-
Murray.

Some of the ancients avoided all ufe of thes very ftu-
dioufly ; particularly Pindar, who has whole poems without
once mentioning it. And hence alfo in Plautus, and fome
others of the Latin poets, we find it cut abruptly off, as in
dignu’, omnibu’, &c. Others, on the contrary, affected the
ufe of it every where, inferting it where it was not wanted ;
as Casmene for Camena, dusmofe for dumofe, cesna for cena,
&e. :

Of all letters, the s is neareft akin to the r: whence it
was frequently changed, on account of its difagreeable found,
intor. Thus the Valerii, Furii, &c. were at firft called
Valefii, Fufi, &c.; and what we now call ara, arena,
carmen, feria, lares, &c. were anciently written asa, asena,
casmen, fesia, lases, &c. Add to this, that the Latin nouns
now terminated in or, as arbor, labor, &c. all anciently
ended ins; as arbos, labos, &c.

In the inflections of nouns, s is varioufly changed ; fome-
times into r, as flos, floris ; fometimes into n, as /anguis, fan-
guinis ; fometimes into d, as pes, pedis ; fometimes into ¢, as
nepos, nepotis. On the contrary, in verbs, it is frequently
put for other letters ; for 4, as in jubeo, jusfi; for c, as in
parco, parsi; for d, as in ludo, lusi; for g, as in Jpargo,
Jparsi, &c.

The Latins alfo frequently changed the Greek s into /, as
AwSas, Aunibal ; into d, as usoov, medium, &c. The double
s was frequently changed into 2, as aicca, pix; and fome-
times even the fingle one, as Ais, Ajax.

The old and the new orthography of the French differ
chiefly in the ufe of the «; the latter omitting it in writing,
where it is not heard in the pronunciation, and the former
retaining it; thus the followers of the one, particularly the

? Academy

SA

Academy in their DiGtionary, write tempefe, huifire, flufle 5
thofe of the other, éempéte, huitre, flute, &c.
S was a numerical letter among the ancients, fignifying
feven: according to the verfe,
§ vera feptenos numeratos fignificabit.”

Among the Greeks, -’ fignified 200, and ¢ denoted
200.000; the figma joined to tau, i. c. s, denoted 6. The
famech of the Hebrew f denoted 50, and with two points
above Q, it fignified 50,000.

In abbreviations, S. tiands for /ocietas, or focius ; as R.S.S.
for Regie Societatis Socius, i. ec. fellow of the Royal Society.
In medicinal prefcr’ptions, S.A. fignifies /ecundum artem, 1. e.
according to the rules of art ; and in-the notes of the ancients,

_ S. itands for /extus, fervius, or fundus ; 5.S. fandiffimus 5
S.P. for /purius ; S.C. for /enatus confultum ; S.D. tor falu-
tem dicit; S.P.D. for falutem plurimam dicit ; S.P.Q.R. for
fenatus populufque Romanus ; S.S.S. for Jratum Super ftratum,
1. e. one layer above another, alternately ; 5. -B.E.E.Q.V. for
Si vales bene eft ego quoque valeo, a form ufed in Cicero’s time,
in the beginning of letters. Upon the French ceins, S dif-
tisguifhed thofe that were ftruck at Rheims.

S, in Books of Navigation, &c. fignifies fouth; S.E.
fouth-ealt; S.W. fouth-weft; S.S.E. fouth-fouth-eatt, &c.
See Compass. :

S, in Mufic, when alone in a concertino, or principal
part in a concerto, or chorus, implies /o/o, alone ; as T, its
alternative, and the initial of tutti, does the whole band, or
chorus. See Soro and Tuttt.

SA pe Miranpa, Francis, in Biography, a Portuguefe
writer and chevalier of the order of Chrilt, was born at
Coimbra in 2495, and died in 1558. He was author of a
quarto volume, confitting of fatires, comedies, and paitorals,
which was printed at Lifbon in 1614.

Sa, or Saa, Emanvet, a learned Portuguefe Jefuit in
the 17th century, was born at Villa de Conde, in the pro-
vince of Entre Minho e Duero, in the year 1530. Having
fpent fome time at the univerfity of Coimbra, he became a
member of the newly formed fociety of Jefus, in which he
dittiosuifhed himfeif by his diligence, and great proficiency
in all the branches of learning. He was felected, when
very young, to teach philofophy in that univerfity, avd foon
afterwards was removed to fill the philofophical chair at the
univerlity of Gandia, ia Valentia. While in this fituation
he attended upon Francis Borgia, duke of Gandia, in the
capacity of private tutor. In the year 1557 he was called
to Rome, and appointed profeffor of divinity in the femi-
nary belonging to hisorder. Here he commenced preacher,
and for many years attraGted crowded audiences by his pul-
pit oratory. He was employed by pope Pius V. ia conjunc-
tion with Peter Parra, another Jefuit, in fuperintending a
new edition of the bible. He was afterwards fent to regu-
late the feminaries at Loretto, Milan, Genoa, and other
principal cities of Italy. By his great exertions his health
began todecline ; he retired to Arona, in the diocefe of Mi-
lan, where he died in 1596, in the fixty-fixth year of his age.
He is known in the literary world by the following works :
“ Scholia in Quatuor Evangelia,” 4to. confitting of fhort,
but very learned and ingénious, notes on the four gofpels :
« Notationes ia totam Sacram Scripturam, quibus tum
omnes fere Loci difficiles, tum Varie ex Hebrxo, Chaldo
Leétiones explicantur,” 4to. publifhed two years after his
death: “ Aphortimi Confeflariorum ex Doétorum Sententiis
colle€ti,’’ 12mo. which is faid to have occupied lefs or more
of his time during forty years of his life. It has been fre-

uently reprinted at Venice, Cologne, Antwerp, Paris,

yons, &c.

oM~

c TW
SAA a
.
/ Sa, in Geography, atown of Egypt, on the canal of Bal-
kin, about nine miles from the Nil, fuppofed to be the an-
cient Sais, where were the afylum and tomb of Ofiris; 18
miles §.S.E. of Faoué. a a oe

SAABOR, a town of Silefia, ne e principality of
Glogau ; 18 miles N.N.W. of Gros G Baal e :

SAAD, a town of Grand Bucharia; 20 miles N.E. of
Samarcand. ' als.

SAADE, an independent lordfhip or principality
Arabia, in the territory of Saham or Sahan (which {
itate of Yemen. This belongs to a prince, who 3
alfo the title of Imam; but his principality is fo fmall,
that he can hardly defend himfelf againft the {chiecks
of the neighbouring morntains. His capital, in which he
refides, has a cuftom-houfe, which brings him a confiderabl
revenue. All goods from the dominions of the Imam mu
pafs this way to Nedsjeran, Kachtan, or Mecca, and high
duties are exacted. In the vicinity of this city is a high hi
famous as the poft upon which a prince of this itate fultained
a feven years’ fiege by the Turks; 400 miles S.E. of
Mecca. Niebuhr.

SAADIAS-GAON, or, as he is frequently denomi-
nated, Saadias the Excellent, in Biography, a learned rabbi,
who flourifhed in the roth century, was a native of Pithom,
or Al Fiumi, in Egypt, where he was born about the year
892. Having acquired a high reputation for learning and
abilities, he was, in the year 927, fent for by David, the
fon of Zachai, the prince of the captivity, to prefide over
the academical inftitution at Sora, near Babylon. One of

the firtt objects of his care after entering upon his office was _

to explode, as far as he was able, the doGtrine of the tranf-
migration of fouls, which was very prevalent, not only
among the Perfians and Arabs, but even among the
Jews. He had made confiderable progreis in it, when
he was fent for by the prince of the captivity to fubferibe
to anew regulation, which appeared to him to be repu it
to the Jewith laws, and for fat reafon he firmly refuted his
fignature. Hence a breach arofe between David and Saadias,
and the academy foon became divided into two parties, which
ended in the depofition of David, but his difgrace was of
fhort duration, and on his reftoration, Saadias was obliged
to feek his fafety by flight. He remained in concealment
feven years, during which he compofed the greateft part of
the books which were publifhed in his name. He after-
wards found means to be reconciled to vid, and was re-
ftored to his profefforfhip, in which he continued with great
reputation till his death, in 942, at the age of 50. His
principal works are, «¢ Sepher Heamunah,”’ or a treatife con-
cerning the Jewifh articles of faith, in ten chapters, which
was tranflated from the original Arabic into Hebrew,
and printed at Conttantinople in 1562; and fince that it
has been printed at Verona, Am{terdam, and other places on
the continent: «A Commentary on the Book Jezira,’’
printed, with qther Commentaries on that book, at Mantua,
in 1592: “ An Arabic Tranflation of the whole Old
Teftament,” of which the Pentateuch is ftill extant in Jay’s
and Walton’s Pelyglotts, accompanied with the Latin verfion
of Gabriel Siomta: “ A Commentary on the Song of
Sotigs,” in Hebrew, printed at Prague in 1609, 4to.:
« A Commentary on Daniel,’’ likewife in Hebrew, inferted
in the great rabbinical bibles of Venice and Bafil: “ A
Commentary on Job,”? in Arabic, the MS. of which is in
the Bodleian library, at Oxford: he was author alfo of fome
pieces on grammar, &c. '

SAADIS, a fe of enthufialts or impoftors in Egypt,
refembling the Pfylli 6f Cyrenaica, who were perfuaded that
they pofleffed the power of fetting ferpents at defiance, of

charming

SA A

charming them, of making thefe reptiles follow them at their
call, and of curing their bites. (See Psyzxr.) The Saadis
derive their name from that of their founder, who was a
faint highly venerated among the Mahometans of Egypt.
This faint, when young, having convinced his uncle, who was
a great man in Syria, of his ingenuity, by binding a faggot
of branches of trees, which he was fent by his uncle to collect
in the defart, with a number of living ferpents knotted toge-
ther, commenced his travels through the country, praétifing

the art of charming ferpents by his wonderful and fuperna-

tural fill, and gathering together a number of difciples, to
whom he communicated his art. The tomb of this faint is
near Damafeus; and it is filled with ferpents and other ve-
nomous animals, among which a perfon may lie down and
fleep, without fuffering the flighteft injury. Such is the
fuperititious origin of a very numerous feé& in Egypt, each
individual of which inherits the fkill of its founder. Every
year they celebrate his feftival in a manner analogous to the
inititution. They march in proceffion through the ftreets,
each holding in his hand a living ferpent, which he bites,
gnaws, and {wallows piece-meal, making, at the fame time,
frightful grimaces and contortions. Sonnini informs us,
that he had an opportunity of obferving the practices of a
member of this fe&. A prieft of this profeflion carried
in his bofom a large ferpent, which he was continually
handling, and after having recited a prayer, delivered it to the
Saadi who accompanied him. The teeth of the reptile had
been drawn, but it was very lively, and of a dufky green end
copper colour. The Saadi feized the ferpent, which en-
twined itfelf round his naked arm. Upon this he began to
be agitated ; his countenance changed ; his eyes rolled ; he
uttered terrible cries ; bit the animal in the head,-and tore
off a piece, which he chewed and fwallowed. At that mo-
ment his agitation increafed ; his howlings were redoubled ;
his limbs writhed; his afpe€&t bore the marks of madnefs;
and his mouth, diltended by horrid grimaces, was covered
with foam. From time to time he devoured frefh pieces of
the reptile. It was in vain that three men exerted themfelves
to hold him; he dragged them round the room, throwing
his arms with violence on all fides, and {triking every thing
within his reach. At length the prieft took the ferpent from
him ; but his fury and convulfions were not at firft appeafed ;
he bit his hands, and his paffion continued. The prie(t
clafped him in his arms, put his hands gently on his back,
lifted him from the ground, and recited fome prayers. His
agitation gradually fubfided, and he became completely ex-
hautted, in which itate he continued for a few moments. The
Turks, who were prefent, believed that this religious frenzy
was real.

Dr. Shaw (fee his «* Travels’’), and feveral other authors,
apprehend that thefe ferpent-eaters entirely fubfilled upon
thefe reptiles ; and from this traveller we learn, that at Cairo
and in its environs there are more than 4000 perfons who live
on nothing but ferpents. But Sonnini fays this isa miltake ;
for if in their ceremonies they gnaw a few that are raw and
alive, they do not ufe them as an article of food. In Egypt
thefe men are-very much refpected ; but among the Turks of
the other parts of the Ottoman empire, they are only objeéts
of ridicule and laughter. In order to have ferpents ready on

oceafion, they keen them in their houfes, having
ufed the previous precaution of extracting their teeth. If
any perfon be bitten by a ferpent, he runs direétly to a
Saadi, who mutters a few words over the wound, {eari-
fies it with a razor, and after having filled his mouth with
lemon-juice, ficks the blood from it repeatedly. hele
men alfo cure the “ Serpent’s breath,’”? an appellation given
by them to inflammatory puftules, which fometimes break

SAA

out on thofe who fleep in the open air, with any part of the
body uncovered, and which, as they pretend, are caufed by
the ferpent’s breath. The remedy they employ is the oil of
fefamum, mixed with cerufs, or white lead. With this lini-
ment they rub the puftules, never failing, at the fame time,
to mutter a few words, without which every remedy would
be altogether ineffetual. Such,”’ fays Sonnini, (Travels
in Egypt) ‘is the lot of mankind, that there is no nation
in the univerfe, of whofe hiftory many pages are not appro-
priated to {uperitition !””

SAAGROW, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 58
miles N.W. of Midnapour.

SAAL, a town of the duchy of Carinthia; 3 miles N.
of Clagenfurt.—Alfo, a river which rifes in the bifhopric
of Fulda, and runs into the Maine, near Gemunden, in the
duchy of Wurzburg.—Alfo, a river which rifes in the
principality of Bayreuth, and runs into the Elbe, three miles
S. of Barby.—Alfo, a river, called likewife «* Sala,” which
runs into the Salzach, two miles below Salzburg.—Alfo, a
department of the new kingdom of Weitphalia, comprifing
the principalities of Halberitadt, Quedliuburg, &c. The po-
pulation is eftimated at 254,000. The capital is Halberftadt.

SAALBURG, a town of Saxony, in the county of
Reuffen, on the Saal; 20 miles S.W. of Gera. N. lat.
50° 27'. E. long. 11°/50!.

SAALFELD, a town of Saxony, in the principality
of Altenburg, on the Saal; in which is a fuperintendancy,
with three others belonging to it, with three churches, one
of which only is ufed. It has alfo a good grammar-fchool, to-
gether with fome manufactures of cloth, gold and filk ttuffs,
and alfo a {melting and vitriol-houfe. It was likewife the
mint-town for the circle of Upper Saxony. Nearthe town,
on an eminence, is the once celebrated and princely Bene-
diGtine abbey, called “ Saalfeld Abbey ;”’ 46 miles S.W.
of Altenburg. N. lat. 50°37’. E. long. 11° 28’.—Alfo,
a town of ‘Praffia, in the province of Oberland; 64 miles
S.S.W. of Konigfberg. N. lat. 53°48’. E. long. 19° 2o/.

SAALHORN, a town of the duchy of Magdeburg,
at the conflux of the Saal and the Elbe; 22 miles $.S.E,
of Magdeburg.

SAALLES, a town of France, in the department of the
Vofges, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of
St. Dié; 10 miles E.N.E. of St. Dié. The place contains
gt5, and the canton 8614 inhabitants, on a territory of
1574 kilometres, in 13 communes.

SAAPOUR, a town of Bengal, 25 miles W. of Dacca.
—Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 21 miles W. of
Hajypour.

SAAR, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Saatz ;
12 miles S. of Slakenwert.

Saar. See SARRE.

Saar, or Zdar, a town of Moravia, in the circle of
Brunn; 50 miles W. of Olmutz. N. lat. 49° 33’. E.
long. 15° 45'.

SAARBRUCK. See Sarresruck.

SAARIJARVI, a town of Sweden, in the government
of Wala; 98 miles E.S.E. of Wala.

SAARMUND, a town of the Middle Mark of Bran-
denburg ; 8 miles S. of Potzdam. N. lat. 52° 18. E.
long. 13° 5/.

SAAR.UNION, a town of Trance, in the department
of the Lower Rhine, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftriét of Saverne. The place contains 2791, and the can-
ton 12,195 inhabitants, on a territory of 1774 kiliometres,
in 19 communes.

SAAS, Joun, in Biography, an ecclefiattic, was born in
the year 1703, and died in 1774. He was an active and

Bz ufeful

SAB

ufeful member of the academy of Ruen, and publifhed an
account of the manufcripts found in the cathedral of that
city ; he was author of “ An Abridgment of the Hiftorical
DiGtionary,” in 4 vols. ; ‘ Criticifms on the Supplement
to Moreri,”’ and fome religious pieces.

SAASA, in Geography, a town of Syria, in the country
beyond the river Jordan ; where, as fome have fuppofed,
Nimrod was buried ; 40 miles N.W. of Sarchad.

SAATSI, a {mall circar of Bengal, on the W. fide of
the Hoogly, bounded on the E. by Kifkenagur, and elfe-
where by Burdwan.

SAATZ, or Zatec, a town of Bohemia, in a circle of
the fame name, fituated on the Eger, or Ohrze, which
divides it from E. to W. into two equal parts. The
circle is alfo called “ Lucfko.”” This country produces
the beft hops of any in Bohemia, and it is alfo very fertile
in corn. The territory of Elnbogen, which contains good
mine-works, and warm-baths, was annexed, in the year
1714, to the circle of Saatz; and in both thefe united
countries there are computed, befides the imperial feignory
of Prefnitz, 189 other feignories and eftates; 35 miles
W.N.W. of Prague. N. lat. 50° 18’. E. long. 13° 37/.

SAAVEDRA, Fasarvo Dreco, in Bisgraphy, a
Spanifh writer and ftatefman, was born of a noble family
in the kingdom of Murcia, and after being ambaffador in
Switzerland, was appointed a member of the fupreme coun-
cil of India. He died in 1648. As an author, his chief
works are, “ The Idea of a Politic Prince;’’ ‘* The Gothic
Crown ;’? and “ The Literary Republic.” This lalt is
faid to be a curious and well-written piece. ?

SAAVEDRA. See CERVANTES.

SAAXMAKL, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Ta-
vaftland ; 17 miles N.W. of Tavaithus.

SABA, in Ancient Geography, a port of Ethiopia, on the
Arabian gulf.

Sasa, in Geography, one of the Caribbee iflands in the
Wett Indies, iloastieg to the Dutch; about 12 miles in
circumference, and extended in a pleafant valley, which

roduces fubfiftence for the inhabitants, and materials for
everal manufactures, but for want of a port, its commerce
is rd inconfiderable. The accefs to it is by a road cut in
a rock, which admits only one man to afcend at a time, and
ftored with ftones, with which the inhabitants repelled the
French buccaneers, by whom they were attacked in 1688.
This ifland was captured by the Englifh in 1781, and again

in 1801. It yields fome indigo and cotton ; but its chief
manufaGture is fhoes. N. lat. 17° 40’. W. long. 63° 12!.
Sasa. See Azas.

We have already hinted under the article to which we have
referred, that this is fuppofed to have been the country from
which the queen of Sheba made a journey to Jerufalem, in
order to have an interview with Solomon, whofe fame for
wifdom had excited her curiofity to be perfonally acquainted
with him, and to profit by the wifdom for which he was
diftinguifhed. We shall here add fome further particulars
relating to this fubjeét, with which we are furnifhed by
Mr. Brice’s Travels. This writer informs us, that the
defcendants of Cuth (fee Cusnites) extended themfelves
along the mountains that run parallel to the Arabian gulf,
towards the country called Saba, or Azabo, both which
fignify fouth, nat (he fays) becaufe Saba was fouth of
Jerufalem, but becaufe it was on the fouth coaft of the
Arabian gulf, and from Arabia and Egypt was the firit
land to the fouthward which bounded the African con-
tinent, then richer, more important, and better known than
the reft of the world. By that acquifition they enjoyed all
the perfumes and aromatics in the Ealt, myrrh and frankin-

SAB

cenfe, and caffia; all which grow fpontaneoufly in that ftri
of ground, from the bay of Bilue, W. of enki to =
Gardefan, and then fouthward up in the Indian ocean, to
near the coaft of Melinda, where there is an inferior kind
of cinnamon. It is no wonder, fays our author, that the
valuable tranfaétions which the Tyrians and Jews had with
their correfpondents the Cufhites and Shepherds on the coat
of Africa, fhould familiarize them with one ancther. Ac-
cordingly the queen of Azab, the fovereign of that country,
became defirous of perfonally witneffing the application
of thofe immenfe treafures that had been exported from her
country for a feries of years, and the prince who fo magni
ficently employed them. There can, he fays, be no doubt
of this expedition, as Pagan, Arab, Moor, Abyflinian, and
the inhabitants of all the furrounding countries, vouch the
truth of it in terms very much alike thofe of Scripture.
Many have thought this queen was an Arab. But Saba
was a feparate ftate, and the Sabeans a diitin&t people from
the Ethiopians and the Arabs, and have continued to be
difting till a very late period. Hiftory informs us, that it
was a cuftom among the Sabeans to have women for their
fovereigns in preference to men ; and this cuftom fill fubfifts
anise defcendants.

Medis levibufque Sabzis,
Imperat hos fexus Reginarumque fubarmis,
Barbariz, pars magna jacet.” Claudian.

By “ Barbarie,’’ it is faid, is meant the country between
the tropic znd mountains of Abyffinia, the country ‘of
fhepherds, from Zerber, fhepherd. See SHEPHERD. * q
The name of this queen, as the Arabs fay, was ‘¢ Belkis ;??
the Abyfiinians call her ‘* Maqueda.’? Our Saviour calls her’
“queen of the fouth.’? (Matt. xii. 42. Luke, xi. 31.)
It is a ftrong objection to her being an Arab, that the
Sabean Arabs, or Homerites, the people that lived oppofite
to Azab, on the Arabian fhore, had kings inftead of queens.
Befides, the kings of the Homerites were never feen abroad, |
but were itoned to death, if they appeared in public: fub-)
jets of this defcription, therefore, would never fuffer their
queen to go to Jerufalem, even fuppofing they had a
queen, which was not the cafe. It is not certain whether
fhe was a Jewefs or a Pagan: Sabaiim was the religion of
all the Eaft. But confidering the multitude of Jews then
trading from Jerufalem, and the long time the intercourfe
continued, it is not improbable fhe was a Jewefs. (See
1 Kings, x. 1. 2 Chron. ix. r) Our Saviour fpeaks of
her with praife, exhibiting her conduct as an example
to the Jews. (Matt. xii. 43. Luke, xi. 31.) And in
her thankfgiving before Solomon, fhe alludes to God’s
blefling on the feed of Iirael for ever, (1 Kings, x. 9.
2 Chron. ix. 8.) which is by no means the language of a
Pagan, but of a perfon fkilled in the ancient hiltory of the
Jews. The Abyflinian annals intimate that fhe was con-
verted to Judaifm at Jerufalem, and bore Solomon a for, who.
was called Menilek, and who was their firlt king. The
Abyflinians, both Jews and Chriltians, believe the xlvth
pfalm to be a prophecy of this queen’s voyage to Jerufalem ;
that fhe was attended by a daughter of Hiram’s from
Tyre to Jerufalem ; and that the lait part contains a decla-
ration of her having a fon by Solomon, who was to be
king over a nation of Gentiles. ,
To Saba, or Azab, then, fhe returned with her fon
Menilek, whom, after keeping him fome years, fhe fent
back to his father to be initrudted. Solomon did not
negleét his charge, and he was anointed and crowned king
of Ethiopia, in the temple of Jerufalem, and at his inaugu-
ration took the name of David. After this he returned ta
Azab,

—_ eo

a a

SABA.

Azab, and brought with him a colony of Jews, among
whom were many doétors of the law of Mofes, particularly
one of each tribe, to make judges in his kingdom, from
whom the prefent umbares, (or fupreme judges, three of
whom always attend the king,) are faid and believed to be
defcended. With thefe alfo came Azarias, the fon
Zadok the prieft, and brought with him a Hebrew tran-
{cript of the law, which was delivered into his cuftody, as
he bore the title of nebrit, or high prieft ; and this charge,
though the book itfelf was burnt with the church of Axum
in the Moorifh war of Adel, is {till continued, as it is faid,
in the lineage of Azarias, who are nebrits, or keepers of the
church of Axum, atthis day. All Abyffinia was thereupon
converted, and the government of the church and itate
modelled according to what was then in ufe at Jerufalem.

By the laft a& of the queen of Saba’s reign, fhe fettled
the mode of fucceffion in her country for the future. Firft,
fhe enaéted, that the crown fhould be hereditary in the
family of Solomon for ever. Secondly, that, after her, no
woman fhould’ be capable of wearing that crown, or being
queen, but that it fhould defcend to the heir male, however
diftant, in exclufion of all heirs female whatever, however
néar ; and that thefe two articles fhould be confidered as the
fundamental laws of the kingdom, never to be altered or
abolifhed. And, laftly, that the heirs male of the royal
houfe fhou!d always be fent prifoners to a high mountain,
where they were to continue till their death, or till the
fucceffion fhould open to them.

The queen of Saba, having made thefe laws irrevocable
to all her pofterity, died, after a long reign of forty years,
in 986 before Chriit, placing her fon Menilek upon the
throne, whofe pofterity, the annals of Abyffinia would
teach us to believe, have ever fince reigned. So far we
muft indeed bear witnefs to them, that this is no new doc-
trine, but has been ftedfattly and uniformly maintained from
their earlieft account of time; firft, when Jews, then in later
days, after they had embraced Chriftianity. We may
further add, that the teftimony of all the neighbouring
nations is with them upon this fubje€t, whether they be
friends or enemies. They only differ in name of the queen,
or in giving her two names.

All the inhabitants of Arabia Felix, efpecially thofe of
the coaft oppofite to Saba, were her fubjeéts; firft, Sa-
bean Pagans, like herfelf, then converted (as the tradition
fays) to Judaifm, during the time of the building of the
temple, and continuing Jews from that time to the year
622 after Chrift, when they became Mahometans.

Menilek, it is faid, fucceeded to the throne in the 986th
year B. C., and the fucceffion of 22 kings terminated with
Bazen.

It happens fomewhat unfortunately, that the years laid
down in the book of Axum (fee Axum) do not precifely
agree with our author’s account ; yet, he fays, they are
fo near, that we cannot doubt that the revolt of the ten
tribes, and deftruétion of Rehoboam’s fleet which followed,
occafioned the removal of Menilek’s capital to Tigré. The
temple which the queen of Saba (Sheba) had feen built,
and fo richly ornamented, was plundered the 5th year of
Rehoboam, by Sefac, which is thirteen years before Meni-
lek died; fo that this occurrence could not have difgufted
him with the trade of his ancjent habitation at Saba. But
whatever was the caufe, Menilek did remove his court from
Azab to a place near Axum, at this day called « Adega
Daid,” the houfe of David; and at no great diftance is
another, called “* Azabo,’”’ from his ancient metropolis,
where there are ancient remains of building of ftone and
lime ; and this affords a certain proof that Axum was then

fallen, elfe he would naturally have gone thither immediately
upon forfaking his mother’s capital of Azab.

Among thofe whofe anceftors are fuppofed to have come
to Abyflinia originally from Paleftine are the “ Falafha.’’
The account which they give of themfelves, which is fup-
ported only by tradition among them, is, that they came
with Menilek from Jerufalem, fo that they agree perfe@tly
with the .Abyffinians in the ftory of the queen of Saba,
who, they fay, was a Jewefs, and her nation Jews before
the time of Solomon; that fhe lived at Saba, or Azaba, the
myrrh and frankincenfe country, upon the Arabian gulf.
They fay further, that fhe went to Jerufalem, under pro-
tection of Hiram, king of Tyre, whofe daughter is faid,
in the xlvth pfalm, to have attended her thither ; that fhe went
not in fhips, nor through Arabia, for fear of the Ifhmaelites,
but from Azab round by Mafuah and Suakem, and was
efcorted by the Shepherds, her own fubje&ts, to Jerufalem,
and back again, making ufe of her own country vehicle,
the camel, and that her’s was a white one, of prodigious
fize and exquifite beauty.

They agree alfo, in every particular, with the Abyffinians,
about the remaining part of the ftory, the birth and inaugu-
ration of Menilek, who was their firft king ; alfo the coming
of Azarias, and twelve elders from the twelve tribes, and
other doétors of the law, whofe pofterity they deny to have
ever apoltatized to Chriftianity, as the Abyflinians pretend
they did at the converfion. They fay that when the trade
of the Red fea fellinto the hands of {trangers, and all com-
munication was fhut up between them and Jerufalem, the
cities were abandoned, and the inhabitants relinquifhed the
coalt; that they were the inhabitants of thefe cities, by
trade mottly brick and tile-makers, potters, thatchers of
houfes, and fuch-like mechanics, employed in them; and
finding the low country of Dembea afforded materials for
exercifing thefe trades, they carried the article of pottery
in that province to a degree of perfection fearcely to be
imagined.

Being very induftrious, thefe people multiplied exceed-
ingly, and were very powerful at the time of the conyerfion
to Chriftianity, or, as they term it, the apoftacy under
Abreha and Atzbeha. At this time they declared a prince
of the tribe of Judah, and of the race of Solomon and
Menilek, to be their fovereign. The name of this prince
was Phineas, who refufed to abandon the religion of his
forefathers, and from him their fovereigns are lineally
defcended ; fo they have {till a prince of the houfe of Judah,
although the Abyffinians, by way of reproach, have called
this family Bet Ifrael, intimating that they were rebels, and
revolted from the family of Solomon and tribe of Judah,
and there is little doubt but that fome of the fucceffors of
Azarias adhered to their ancient faith alfo. Although there
was no bloodfhed upon difference of religion, yet, each
having a diftinét king with the fame pretenfions, many
battles were fought from motives of ambition, and rivalfhip
of fovereign power.

About the year 960, an attempt was made by this family
to mount the throne of Abyflinia, when the princes of the
houfe of Solomon were nearly extirpated upon the rock
Damo. This, it is probable, produced more animofity and
bloodfhed. At laft the power of the Falafha was fo much
weakened, that they were obliged to leave the flat country
of Dembea, having no cavalry to maintain themfelves there,
and to take poffeffion of the rugged, and almott inacceflible
rocks, in that high ridge called the Mountains of Samen,
One of thefe, which nature feems to haye formed for a
fortrefs, they chofe for their metropolis, and it was ever
after called the Jews’ Rock.

A great

SAB

A great overthrow, which they received in the year 1600,
brought them to the very brink of ruin. In that battle
Gideon and Judith, their king and queen, were flain. They
have fince adopted a more peaceable and dutiful behaviour,
pay taxes, and are fuffered to enjoy their own government.
Their king and queen’s name was again Gideon and Judith,
when Mr. Bruce was in Abyfilinia, and thefe names feem to be
preferred for thofe of the royal family. At that time they
were fuppofed to amount to 100,000 effeCtive men. Some-
thing'like this, the fober and moft knowing Abyflinians are
obliged to allow to be truth; but the circumiftances of the
converfion from Judaifm are probably not all before us.

The only copy of the Old Teftament which they have, is
in Geez, the fame made ufe of by the Abyflinian Chriftians,
who are the only {cribes, and fell thefe copies to the Jews ;
and it is very fingular, that no controverfy or difpute about
the text has ever yet arifen between the profeflors of the
two religions. They have no keri-ketib, or various readings ;
they never heard of talmud, targum, or cabala; eae
have they any fringes or ribband upon their garments, nor is
there, as far as Mr. Bruce could learn, one {cribe among

em.

Thefe people deny the fceptre has ever departed from
Judah, as they have a prince of that houfe reigning, and
underftand the prophecy of the gathering of the Gentiles
at the coming of Shiloh, is to be Falfilled on the appearance
of the Mefliah, who is not yet come, when all the inhabitants
of the worldare to be Jews. Bruce’s Travels, vol. i.

Sasa, Little, one of the fmaller Virgin iflands, in the
Welt Indies ; belonging to the Danes.

SABACZ. See Sasparz.

SABADELL, a town of Spain, in Catalonia; 10
miles N. of Barcelona.

SABADIBA, (Pulo-way,) in Ancient Geography, a
name given by Ptolemy to three {mall iflands of India, near
the N.W. point of the ifland Iabadia (Sumatra). The in-
habitants are faid to have been Anthropophagi.

SABE, a town of Africa, in Libya Interior, towards
the fource of the Cinyphus. Ptolemy.

SABAZANS, Sas, or Sabians, the adherents to Sa-
baifm ; a feét of idolaters, much more ancient than Mofes,
and the Jewifh law.

Hottinger fets afide the common derivation of Sabzan
from NY; militia, hoft ; and will not have it the name of a
fe& of religion, but of a people in Arabia Felix, the
defcendants of Saba, grandfon of Cham. But the critics
very generally confpire againft this opinion.

The word is fometimes alfo written Sabians, Sabaites,
Zabzans, Zabians, Zabaites, Tfabzeans, Tfabians, and
Tfabaifts.

The Sabzans were very numerous throughout the Eaft ;
in later times they have mixed fomething of Chriltianity with
their fuperftition. They fet a great value on the baptifm
of St. John; whence they have been alfo denominated
« Chriftians of St. John.”?> See Hemerosaprists.

Some, indeed, doubt whether the Sabzans be the fame
with the Chriftians of St. John; but father Angelo de St.
Jofeph, a Carmelite miffionary, and Maracci, in his notes
on the Alcoran, aflert it exprefsly. Be this as it will, Ma-
homet, in his Alcoran, and the Arabian authors fince him,
make frequent mention of them. Beidavius, in his com-
ment on the Alcoran, reprefents them as a kind of mean
between the Chriftians and the Magufians, who are the
followers of the Magi, among the Perfians; he adds, that
they pretend to be of the religion of Noah. Keflus notes,
that they pretend to be in pofleffion of the books of Seth
and Enoch; though they own none of the books of Scrip.

SA, B

ture, except the book of Pfalms. See Mem. de l’Acad,
des Infcrip. et Belles Lett. tom. xii. p. 16, &c. ;

Some charge them with worfhipping the ftars ; and others,
the angels ordemons, Maimonides attributes both to them; _
as is obferved under SARAISM. a

Abu Jofeph Afcheus and Keffeus place the Sabzans
about Charran, or Charres, and Ghezira in Mefopotamia ;
which opinion is confirmed by this, that all their books are
in the Chaldee tongue, though in a character very different
from the Chaldee. i

Sale, in his preliminary difcourfe to the Koran, p. 14,
&c. has given the following brief account of the tenets and
worfhip of this fe&t. They believe in the exiltence of one
God, though they alfo pay an adoration to the ftars, or the
angels and intelligences which they fuppofe refide in them,
and govern the world under the Supreme Deity. They en-
deavour to perfe& themfelves in the four intellectual virtues,
and believe the fouls of wicked men will be punifhed for
nine thoufand ages, but will afterwards be received to
mercy. They are obliged to pray three times a-day, before
fun-rife, before noon, and before fun-fet ; and in praying
they turn their faces, as fome fay, to the north; accordin
to others, to the fouth, to Mecca, or to the ftar to whic
they pay their devotion. They have three fafts in the year ;
the firit latts thirty days, the fecond nine days, and the laft
feven. They offer many facrifices, of which they eat no
part, but wholly burn them. They abitain from beans,
garlic, and fome other pulfe and vegetables. They go on
pilgrimage to a place near the city of Harran, or Charran,
in Mefopotamia, where great numbers of them dwell; and
they have alfo a great refpeet for the temple of Mecca, and
the pyramids ae Egypt; fancying thefe lait to be the
fepulchres of Seth, and of Enoch and Sabi, his two fons,
whom they confider as the firlt propagators of their religion ;
and at thefe ftru€tures they facrifice a cock and black calf,
and offer up incenfe. This is one of the religions, the
praétice of which Mahomet tolerated (on paying tribute),
and the profeflors of it are often included in that expreffion
of the Koran, thofe to whom the Scriptares have been given,
or, literally, people of the Book.

SABAGAN Istanps, in Geography, a clutter of {mall
iflands in the Red fea. N. lat. 14° 55’. E. long. 41° 54!.

SABAGENA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
in the Greater Armenia, upon the banks of the Euphrates,
in the Lavinian prefeéture. Ptolemy.

SABAISM, an ancient kind of idolatry ; the firft that
ever entered into the world. .

Sabaifm confifted in the worfhip and adoration of the
ftars; or, as the Scriptures call them, E>9v9 NIY> iba
JSchamaim, or feba fchamain, }. e. hoft, or militia of heaven;
whence fome moderns have formed the word Sabaifm, to
denote the worfhip of the heavenly bodies, and that of Sa-
beans for the worfhippers. But as the Hebrew word,
from which thefe are formed, is wrote with a y, ¢/ade, which
fome exprefs in the modern tongues by ans, fome by a x,
others by ¢s, and others by #z; hence arife a great many
different modes of writing the word among different authors ;
fome, ¢. gr. writing Sabeans, others Zabians, or Zabwans,
or Zabeilts, as Buxtorf; others Tfabians, others Tiabwans,
&e. :
Maimonides makes frequent mention of this idolatry in
his ‘* More Nevochim ;’’ it was very general, he obferves,
in the time of Mofes. Some of the retainers hereto taught,
that God was the {pirit of the fphere, that is, the 3 of
the world. Abraham, he adds, was brought up in the
doGrine of the Sabzans, who admitted no other gods but
the ftars, and who in their books, many of which have been

tranflated

SAB

tranflated into Arabic, maintain exprefsly, that the fixed
ftars and planets are inferior gods, and the fun and moon the
fuperior ones. Abraham at length, he tells us, oppofing
thefe errors, firft afferted the exiitence of a Creator diftinét
from the fun. The king of the Cuthzans fhut him up in
prifon; but he itill pee that prince, from an appre-
henfion of his difturbing the ftate by teaching a new religion,
éonfifeated his goods, and banifhed him to the extremities of
the Eaft. This relation, he tells us, is found in a book
entitled 35903 A WDyr> the Religion of the Naba-
theans. i

He adds, that the Sabzans, to the adoration of the ftars,
joined a great refpeét for agriculture: they fet a high value
on cattle and fheep ; and taught, that_it was unlawful to
kill them. He even adds, that they worfhipped demons,
under the form of goats, and that they eat the blood of
animals, (though they judged it unclean,) merely becaufe
they imagined it was the food of demons. d

Hyde, in his Rel. Vet. Perfarum, maintains, that the
ancient Sabaifm was very different from Paganifm. Ac-
cording to him, Shem and Elam were the firft founders of
this religion, which was afterwards corrupted, reformed by
Abraham, perfecuted by Nimrod, and re-eftablifhed by Zo-
roafter ; and the worfhip which the Sabians paid to the fun
was fubordinate and fubfervient to that of the true God.
The account given of it by Dr. Prideaux (Conn. vol. i.
p- 249, &c.) is much to the fame purpofe. In tracing the
rife of the idolatry of the Sabians, which confiited in the
worfhip of images, he obferves, that the true religion, which
Noah taught his pofterity, was that which Abraham prac-
tifed, and comprehended the worfhip of one God, the
fupreme creator and governor of all things, with hopes in
his mercy, through a mediator. The notion of a mediator,
he fays, was very ancient and general; and under a convic-
tion of the neceffity of fuch an appointment, mankind had
recourfe to the fun, moon, and ftars, which they conceived
to be the habitations of intelligences, of a middle nature be-
tween God and them, for this purpofe. As the planets
were of all the heavenly bodies the neareft to them, and had
the greateft influence, as they generally apprehended, on
this world, they made choice of them in the firit place for
their gods-mediators, to whom, as fuch, they directed their
worfhip. Here, he fays, commenced all the idolatry that
hath been praétifed in the world. They firll worfhipped
them per facella, that is, by their tabernacles, directing
their worfhip towards the planets, in which they fuppofed
the feveral intelligences refided, and, in their abfence, by
images; in which, after their confecration, they thought
thefe intelligences, or inferior deities, were as much prefent
by their influence, as in the planets themfelves. To thefe
images they gave the names of the planets, which they re-
prefented; and hence, he fays, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars,
Apollo, Mercury, Venus, and Diana, were firft ranked in
the polytheifm of the ancients, becaufe thefe were their firft

ods. They then proceeded to the worfhip of deified men.
ee IDOLATRY.

This religion began among the Chaldeans ; to which they
were partly led by their knowledge in altronomy ; and from
this Abraham is faid to have feparated himfelf, when he left
Chaldza. From the Chaldwans it {pread over all the Eaft,
where the profeflors of it had the name of Sabians. From
them it pafied into Egypt, and thence to the Grecians, who
propagated it to all the weftern nations of the world. The
remainder of this feét {till fubfiits in the Ealt under the fame
name, and their religion is a mixture of Chriltianity, Ju-
daifm, Mahometawim, and Paganifm. See Savmans,
Mexpmans, and Hemrnoparrists. ‘+

SAB

SABAKA, in Geography, atown of Japan, in the ifland
of Niphon; 130 miles S.W. of Meaco.

SABAL, in Botany, a name of barbarous origin, Adanf.
Fam. des Pl. v. 2. 495. See Ruapis, fp. 2.

SABALA, in Hindoo Mythology, a name of a fabulous
cow of the Hindoos. See Surasur.

SABALASSUS, in dncient Geography, a town of
Afia, in Cappadocia, in the prefeéture of Sargaranfenar
Ptolemy. F

SABALIA, a town of Afia, in Cappadocia, in the ine
terior of Pontus Polemoniacus. Ptolemy.

SABAN, a town of Paleftine, in the tribe of Reuben,
according to the book of Numbers.

SABANCONG, in Geography, a town on the eaft coatt
of the ifland of Borneo. N. lat. 3° 45!.

SABANJA, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia,
fouth-weit of a lake of thefame name. The lake is near fix
miles long, and nearly of a triangular form. It is a fine
fheet of frefh water, and its fituation in a woody country
adds to its beauty. At this town all the roads from Afia
to Conftantinople meet. Behind it, to the fouthward, is a
continuation of extenfive forefts, above 200 miles in length,
and about 60 broad: they are in fome places very lofty,
and form a chain of mountains running eaft and weit.
Through them is a gravel caufeway, which appears to be
very ancient, but now very much out of repair. Sabanja
is 18 miles E. of I{mid or I{mit, and 60 miles E.S.E. of
Conttantinople.

SABANREEKA, a river of Hindooftan, which runs
into the bay of Bengal, 20 miles E.N.E. of Balafor.

SABARA, a town of Brafil, in the jurifdiétion of
Minas Geraes, on a river of the fame name; 30 miles N. of
Villarica.

SABARACUS, the river of Ava, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a large river of India, on the other fide of the
Ganges. It 1s faid to have its fource in the fame mountain
with the Ganges, but to thg ealt of it. Its courfe is di-
rected towards the fouth-eaft for about 18 degrees, but
then turns towards the fouth, and difcharges itfelf into a
gulf of the fame name. Ptolemy gives the name of Sabara
(Bragu) to its principal mouth.

SABARA®, a people of India, on this fide of the
Ganges, who, according to Ptolemy, inhabited the terri-
tory at the foot of mountains towards one of the fources of
the Adamas, correfponding to the Mahanuddy. This dif-
tri¢t, fituated on the banks of this river; is faid by Ptolemy
to abound in diamonds.

SABARAT, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Arriege; 18 miles N.N.W. of Ta-
rafcon.

SABARIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Pannonia,
which had the title of a Roman colony, according to Am-
mianus Marcellinus. ‘The emperor Valentinian wintered at
this place.

Sapanta, in Geography. See Sreinam Anger.

SABARITZEVIL, atown of the principality of Guriel ;
30 miles $.E. of Pati.

SABART, or Old Tripoli, a town of Africa; 36 miles
W. of Tripoli.

SABAT, a town of Grand Bucharia; 65 miles N.N.E.
of Samarcand.

SABATA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in
Liguria, according to Ptolemy and Pomponius Mela.

SABATELSEVI, in Biography, a famous pretended
Mefliah of the Jews, was the fon of a broker to the Englith
faétory at Smyrna, where he was born in the year 1626,
He received a good education, and made confiderable pro-

grefs

SAB

refs in various branches of learning. With the fcriptures
he became intimately converfant, and from the ftudy of the
prophecies, together with an ardent defire to diftinguifh
himfelf, he was led to believe, or at leaft to pretend, that
he was feleéted by heaven as the inftrument raifed up to be
the redeemer of Ifrael. He certainly poffefled qualifica-
tions that might command attention, and claim popularity ;
being endowed with a fine perfon, and very perfuafive
powers of eloquence. He began to preach in the fields
about Smyrna, and though he excited only the derifion of
the Turks, many of the lower orders of his own nation be-
came his admiring and zealons difciples. He foon aflumed
the power of working miracles, and carried his delufions fo
far, that the heads of the fynagogue, alarmed at his preten-
fions, cited him before them, and, after a very fummary

rocefs, condemned him to banifhment. He then went to

"heflalonica, Athens, and other cities of Greece, and per-
haps to Conftantinople ; from all which places he was ex-
pelled by the influence of the rabbis. He afterwards went
to Jerufalem, where his learning and fine ‘abilities fecured
him an honourable reception, and he gained many difciples.
At their requeft, he went on a journey to Egypt, in order
that he might colle& alms of their brethren. On his coming
to Gaza, he met with a Jew, named Nathan Levi, who was
a man of confiderable weight with his countrymen. Having
heard the pretenfions and plans of Sabatei, announcing him-
felf to be the Meffiah, he inftantly joined in the delufion ;
taking upon him the character of the prophet Elias, who
was to be his forerunner. With this view he aflembled the
Jews at Jerufalem, whom he perfuaded to abolifh the fait
celebrated in the month of June; fince forrow was incom-
patible with the feaft of the Meffiah, who was raifed up by
the Almighty in the perfon of Sabatei-Sevi. In the mean
time, the latter was preaching repentance to the Jews at
Gaza, whence his fame fpread far and near, and attracted
multitudes of that nation to attend upon his miniltry, of
whom the great majority became his profelytes. When he
returned to Jerufalem, Sabatei was received by the infatuated
Jewifh populace with cries of joy: indeed, in the expref-
fions of their attachment to him, they aroufed the jealoufy
of the Turks, whom the rabbis were glad to appeafe by
prefents of large fums of money. He was now obliged to
quit Jerufalem, and went to Smyrnz, where, by his pa-
thetical fermons, he daily increafed the number of his ad-
herents ; and in confequence of a plan concerted between
him and Nathan, the latter fent a folemn deputation of four
perfons, in the character of ambafladors, to Sabatei, who
faluted him in the public fynagogue as the Meffiah. In his
charaéter of prophet, Nathan went fo far as to declare, that
within twelve months Sabatei would appear in the prefence
of the fultan, take the crown from his head, lead him in
chains as a captive, and be acknowledged monarch of the
whole univerfe ; and that the holy temple would defcend
from heaven, a complete and glorious edifice, in which the
chofen people were to offer facrifices till the end of the
world. Sabatei, feeling that he had great authority with
his nation, ordered the name of the Ottoman emperor to be
omitted in their public prayers, and his own to be {ubfti-
tuted in its place. He aflumed the daring title of “ kin
of kings,’’ while he gave to his brother, Jofeph-Sevi, that
of “king of Judah.” He alfo direéted letters to be
written to the Jews in all parts of Europe and Africa, an-
nouncing his pretenfions, and calling upon them to unite
in dupporting the kingdom of their Mefliah. His claims
made a wonderful impreffion on the credulous Jews in all
parts of the world, who were led, in fupport of his caufe,
to aftonifhing facrifices and mortifications. Many aban-

4

SAB

doned all their occupations and employments, flatterin
themfelves that they fhould not ae neediof any chee
under the triumphant government of the Hope of isk
At length, on the approach of the time when Nathan’s pro-
phecy was to be accomplifhed, Sabatei took fhipping for
Conttantinople, in the year 1666, in order, as he faid, that
he might receive in that city the folemn homage of his prin-
cipal {ubjeéts. Unfortunately for his fchemes, when the
veflel arrived at the deflined port, the grand vizier, by the
fultan’s orders, caufed Sabatei to be arreited, and com-
mitted prifoner to one of his caftles. After a time, the
Jews, finding that no orders had been given to put him to
death, perfuaded themfelyes that the fultan had not, and
could not, have any power over his life. They accordingly
flocked in great numbers to the place of his confinement,
enriched the goyernor with the prefents which they brought,
for the privilege that he afforded them of feeing their ima-
ginary fovereign, and laying at his feet their wealth. The
fultan Mohammed thought it was time to take cognizance
of this increafing frenzy, and ordered Sabatei to be brought
to Adrianople, where his court then was, that he might
examine the man who had wrought up the enthufiafm of his
nation to fo high a pitch. he fultan foon put his preten-
fions to a teft. He demanded a miracle in proof of the di-
vinity of his miffion, and put it to this iffue, that he fhould
be {tripped naked, and a number of his archers were to
fhoot at him; promifing, in cafe his arrows did not pierce
his body, that he himfelf would acknowledge him to be
the Meffiah. Sabatei declined the propofal, choofing to
confefs himfelf an impoltor, and embrace the Mohammedan
religion, rather than ftand fuch atrial. He was, after this,
thrown into prifon, where he died in 1676, when he was
about the age of 50. It is worthy of remark, that thongh
he had confeffed himfelf an impottor, yet he had a number
of followers to the end of his life. This fact, though fo
furprifing in itfelf, may be eafily credited, from the folly
which we have witnefled in our own country, within a yery
few months, in the cafe of the vile impottor Johanna
Southcott. ; ;

SABATHA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
fituated at the diftance of 30 ftadia from the Seleucia of
Media.

SABATHRA, a town of Africa, on the fea-coait, be-

tween the two Syrtes. Ptolemy.
SABATIA Sraena, a country and lake of Italy, in

Etruria, according to Silius Italicus.

SABATICA, acountry of Afia, in Media, eaft of Si-
tacené, and fo fituated, that it has been affigned to Media
and to Elymais, according to Strabo.

SABATIER, Perer, in Biography, a learned French
Benediétine monk of the congregation of St. Maur, was
born at Poiétiers in 1682, and died at Rheims in 1742.
He {pent twenty years of his life in preparing for the prefs
a valuable edition of all the Latin verfions of the Scriptures,
colleéted together, and united in one point of view. It
confifts of three volumes, folio: the tirlt two comprehended
the Old Teftament, and the third the New Teltament. Sa-
batier lived only to print one volume ; and, after his death,
he was fucceeded in his labours by La Rue, a learned
member of the fame community. This work is entitled
« Bibliorum Sacrorum Latine Verfiones antique feu Vetus
Italica, Opera et Studio Petri Sabatier.” ,

SABATO, in Geography, a river of Naples, which runs
into the Volturno, near Cajazzo.

SABATZ, or Sasacz, a town and fortrefs of European
Turkey, in Servia, on the Drave, under the fangiac of Bel-

grade ;

SAB

grade; 28 miles W- of Belgrade. N. Jat. 45° 4. E. long.
19° 28!.

SABAZIA, a&xZe, among the Greeks, noéturnal
myiteries in honour of Jupiter Sabazius, into which all that
were initiated had a golden ferpent put in at their breatts,
and taken out at the lower part of their garments, in me-
mory of Jupiter’s ravifhing Proferpina in the form of a
ferpent.

There were alfo other feafts and facrifices diftinguifhed
by this appellation, in honour of Mithras, the deity of the
Perfians, and of Bacchus, who was thus denominated by the
Sabians, a people of Thrace.

-SABBABURG, in Geography, a town of the princi-
pality of Heffe Caffel; 16 miles N. of Caffel.

SABBADINI, Don Bernarp, in Biography, a Ve-
netian maeftro di cappella in the cathedral of Parma, a com-
pofer of diftinguifhed merit, who produced for the court of
Parma three operas and an oratorio, between the years 1690
and 1698. At this period, the houfe of Farnefe at Parma
had mufical dramas performed in the moft magnificent
theatre in Europe. It was capable of containing 4000
people, and had water under the ftage fufficient to form a
great river, or for the reprefentation of a naval engagement.
But this theatre has not been ufed fince the extinétion of
the Farnefe family, which was to Parma what the houfe of
Medicis was to Florence, and that of Efte to Ferrara, in
the magnificence of public fpeGtacles and patronage of the
fine arts. ;

SABBAR, or Sazzer, in Geography, a famous hill of
Arabia, in Yemen, at the foot of which ftands the city of
Tags ; which fee. The exuberant fertility of this hill af-
fords, according to the accounts of the Arabs, plants of
every {pecies that is to be found in any other part of the
world. It is faid to be parcelled out among more than
100 free and hereditary fcheicks, perfe@tly independent of
the Imam, although furrounded on all fides by his terri-
tories. This fertile mountain confifts of a chain of hills of
various heights. The ruins of two ancient cities are {till to
be feen on or near this mountain. One of them is Thobad,
which is fituated near mount Sabbar; fome parts of its
walls, with a large mofque belonging to it, till remain.
The other is Oddana, which ftands at no great diftance from
Thobad, upon the fummit of mount Sabbar, over-againtft
Kahhre. The latter was the refidence of the kings of the
country ; its only remains are the ruins of fome mofques.

SABBARA, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Oberland; 8 miles N.E. of Soldau.

SABBA RAS, or Dssimum, i. ¢. the feven capes, a
projection on the coaft of Arabia. N. lat. 24° 20!.

ABBATARIANS, or /eventh-day Baptifls, a {e&t of
Anabaptifts ; thus called, becaufe they obferved the Jewith
or Saturday-Sabbath, from a perfuafion that it was never
abrogated in the New Teftament by the inftitution of any

other.

SABBATH, Sassartum, the feventh day of the week,
held as a feaft among the Jews, in memory of God’s refting
on the feventh day of the creation,

The word is pure Hebrew, Fy, and fignifies ceffation,
or ref. Philo calle it, su xocpu yencie, the world’s birth-

The Sabbath was appointed from the beginning, by God
himafelf, Gen. ii. 2, 3; and by him it was fet apart by the
commemoration of the great work of the creation; and
when it had fallen into negleé&t after the flood, it was re-
eftablithed by him, upon his fettling the Jewith polity after
the return out of Egypt.

It has been a fubjeet of difpute both among Jews and

Vor. XXXII.

SAB
Chriftians, whether the Sabbath was firft inftituted immedi.

ately after the creation, or whether the account in Gen. ii. 3.
is to be under{tood proleptically of God’s appointing the
feventh day to be obferved as a Sabbath, not at that time,
but by the Iraelites many ages afterwards. The advocates
for the latter opinion, among whom are Limborch, Le
Clerc, &c. allege, that there is no mention of the Sabbath
in the facred hiftory till the time of Mofes, i. e. during the
{pace of about two thoufand five hundred years; and that
when it is mentioned, Exod. xvi. 23. it feems to be inti-
mated that it was before unknown to the children of Ifrael.
(Ver. 25—27.) To the firft argument it is replied, that
the filence of Mofes cannot warrant our inferring that the
Sabbath was not obferved by the patriarchs; becaufe it is
by no means probable that they had no ftated time for reit
or devotion, or that they were left deftitute of fo falutary
an inftitution: befides, it might be argued on the fame
principle, that the Jews did not obferve the Sabbath from
Mofes to David, fince, in the hiftory of that period, there
isno mention of the day ; and, moreover, no notice is taken
of facrifices in the fifteen hundred years that elapfed between
the birth of Seleg and the deluge, nor of the obfervance of
circumcifion from the fettlement of the Hraelites in Canaan
to the circumcifion of Chriit, though there is no reafon to
queition that facrifices were offered in the former period,
and circumcifion performed in the latter. Befides, if it
fhould be granted that the obfervance of the Sabbath was
difufed among the antediluvian patriarchs, it cannot be ar-
gued from thence that it was not inttituted at the creation.
The heads of the Abrahamic family were fo remarkable for
their devotion, that the ftri& obfervance of the Sabbath in
their days might be the lefs necefflary. The early divifion
of time by weeks of feven days, affords alfo a very {trong
prefumption of the primitive inftitution and obfervance of
the Sabbath; and this method of dividing time prevailed
even in thofe heathen nations, who can be fuppofed to have
had no knowledge of the Jaw or hiftory of Mofes. And we
aCtually find that they accounted one day of the feven more
facred than the reft; thus Hefiod ftyles the feventh day the
illuftrious light of the fun, :

E@donarn 8 avis Aapmreoy Paos nersoie.
And Homer fays,

EGdouarn 3 nrevrx xarnrubey seeoy nace.
“© Then came the feventh day, which is facred or holy.’

As to the fecond argument above mentioned, Dr. Ken-
nicott hath obferved, that when the Sabbath is firft men-
tioned in the time of Mofes, it is not fpoken of as a novel
inftitution, but as one with which the people were well ac-
quainted: ‘‘ To-merrow is the holy Sabbath to the Lord :”’
though, with refpeét to the manner of keeping the Sabbath,
by a total ceflation from labour, and the particular day on
which it was to be kept by the Jews, it feems to have been
a new inftitution; otherwife, as to the day, there would
have been no occafion for its being fo particularly marked
out by Mofes, as the reafon why there would be a double
quantity of manna on the fixth day ; for it muft have im-
mediately occurred to the people, that it was intended for
their proyifion on the Sabbath, if the next day had been the
Sabbath in courfe. Befides, if this day, which was the
twenty-fecond of the month, had been the Sabbath, ac-
cording to the paradifaical computation, the fifteenth mutt
have been fo too, and, i erlfoke: would not have been
{pent in marching from Elim to Sin. vg that the

ewifh Sabbath was on a different day from the paradifaical
or patriarchal, is probable, ore it was appointed Ps a
1

SAB

fign between God and the children of Ifrael, by obferving
which they were to know or acknowledge Jehovah as their
God. Accordingly, the Jewifh Sabbath is declaredly in-
ftituted as a memorial of their deliverance out of the land of
Egypt. (Compare Exod. xx. 11. and Deut.v. 15.) The
learned Mr. Jofeph Mede farther conjectures, that the Jewifh
Sabbath was ordained to be obferved on that day, when the
deliverance of the Ifraelites was completed by the overthrow
of the Egyptians in the Red fea.

It is a very probable conjecture, that the day which the
heathens in general confecrated to the honour and worfhi
of their chief god the Sun, was the ancient paradifaical
Sabbath ; and, therefore, the reafon for changing the day
might be to take off the Ifraelites more effectually from
concurring with the Gentiles in this idolatrous worfhip. It
‘is a farther prefumption in favour of this change, that,
upon their migration out of Egypt, the beginning of the
year was changed from the month Tizri to the oppofite
month Abib (Exod. xii. 2.), and the beginning of the day
from the morning to the evening ; and they were to compute
their days, at leaft their Sabbaths, from evening to evening.
By this means the fifteenth day was changed into the four-
teenth, and the feventh into the fixth; and the change of
the Sabbath made a change in the beginning of the week,
which always commenced the next day after the Sabbath,
which was itill the feventh day of the week, or the feventh
in refpeét of the preceding fix of labour, though not the fe-
venth from the beginning of time. We may alfo obferve,
that the law of the Sabbath is limited, not only to the people
of Ifrael, but to the duration of their ftate and polity.
(Exod. xxxi. 16.) Hence it has been concluded, that, by
the fecond change which took place under the Chriftian dif-
penfation, our Sabbath, which is the firft day of the week,
is the fame with the primitive patriarchal Sabbath. To
Mr. J. Mede’s argument it has been replied, that the fixth
day, mentioned in the fore-cited text, is not the /ixth from
the fifteenth of the month, but from the day on which the
manna began to fall, which might be fir in the week; or,
in general, that it might fignify the /ixth of the week, when-
ever the manna began to fall; and alfo, that allowing it
were, as Mede fuppofes, the /ixth from their journey on the
Sifteenth, it will not prove a change in the Sabbath, but only
that before the giving of the law on mount Sinai, a greater
liberty of travelling on neceflary occafions was allowed on
the Sabbath: and not to infift further, on the poffibility
that the journey they took on the fifteenth day of the month
might be only the deginning of their march from Elim to
Sinai, and perhaps be more than would after the giving of
the law have been allowed: not to urge, that upon the
fignal given by the cloud, they might have marched on any
future Sabbath; as, by fpecial command, facrifice was
offered in places not generally allowed by the law. Mede’s
Works, vol. i. p. 56, &c, Jennings’s Jewifh Ant. vol. i.
book iii. chap. 3. Dr. Chandler’s Two Difcourfes on the
Inftitution of the Sabbath, Hallet on Script. vol. iii.

The Apoftolical Conftitutions (fee Constitutions,
Apofolical) exprefs particular refpe@ for the Sabbath, or
feventh day of the week. They ordain, that by all Chrif-
tians in general, the Sabbath and the Lord’s day fhould be
kept as feftivals: that on thefe days fervants fhould ceafe
from labour, and come to church on the Sabbath and the
Lord’s day ; and that Chriftians in general fhould aflemble
together “ihe avorfhip on every day, but efpecially on the
Sabbath and the Lord’s day. ‘ But Dr. Lardner has fhewn,
that the apoftles of Chrift never gave fuch in{truétions about
keeping t e¢ Sabbath; and that fuch inftru&tions are more
fuitable to the fourth or fifth century, than to the moft

9

SAB

early times of Chriftianity. In the times next following
thofe of the New Teftament, Ignatius exprefsly fays,
“ Let us no longer fabbatize, but keep the Lord’s day,
on which our life arofe.”” Tertullian reje&ts Sabbaths and
new moons, as foreign to Chriftians; but {peaks of the
Lord’s day and Pentecoft as Chriftian folemnities. Hence
this learned writer infers, that the refpeét fhewn for the
Sabbath, and joining it with the Lord’s day, are no marks
of the antiquity of the Conftitutions, but rather otherwife.
(Lardner’s Credibility, &c. vol. iv.) Befides, we may -
obferve, that there is no command in the New Teftament
by which Chriftians are obliged to obferve the /eventh day ;
but, on the contrary, the apoftle plainly intimates that it is
abolifhed, Col. ii. 16.

Leo of Modena informs us, that it is a received opinion
among the modern Jews, that the fouls of the damned fuffer
no torments on the Sabbath; and, therefore, they make it
laft as long as poflible.

The Chriftians alfo apply the word Sabbath, by exten-
fion, to the firft day of the week, popularly called Sunday,
or the Lord’s day; as inftituted by the apoftles to take
place of the Jewifh Sabbath, and by us obferved in remem-
brance, not of the creation, but of the work of redemp-
tion’s being completed by our Saviour’s refurreGtion on that
day. See Sunpay.

Thofe who difpute the divine appointment of a Chriftian
Sabbath, yet allow the moral neceflity of it, as a wife de-
fignation of time for the recruiting of our bodies, and at the
fame time keeping up a fenfe of the great benefits we have
received from God, and a fpiritual temper of mind. By
allowing fix days to labour, the poor man has time to earn
his bread, and the man of bufinefs has time to difpatch his
affairs. Had more time been allotted to labour and bufi-
nefs, and none to reft, our bodies would have been too much
fatigued and wafted, and our minds too long engaged about
worldly matters, fo as to have forgotten divine things.
Greedy people, without fuch an injun&tion, would fearee
have {pared their own bodies, much lefs their fervants,
flaves, cattle, &c. ;

Sappatu-breaking. See SUNDAY.

The Jews had alfo their Sabbatic Year, which was every
feventh year ; in which they were obliged to fet their flaves
at liberty, and let their lands lie idle. See Jusmes.

SappaTu is alfo ufed, by writers on divination, for a
nocturnal aflembly which witehes are fuppofed to hold on
Saturdays, where the devil appears in form of a goat,
around whom they make feveral dances, and magic cere-
monies, amply defcribed in the books of Demonomania.

To prepare themfelves for this meeting, it is pretended,
they take certain foporific drugs ; after which they are faid
to fly up the chimney, and to be fpirited ate the air to
the Sabbath ona fwitch. See Delrio Difquif. Mag. lib. iv.

POS (ek
5 Sassatu Day’s Journey, is a Jewifh itinerary meafure,
fixed by critics to the {pace of 750 paces, or 2000 Jewith
cubits, or about two-thirds of an Englifh mile.

SABBATIA, in Botany, a genus named by Adanfon
after two Italian botanifts, editors of part of the expentive,
but ufelefs, Hortus Romanus, which the authors of the
Hortus Kewenfis, very properly, declined quoting, on the
avowed ground of its inutility. Adanfon writes the name
indeed Sabatia, but we prefume, with Mr. Salifbury, that
the above was his intention. He founds the genus on Chi-
ronia dedecandra alone, his charaéters depending on number,
and being incorreét in other refpeéts. Mr. Salifbury takes
his own ideas of this genus from Chironia campanulata, and

fuggefts an excellent character in the fpiral ftigmas, —
the

SAB

the anthers are revolute, not properly fpiral. On this
principle the genus in queftion is adopted by Mr. Purth, in
his North American Flora, v. I. 123, 137, where fix
{pecies are defined ; not indeed without too much deference
to Michaux, in a blameable perverfion of {pecific names.
As we have had no opportunity of inveftigating more than
one or two of the f{pecies, and have no means of knowing
whether the moft effential marks of diftin@ion hold good
throughout the whole, we for the prefent decline admitting
the genus. The name, moreover, does not recommend it-
felf by any claim that fhould haften its eftablifhment. Mr.
Purth’s effential charaGter is fubjoined.

Capfule of one cell. Tube of the corolla pitcher-fhaped ;
limb in five to twelve deep fegments. Stigma deeply di-
vided ; its fegments fpiral. Anthers finally revolute.

SABBATIANS, Sassatiant, in Ecclefiaftical Hiftory,
a fe& thus called from Sabbatius, their leader, who lived
under Dioclefian. He was firft a Jew, then converted, and
made a prieft by Marcion; but he afterwards left the fect
of Marcionites, on account of the celebration of Eafter,
which he would have to be on the fourteenth day of the
moon ; whence he and his adherents were called alfo Quarto-

cimans.

The Sabbatians are recorded by ecclefiaftical hiftorians,
as having a great abhorrence of the left-hand ; fo as to make
it a point of religion not to receive any thing with it. This
cuftom, which is now become a piece of manners among us,
was then eiteemed fo fingular, that the Sabbatians were
thence denominated cgisren, g. d. finiffri, or left-hand men.

SABBATINI, Anprea, in Biography, known likewife
by the name of Andrea da Salerno, is the firft artift that
deferves notice of the Neapolitan fchool. Enamoured of
the ftyle of Pietro Perugino, who had painted an Affump-
tion of the Virgin in the dome of Naples, he fet out for
Perugia to become his pupil; but hearing, at an inn on the
road, fome painters extol the works of Raffaello in the
Vatican, he altered his mind, went to Rome, and entered
that mafter’s fchool. His ftay there was fhort, for the
death of his father obliged him to return home, againft his
will, in 1513. He returned, however, anew man. It is
faid that he painted with Raffaello at the Pace, and in the
Vatican, and that he copied his pi€tures well: he certainly
emulated his manner with fuccefs. Compared with his
fellow-fcholars, if he falls fhort of Giulio Romano, he foars
above Raffaello del Colle, and the reft of that {phere. He
had a correétnefs and feleGtion of attitude and features,
depth of fhade, perhaps too much fharpnefs in the marking
of the mufcles, a broad ftyle in the folding of his draperies,
and acolour which even now maintains its Fefhnefs. Of his
numerous works at Naples, mentioned in the catalogue of
his piétures, the altar-pieces at S. Maria dell Grazei de-
ferve perhaps preference ; for his frefcoes there and elfe-
where, extolled by the writers as miracles of art, are now,
for the greater part, deftroyed. He painted likewife at Sa-
lerno, Gaeta, and other places of the kingdom, for churches
and private collections, where his Madonnas often rival thofe
of Raffaellb. He died about 1545, aged 65. Fufeli’s
Pilkington.

Sansatini, Lorenzo, called Lorenzin di Bologna, was
one of the moft genteel and moft delicate painters of his age.
He has often been miftaken for a fcholar of Raffaello, from
the refemblance of his Holy Families in ftyle of defign and
colour to thofe of that matter, though the colour be always
weaker. He likewife painted Madonnas and angels in
cabinet pictures, which feem of Parmigiano. Nor are his
altar-pieces different: the mott celebrated is that of St.
Michele at St. Giacomo, engraved by Agoftino Caracci,

SAB

and recommended to his fchool as a model of graceful ele-
gance. He excelled in frefco: corre& in defign, copious
in invention, equal to every fubjeét, and yet, what fur-
prifes, rapid. Such were the talents that procured him
employ, not only in many patrician families of his own pro-
vince, but a call to Rome, under the pontificate of Gre-
gorio XIII., whom, according to Baglioni, he pleafed
much in his naked figures, a branch he had not much culti«
vated in Bologna. The ftories of St. Paolo in the Capella
Paolina, Faith triumphant over Infidelity in the Sala Regia,
and various other fubjeéts in the gallery and loggie of the
Vatican, are the works of Sabbatini, always done in com-
petition with the beft mafters, and always with applaufe:
hence among the great concourfe of maiters, who at that
time thronged for precedence in Rome, he was feleéted to
fuperintend the different departments of the Watican, in
which office he died in the vigour of life, 1577. Fufeli’s
Pilkington. .

SaBBATINI, GALEAzzo, an eminent Italian compofer,
born at Pefaro, who publifhed, in 1644, “ Regole facile e
breve per Suonare fopra il Baffo continuo nell’ Organo.”
This feems to have been the fecond traé&t, after Viadana’s,
that appeared on the fubje&t of thorough-bafe. The author
is much praifed for his fcience by Kircher in his ** Mu-
furgia,’”? and by Walther in his Mufical Dictionary. But
the book is very inadequate to the prefent wants of mufical
ftudents, treating of nothing but common chords, which
are invariably given to every found of the {cale.

SABBAYMEYOUN, in Geography, a town of the
Birman empire, on the Irawaddy; 104 miles N.N.W. of
Rangoon.

SABBEA, a town of Arabia, in the province of Ye-
men; 8 miles N.E. of Abu-Arifch.

SABBIA, a town of Arabia, in the province of Yemen ;
36 miles N.E. of Chamir.

SABBINGE, atown of Holland, in the ifland of Wol-
ferfdyck.

SABBSKAR, a {mall ifland on the eaft fide of the gulf
of Bothnia. N. lat. 61°29/. E. long. 21° 7'..

SABDARIFFA, in Botany, the South American name
of a f{pecies of Hrstscus (fee that article), and retained by
Linnzus as its f{pecific appellation.

SABEA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Paleftine, in
the tribe of Simeon, according to the book of Jofhua.

Sasea in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the province
of Yemen; 32 miles S.E. of Loheia.

SABEIA, a fmall ifland in the Red fea.
182)22!-

SABELLA, in Zoology, a genus of the clafs and order
Vermes Teltacea. The generic character is as follows:
the animal is a nereis, with a ringent mouth, and two
thicker tentacles behind the head ; the fhell is tubular, com-
pofed of particles of fand, broken fhells, and vegetable fub-
{tances, united to a membrane by a glutinous cement.
There are twenty-five

N. lat.

Species.

Scruposa. The fhell of this fpecies is folitary, loofe,
fimple, curved, with lentiform glofly granulations. It is
found in divers parts of India, and in the American iflands.
The thell is fubulate, obtufe at the tip, as thick as a fwan’s
quill, and compofed of equal white grains of fand.

Scanra. The fhell of this alfo ts folitary, fixed by the
bafe, fimple, curved, with radiate-rough granulations. It
is found in America.

* AtveoLata. This is compofed of numerous parallel
tubes communicating by an res forming, in the mafs,

2 an

SAB

an appearance of honey-comb. It is found on the coafts of
our own country, and of other parts of Europe, covering
rocks for a confiderable fpace, and eafily breaking under
the feet. The fhell is compofed chiefly of fand, and very
fine fragments of fhells, and is from two to three inches
long.

= Curysopon. The fhell of this fpecies is folitary, fub-

cylindrical, papyraceous, chiefly compofed of rn: tat of
fhells. It is defcribed by Pennant as the Sabella rudis.
It inhabits the European and Indian feas; is from two to
fix inches long, and about as thick as a quill. The fhell is
pointed, dirty yellow, flexile while it is wet.
_*Bercica. Shell ftraight, conic, compofed of minute
particles of fand. This is the S. tubiformis of Pennant: it
is from two to three inches long, and is found on many
European coatts.

Rectancuta. The fhell of this is brown, with alter-
nate white and black rings, ftraight, with a rectangular
gibbous extremity. It is full nine inches long, not half an
inch in diameter.

Carensis. Shell cylindrical, conic, open at both ends,
membranaceous, rough with interrupted tranfverfe ftriz.
It inhabits the promontory of the Cape of Good Hope.

Nicra. The fhell of this is cylindrical, black, {moothifh
on the outfide, compofed of very minute particles of fand.
It is found in the rivulets of Thuringia, and is half an inch
long.

ecw aees! Shell ftraight, tapering, open at both
ends, {mooth, with~a marginal aperture, compofed of the
moft minute particles of fand. It is found in the rivers of
Thuringia, fometimes black and folitary, fometimes cine-
reous, and adhering in a mafs to the Ranunculus aquatilis.

Conica. Shell narrow, conic, fmooth, ftraight, cine-
reous, with a blackifh open tip, compofed of moft minute

articles of fand. It inhabits near Jena; is not half an inch
Loci ; the aperture is not margined.

Uncrnata. Shell fmooth, round, tapering, with an
open hooked tip. Jt inhabits the rivers of Thuringia; is
not more than a quarter of an inch long. The fhell is foli-
tary, compofed of very fine fand, cinereous, or black.

Saxputosa. Shell cylindrical, clofed at the tip, fub-
clavate, perforated, compofed of larger grains of fand. It
is found in Thuringia and Belgium. It is about an inch
long; the fhell is ftraight, or a little inflected in the
middle, cinereous or black, or cinereous above and black
beneath.

Vecerasitis. Shell deprefled, compofed of fragments
of twigs, {tems, and bark, and broken pieces of the Tellina
cornea. This is found in the waters of Thuringia, and is
an inch long.

AmmoniaTA. Shell cylindrical; within it is fmooth,
compofed of the fragments of the cornu ammonis.

Hevictna. Shell roundifh, within fmooth, compofed
of fragments of the Helix pufilla. It inhabits the ftlagnant
waters of Thuringia, and is about an inch long.

Dimipiata. One part of the fhell is compofed of fand
and gravel, the other is thicker, clavate, and compofed
of fragments of fhells. It inhabits the waters of Thu-
ringia.

Pats. The fhell of this fpecies is compofed of {mall
ftones, tapering towards the tip. It inhabits Thuringia,
affixed to {tones in the water, is an inch long, gregarious,
open at the fide, by which it is fixed.

Cravata. Shell compofed of {mall ftones, the open
end clavate, and confifting of larger ftones. This is a na-
tive of Thuringia.

ConticaLis.. The hell of this is compofed of pieces

SAB

of bark, towards the end of broken flems.
great varieties in the rivers of Thuringia.

- ArunprinAceA. Shell fubconic, open at both enda,
compofed of fragments of the bark of reeds placed on
on other. It inhabits Thuringia, and is about an inch
ong. ;

AcuLeaTA. Shell roundifh, compofed of {mall twigs
and the culms of grafles, the points of which projeé a little.
This is found in Thuringia. The fhell is fometimes conic,
fometimes cylindrical.

Marsupratis. The fhell of this fpecies is black, the
open end is cylindrical and narrower, the other part turgid
and ovate. It is more than two inches long, and couenes
of black fand ; within it is {mooth.

Norwecica. Shell roundifh, open at both ends, brittle,
membranaceous, compofed of very minute grains of fand.
It inhabits Norway, is four inches long, and about the
thicknefs of a crow’s quill.

Lumericatis. Shell coarfe, creeping, fragile, open at
both ends. The inhabitant has no tentacula at the mouth,
but has a prickly jointed body. It inhabits the Greenland
feas, fixed to itones. The fhell is of a greyifh colour, com-
pofed of particles of fand conneéted to a convex membrane ;
within it is lubricous, polifhed. The inhabitant is rufous,
annulate with white, beneath paler: it has twenty-one
joints, each of which is armed’with two fpines; and two
other terminal ones, which are unarmed. :

Inpica. The fhell of this is cylindrical, compofed of
capillary, fub-cylindrical, agglutinated cryftals o quartz.
It inhabits the Indian ocean. C

SABELLIANS, in Leclefiaftical Hiflory, a fe& in the
Eaft, who reduced the three perfons in the Trinity to three
{tates or relations ; or rather reduced the whole Trinity to
the one perfon of the Father; making the Word and the
oy Spirit to be only virtues, emanations, or funétions
of it.

Sabellius, their chief, firft broached this doGrine, in the
third century, about the year 255, ina city of Libya, called
Ptolemais. He taught, according to Epiphanius, that the
fame being is Father, Son, and Holy Ghoft ; fo that there
are only three denominations in one hypoftafis or fubfiftence ;
or, as in man, body, foul, and fpirit. He fays, that the
Sabellians agreed with the Noetians, except in one thing,
viz. that they faid, the Father did not fuffer. Theodoret’s
account of Sabellius is, that he taught, the Father and the
Son and the Holy Spirit to be one hypoftafis or fubfiftence,
and one perfon with three names; that he fpeaks of the
fame fometimes as Father, fometimes as Son, and fome-
times as Holy Ghoft; and fays, that in the Old Teftament
he delivered the law as Father, and in the New dwelt among
men (or was incarnate) as the Son, and defcended on the
apoftles as the Holy Spirit. Auguitine repeatedly fays,
that there was no different in opinion between Noetus and
Sabellius ;-and that the Sabellians, as well as the Noetians,
taught the Father to have fuffered; and that they were
oftener called Patripaffians than Sabelliane.

The Noetians derived their name from Noetus, who was
of Smyrna, as fome fay, or, according to others, of Ephefus,
in Afia; and they are placed by Lardner about the year 220.
It appears probable from the accounts of ancient writers,
that Noetus, and others who agreed with him, believed one
divine perfon only, and denied a diftin& and proper perfona-
lity of the Word and Spirit. But Lardner thinks that their
doctrine has been fet in a bad light. It is affirmed that they
faid the Father was born, and fuffered, and died, and was
Chrift. Beaufobre, who forms his judgment of thofe called
heretics with candour and equity, declares, “ that this is fo

abfurd,

Tt is found in

a

atti te on

SAB

abfurd, and fo manifeftly contrary to many texts of the N. T.
that it appears {carcely poffible it fhould be maintained by
any reafonable man, which makes him fufpe&, that this
was not the opinion of thofe perfons, but a confequence,
which the orthodox drew from their principles.’”? This,
fays Dr. Lardner, appears to me not unlikely ; a paflage of
Auguttine will confirm the fuppofition ; for he argues and
affirms, * that all who are of that opinion, that the fame is
Father, Son, and Spirit, muft alfo fay that the Father fuf-
fered.”? This feems to fhew, that he had no proof from their
own writings, or expreffions, that the Sabellians, and others
whom he charges with that opinion, were Patripaflians, but
he inferred it from their doétrine concerning the unity and
fimplicity of the Deity. An opinion fimilar to that of Noe-
tus was maintained by feveral perfons both before and
after him.

It is intimated by Epiphanius, that the Sabellians em.
braced their peculiar opinions out of a dread of polytheifm ;
for, as he fays, when they met with other Chriftians, efpecially
fuch as were unlearned, they would put this fhrewd queftion
to them ; “ Well, good friends, what is our dotrine ? Have
we one god, or three gods ?”? Sabellianifm feems to have been
very agreeable to the apprehenfions of many people; and
Eufebius fpeaks of its increafing very much in Egypt, when
Dionyfius of Alexandria oppofed it. Ifidore fays, that Sa-
bellianifm fpread to a great degree ; and we learn alfo from
Epiphanius, that in 375, there were many of that opinion in
Mefopotamia and at Rome. Moreover, the frequent notice
which Augultine takes of Sabellians, in his tracts and fermons
to the people, is an argument that in his time there was a
confiderable number of perfons who maintained this opi-
nion. Epiphanius exprefsly fays, that they ufed all the f{erip-
tures of the O. and N. T.; and that there were fome texts
which they principally infitted on for the fupport of their
doétrine ; and from other authorities it appears, that the Sa-
bellians received the holy fcriptures as other Chriftians did.
Sabellianifm, fays Bafil, is Judaifm, brought into the church
under the name of Chriftianity ; and he alfo fays, we abhor
Sabellianifm as we do Judaifm. Lardner’s Credibility,
vol. iii.

Epiphanius tells us, that the god of the Sabellians, whom
they called the Father, refembled the fun, and was a mere
fub{tratum ; of which the Son was the illuminative virtue or
quality, and the Holy Spirit the warming virtue.

The Word, they taught, was fhot or darted forth like a
divine ray, to accomplifh the work of redemption ; and that
being re-afcended to heaven, as the ray returns to its fource,
the warmth of the Father was communicated, after a like
Manner, to the apoltles.

The council of Antioch, held by the Eufebians in 345,
tells us, that, at Rome, thofe were called Patripaflians, who,
in the Eaft, were called Sabellians. Lardner’s Credibility,
vol. vi.

SABELLICUS, in Biography, an Italian hiftorian and
philologift, whofe proper name was Marcantonio Coccio,
was born about the year 1436, at Vicovaro, in the Cam-
pagna of Rome. e ftudied under different matters at
Rome, and finally under Pomponio Leto, who admitted
him into his academy, in which he obtained the name of
Sabellicus, as being a native of the ancient country of the
Sabines. In 1475 he accepted an invitation to the profeffor-
re of eloquence at Udine. He there employed himfelf in
refearches into the antiquities of the province of Friuli, the
fruits of which were given to the public in a work, « De
Vetuttate Aquileia, ub. vi’? About the year 1484 he re-
moved to Venice, where he taught the belles lettres, till he
was forced away from that city by the plague. He now

SAB

went to Verona, where, in the {pace of fifteen months, he
wrote, in the Latin language, thirty-two books of the hif-
tory of Venice, which he printed on his return to that capital,
in 1487. This work was held in high cttimation by the re-
public, and the author was affigned a penfion, who, in gra-
titude to the ftate, wrote adefcription of the city,—a dialogue
concerning its magiftrates,—and two poems in praife of the
republic. He was afterwards made librarian of St. Mark:
this fituation afforded him much leifure time, which he em-
ployed in purfuing his ftudies with the greateft affiduity, as
appeared by the number of works which he publifhed. Of
thefe was a hiftory of the world from the creation to the
year 1503, entitled “ Rhapfodie Hiftoriarum Enneades,’”’
in fixty-three ‘books. Sabellicus founded an academy at
Venice, and he appears to have enjoyed a very high reputa-
tion among the learned of his time. He died, in confequence
of fome irregularities in his moral condu@, in 1 506. Asa
philologift, he gave notes upon Pliny, Livy, Valerius Maxi-
mus, and Catullus, which have been preferved in Gruter’s
*¢ Thefaurus.””

SABEN, or SxBen, in Geography, a town of the bifhopric
of Brixen, formerly the fee of a bifhop, afterwards removed
to Brixen; 8 miles S.W. of Brixen.

SABERCAN, a town of the Arabian Irac ; 50 miles
E. of Bagdad.

SABERHAS, atown of Perfia, in the province of Irac ;
go miles S. of Hamadan.

SABGUNGE, a town of Bengal; 7 miles S.W. of
Purneah. '

SABI, or Xavier, a town of Africa, in a province of
the fame name, and capital of the kingdom of Whidah, on
the Slave coaft. It is fituated within a mile of the river Eu-
phrates, and about eight miles from the fea, and has factories
belonging to the Portuguefe, French, and Englifh. The
town is large and populous; a large market is held every
Wednefday and Saturday, a mile from the town, to prevent
confufion and difturbance from the multitude of people.
Here the king’s women attend to fell their cloths, and their
other manufaé¢tures. All forts of merchandize are here col-
Jeéted ; and thofe who have brought goods are permitted to
take what time they pleafe to difpofe of them, but without
fraud or noife. A judge, attended by four officers armed,
is appointed by the king for the infpe€tion of all goods, to
hear and determine all grievances, complaints, and difputes.
To opprefs liberty, and fell for a flave the man born free, is
a crime of a black complexion, and always punifhed with
death. The market-place is furrounded with futlers’ booths,
and places of refrefhment for the conveniency of the people.
They are only permitted to fell certain forts of meat; as
beef, pork, goats’ and dogs’ flefh. Other booths are kept
by women who fell maize, millet, rice, and corn-bread.
Other fhops fell pito, or a kind of pleafant, wholefome, and
very refrefhing beer. Palm-wine, aqua-vite, and {pirits,
which they have from the Europeans, are kept in other fhops,
with reftri¢tions, to prevent drunkennefs and riot. Here
flaves of both fexes are bought and fold ; alfo oxen, fheep,
dogs, hogs, fifh, and birds of all kinds. Woollen cloths,
linen, filks, calicoes of European and Indian manufaure,
they have in great abundance; likewife hard-ware, china,
and glafs of all forts, gold in duft and ingots, iron in bars,
lead in fheets, and every ae of European, Afiatic, or
African produétion, is here found at a reafonable price.
The chied commodities of Whidah manufaéture are cloths,
umbrellas, bafkets, pitchers for pito or beer, plates and
difhes of wood, gourds finely ornamented, white and blue
paper, pepper, palm-oil, falt, kan-kis, and other commo-

ditics. Mod. Univ. Hilt. vol. xiii.
SABIA,

SAB

SABIA, a country of Africa, near the Indian fea, S. of
Sofala, both which are confidered as parts of the monarchy
of Mocaranga. This country is populous and rich, the foil
is fertile, and the heat extreme. It is divided into feveral
provinces. §. lat. 21° to 23°.

Sasra, or St. Mary, a river of Africa, which traverfes
the country of Sabia, and difcharges itfelf into the Indian
fea, S, lat. 21° 10’. E. long. 32° 30!.

SABIANS. See Sapzans.

SABICEA, in Botany, a word altered by Aublet, from
Sabifabi, the name of the plant among the natives of Guiana.
See ScHWENKFELDIA.

SABIE, or Sxpye, in Geography, a fea-port of Den-
mark, on the E. coaft of North Jutland, at the mouth of a
river of the fame name ; 23 miles N.N.E. of Aalborg. N.
lat. 57° 20!. E. long. 10° 31!.

SABIER, a town of Africa, on the Slave coaft; 18
miles S.W. of Aflam.

SABINA, a province of Italy, bounded on the N. by
Umbria, on the E. by Abruzzo Ultra, on the S. by Campagna
di Roma, and on the W. by the Patrimonio ; about 30 miles
long, and from 15 to 22 broad. It isa part of the territory of
the ancient Sabines, and produces wine and oil. Its capital
is Magliano.

Sapna, in Botany, fuppofed to have been fo called from
growing in the country of the Sabines ; the Common Sa-
vine. See JUNIPERUS.

SABINES, Sasint, in Ancient Geography, a people who
were for a long time confiderable in Italy. Authors have
fuggelted a variety of etymologies in accounting for their
name. Pliny and Feftus have afcribed it to their worfhip
of the gods, exo 2 c:fisus. But in this appellation there is
nothing that difcriminates them from other neighbouring
nations. If Portius Cato and Dionyfius Halicarnaflenfis are
to be credited, they took their name¢rom Sabinus, the fon of
Sancus, or Sabus, whom they worfhipped under the name of
Dius Fidius. According to Varro, Sancus, in the language
of the Sabines, was equivalent to Hercules in Greek. Sancus
was the principal deity of the Sabines, and probably one of
their deified heroes, and of Umbrian or Etrufcan extraction.
M. Gebelin, afcribing their origin to the ancient nation of
Umbria, where the Celtic language prevailed, fuggefts that,
in this language, /ad fignifies high or elevated, and that they
were thus denominated as the inhabitants of high places, as
the Orobii are called men of the mountains. According to
fome ancient writers, the Sabines, as fome have fuppofed,
were a colony of Lacedemonians; and others conjeéture, that
they were the offspriag of the Aufones. But it is mott
probable that they originated from Umbria. From them,
however, were defcended the Picentes, Frontani, Marrucini,
Peligni, Veltini, Marfi, Aiqui, Hernici, and the Samnites ;
and from the Samnites, the Hirpini, Lucani, Brutii, and
Campani.

The country of the Sabines lay between the Nar and the
Anio, now the Teverone ; the former feparating it from Um-
bria, and the latter from Latium. Cures, whence the Ro-
mans are faid to have been called Quirites, was, at firft, the
metropolis of the Sabini, and in fucceeding ages Reate, now
Rieti. The mines of Cures are ftill to be feen at a place
called Vicovio di Sabina, The other cities in this country,
worthy of notice, were Nurfia, Eretum, Nomentum, Cu-
tiliz, and Amiternum, ; now known by the names of Norcia,
Monte Rolondo, and Lamenturio. The cities of Cutilie
and Amiternum have long fince been deftroyed ; but the
ruins of the former {till remain at Civita Ducale, and thofe
of the latter near the city of Aquila. The Sabines extended
themfelves from the heights of the Apennines, by their co-

SAB

lonies; to the fouthern parts of Italy, and eftablifhed them.
felves on the left of the Anio, where, according to Livy,
they pofleffed a town called Collatia. Their original
country was bounded on the N. by Umbria and Picenum;
on the S. by Latium; on the W. by part of Umbria and
Etruria; and on the E. by the territories of the Picentes,
Veftini, and Marfi. Its length was computed to be 1000
ftadia, or 125 miles, according to Strabo. The Picentes,
Samnites, Lucanians, and Brutians, deduced their origin
from the Sabines. The Picentes, in particular, feem to haye
been placed at firft in a diftri€&t between the Nar and the
Anio. As for the Samnites, they were, in the earlieft times,
called Saunites, or Sabinites, derived evidently from Sabines.
That the Lucanians and Brutians were originally Sabine
colonies, we learn from Strabo, lib. v.

The government, laws, language, arts, manners, and reli-
gion of the Sabines, muft have been generally almoft the fame
with thofe of the Umbrians and Etrufcans, from one or both
of which nations they were undoubtedly defcended. With
refpect to religion, however, fome peculiarities prevailed
among the Sabines; one of which was the high honour and
adoration paid to Sancus, whom the Sabines confidered as
the chief deity of their country. Jupiter and Juno Curis
were likewife diftinguifhed deities amongit them. So was
alfo Vacuna, fuppofed by fome to be the fame with Diana,
by others with Ceres, by others with Venus ; but, accordin
to Varro, fhe was the goddefs of wifdom. The worfhip o
thefe divinities pafled from the Sabines to the Romans ; and
this is no matter of furprife, fince the coalition of the Ro-
man and Sabine nations, even in the time of Romulus,
mutt, of courfe, have introduced into Rome the Sabine
religion. P

Among the principal cities of the Sabines may be ranked
the following ; viz. Fidenz, fituated on the Tiber, about
40 ftadia from Rome ; Cruftumerium, N. of Fidenez; Fi-
culea, at a {mall diftance from the two former towns ; Cor-
niculum, N. of Ficulea; Collatia, on the borders of La-
tium, and the country of the Sabines, between the Prenef-
tine way and the left bank of the Anio, about fix miles from
Rome; Nomentum, one of the moft confiderable Sabine
cities, 10 miles from Rome; Eretum, on the Tiber, about
10 miles from Rome; Regillum, near the Tiber; Cures,
or Curis, anciently the capital of the Sabines ; Cafperia,
now Afpra; Fanum Vacune, now Vacuna or Vacune;
Reate, 15 miles from the la{t-mentioned town, built by the
Aborigines, or Umbrians, the progenitors of the Sabines ;
Palatium, or Palantium, about 25 ftadia W. of Reate;
Trebula, upon an eminence, about 60 ftadia from Reate ;
Vefcola; Suna; Mefula; Orvinium; Corfula; all of
which were towns built by the Aborigines: Ifla, an ifland
and town, environed by a lake, and Maruviun, fituated upon
that lake; Vatia; Tiora; Lilta; Cutilia, or Cotyle, about
70 ftadia from Reate, fituated on a mountain, and near a
lake of the fame name; Amiternum, a famous city of the
Sabines, in the time of the Aborigines ; Teftrina; Nurfia,
or Norica; Tarinum ;—alfo, Antemnx, Cznina, Cameria,
Medullia, and Ameriola, placed by Cluverius among the
Sabine towns, but really belonging to the Latins, We
fhall here add, that the onuatsy. the Sabines correfponded
to that tract of country, which, at prefent, forms a part of
the duchy of Spoleto, and the Farther Abruzzo.

The chief mountains of the Sabine territory were the
Mons Tetricus, now Monte di S. Giovanni; Mons Severus,
now Monte Negro ; Mons Fifcellus, a part of the Apennines,
out of which iflues the Nar; the Montes Gurgures, near
Reate ; the Mons Canterius ; Mons Matela, now Monte
Genaro; Mons Sacer, near the Anio, and not far from

Rome ;

a

SAB

Rome; and the Mons Coritus, placed by fome in Etruria.
The principal rivers of this traét are the Nar or Nera; the
Velinus, or Velino; the Telonius, now the Turano; the
Himella, now the L’Aja; the Farfarus, now the Farfa ;
the Allia, now the Rio di Moffo ; the Turia; the Anio ; the
Verefis; the Digentia, now the Rio del Sole; and the
Avens; all which rivers difcharged themfelves into the
Tiber. The lakes of this country are Lacus Cutilienfis, now
Tl Pozzo Retignano, and Lacus Velinus, now Lago di Pie
di Luco. :

The hiftory of the Sabines, previous to the foundation of
Rome, is fo blended with fables, that it is undeferving the
attention of the judicious reader. After this era, the firft
event of importance was the rape of the Sabine women.
When Romulus had completed and enlarged his new city,
he only wanted a fupply of women to fecure the duration
of the ftate. In order to accomplifh this end, he proclaimed
a folemn feaft and public games, in honour of equeftrian
Neptune, called Confus, (fee ConsuaLxa,) to which a great

‘ multitude of people reforted; and in the midft of the fo-

lemnity he gave a fignal, upon which the Romans rufhed in
with their drawn {words among the ftrangers, and feized
their daughters, amounting in number to 683: Romulus
then chofe hufbands for them, and married them in the
manner afterwards conftantly ufed at. Rome. The Sabines
refented this violence ; and fent to demand the reititution of
their daughters, with which demand Romulus refufed to
comply, infifting, on his part, that the Sabines fhould con-
firm the marriages of his Romans. After a fecond demand
and refufal, the Sabines commenced hoftilities, and caufed an
army to march toward Rome, under command of their king,
Titus Tatius. In a general engagement Romulus was
wounded, but recovering from the effe&t of the fudden in-
jury which he received, he rallied his troops, routed the Sa-
bines, and drove them back to the citadel of Rome, of
which they had taken poffeffion. During a kind of fufpen-
fion of hoftilities between the contending armies, the Sabine

women offered to negotiate. The fenate pafled a decree for |

this purpofe; and having laid afide their ornaments, they
advanced in mournful proceffion to the Sabine camp, and
thus excited compaffion. Obtaining an audience of king
Tatius, they fupplicated a truce; and as foon as it was

ted, the two kings had a conference, which terminated
to the fatisfa€tion of both parties: and it was followedsby a
treaty of union, which was confirmed by oath, and which
confiited of the following articles: viz. that the two kings
fhould refide, and jointly reign, at Rome :—that the city,
deriving its name from Romulus, fhould ftill be called Rome,
and the citizens be denominated Quirites, a name which till
this time had been peculiar to the Sabines :—that the two
nations fhould become one ;—and that the Sabines fhould be
made free of Rome, and enjoy all the privileges of Roman
citizens. The two nations being thus united, Tatius, in
imitation of Romulus, formed a council, compofed of 100
fenators of his own nation, who were ftyled fathers, and
enjoyed the fame vic es with thofe who had been infti-
tuted by the founder. The two councils aflembled firft at the
houfes of their refpe€tive kings, but afterwards they met at
the fame place, which hence took the name of «* Comitium.”’
This was at the foot of the Palatine hill, over-againft the Ca-
pitol : and not far from hence, the two kings built the temple
of Vulcan, where they ufually met, to confult the fenate upon
the moft important affairs. After this union of the nations and
fenates, the Sabine women obtained honourable diltinétions
and privileges ;—every one was commanded to give way to

them ; all immodelt difcourfes were prohibited in their pre-

SAB

fence ; no indecent objeé&ts were to be prefented to their
fight ; in capital caufes they were exempted from the jurif-
diction of the ordinary judges; and their children were al-
lowed to wear the “ bulla aurea,”? or golden bull, hanging
from their necks, and a particular robe, ‘ pretexta,?? with
a purple border, to diftinguifh them from the vulgar. The
union of the two nations foon produced a mixture of man-
ners, cuftoms, and religion. The Sabines adopted the Ro-
man gods, and the Romans worfhipped indifcriminately thofe
of the Sabines. They unanimoufly inftituted the feftival,
called “« Matronalia,” in memory of the peace concluded b
the mediation of the women. Four thoufand of the inha-
bitants of Cameria, a city in the neighbourhood of Rome,
were tranfplanted hither, and a colony fent from hence to
Cameria. Soon after the death of Tatius, which took
place in the year U.C. 14, a plague, fucceeded by a famine,
broke out at Rome; and in this feafon of diftrefs, the Ca-
merini made an attempt to fhake off the yoke which had
been impofed upon them after the conqueft of their city,
and laid wafte the Roman territory. The war, however,
terminated favourably, and Romulus procured the honour
of a third triumph. Upon the death of Romulus, and
during the fucceeding interregnum, the Sabines contended
that the next king fhould be chofen out of their nation:
but the contention was terminated by an agreement, that
the Romans fhould choofe the king, but be obliged to ele&
a Sabine. Accordingly Numa, a Sabine philofopher, was
ele&ted. Under the fucceeding reigns of Tullus Hottilius,
Ancus Martius, and Tarquinius Prifeus, the Romans and
Sabines had frequent contefts ; but at length the latter were
obliged, after feveral defeats, to fubmit to Tarquin, who
having treated them favourably, and taken poffeffion of their
country, returned to Rome in triumph. ‘Tarquin II., fur-
named the Proud, made the whole Sabine nation tributary.
Under the confuls, the Sabines fucceffively invaded the
Roman territories, and were repeatedly defeated; but it
would exceed our limits to recite the various engagements
which took place between the contending parties, and their
difaftrous termination to the Sabines. At length the con-
queft of Samnium, which took place in the year U.C. 467,
B.C. 281, was followed by the entire reduétion of the Sa-
bines, whofe confederacy with Rome was as ancient as the
city itfelf ; but who, notwithftanding their alliance with the
republic, had joined the Samnites. (See Samnires.) It is,
therefore, needlefs to purfue their hiftory any farther. We
may form fome judgment of the political importance of the
Sabines, if we advert to the character given of them by
Cicero, at the clofe of the Roman republic, who calls them
“robur reipublice,” the ftrength or flay of the republic.
Ane. Un. Hitt. vol. ix. x.

SABINIANS, in Ancient Hiflory. See Procarians.

SABINITES Lapis, in Natural Hiflory, a name given
to a ftone in which are preferved the leaves of the common
favin.

SABINUS, in Biography, an Arian hiftorian, who flou-
rifhed, according to Cave, in the year 425; but according to
Tillemont, he wrote in the time of Valens, and, as Fabricius
fays, under Valens and Gratian. Socrates informs us, that
he was bifhop of the Macedonians at Heraclea in Thrace ;
and he calls him a leader of the Macedonian feét, and a
Semi-Arian. He wrote a hiitory of Councils, beginning
with that at Nice. The title of his book feems to have
been “ A Colleétion of Synods, or of the A&s of Synods.’’
He furnifhed fome materials of which Socrates availed him-
felf, though he often complains of his partiality. Lardner’s
Works, vol. iv.

SABINUS,

SAB

Sapinus, Juttus, a Gaulifh noble, remarkable for his
adventures, was a native of the diftri€t of the Lingones,
the modern Langres. He claimed to be a defcendant of
Julius Czfar, who, when in Gaul, was faid to have had an
intrigue with his grand-mother. In the tumultuous ftate of
the Roman empire, and during the conteft between Vel-
pafian and Vitellius, A.D. 70, he caufed himfelf to be pro-
claimed Cefar, and led a band of his countrymen into the
territory of the Sequani. They were oppofed and routed
by thefe allies of the Romans, and Sabinus fled to a villa of
his own, where he gave out that he meant to avoid public
punifhment by a sohaneey death ; he accordingly aflembled
his domefties, and after thanking them for their faithful
fervices, he difmifled them all, except two freedmen, on
whom he could depend; thefe he entrufted with his fecret.
He then withdrew into a fubterraneous cavern, the entrance
of which was known only to them; they fet fire to the
houfe, which was totally confumed, ferving, as it was ima-
gined, for a funeral pile to the remains of their mafter. Sa-
binus had a wife, named Eponina, the obje& of his tendereft
affe€tion, but whom he did not entruft with his plan. She
believing that he was actually burnt to afhes, paffed three
days without food, meaning to follow her hufbandy when
Sabinus fent one of his freedmen to acquaint her with the
fact. She now continued the appearance of grief, and
in the fecrecy of night paid him occafional vifits in his cave.
At length fhe took him to her own refidence, but the dread
ef difcovery induced him to take refuge again in the cave,
where Eponina vifited him almoft daily for nine years. She
even bore twins to her hufband, and nurfed them in her
dark retreat. They were, however, difcovered, dragged
out of the place of their concealment, carried to Rome, and
brought before Wefpafian. Unmoved by the tears and en-
treaties of Eponina, and by the affe€ting narrative of the
extraordinary adventures of the unfortunate pair, he ordered
Sabinus to execution. His wife was now no longer the
humble fuppliant, fhe nobly reproached the hard-hearted
emperor with his cruelty, and bore her lofs with the fame
firmnefs which fhe had fhewn in performing her conjugal and
maternal duties.

Sasrinus, GrorGE, was born in the Marche of Branden-
burg. His family name was Schalter, which, according to
the cuftom of the time, he changed for the above Latin ap-
pellation. At the age of 15 he was fent to Wittenberg,
where he lodged in the houfe of Melanéthon, from whom
he received daily inftru€tion. By the advice of that learned
man he cultivated his tafte for Latin poetry, and before he
had attained to the age of manhood, he publifhed a poem,
entitled «* Res Gefte Catarum Germanicorum,”’ which gave
him a high reputation among the fcholars of Germany, and
even procured him the patronage of feveral of its princes.
He then vifited Italy, where 3 attracted the notice of
Bembo, Contareni, and other men of eminence. After his
return, he was nominated by the elector of Brandenburg
profeffor of belles-lettres at Frankfort on the Oder, and
afterwards reétor of the new univerfity of Konigfberg. He
married the daughter of his preceptor Melanéthon. The
eleGtor at length raifed him to the high office of a coun-
fellor, and employed him in various embaffies and negocia-
tions, in which he difplayed equal eloquence and political
fill. In 1540 he was ennobled by the emperor Charles V.
at the diet of Ratifbon. He died in 1560. In his youth
he had acquired irregular, not to fay licentious, habits, but
he was afterwards hitacuithed for virtue and folid piety.
His colleétion of Latin poems was firft publithed at feighe
in 1558, and an enlarged edition of them was given in 1597.

SAB

He publifhed fome Latin letters, and an elementary work
on the art of writing verfe in imitation of the ancients,
which was long regarded as an excellent manual for young
perfons in their ftudies. :

SABIO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the depart-
ment of the Mela; 13 miles N.N.E. of Brefcia..

SABIONCELLO, a town of Italy, in the department
of the Mincio; 12 miles S.E. of Mantua.—Alfo, a penin-
fula of Dalmatia, in the ftate of Ragufa, which runs a con-
fiderable way into the Adriatic, having the iflands of Cur-
zolo and Meleda on the S. and the ifland of Lefma on the
N., all feparated by a narrow channel; 45 miles N.W. of
Ragufa. N. lat. 43°15’. E. long. 17° 40’. :

SABIONETTA, a town of Italy, and capital of a
{mall principality, on the borders of Mantua and Cremona.
The town has a {trong citadel, and the principality contains
a few villages and towns; 19 miles S.S.W. of Mantua.

-SABLAT, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Pracha-
titz; 4 miles S.W. of Prachatitz.

SABLE, J/le de, or of Sand, an ifland in the North
Atlantic ocean, diftinguifhed, as the name imports, by milk-
white hills of fand in a fugar-loaf form, intermixed with
tran{parent ftones, fome of which rife 146 feet above the
fea. The ifland is narrow, of the fhape of a bow, about
30 miles in compafs, having a fand-bank at each end, and in
the middle a lake about 15 miles in circuit, befides other
ponds of frefh water. It produces junipers, blue-berries,
and cranberries, and fome grafs and vetches, which ferve to
{upport a few horfes, cows, and hogs. Its fand-hills may
be feen in clear weather at the diftance of 24 miles ; go miles
S.E. of Cape Breton. N. lat. 44°15’. W. long. 59° 50’.
—Alfo, a {mall ifland in the Indian fea, E. of the ifland of
Madagafcar, difcovered in 1722, by a French veflel called
La Diané. S. lat. 15°55'. E. long. 54° 5’.—Alfo, a {mall
ifland, called “ St. Paul,”’ in the Atlantic ocean. S. lat. o°
25'. W. long. 18° 31'.—Alfo, a river of Canada, which
runs into St. John’s lake, N. lat. 49° 38’. W. long. 72° 34’.
—Alfo, a river of North America, which runs into lake
Erie, N. lat. 42° 17’. W. long. 83°.—Alfo, two rivers,
called «* Great’’ and “ Little,”’ difcharging themfelves from
the W. fide into lake Champlain. The former is not far
from the Seranac, and is fcarcely 60 yards wide ; and it has
feveral remarkable falls.) ‘The whole defcent of the water
is about 200 feet, in feveral pitches, the greateft of which
is 40 feet perpendicular, and at its foot the water is unfa-
thomable. The ftream is confined by high rocks on either
fide, and the banks are at lea{t as many feet high.

SABLE, Cafe, a cape on the S. coalt of Nova Scotia.
N. lat. 43° 32’. W. long. 65° 40'.—Alfo, the S. point of
Eaft Florida. N. lat. 24°57’. W. long. 81° 4o/.

Sasce Point, lies on the W. fide of Newfoundland. N.
lat. 50° 24’. W. long. 57° 35’. ,

Sasit, a town of France, and principal place of a
diftri@, in the department of the Sarte, on the Sarte ;
27 miles S.W. of Le Mans. N. lat. 47° 51’. W. long.
Guile.

nye in Heraldry, the black colour in the arms of
gentlemen. .

The name is borrowed from the little animal called /ad/e,
which is of a black colour.

In thofe of nobility, it is called diamend ; and in the coats
of fovereign princes, Saturn.

It is aerirehad in engraving by perpendicular and horizon-
tal hatches drawn acrofs each other.

SapLe, in Zoology, the name of the animal whofe fur is
fo much valued, and fold under the fame name. It is a

7 creature

SAB

creature of the weaiel kind, and called by authors MusTELa
Zibellina ; which fee.

SaeLe Mouje. See Mouse, and Mus Lemnus.

SABLES, Riviere aux, in Geography, a river of North
America, which runs into the S. of lake Huron, S. of the
Highlands and E. to the part where the waters of that lake
defcend into the river St. Clair.

Sapces d’Olonne, Les, a town of France, and principal
place of a diitri&, in the department of the Vendée, hay-
ing a {mall harbour; 45 miles S. of Nantes. The place
contains 5168, and the canton 8688 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 235 kiliometres, in 6 communes,

SABLESTAN, 2 mountainous and well-watered ftate
or diltri& of the province of Seiftan or Segeltan in Pertfia,
on the frontiers of Hindooftan ; bounded on the N. and W.
by Khorafan, and on the E. by Candahar. Its capital is
Bott.

SABLOTOW, or Zastorow, a town of Auftrian Po-
land; 10 miles W. of Snyatin.

SABOE, a river of Africa, which runs into the Atlantic
at Mahmora.—Alfo, a town on the W. coait of the iflan
of Gilolo. N. lat. 1°6'. E. long. 127° 21.

SABOGIR, a {mall ifland in the Red fea. N. lat. 15°

to!. E. long.-42° 30’.
SABON, an ifland at the S. entrance of the ftraits of
Malacca, of a triangular fizure, about 24 miles in circuit :
feparated from Sumatra by a navigable channel, called the
« Straits of Sabon.” N. lat. 0° 42!. E. long. 103° 21.

SABONGO, a town aad capital of the ifland of
Bachian.

SABOR, a river of Portugal, which runs into the
Duero, 5 miles S.W. of Torre de Moncorvo.

Sasor am Hammer, a town of Silefia, in the principality
of Glogau; 24 miles N.N.W. of Gros Glogau. N. lat.
52°. E. long. 15° 46’.

SABOTA, a town of the duchy of Warfaw; 20 miles
E. of Lenczicz.

SABRACA, in Ancient Geography, a people of India,
on this fide of the Ganges. Quintus Curtius reprefents them
as a very powerful republican nation; and he reports, that
they armed 60,000 foot and 6000 horfe, to oppofe the pro-
grefs of Alexander the Great; but that as foon as they per-
ceived the Macedonians, they took them for an army of

ods, and immediately fubmitted.

SABRAN, in Geography, a town of Turkeftan, on the
Sir; 115 miles W. of Taraz.

SABRAO, an ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, about 100
miles in circumference, feparated from the E. coaft of the
ifland of Flores by a narrow channel, called the “ Strait of
Flores.” S. lat. 8° 8!. E. long. 123° 20’.

SABRATA, or Sabraata Colonia, in Ancient Geography,
a maritime town, and Roman colony, in Africa, in the
country of Tripoli. Ptolemy.

SABRE, formed from the German /abel, which fignifies
the fame, of the Sclavonic fabla, a fword, or hanger, a kind
of cutting {word, or {cimitar, having a very broad, heavy
blade ; thick at the back ; and a little crooked towards the
point.

The Turks are very expert in the ufe of the fabre, which
is the weapon they ordinarily wear by their fide, &e. With
this, it is faid, they can cleave a man quite down at a fingle
flroke. Damafcus was formerly famous for its manufacture
of fabres.. See Damascus.

SABRES, in Geogra Ay, a town of France, in the
department of the Landes, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftri& of Mont-de-Marfan ; 18 miles N.N.E. of
Tartas. The place contaips 1808, and the canton 4856

Vou. XXXII.

SAB

inhabitants, on a territory of 590 kiliometres, in feveit
communes.

SABRIDGEWORTH. See Sawsrinceworrn.

SABRON, a river of Syria, which rifes in mount
Taurus, and runs into the lake of Antioch.

SABS, a town of Perfia, inthe province of Irak ; nine
miles N.E. of Ifpahan.

SABU, or Sazor, a diftrit of Africa, on the Gold
Coatt, about five miles in extent on the coatt, and ten inland.
It begins at the foot of mount Daniftein, and ends within
a mile or two of Mawri, or Mawerri, there joining the
kingdom of Fantin; its boundaries being the fea, and the
countries of Atti and Fetu on the fouth and weft. Sabu
produces an aitonifhing quantity of Indian corn, potatoes,
yams, bananas, oranges, lemons, and other fruits; befides
palm oil, with which it fupplies the country of Akra and
Axim. The natives are reckoned the moft induftrious
people on the Gold Coaft, being perpetually employed in
tilling the earth, fifhing, or trading with the Europeans, or
Akanefe, a nation that exchanges gold for the fifh and fruits
of Sabu. The Sabuans have been always inferior in num-
ber to their enemies, chiefly the negroes of Atti and
Akana; but they have amply compenfated this deficiency
by the ufe of fire-arms, in which they were expert.

The city of Sabu, where the king refides, is diftant about
two leagues from the coait ; it is long and populous, fituated
N.E. of Mawri, which is a town half a mile from Congo,
the property of the king of Sabu, and which chiefly trades
in crude gold-duft, by means of canoes, which arrive daily
from all the fea-port towns.

SABUGAL, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Beira ; fix miles W. of Alfayates.

SABUGOSA, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Beira; feven miles S.W. of Vifeu.

SA-BULAGH, gq. f. the Cold Stream, a town and
diftrict of Perfia, in the province of Azerbijan or Aider-
beitzan, on the fouthern fhore of lake Urumea, 12 fur-
fungs from Maraga, poflefled by the Kurdifh tribe of
Meckree. The city of Maraga (which fee) is probably
the “ Gamarga”? of Diodorus; it is well built, has a {pa-
cious bazar, and is encompafled with a high wall. Its
fituation is pleafant, in a low yalley, at the extremity of a
well cultivated plain, opening to the lake from which Maraga
is diftant nine or ten miles. The gardens and plantations
are watered by canals, drawn from a {mall river, over which
are two bridges, erected 800 yearsago. The town has about
15,000 inhabitants, of the Turkifh tribe of Mukudum,
under their chief Ahmed Khan. It has a glafs manufactory,
and avery handfome public bath, together with feveral curious
old tombs, particularly that of Holaku, who refided in this
town, and built an obfervatory, on the top of an adjacent
mountain, for his friend, Nate a Deen, the molt famous
aitronomer of his time, who here formed thofe tables known
by his name. Near the fpot where the obfervatory flood,
is a cave, hewn out of the rock, 41 feet long, and 16 broad ;
and near the cave are two elevated altars, not unlike the
Priapus of the Indian temples. Kinneir’s Memoir of the
Perfian Empire, p. 156.

SABULOUS, in Hufbandry, aterm applied to a gritty
or fandy kind of matter or foil in fome cafes. See Som.

SABULY, in Geography, a town of Hindooltan, in
Guzerat ; 20 miles $.S.E. of Chitpour.

SABUN, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Vich,
N. lat. 61° 45’. FE. long. 80° 14!,

SABUR, a diltri€t of Perfia, in the W. part of Chu-
fiflan, or Kuziltan.

SABURR&, Grits, in Natural Hiflory, the name of

D

a genus

SAC

a genus of foffils found in form of powder, and ufually con-
founded among the fands, and called by the fame name.
Thefe are not compofed, like the genuine fands, of pure
natural concretions, but are irregular particles, feeming to
have been the fragments of other large bodies. They are
not to be diffolved or difunited by water, but retain their
figure in it, and do not cohere by means of it into a mafs.
They are often very opaque, and in many of the fpecies will
ferment with acids, and are often fouled with heterogene
particles, taking in the coarfer, ftony, mineral, and me-
talline particles, and are, according to their colour, divided
into feveral kinds. Thefe faburre are white, yellow, and
black, of different fpecies, according to Hill. See Grit-
STONE.

SABUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Armenia, fituated on the bank of the Euphrates; on the
route from Sacala to Melitené, between Teucila and Dafcofa,
according to the Itinerary of Antonine.

SABUT Tera, a country of Afia, in the environs
of the Indus.

SABY, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the province
of Smaland; 26 miles N.E. of Jonkoping. ,

SAC, ariver of Africa, which rifes in the fettlement of
the Cape of Good Hope, and runs into Orange river, about
go miles from its mouth.

Sac, or Sak, Saca, or Sacha, in Law, an ancient privi-
lege which a lord of a manor claims in his court, of holding
plea in caufes of debate arifing from his tenants and vailals,
and of impofing and levying tines and amercements touching
the fame.

The word is Saxon, /ac, and literally fignifies cau/e, con-
tefl, &e.
rn defines fac by the forfeiture or amercement itfelf.

Sac, Cul-de. See Cun-de-fac.

SACA, in Zoology, a {pecies of beautiful wild cat, found
in Madagafcar.

SACABURGH, Sacazere, or Sakebere, in our Old
Writers, one that is robbed, or by theft deprived of his
money or goods, and puts in furety to profecute the thief
with freth {uit ; according to Selden, in his Titles of Honour,
and Briton, cap. 15. & 29, with whom agrees Braéton,
(lib. iii. tra@. 2. cap. 32. n. 2.) Furtum vero mani-
feftum eft, ubi latro deprehenfus fit feifitus de aliquo
latrocinio, fcil. Honhabend et Backberend et infecutus
fuerit per aliquem cujus res illa fuerit, qui dicitur faca-
burh, &c.”’

The word may come from the Saxon /ac or facca, i. e. lis,
raufa, profecutio, and burh, finns hoc eft furti fymbolum.

ut fir Edward Coke fays, facabere, or fakebere, is de-
rived from fac, and bere, that is, he that did bear the bag.
8 Inft. fol. 69.

SAC, in Ancient Geography, a people who inhabited a
territory S. of Babylon, between the Tigris and the
Euphrates, or the country fituated along the confines of
thefe two rivers. (See the third book of the Cyropxdia
of Xenophon.) Thefe people were powerful enemies of
the king of Affyria. Cyrus made an alliance with them in
his enterprife againft the Affyrians, and they furnifhed him
with a body of 10,000 infantry and 2000 cavalry; and
having become matter of the garrifons by which the Aflyrians
defended their frontier, he transferred them to his new allies,
who placed in them garrifons compofed of Sacz, Cadufians,
and Hyrcanians, all of whom had an equal intereft in pre-
ferving them, for the defence of their own territories. The
Saca were originally a nation of Scythians, eftablifhed on
the other fide of the river Jaxartes in the Greater Scythia ;
thie appears from the teftimony of all the ancient geo-

SAC

graphers; and the Perfians attributed the general name of
Sace to the people, called, by the Greeks, Scythians.
Thefe Sace occupied the greateft part of Sogdiana, the
country that lay between the Oxus and the Jaxartes. In
procefs of time they pafled the Oxus, and eftablifhed them-
felves in Margiana, and they were denominated Amyrgian
Scythians, becaufe they inhabited the territory along the
river Margus or Morgus, according to Herodotus. Strabo
(1. xvi.) fays, that the Parztaci had preferved the name of
Sac in the Elymaide territory, and that they had given it
to a canton of Sufiana, named Sagapena. From the time
of Strabo, they celebrated at Zela, a town of Pontus, a
feait under the name of Sacea, in commemoration of the
advantage which the people of the country had obtained
over the Sacz.

Sac#, a name alfo given to a people of Thrace, accord-
ing to Suidas.

SACEA, S2xei2, in Antiquity, afeaft which the ancient
Babylonians, and other Orientals, held annually in honour of
the deity Anaitis. ‘

The Sacza were in the Eaft what the Saturnalia were at
Rome, viz. a feaft for the flaves. One of the ceremonials
of which was to choofe a prifoner condemned to death, and
allow him all the pleafures and gratifications he would wih,
before he were carried to execution.

SACAHUCHEN, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in
the province of Yucatan, on the Champeton ; 32 miles S.
of Campechy.

SACALA, in Ancient Geography, a place of India, E. of
the river Indus, and at a {mall diftance from its mouths.
Arrian.

SACALBINA, atown of Afia, in the Greater Ar-
menia. Ptolemy.

SACAPENA, a country of Afia, in the Greater
Armenia. Prtol.

SACAROIDE, in Mineralogy, a term introduced from
the French to denote the fine granular texture of fome lime-
{tone refembling that of loaf fugar.

SACASINA, in Ancient Geography, a country on the
confines of Armenia and Albania, extending as far as the
river Cyrus. Strabo.

SACATECOLUCO, in Geography, a town of Mexico,
in the province of Guatimala; 4c miles S.E. of St. Sal-
vador.

SACATEPEC, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Guatimala; 25 miles N.E. of Guatimala.

SACATIA Crviras, in Ancient Geography, a town and
port of Arabia Felix, upon the Red fea, in the country of
Elizares.

SACATULA, in Geography.” See ZacaTuLa.

SACBUT, SaquesuTe, a mufical inftrument of the
wind kind; being a kind of trumpet, though different from
the common trumpet both in form and fize.

The facbut is very fit for playing bafs; and is contrived
fo as to be drawn out or fhortened, according to the gravity
or acutenefs ofthetones. The Italians call it trombone, the
Latins tuba dudilts. :

It takes afunder into four pieces, or branches; and hath
frequently a wreath in the middle ; which is the fame tube
only twilked twice, or making two circles in the middle
of the inftrument; by which means, it is brought down
one-fourth lower than its natural tone. It has alfo two
pieces or branches on the infide, which do not appear,
except when drawn out by means of an iron bar, and
which lengthen it to the degree requifite to hit the tone

required.
The facbut is ufually eight feet long, without being
drawa

SAC

drawn ‘out, or without reckoning the circles. When ex-
tended to its full length, it is ufually fifteen feet. The
wreath is two feet nine inches in circumference. It ferves
as bafs in all concerts of wind mufic.

There are facbuts of different fizes, ferving to execute
different parts; particularly a fmall one, called by the
Italians trombone picciolo; and by the Germans, cleine alt
pofaune, proper for a counter-tenor. The part afligned
it is ufually called trombone primo, or I°. There is another
large kind, called trombone maggiore, which may ferve as
a tenor, its part is ufually called trombone fecondo, or II°
or 2°. There is athird itill bigger, called trombone groffo;
its part 1s called. trombone terzo, or III° or 3°. Laltly,
there is another, which exceeds all the reft, and which is
much heard in the mufic, efpecially in the’bafs ; its part is
called trombone quarto, or I1V° or 4to, or fimply trombone.
It has ufually the key of F, ut, fa, on the fourth line;
though frequently alfo on the fifth line from the top, on
account of the gravity or depth of the founds.

SACCA, Xacca, or Sctacca, in Geography, a fea-port
town of Sicily, in the valley of Mazara, on the fouth
coaft; anciently called <‘ Thermez Selinuntiz,”? on account
of fome celebrated baths near the town, faid to have Been
contrived by Dedalus. Agathocles, the tyrant of Syracufe,
was the fon of a potter in this town; and there are {till in-
genious potters in this place, who manufacture beautiful
vafes; 27 miles S.E. of Mazara. N. lat. 37° 34!. E.
long. 12° 53’.

SACCADE, in the Manege, a jerk or violent check
which the rider gives his horfe, by drawing both the reins
very fuddenly ; it is ufed when the horfe bears too heavy on
the hand, or obftinately arms himfelf.

The faccade is a kind of correction rarely to be ufed;
for fear of fpoilisg the horfe’s mouth.

SACCAA, in Ancient Geography, a country of Arabia
Petrza, E. of Batanea, and in the vicinity of Trachonitis.
Ptolemy.

SACCAT, in Geography, a fea-port of Japan, in the
ifland of Niphon, which is large, populous, and well for-
tified’; 70 miles S.W. of Meaco. N. lat. 34°14!. E. long.
136° 40’.

SACCAR él Prelit, a town of Afia, in the defart of
Jazira, on the Euphrates; 10 miles below El Deir.

SACCARA, a town of Exypt, famous for the pyramids
in its vicinity, and for the mummies of men and animals that
are preferved in its valt catacombs.

SACCARII, among the Romans, were a company or
fraternity of porters, who had the fole privilege to carry all
goods from the harbour to the warehoufes, none being
allowed to employ their own flaves, and much lefs thofe of
others, for that purpofe.

SACCATA, in Commerce, a land meafure in Italy. At
Florence a faccata of Jand contains 10 ftajole, or 660 fquare
perches, anfwering to 5940 Englifh {quare yards, or 1 acre
and 36 perches Enghth. Accordingly, 8.15 faccata are
equal to 10 Englith acres, and 81.48 {tajole = 10 acres,
and each ftajole = 594 Englith {quare yards.

SACCELIUM, in Botany, a genus publifhed by Hum-
boldt and Bonpland in the third fafciculus of their Plantes
équinoxiales. The vame is derived from facculus, alittle bag ;
and alludes to the pouch-like appearance of the calyx. iy
Theis.

SACCER. See Saker.

SACCHARATE, Sun-saccnanate, and Super-fac-
charate of lead in Chenifiry, terms introduced into gs che-
mical nomenclature by Dr. Berzelius, profeflor of chemiftry
at Stockholm, to denote combinations of fugar with oxyd of
lead, according to the different degrees of faturation

SAC
SACCHARINE, aterm applied to fuch fubftances as

contain fugar. The matters in which this fubflance is
abundant, are, in general, highly nutritious and ufeful in
the fattening of animals. See Sucar.

This principle would feem to exilt in many different ftates
in the different vegetable plants, roots, feeds, and other
fubitances, that are made ufe of asthe food of live-ftock of
diflerent kinds.

SaccHarine Matter, in Agriculture, the fweet fubftance
found in many forts of plants and fruits; and which is ob-
tained from the fugar-cane, for different economical pur-
pofes. It isamaterial that is found to afford much nourith-
ment to different forts of live-{tock, in its ftate of combi-
nation in various kinds of vegetable produ@tions, as thofe
plants that"tontainit in a large proportion, are moftly found
highly beneficial in that application, as is exemplified in the
carrot, parfnip, beet, and many plants of the grafs kind.
How far the procefs of fattening animals may depend upon
this property, has not yet been fhewn by any {atisfactory
experiments, but it would feem to be in fome meafure con-
nected with it. :

Befides, there is a faccharine procefs taking place in the
germination or fprouting of feeds, by which faccharine
matter is elaborated, and evolved, probably for the fupport
of the young: plant until it has eftablifhed itfelf firmly in the
foil by means of its roots. In the well known operation
of malting there is alfo a confiderable evolution of
faccharine matter, which probably ferves to give the
liquor a body as well as ftrength, and by that means
renders it more nutritious. In many other cafes the for-
mation of faccharine matter is likewife equally evident.
It alfo exifts in large proportions in the fap juice of many
vegetables.

Chemiitry has fhewn that different roots, feeds, and plants
contain very different quantities of faccharine matter. In
the trials of fr Humphrey Davy, the common turnip was
found to afford in a thonfand parts of the root, thirty-four
of faccharine matter ; the fame number of parts in the root
of the common orange carrot, produced ninety-five parts of
faccharine matter; in the root of the white or Walcheren
carrot, the fame number of parts yielded ninety-eight
of this matter, and the fame proportion of parts in the
root of the common parfnip, gave ninety of faccharine
matter.

In grains of the barley and oat kind the quantity or pro-
portion of faccharine matter is lefs, as from two to feven, or
rather more ; but the prefence of it in the former fort of grain
is probably the reafon why it is the more fuitable for the pur-
pofes of being converted into malt than any other fort. ‘The
feeding property of the meal likewife probably depends
upon this. Peas in a thoufand parts contain twenty-two of
faccharine matter. Saccharine matter alfo exifts in the nec-
taries and other parts of flowers in large proportions, as well
as in molt forts of fruits.

In plants of the grafs kind there has been afcertained to
be the largeft quantity of faccharine matter, in proportion
to the other conftituent parts or matters, when the crops
were mown or cut down about the period of their producing
their flowers. Ina hundred parts of the foluble matter of
fome, as the round-headed cock’s-foot grafs, the above expe-
rimenter found, when taken from the grafs cut at this time,
eighteen parts of faccharine matter ; while the fame quantity
ofthe fame matter taken from the feed crop, only aflorded
nine; and that of the fame proportion of the after-math
crop not more than eleven, See Dacryxis.

This fort of foluble matter, when taken from fome kinds of
grafles, alfo affords it in remarkably large quantities, as that
taken from the upright fea re grafs, in which the faccha-

I2 rino

SAC

rine matter contained is more than one-third of its weight.
And the fame matter taken from the feed crop of the
meadow cat’s-tail grafs feems to yield more faccharine matter
than any of the poa or feftuca forts. See Exymus, and
PHLEUM. ‘

It is fuggefted as clear, from the chemical principles of
the nature of germination, by the above writer, that in the
procefs of converting barley into malt, that operation fhould
be carried on no further than merely to produce the fprouting
or fpiring of the radicle or root part of the grain, but be
immediately checked or {topped as foon as this has made its
appearance in a diftin& manner ; as, if it be pufhed forward to
fuch a degree as to occafion the perfect developement of
the radicle and the plume, a confiderable quantity of fac-
charine matter will have been confumed in producing their
expanfion, and there will be lefs fpirit formed in fermentation
or produced in diftillation. In fhort, an inferior malt will
be afforded. As this is a matter of fome confequence, he
made an experiment in relation to it. He afcertained, by
means of the action of alcohol, the relative proportions of
faccharine matter in two equal quantities of the fame barley ;
in one of which the fprouting had been carried fo far as to
protrude the radicle to nearly a quarter of an inch beyond the
grain in molt of the fpecimens, and in the other of which
it had been checked before the fame part was advanced a
line in length: the quantity of faccharine matter which was
afforded by the latter, in proportion to that of the former, was
nearly as fix to five. This fets the praétice of malting in a
clear point of view, and may be of advantage in the feeding
of animals with malted fub{tances. There is reafon to believe
that faccharine matter and that of ftarch are capable of
being changed or converted into each other, as in the cafes
of the ripening of grain and the malting of barley and other
matters. And the fame thing probably takes place with
other vegetable fubftances.

It is owing to the faccharine matter which is formed in
the cotyledons of plants at the early period of their change
into feed leaves, that they become fo liable to be attacked
and deftroyed by infects of different kinds. Hence they
are, for the moft part, apt to be injured in this way in the
very young ftages of their growth and appearance.

SACCHAROMETER, in the /rts, an inftrument for
afcertaining the value of worts, and the ttrength of different
kinds of malt-liquor. The name fignifies a meafurer of
{weetnefs, and the inftrument feems to depend on the follow-
ing principles. The water employed by the brewer be-
comes more denfe, that is, of a greater {pecific gravity, by
the addition of materials extrated by, and diffolved in it,
and thence, in faét, incorporated with it: the operation of
boiling, and its evaporation in the fubfequent cooling, {till
augment the fpecific gravity, fo that when it is fubmitted
to the aGtion of fermentation, it is found to be denfer than
at any other period. In pafling ele this natural ope-
ration, a remarkable operation takes place. The fluid, as
foon as it begins to ferment, begins alfo to diminifh in its
denfity, and as the fermentation is more or lefs perfect, the
fermentable matter, whofe acceffion has been traced by the
increafe of denfity, becomes more or lefs attenuated, and a
fpirituous fluid, of lefs denfity than water, is produced; fo
don when the liquor is again in a ftate of rett, it is fo much
fpecifically lighter than it was before, as the action of fer-
mentation has been capable of attenuating the liquid of its
acquired denfity; and if the whole were affeéted in like
manner, the liquor would become lighter, or of lefs fpecific

ravity than water, becaufe the quantity of {pirit produced
Bote the fermentable matter, and occupying its place, would
diminith the denfity of the water in fome fort of proportion
to that in which the latter was increafed. Such is the ac-

SAC

count given of the faccharometer, and the theory of its
action. On this fubjeé it has been afked if the faccharo-
meter is an inftrument which truly indicates the ftreneth of
malt-liquor ; and are the conftituents of malt alwavs diffolved
in the fame proportions to each other? becaufe unlefs this be
the cafe, there can be but little dependence placed upon it.
i. this it has been anfwered, by a very modern writer, that
the faccharometer indicates correétly the f{pecific gravity of
the wort before it begins to ferment. The value of the beer
or ale, fuppofing the procefs properly conduéted, always
depends upon the ftrength, that is, the f{pecific gravity, be-
caufe the fame fubftances are always taken up from good
malt ; and the real value of beer, to fay nothing of the
market price, is always proportional to the {pecific gravity
of the wort. See Hypromerer.

Another writer on the fubjeét (fee Dr. Thompfon’s
Annals) obferves, that according to the common. accepta-
tion of the word /lrength, in beer or ale, the faccharometer
foretels it fufficiently near the truth, for /imilar procefles in
the fame brewhoufe, but it is by no means a fure guide for
any diffimilarity in the mode of brewing, or of drawing the
extract ; for then the conttituents of malt are not often dif-
folved in the fame proportion to each other, and in all cafes
the extracts are fuperior in value according to their priority.
For, let the firft, from the fame parcel ae malt, be reduced
to the fpecific gravity of the laft, and an equal quantity of
each will give a beer very different in quality.

The quantity of alcohol increafes during fermentation, as
the f{pecific gravity of the fermenting fluid diminifhes, but
in what ratio no correét experiments have as yet afcertained.
The term defignated frength, in malt liquors, depends, how=
ever, on many inexplicable circumftances. It is never-
thelefs certain that the common faccharometer does not give
the quantity of folid matter contained in a given quantity of
wort, it fhews merely the difference of weight between that
and the fame quantity of water.

SACCHARUM, in Botany, an ancient Latin word, faid
to be derived from the Arabic Sukkar, which De Theis is
pleafed to give, as from Forfkall, Souéar, though the latter
has it as above. The origin of this word is, however, to
be foundin the Hebrew ; and hence the Greeks took their
TUXXAPy TUAKAPly OF TUKY UEC, the .Latins Saccharum, and
modern nations Sucker, Sucre, and Sugar.—Linn. Gen. 32.
Schreb. 45. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 320. Mart. Mill. Diet.
v.4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 1. 136. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Gree.
Sibth. v. 1. 36. Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 203.
Purfh v.1. 73. Juff. 30. Lamarck Illuitr. t. 40. Diet.
ve 1. 592. Gertn. t. 82.—Clafs and order, Triandria Digy-
nia. Nat. Ord. Gramina. »

Gen. Ch. Cal. Glume fingle-flowered, of two oblong-
lanceolate, pointed, ereét, concave, nearly equal, beardlets
valves, enveloped in long hairs from the bafe. Corolla, if
prefent, fhorter than the calyx, of two valves, the innermoft
very flender. Neétary of two very minute feales. Some-
times a rudiment of a fecond floweris prefent. Stams Fila-
ments three, capillary, longer than the corolla; anthers
oblong, pendulous. Pi/?, Germen fuperior, oblong ; ityles
two, capillary ; ftigmas cylindrical, feathery. Peric. none,
the corolla invefting the feed. Seed folitary, oblony, nar-
row, pointed.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of two valves, almott fingle-flowered,
furrounded externally with long woolly hairs. Corolla of
two valves, or wanting.

1. S. Teneriffe. Dwarf Teneriffe Sugar-cane. Linn.
Suppl. 106. Willd.n. 1. Sm. Fl. Gree. Sibth. t. 53.—
Panicle {preading, zigzag. Flower-{talks finooth. Calyx
ovate, harry allover. Corolla fomewhat awned.—Gathered
by Mr. Maffon, in the ifland of Teneriffe. Dr. Sibthorp

met

.

—_ OO
Seer

SACCHARUM.

met withit in Sicily only, on hills near Meffina; it being one
of thofe plants which, having never been figured, and but
little known, he admitted into his Flora Greca, though he
did not gather them in Greece itfelf. Root perennial, woody,
creeping, with long, fmooth, fimple, very tough fibres, and
throwing up feveral upright fems, about a foot high, fimple,
leafy, round, fmooth, occafionally bent and decumbent at
the bafe. Leaves {preading, linear-lanceolate, pointed, in-
volute, rather rigid; downy above; ftriated, and moftly
f{mooth, beneath; their fheaths a little fwelling, crowned
with a fipula of numerous briltly hairs. Panicle terminal,
erect, two or three inches long, generally purplifh. Calyx
more or lefs purple. Outer valve of the corsl/a, in Dr.
Sibthorp’s {pecimens, fhort, abrufpt, with a ftraight, {mooth,
terminal awn, extending rather beyond the calyx ; but this
is wanting in thofe of Mafflon. ‘There appear fome traces
of a fecond floret in the calyx, and Mr. Brown defcribes fuch
an one, corififting of a folitary valve, without any organs
of impregnation ; but we cannot find this in every {pecies.

2. S. fpontaneum. Wild Sugar-cane. Linn. Mant. 183.
Suppl. 106. (Kerpa; Rheede Malab. v. 12. 85. t. 46.)—
Leaves convolute. Panicle loofe; with timple capillary {pikes.
Flowers in diftant pairs; one of them ftalked. Calyx
naked, except at the very bafe.—Native of watery fitua-
tions, on the coaft of Malabar. The Jlems are twelve feet
high, the thicknefs of a goofe-quill, fmooth, hollow, in-
velted with the long {mooth fheaths of the long, narrow,
taper-pointed, involute, fmooth /eaves. Stipulaa thort abrupt
membrane, clothed at the back with long hairs. Panicle
large, and of a delicate filky afpe€t, white, except the purple
anthers. The hairs fpring rather from the ftalk, immedi-
ately below the calyx, than from any part of its furface ;
hence they bear the name of an involucrum in the Linnean
Supplementum. There are no awns.

3- S. japonicum. Japan Sugar-cane. Thunb. Tr. of
Linn. Soc. v. 2. 328. Willd. n. 3. (S. polydaétylon ;
Thunb. Jap. 42; excluding the fynonym of Linneus.
Fuku, and Boo; Kempf. Am. Exot. 899. Thund.)—
“* Leaves ferrated. Panicle loofe ; with very long, capil-
lary, zigzag fpikes. Partial flower-ttalks unequal. Petals
fringed ; the outermoft awned.’?—Found by Thunberg about
Nagafaki, in Japan, flowering in July and September. He
defcribes two varieties, one fix feet, the other (later flower-
ing) only three, in height. Stem thrubby, fimple, round,
fmooth. Leaves linear-fword-fhaped, ferrated, f{mooth,
with a thick rib. Panicle compofed of fimple, very flender,
imooth fpikes, each a fpan long. Flowers all ttalked,
though unequally. Thunberg could find no /lamens in the
larger and earlier variety. Svigmas purple. © This author
defcribes the calyx as {mooth, without any mention of hairs
around it ; fo that we cannot be quite certain of the genus,
having feen no fpecimen.

Ss. ae Common Sugar-cane. Linn. Sp. Pl.
79- Willd.n.4. Aijt.n.1. pene faccharifera; Sloane
Jam. v. 1. 108.t.66. Rumph. Amboin. v. 5. 186. t. 74.
f. 1.)—Leaves flat, entire, {mooth. Panicle loofe ; with
long, fimple, flightly zigzag, fpikes. Flowers in paire ;
one of them ftalked. Calyx lanceolate, naked, except at
the bafe. Corolla awned.—Native of both Indies, perhaps
originally of Africa, in watery places. Its ufe, and exten-
five cultivation, are fufficiently known. Weft Indians com-
monly affert that the fugar-cane never blofloms; their ob-
fervations being made on plants cultivated in a molt luxuriant
foil, where they increafe much by root, and are ufually cut
before they fhoot up into flowers. A perfeétly formed
panicle of the Sugar-cane is one of the mott elegant objects
in nature, its innumerable, capillary, feathery branches
Spreading every way, more thana foot, and drooping at the

ends. he /lem, or cane, is one or two inches in diameter,
with frequent joints. Leaves from one to three inches broad,
fmooth, entire. See Sugar.

5. S. polyflachyon. _Many-fpiked Sugar-cane. Swartz
Ind. Occ. 127. Willd. n. 5.—** Leaves entire, fmooth.
Spikes thread-{haped, very long, level-topped. Flowers
rather diitant, without awns.’?—Gathered by Maffon, in
the ifland of St. Chriftopher. S¥em three or four feet high,
round, jointed, {mooth. Leaves fheathing, broadifh, keeled,
linear, acute, entire, fmooth ; their fheaths f{mooth, crowned
with a hairy /lipula. Spikes near a foot long, forming a level-
topped panicle, rather lax, and fomewhat whorled ; the ue
of each thread-fhaped, flightly zigzag. Flowers diftant,
imall, rather leaning one way, on very fhort ftalks. Calys
lanceolate, invefted with fhining white hairs, thrice its own
length, {pringing in tufts from the bottom of the fides of
Its valves. Corolla thin, yellowifh, without awns. Very
like 8. japonicum, (fee n. 3.) but that has fafciculated /pikes,
and fringed glumes to the coro//a, the outermoft of which is
awned. Swarts.

6. S. giganteum. Gigantic North American Sugar-cane.
Purfh n. 1. (Erianthus faccharoides ; Michaux Boreali-
Amer. vy. 1.55. Anthoxanthum giganteum; Walt. Carol.
65. Andropogon culmo paniculato; Gron, Virg. ed. r.
133. Pur/b.)—** Sheaths of the leaves very woolly at the
top. Panicle clofe. Spikes thread-fhaped. Calyx fringed
with long hairs. Corolla awned.”’—In low places, generally
among rocks, from Virginiato Florida, but rare; flowering
in July and Auguit. Purfh. From five to nine feet high,
with a perennial root. Panicles very large and handfome,
hike 8. offcinarum, but more denfe.

7. S. breviberbe. Short-bearded Sugar-cane. Purfh n. 2.
(Erianthus brevibarbis ; Michaux Boreali-Amer. v. 1. 55.)
—‘* Sheaths of the leaves fomewhat villous at’ the top.
Panicle clofe. Calyx very acute, fmooth at the margin,
longer than its furrounding hairs.””—On dry hills, in
the mountains of Virginia, Tenaflee, Carolina, &c. flower-
ing in July. Perennial. Not above two feet high. Purfh.
We prefume the wool, or hairinefs, at the top of the fheaths
of the /eaves of this fpecies and the laft, {tands in the place
of a meinbranous /lipula, but we have feen no {pecimens of
thefe two plants.

8. S. arundinaceum. Reed-like Sugar-cane. Retz. Obf.
fafe. 4. 14. Willd. n. 6.—Leaves tharply ferrated ; their
fheaths denfely bearded at thetop. Panicle clofe, whorled ;
its branches capillary, fubdivided. Flowers in pairs; one
of them ftalked. Calyx hairy all over.—Native of the
Ealt Indies. Cultivated about hedges, and the borders of
ponds, at Tranquebar, from whence we have received
{pecimens. The natives call it Pee-Carumbo, or Devil’s
Sugar. The reedy items are ufed frequently for the firtt
layer of thatch, as being more durable than any thing elfe
of the kind; but, according to Koeniy, they aflord too
much accommodation for ferpents, lizards, and other vermin.
Thefe /lems are often ten feet in height, thick, leafy, partly
hollow. Leaves whorled, above an inch wide, {mooth, with
a ftrong mid-rib, and many fine lateral ribs; the edges
finely ferrated, with extremely fharp teeth. Panicle erect,
denfe, two feet long, ‘of innumerable whorled branches,
fubdivided into very flender lax fpikes. Calyx lanceolate,
clothed with long flender hairs, {earcely more abundant
at the bafe than elfewhere. Retzius deferibes the corolla
as often of three valves; one of them, we prefume, being
the rudiment of a fecond floret, as in §. Teneriffe. Stigmas
blackith.

9. S. benghalenfe. Bengal Sugar-cane. Retz. Obf, fale. 5.
16. Willd. n. 7.— Panicle clofe ; its branches divided.
Flowers io pairs, feflile and ftalked, all perfect, Cony

Vv

SACCHARUM.

of only two valves.” —Native of Bengal. This is faid by
Retzius to accord with the lalt fo exaétly in fize, and other
refpeéts, that it might readily be taken for the fame, dif-
fering only in having all the flowers, that he examined,
furnifhed with flamens and piflils ; the corolla of two valves
only ; and the fligmas of a brownifh-yellow. He doubts
whether thefe characters be fufficient for a fpecific diftine-
tion. If we may judge without feeing the plant, and com-
paring its /eaves, ferratures, fheaths, &c. we fhould, without
the leaft {cruple, confider it as a variety. The reader will
obferve that our f{pecific charaéter, being copied from
Retzius, is deficient in fome points of comparifon with other
fpecies, which, without {pecimens, we dare not fupply.

10. S. repens. Creeping Sugar-cane. Willd. n. 8.—
« Panicle f{preading. Flowers feffile, in pairs. Corolla
awned. Leaves flat, with hairy fheaths.’’—Native of
Guinea.—Stem a foot high, fimple, afcending. Leaves
{mooth, fhort, grafly; their fheaths fringed with whitifh
hairs. Panicle the fize of Holcus lanatus; its branches
clothed with fcattered white hairs. Flowers encompatled
with hairs of a brilliant white. Calyx {mooth. Willdenow.

11. S. Ravenne. Ravenna Sugar-cane. Linn. Syitt.
Veg. ed. 13. 88. Willd. n.9. Desfont. Atlant. v. 1. 53.
Sm. Fl. Gree. Sibth. t. 52. (Andropogon Ravenne ;
Linn. Sp. Pl. 1481. Mant. 2. 500. Canna piena delle
valli di Ravenna; Zanon. Itt. 64. t. 24. f. 2.)—Leaves
rough-edged, linear ; bearded at the bafe. Panicle clofe,
with denfe, repeatedly compound, cylindrical fpikes.
Flower-(talks woolly. Calyx naked upwards. Corolla
awned.—Obferved by Zannoni in the neighbourhood of
Ravenna. Dr. Sibthorp met with it on the fhores of the
Euxine, near Fanar, as well as in the Peloponnefus, in great
plenty, A judged it to be the KxAxpo; cveryyias of Diof-
corides. The flems are four feet high, ereét, fimple, leafy,
{mooth, full of white pith. Leaves narrow, very long, with
a broad firm mid-rib; their edges not ferrated, but rough
with minute prickles, as well as the fine ribs on both fides ;
the bafe clothed with denfe filky rigid hairs, for an inch or
more, on the upper fide, above the ribbed and hairy fheath.
Panicle large, ere&t, of a beautiful filky or filvery afpea,
compofed of innumerable compound cylindrical branches,
much thicker than in any of the foregoing that we have
feen. Thefe branches are angular and fmooth; but the
flower falks in which they terminate are hairy, or woolly.
Flowers alternate, ftalked, ereét. Calyx taper-pointed,
clothed with long hairs at the bafe, and half-way: up.
Florets Solitary, all perfect. Corolla of two valves; the
outermott ending in a rough awn.

12. S. irritans. Pricking Sugar-cane. Brown, n. 1.—
« Spikes digitate ; their ftalks bearded and filky. Calyx
downy ; one of its valves awned. Awn of the corolla
elongated, bearded in the lower part. Leaves fomewhat
Pt with fmooth fheaths. Joints of the {tem naked.’”’
— Gathered by Mr. Brown in the tropical part of New
Holland.

13. S. fuloum. Tawny Sugar-cane. Brown. n. 2.—
« Spikes digitate; their ftalks bearded and filky. Calyx
villous, without awos. Awnof thecorolla naked. Leaves
flat; involute at the extremity, with fmooth flieaths.
Joints of the fem beardeds—From the fame country as the

lait. We have feen no {pecimens of either.

14- 5. jaculatorium. Dart Sugar-cane, Loureir. Co-
chinch. ¢3.—-** Stem hollow, fimpie. Leaves very long,
keeled, Panicle fpiked, oblong.”?— Native of Cochin-
china, where it ferves to make darts. The /lem is ten

feet high, perennial, {traight, round, hollow, perfeétly
fimple, with diftant knots, or joints. Leaves awl-fhaped,
very loug, fmooth, with a large dorfal rib, or keel. Pa-

nicle terminal, oblong, compofed of long fpikes. Hairs
of the calyx ftraight, very flender, rather longer than the
corolla, which confilts of two equal, beardlefs valves.
Such is Loureiro’s account, which we have no means of
verifying.

15. S. cylindricum. Cylindrical-fpiked Sugar-cane. La-
marck Dict. v. 1. 594. Illuftr. t. go. f. 2. Willd. n. ro.
Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. t. 54. (Lagurus cylindricus; Linn.
Sp. Pl. 120. Imperata arundinacea; Cyril. Ic. fafe. 2.
t. 11. Brown Prodr. y. 1. 204. Gramen pratenfe alope-
curum, fericea panicula; Barrel. Ic. t. 11.)— Panicle
{piked, cylindrical, clofe. Flower-ftalks {mooth. Calyx
lanceolate, hairy all over. Corolla without awns. Stamens
two.—Native of moift fituations in the fouth of Europe and
north of Africa; found alfo by Mr. Brown in every part
of New Holland, that he vifited. The Stems form tufts,
like thofe of Arundo arenaria, and are two or three feet
high, ereét, ftraight, fimple, leafy, round and fmooth, with
two or three knots. Leaves narrow, linear, {traight,
pointed, channelled, bluntly keeled, rough-edged, inyolute
in drying; their fheaths long and clofe. Svipula fhort,
crowned with many briitly hairs atitsback. Panicle about
a {pan long, erect, clofe, even and cylindrical, of a beau-
tiful filvery afpect ; its branches very fhort, {mooth, as well
as the flower-italks. Calyx lanceolate, clothed all over with
long filky hairs. Coro/la of two thin pellucid valves, fhorter
than the calyx ; one broader than the other ; without any
awn. Stamens two, as far as we can difcover, though Mr.
Ferdinand Bauer, ufually fo accurate, has reprefented three
in the Flora Graca. Lamarck has done the fame. Styles
very fhort, with long, flender, downy jligmas. Seed long
and narrow, gibbous at one fide.

Mr. Brown adopts Cyrillo’s genus of Jmperata, becaufe
of there being only two /famens, and no nectariferous /cales.
He defcribes an acceflory glume, or rudiment of a neuter
floret, which we have not found, at the back of the broadeit
valve of the corolla. The habit of the {pike certainly
{trengthens the idea of its being a diftin& genus from Sac-
charum,

16. S. paniceum. Panic Sugar-cane. Lamarck Dia. y. 1.
595- Illultr. t. go. f. 3. (Perotis polyftachya; Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 1. 324.)—* Panicle fpiked, cylindrical, clofe.
Calyx hairy at the bafe. Corollaawned. Stamen folitary.”?
—Gathered by Sonnerat in the Eaft Indies. Mr. Brown,
who appears to have examined the plant, fays it is very
nearly related to the lait; but differs in having azwas, no inner
valve to the perfe& floret, and only one flamen. Lamarck’s
figure and defcription therefore are by no means correét,
as to the parts of fructification. With regard to the reft
of the plant, the fem is only feven or eight inches high, very
flender, fmooth, leafy, branched, and jointed. Leaves an
inch long, narrow, fharp, roughifh beneath and at the edges ;
the flipulas bearded. Panicles cylindrical, an inch in length.

Mr. Brown’s genus Dimeria, Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 204,
appears nearly akin to thefe two lalt-defcribed fpecies, and
differs from Saccharum chiefly in having all the flowers
feffile. One {pecies is found in the tropical regions of New
Holland, another inthe Ealt Indies. We have feen neither,
and therefore cannot prefume to give aa opinion.

17. S. /picatum. Spiked Sugar-cane. Linn. Sp. Pl
ed. 1. 54, excluding the fynonym of Rheede. Burm. Ind,
23. t. g. f. 3. (Gramen indicum alopecuroides holoferi-
ceum majus, [pica longa pappefcente; Pluk. Almag. 177.
t. 92. f. 5.)—Panicle {piked, linear, very clofe. Flower-
{talks {mooth, Calyx lanceolate, ribbed, moft hairy at the
bafe. Corolla without awns. Stem branched. Leaves
lanceolate, flat, —Native of the Eatt Indies. The roots are
creeping and knotty. Stem from fix to twelve inches high ;

branched,

EE ee

SAC

branched, and moft leafy, at the bafe. Leaves nearly as tall
as the ftem, lanceolate, flat, ribbed, acute, almoft {mooth.
Stipulas bearded. Panicle ere&t, very clofe and flender.
Calyx taper-pointed, clothed at the bafe very denfely, and
more loofely all the way up, with long filky hairs, as in
S. cylindricum, but the latter has them moft numerous and
crowded at the fummit of each valve.

18. S. Thunbergiit. Thunbergian Sugar-cane. Retz.
Obf. fafc. 5.17. Willd. n. 11.— Panicle {piked, cylin-
drical. Corolla without awns. Knots of the item fmooth.
Leaves convolute. Stamens two.”?—Native of the Eaift
Indies; given to Retzius by Thunberg. A taller and
more flender grafs than S. Koenigii of Retzius, which is
believed to be our cylindricum, n. 15. ‘The panicle is more
contraéted, and twice as long ; the hairs of the ca/yx more
of a yellowifh hue. Flowers twice as large, with two
ftamens, and two flyles. Leaves rigid. Corolla half the
fize of the calyx, thin, white, and fhining. Refzius.

We have two Cape f{pecimens from Thunberg, which are
probably S. /picatum of his Prodromus, p. 20, but do not pre-
cifely accord with that of Linneus, having thicker fhorter
panicles, or rather /pikes, with longer hair, and iefs bearded
Jfipulas. The knots of their flems are hairy, nor do they
otherwife agree with the above account of S. Thunbergit.
We are not indeed fatisfied of their being one and the fame
fpecies. The whole genus wants to be accurately ftudied,
with better materials than we can at prefent command.

SaccHaruM, in Gardening, contains plants of the ten-
der, perennial, reed kind, of which the fpecies cultivated are,
the common fugar-cane (S. officinarum) ; and the fpiked
fugar-cane (S. {picatum).

There are three remarkable varieties of the firft {pecies
mentioned by Loureiro, differing in the culm, not in the
flower; the white fugar-cane, with the culm long, white, of
a middling fize, very fweet, the knots diftant; the red
fugar-cane, with the culm fhort, thicker, red, very juicy,
the knots approximate; the elephantine fugar-cane, with
the culm very thick, red, long, lefs fweet, the knots ap-
proximate: and there are, probably, others in a plant fo
much cultivated.

Each of thefe forts is perennial in the root; the ftalks
rifing in numbers from the feparate roots; they refemble
in their growth the common reed of the marfhes, only they
are confiderably larger, and inftead of being hollow like thefe
plants, they are filled with a whitifh coloured pith, containing
the fweet juice, or liquid matter, which renders them fo ex-
tremely valuable. The ftems are {trong but brittle, com-
monly growing to perfection in from fix to twelve or four-
teen months, when they become of a pale yellowifh colour.

But it is only the firft fort which is cultivated with a
view to fugar, for which purpofe prodigious quantities are
raifed and provided in the Weft India iflands, and other
hot countries, which are there planted out in the fields and
other places, in rows four or five feet apart, and foon fhoot
phe ftems as above, and become fit for cutting over for
ufe. When cut they are taken to a mill and fqueezed be-
tween iron-cafed rollers, in order to exprefs the juice from
them, which is then properly boiled, refined, and formed
into adue confiftence for becoming fugar. See Sucar.

From the fkimmings of the fugar in the different boil-
ings, and the molaffes, which are the laft drainings of the
fugar, when mixed with a proper proportion of water, and
the whole fermented, is drawn or extraéted the f{pirituous
liquor called rum, which abounds with a fine oily material,
that is fuppofed by fome to conftitute the great excellence and
fuperiority of this {pirit in comparifon to that of brandy.
See Rum.

SA C

Method of Culture.—Thefe plants are capable of being
increafed by flips or fuckers from the root, and by cuttings
of the main ftalks; but here generally by flips from the
bottom ; or any fide-fhoots arifing from the ftems near the
root, having earth raifed about the bottom part, will foon
emit fibres, and be fit for feparation; the flips or offsets
may be taken off at any feafon in which they appear fit for
the purpofe, being careful to detach them with fome fibres
to each, and plant them feparately in pots of rich earth,
plunging them in the bark-bed, watering and occafionally
fhading them till they have got root; retaining them always
in the bark-bed in the fteve, treating them as other exotics
of that fort.

Thefe afford variety among other ftove plants.
can only be grown in this manner in this country.

SACCHARUM Saturni, fugar of lead, inthe Materia Medica,
a name given to the fwperacetate of lead of the London
pharmacopeia, or acetite of lead of that of Edinburgh,
or acetate of lead of that of Dublin. The fuperacetate
of lead, “ plumbi fuperacetas,”’ is prepared, according to
the Lond. Phar., by boiling a pound of carbonate of lead
in 14 gallon of acetic acid (diltilled vinegar) until this is
faturated, and then {training the folution through paper ;
and having evaporated the water until a pellicle begins to
appear upon the furface, fetting it afide that cryftals may
form; then pouring off the fluid, and drying the cryttals
upon bibulous paper. The acetite of lead, ‘“ acetis plumbi,’?
is prepared by the dire&tions of the Edinb. Pharm. in the
following manner. ‘Take of white oxyd of lead, any quan-
tity. Put it into a cucurbit, and pour over it ten times its
weight of diftilled acetous acid. Let the mixture ftand
upon a warm fand-bath until the acid becomes {weet ; then
pouring this off, add frefh portions of acid fucceffively,
until no more fweetnefs is communicated. Evaporate all
the fluid, freed from impurities, in a glafs veflel, to the
confiftence of thin honey, and fet it afide in a cold place
that cryftals may form, which are to be dried in the fhade.
Evaporate again the refiduary liquor, that new cryftals may
be obtained ; and repeat the operation until no more are
formed. The acetate of lead, “ acetas plumbi,”’ of the
Dubl. Pharm. is formed by taking any quantity of fub-
acetate of lead, called ceruffe, and ten times its weight of
diftilled vinegar ; digefting them in a glafs veffel until the
vinegar becomes {weet ; and having poured this off, adding
more, until it ceafes to become {weet ; filtering the folu-
tion, and cryftallizing by alternate flow evaporation and
cooling ; and lattly, drying the cryftals in the fhade.

In thefe feveral proceffes the acetic acid of the diftilled
vinegar unites with the oxyd of lead of the carbonate ; and
by the fubfequent evaporations the falt cryftallizes with an
exce{s of acid, as in the form of a fuperacetate. But the
expence of the procefs, and the difficulty of obtaining the
white lead perfeétly free from any adulteration of carbonate of
lime (whitening), which is not unfrequent, have deterred the
apothecary from undertaking the preparation of this falt ;
and therefore the fuperacetate commonly found in the fhops
is the falt which is manufactured on a large fcale for
the ufe of the calico-printers, purified. In Holland it
is prepared in the following manner. Sheets of lead,
coiled up, are put into pots, in which they are half
immerfed in diftilled vinegar, and digefted a fufficient
time. The part that is not immerfed is foon covered
with an eflorefcence of cerufle; after which it is immerfed
in the vinegar ; and the part which was before immerfed
is now brought up to be converted into cerufle as before,
when the aint is again turned ; and this is repeated two
or three times a-day, until the vinegar becomes milky.

7+ This

They

SAC

This folution is next boiled in tinned veflels down to about
one-third of the original quantity, then {trained, and the
falt cryitallized by flow cooling. ‘The cryftals obtained
by a fecond evaporation of the mother-water are browner,
and deliquefcent ; and as thefe are generally mixed with
the others, the whole requires to be again diffolved in rain
or diftilled water, and re-cryftallized, before they are fit for
medicinal purpofes. See CeRUsE.

This falt, when pure, is inodorous; its tafte is {weet and
aftringent ; and it cryttallizes in white, glofly, acicular,
flat, four-fided prifms, terminated by dihedral fummits,
which are generally aggregated into irregular mafles that
have the appearance of lumps of fugar. From this cir-
cumttance, and from its fweetifh tafte, it derives one of its
trivial names, viz. fugar of lead. Its {pecific gravity is
2.35- Superacetate of lead flightly efflorefces, is foluble
in 25 parts of diftilled water at 60°; and after ftanding
fome time, a {mall portion of white powder is depofited.
It is alfo foluble in alcohol. In pump or hard water it is
inftantly decompofed, forming a milky folution, and a
copious precipitate falls. It reddens the vegetable blues ;
and is decompofed by the alkalis and their carbonates, matt
of the acids, and neutral falts, lime, and magnefia; but it
does not affe& a folution of gum. According to the
analyfis of Thenard, the conitituents of 100 parts are 58
‘of oxyd of lead, 26 of acid, and 16 of water. Dr. Bof-
tock (Nicholfon’s Journal, vol. ii.) gives the following
relation between a faturated folution of this falt, and the
folution of fubacetate of lead. Of the former, oxyd 16.8,
acid 7.5, water 75.7; and of the latter, oxvd 23.1, acid 5,
water 71.9. The conftituent parts of the two falts ina
cryltallized ftate, according to Mr. Thomfon, are as follow ;
of the fuperacetate, oxyd 58, acid 26, water 16 = 100:
of the acetate, oxyd 78, acid 17, water 5= 100. See
Extrad of Leap.

Superacetate of lead, with regard to its medical proper-
ties, when taken internally, is a very powerful aftringent
and fedative: great caution fhould be ufed in adminiftering
it, and it is admiffible only in cafes of very urgent danger,
as in violent pulmonary and inteftinal hemorrhages. Opium,
combined with it, prevents, in a confiderable degree, the de-
leterious effeéts which falts of lead are apt to produce when
taken into the ftomach; but even thus combined, the
{malleft dofe, in certain habits, produces ferious mifchief.
Diffolved in a large proportion of water, it forms an ex-
cellent collyrium in ophthalmia; and lefs diluted, its folu-
tion is in common ufe as an external application in fuper-
ficial inflammation. To the objeftions that have been
urged againft the long continued external ufe of the pre-
parations of lead, it may be replied, that the daily exten-
five employment of them in this form, without injury,
affords a fufficient proof, that though they may have occa-
fionally done harm, this is rather to be attributed to fome
peculiar ftate of habit than to the nature of the remedy.

The dofe of fuperacetate of lead, internally exhibited,
fhould not exceed gr. {. given every fix or eight hours.
It may be made into a pill with crumb of bread, and a
portion of opium, according to the circumftances of the
cafe. As a collyrium or lotion, the proportions may be
from gr. x to Dj of the falt in FZ viij of diltilled water.

The officinal preparations are ‘* Ceratum plumbi fuper-
acetatis,”’? L.E.D. “Acidumacetofum forte,’ E. Solutio
acetitis zinci,” E. The ‘ cerate’’ is prepared, according to
the Lond. Pharm. by taking of the powder of fuperacetate
of lead two drachms, two ounces of white wax, and half
a pint of olive oil; melting the wax in feven fluid-ounces
of the oil; then adding gradually the fuperacetate of lead

SAC

feparately rubbed down with the remaining oil, and ftirring
with a wooden fpatula, until they be thoroughly incor-
porated, This is an excellent cooling cerate for burns,
excoriations, and other inflamed fores. The “ compound
cerate” is formed by taking two fluid-ounces and a half of
folution of acetate of lead, four ounces of yellow wax,
nine fluid-ounces of olive oil, and half a drachm of cam-
phor. Melt the wax and mix it with eight fluid-ounces of
the cil; then remove them from the fire, and as foon as
they begin to thicken, add gradually the folution of acetate
of lead, and itir affiduoufly with a wooden {fpatula till
they be cold. Finally, mix with thefe the camphor dif
folved in the remainder of the oil. This compofition is
fimilar to that which was recommended by Goulard, and
which has been long known under the name of « Goulard’s
cerate.” (See Extraé of Leap.) It is applicable to the
fame purpofes as the preceding.

The ‘ acidum acetofum forte,’”’ or {trong acetous acid,
of the Edinb. Pharm. is prepared by rubbing together one
pound of dried fulphate of iron and ten ounces of acetite
({uperacetate) of lead; then putting them into a retort,
and diftilling in a fand-bath with a moderate heat, as long
¥ any acid comes over. See Acetic Acid, and Acerous

id.

For the folution of “ acette of zinc,”
Lond, Pharm. Thomfon’s Difpenfatory.

SaccHaruM Lads. See MiLk.

SACCHETTI, Franco, in Biography, a poet and
novelift, was born at Florence in or about the year 1335,
of the noble family of the Benc?. After pafling his youth
in commercial affairs, he rofe by different gradations of
office in his republic, till at length he was appointed com-
mander of the Florentine troops in Romagna. During his
travels and employments he became acquainted with feveral
men of high rank, and with fome petty fovereigns in the
Italian ftates, with whom he held an epiitolary corref{pond-
ence, and who greatly efteemed him on account of his ex-
tenfive knowledge and various accomplifhments. He fpent
the latter years of his life at Florence, amufing himfelf
with literary compofition. He died fome time after the
year 1400, and left behind him the reputation of being
ore of the principal Italian poets of his time. He was
author of a great number of pieces in different kinds of
verfe, of which there have been printed only fome lines
following the Bella Mano of Giuito de Conti. He alfo
colle&ed, from the {tories which he had heard, and the ad-
ventures he had witnefled, anumber of tales, or ‘* Novelles,”’
of, which 258 remaining in MS. in the Laurentian library,
were printed at Florence in 1725. Thefe, though not in
fuch high repute as thofe of Boccaccio, are pleafing from
their natural and fimple ftyle of narration. They are
reckoned as of ftandard authority with regard to purity
of language.

SACCHI, Anprea. This celebrated artift was born
at Rome in 1594. He was the fon of Benedetto, a
painter of little note, by whom he was inltruéted in the
rudiments of defign ; but he had afterwards the advanta
of ftudying under Francefco Albano, of whom he was the
moft diltinguifhed aes On leaving the fchool of that
painter, he improved his ‘tyle, by an attentive ftudy of
the works of Raffaelle, Polidoro da Caravaggio, and the
antique marbles, by which means he acquired a correétnefs
and feverity of defign, for which his works are remarkable.
He was favoured with the protection of the cardinal Barbe-
rini, who employed him in ornamenting his palace with feveral
allegorical works, ainted in frefco, which were greatly ad-
mired. Several of the public edifices at Rome are embel~

2 lifhed

fee Zinc.

SAE

lifhed with his works, fome of which have been ranked
among the moft admired produétions of art in that capital.
Such are his celebrated pi€ture of the death of St. Anne,
in the church of S. Carlo a Catinari; the angel appearing to
St. Jofeph, the principal altar-piece in S. Guifeppe a Capo
le Cafe ; and his St. Andrea, in the Quirinal. But his mott
diftinguifhed performance is his famous picture of S. Romual-
do, formerly in the church dedicated to that faint, now in
the gallery of the Louvre. This admirable produGtion was
confidered one of the four fineft piftures at Rome. The
compoiition is extremely fimple ; it reprefents the faint feated
in a folitary valley of the Apennines, furrounded by fome of
his order, explaining to them his reafons for retiring from the
world. Every thing in the picture breathes tranquillity and
repofe. The expreffion inthe head of St. Romualdo is ad-
mirable, as is the attention with which the monks are lilten-
ing to his difcourlfe. The furprifingeffe€t that he has given
toa group of ix figures, all habited in white drapery, with-
out the appearance of monotony, is the wonder and admira-
tion of the artitt.

The admirers of Andrea Sacchi regard him as the greateft °

colouriit the Roman {chool can boaft, and he ranked among
the moft corre& of its defigners. :

Though profound in the theory of the art, he was flow
and deliberate in his works, and he was accuftomed to remark,
that the fame of a painter depended more upon the quality
than the quantity of his productions. To this we may attri-
bute the paucity of his pictures, which are in general but
flightly finifhed. His compofitions are not often abundant
in figures, but they are fufficiently numerous to give a juft
reprefentation of his fubjeéts. Mengs eftimates’his talents
nearly on a level witk thofe of Pietro da Cortona, which,
without raifing him to the elevation of the great luminaries
of the art, affigns him an honourable {tation among its able
profeilors. He died at Rome in 1661, aged 62. Bryan’s
Didtionary of Painters.

Saccu1, Papre GiovENALE, of Milan, a learned
and {cientific writer on the theory of mufic, publifhed in
1761, a tra¢t entitled “« Del numero e delle mifure del corde
mufiche e loro corrifpondenze ;”” “ Of the length, thick-
nefs, and tenfion of mufical {trings, and their relation.?? In
1770, “ III Differtationi: dell divifione del tempo in
mufica ;’? “* Of the divifion of time in mufic.”? In
1780, “ Delle quinte fucceflive nel contrappunto, e delle
rigole degl’ accompagnamenti ;’’ ‘* Of the fucceflion of fifths
in counterpoint, and of the rules of accompaniment.”

As to this author’s Diflertation, ‘publifhed in 1761, on the
ratio of mufical itrings, he is of opinion that the fcale of
our minor mode is vicious, in making the 2d of the keyawhole
tone, whereas it fhould only be a femi-tone, a/? antica; fo that
the gamut or {cale of A minor ought to be A Bh C D, &c.
inflead of A BCD; that of E fhouldbe EF GA, &c.
inftead of EF*G A. And thus of other minor keys in
proportion. And according to this worthy ecclefiaftic’s
minor mode, it is the fame feale as Blainville’s pretended third
mode in 1751, different from the major and minor in common
ufe. But he mutt be a fhallow praétical mufician who does
not fee that the fcale EFGABCDe belongs to the key
of A minor, beginning and ending at the fifth inftead of the
key-note ; and that it 1s one of the fpecies of.o¢tave inthe
ecclefiaftical modes. See Buainvitie, and Troifieme Mode
in Roufleau.

P. Sacchi died at Milan in 1789, aged fixty-four.
wrote the life of Farinclli in Italian.

SACCHINI, Awronto, born near Naples in 1727, and
educated in the confervatorio of St. Onofrio, under Du-

Vou. XXXII.

He

SAC

rante, at the fame time as Piccini, Traetta, and Guglielmi.
A gentle, tranquil, and affeétionate difpofition, perhaps,
rendered him too fufceptible of /a belle paffion, which however
imprefled his flow movements with all that grace, tendernefs,
and pathos, which have never been exceeded, if equalled, by
any other vocal compofer. And even when energy was De-
ceilary, he might fay, with the abbé de Chaulica,

«¢ Au ceeur beaucoup de tendrefle,
De la force quand il faut.”

se A tendernefs of heart
Which nature kind had never feanted,
Nor force fufficient, when ’twas wanted.’”

All his operas are replete with elegant airs, beautiful ac-
companied recitatives, and orcheftral effects, without the
appearance of labour or ftudy. His propenfity to the fair
fex fometimes impeded his profeffional activity. Being called
to Milan to compofe his firft opera, the charms of /a prima
donna made him wholly forget the bufinefs of his journey,
and beftow that time on the object of his paffion, which be-
longed to the Imprefario; who, a few days before the
opening of the theatre, calling upon Sacchini to fix a time
for the firlt rehearfal of his opera, the compofer in confufion
perceiving his fault, was obliged to confefs that not a note
of the opera was written which was expected from him. The
fury and defpair of the Imprefario may be eafily imagined,
who {aw nothing but ruin before hiseyes. Happily /a prima
donna, of a more firm and aétive charaéter than her adorer,
affured the manager, if he would fhut them up together, with
two copyilts, fhe would be anfwerable for the compofer not
quitting his bed till the opera was finifhed, and accordingly
Sacchini, without quitting his bed even to eat, went to work
with fuch a determined fpirit of difpatch, and advanced with
fuch rapidity, that the two copyitts could {carcely keep pace
with him ; {fo that in four days the mulic was compofed, co-
pied, learned, rehearfed, and brought on the itage. It,
had very great fuccefs, and has been thought one of his
beft.

Sacchini was one of the few modern matters who kept his
facred and fecular ftyle of compolition feparate and diitin@.
In his theatrical compofitions, to look at the fcore, there
feemed fo much fimplicity, that a mere contrapuntift would
have imagined him to haye been a feeble harmoniit ; it was,
feemingly, by {mall means that he produced the greateit ef-
feéts. He interefted the audience more by a happy, grace-
ful, and touching melody, than by a laboured and extraneous
modulation. His accompaniments always brilliant and in-
genious, without being loaded and confufed, affift the ex-
preflion of the vocal part, and are often pi¢turefque. But
his ecclefiaftical compofitions are not only learned, folemn,
and abounding with fine effeéts, but clothed in the richeit
and moft pure harmony. He remained at Rome eight
years, at Venice four, where he was appointed matter of
the confervatorio of the Ofpidaletto; and after haying
compofed for all the great theatres in Italy and Ger-
many with increafing coaie in 1772 he eame to Eng-
land, and here he not only fupported the high repu-
tation he had acquired on the continent, but vanquifhed
the natural enemies of his talents in England. His ope-
ras of the Cid and Tamerlano were equal, if not. fupe-
rior, to any mufical dramas we have heard in any part of
Europe. The airs of Millico, the firlt man, were wholly
written in the delicate and pathetic ftyle of that finger; as
the firft woman’s part was in the {pirited and nervous Ityle
of Girelli. And he cherifhed the talents of the inferior

: fingers

SAT

fingers in fo judicious a manner, that all their defects were
conftantly difguifed or concealed. Savoi, notwithftanding
his fine voice, had been worfe than unnoticed before this pe-
riod, for he was almoft infulted; yet fo excellent was
the mufic he had to execute in Sacchini’s operas, and fo fa-
yourably did it call him into notice, that inftead of going
off the ftage in filence, he was applauded and even encored,
nearly as much and as frequently as the firlt fingers. The
Carrara, too, a young finger, whofe voice was naturally
drowfy, childifh, and infipid, from the beauty of her fongs
was well received. Indeed, each of thefe dramas was fo
entire, fo mafterly; yet fo new and natural, that there was
nothing left for criticifm to cenfure, though innumerable
beauties to point out and admire. It is evident that this
compofer had a tafte fo exquifite, and fo totally free from

antry, that he was frequently new without effort ;_ never
thinking of himfelf or his fame for any particular excellence,
but totally occupied with the ideas of the poet, and the pro-
priety, confiftency, and effe& of the wholedrama. His ac-
companiments, though always rich and ingenious, never call
off attention fromthe voice, but by a conftant tran/parency,
the principal melody is rendered diftinguifhable through all
the contrivance of imitative and pi€turefque defign in the
inftruments.

In the year 1770, when we faw Sacchini at Venice, he told
us that he had compofed near forty ferious, and ten comic
operas ; andin 1778, upon enquiring of him to what num-
ber his dramatic works then amounted, he faid to feventy-
eight, of which he had forgot even the names of two.
Sacchini, while he remained at Venice in the character of
maeftro dell’ Ofpidaletto confervatorio, by the number of
mafles and motets he had compofed, manifefted himfelf to
be as able to write for the church as ftage. He remained
too long in England for his fame and fortune. The firft was
injured by cabals, and by what ought to have increafed it,
the number of his works ; and the fecond by inaétivity and
want of economy.

He refufed feveral engagements which were offered him
from Ruffia, Portugal, and even France, where it was much
wifhed that he would exercife his talents long before his firft
vifit thither ; but his fedentary humour, and averfion to aéti-
vity, would not allow him to accept of the offers that were
made to him, till he was tempted by the hopes of an efta-
blifhment at Paris for life. When he arrived in London, in
1772, his firft opera was the “ Cid,”’ which was followed by
« Tamerlano,’”’ and ‘ Lucio Vero,” a patticcio, the fame
feafon. In 1774and1775, “Nitteti” and “ Perfeo;” in 1776,
« LI fola d’Amore ;”? in 1777, “Crefo ;” in 1778, “ Eri-
file ;”? in 1779, “ Enea e Lavinia,” and ‘* La Contadina in
Certe,’”” a comic opera; in 1780, “ Rinaldo,’ and
« L’ Amore Soldato,” another burletta ; and laftly, in 1781,
Mitridate.””

It is manifeft in the operas that he compofed for Paris,
that he worked for fingers of mean abilities ; which, be-
fides the airs being fet to French words, prevented their cir-
culation in the reft of Europe, which his other vocal pro-
du@tions in hie own language had conftantly done.

In the fummer of 1781 he went firft to Paris, where he
was almoft adored, but after increafing his reputation there,
by new produétions, he returned the solving year to Lon-
don, where’he only augmented his debts and embarraflments ;
fo that, in 1784, he took a final leave of this country, and
fettled at Paris, where he not only obtained a penfion from
the queen of France, but the theatrical penfion, in confe-
quence of three fuccefsful pieces. This graceful, elegant,
and judicious compofer died, at Paris in September 1786,

7+

SAC

where he was honoured with a public funeral, and e
mark of refpeét and diftin@ion which fenfibility and grati-
tude could beftow on an artift, though a foreigner, who had
contributed fo largely to their moft elegant pleafures. -

SACCHOLACTIC Acip. See Sactactic Acid.

SACCINI, in our Old Writers, monks fo called, becaufe
they wore a garment of goat’s hair next to their fkins.

Saccus is applied to coarfe cloth made of fuch hair.

SACCO Benepirro. See SANBENITO.

SACCOPHORA, in Botany, from cxxxocy a bag, and
O:pw, to bear, a name given by Palifot Beauvois to the Bur
baumia. De Theis. ;

SACCOPHORL, YexxoGopa, formed of cxxxo-, a fack,
and @:ea, J bear, in Ecclefiaflical Hiflory, a fe& of ancient
heretics, thus called, becaufe they always went clothed
in fackloth, and affe&ted a great deal of aufterity and pe-
nance.

We know but little of their tenets : in all probability they
were the fame with the Maflalians.

The emperor Theodofius made a law againft the Sacco-

hori and Manichees.

SACCULUS, in Anatemy, a technical term applied to
different {mall cavities in the body.

Sacculi adipofi are the cells of the cellular membrane, con-
taining fat, fee Cerrurar Subflance; and facculi mucoff,
the membranous receptacles into which mucous fluids are fe--
creted in fome inftances. See Guanp.

The facculus chyliferus is the large portion of the great ab-

forbent trunk, called alfo receptaculum chyli. See As-
SORBENTS.
The facculus cordis is the pericardium. See Heart.

The facculus /acrymalis is the membranous bag in the cor-
ner of the eye, receiving the tears. See Eyr.

Saccutus Medicinalis denotes a topical medicine, ap-
plied to the fide, ftomach, or other pained part ; cenfifting
of herbs, or drugs inclofed in a linen bag.

Saccutus Medicinalis is alfo a name given to a bag of
ingredients fufpended in a liquor, in making diet-drinks ;
called alfo nodule.

SACCUS cum Brochia, in our Old Writers, a fervice or
tenure of finding a fack and a broach to the king, for the
ufe of his army.

Saccus La@eus, a name given by fome anatomilts to the
receptaculum chyli.

SACE’, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Channel; 6 miles S.E. of Pontorfon.

SACELLUM, in Roman Antiquity, denoted a place
facred to the gods, without a roof.

SACER, in Ichthyology, a name given by Gaza and fome
others to that fpecies of the labrus, diftinguifhed by Ar-
tedi by the name of the red forked-tail labrus, and called
by the generality of other authors the anthias pifcis. See
Lasrus.

Sacer Ignis, in Medicine. See Tents Sacer, and Ercor.

Sacer Morbus. See Epivepsy.

Sacer Mufculus, in Anatomy, an old name applied to
the great extenfors of the fpine, which arife from the back
of the facrum.

Sacer Ager, in Ancient Geography, a place of Afia Minor,
in Ionia, in the vicinity of Clazomenes. Livy.

Sacer Lucus, a forelt of Italy, at the mouth of the Liris,
near Minturne. Strabo.

Sacer Mons, a mountain of Thrace, between the town
of Byzantium and the Thracian Cherfonefus, according to
Xenophon.—Alfo, a mountain of Italy, to which the
Roman people retired at two different periods. It was

fituated

SAC

fituated near Rome, and according to Livy on the other
fide of the Anio, and three miles from the city.

Sacer Portus, a port of Afiatic Sarmatia, upon the
Euxine fea, 30 ftadia from port Pagre. Arian.

Sacer Sinus, a gulf of Arabia Felix, upon the Perfian

, in the country of the people called Abuczi. Ptolemy.

SACERDOTAL, Sacerporatis, formed from /acer-
dos, prieft, of facer, holy, fomething belonging to the priett-
hood.

SacERDOTAL Benefices, are fuch as cannot be legally held
by any but perfons in holy orders: fuch are all cures of

-fouls, bifhoprics, &c.

SACERDOTAL Ornaments, The, are thofe with which the

riefts are clothed when they officiate, &c. |

SACHACHA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Palef-
tine, in the tribe of Juda. Jofhua, ch. xv. v. 16.

SACHETTO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the

artment of the Mincio; 13 miles S.E. of Mantua.

SACHETTUS, in Ichthyology, the name of a fea-fifh,
much refembling the common river perch in fhape and
colour, and having the fame black obliquely tranfverfe lines
on its fides, and feeming the fame with the channadella of
Bellonius, Rondeletius, and other authors. It is common
in the Mediterranean, and is brought to market at Rome,
Venice, and elfewhere, and accounted a very delicate and
well-tafted fith. See Cuane, and Lasrus Hepatus.

SACHLA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arabia
Felix. Ptolemy.

SACHSA, in Geography, a town of Weltphalia, in the
lordfhip of Klettenberg, fituated in the Hartz foreft, where
are found fome quarries of green, brown, and red marble ;
24 miles N.E. of Gottingen. N. lat. 51° 38’. E. long.
10° 30’. »

SACHSENBERG, a town of Germany, in the county
of Waldeck; 12 miles W. of Waldeck. N. lat. 51° 8'.
E. long. 8° 50/.

SACHSENBURG, a town of Germany, in the county
of Witgenftein, on the S. fide of the Rhine, oppofite to
Francfort on the Maine.—Alfo, a town of Saxony, in
Thuringia, on the Unitrutt ; 8 miles N.N.E. of Weifenfee.

SACHSENDORF, a town of the Middle Mark of
Brandenburg ; 4 miles E. of Seclow.

SACHSENHAGEN, a town of Weftphalia, in the
county of Schauenburg, on the Aue; 6 miles W.S.W. of

Hagenburg.

$ACHSENHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the
county of Waldeck; 6 miles N.W. of Waldeck.

SACHSENHEIM, Gros, a town of Wurtemberg ;
3 miles N. of Mark Groningen.

SACHSGRUN, a town of Saxony, in the Vogtland ;
7 miles S.W. of Oeclfnitz.

SACI, a mountain of Naples, in Calabria Ultra; 10
miles N. of Bova.

SACILE, a town of Italy, in the Trevifan, on the
Livenza, anciently, as fome fay, the fee of a bifhop, the
honour of which others afcribe to Sacileto ; 10 miles E. of
Ceneda.

SACILETO, a town of Italy, in the Friuli; 6 miles
$.E. of Palma Nuova.

SACILI Manrtiatoum, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Hifpania, in the interior of Batica, in the country of
the Turduli. Pliny.

SACK, in Commerce, a corn meafure in many parts of
the continent. See Measures, Tan. XXXI.

Sack of Coals contains three bufhels, or one-third part
of a Chaldron; which fee.

Sack of Wool is a determinate quantity, containing

SAC
juit twenty-fix ftones; and every itone fourteen pounds.
14. Edw. IIL. ftat. 1. cap. 2.

In Scotland a fack is twenty-four ftones; each ftone
containing fixteen pounds. ‘

A Sacx of Cotton Wool is a quantity from a hundred and
an half to four hurdred weight.

Sacks of Earthy Sacs 4 Terre, in Fortification, are canvas
bags fuli of earth, the larzeft about a cubic foot wide, and
the jefler fomewhat more than half a foot. .

They are alfo called cart; bags, and canvas bags, and are
ufed on feveral occafions ; particularly for making re-
trenchments in haifte to place on parapets, or the heads
of the breaches, &c. or to repair them when beaten
down.

They are of good ufe alfo where the ground is rocky,
and affords not earth to carry on the approaches, becaufe
they can eafily be brought on, and carried off. See Sanp-
Bags.

The fame bags, on occafion, are ufed to carry powder
in, of which they hold about fifty pounds a-piece.

SACKAROW, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the
palatinate of Culm ; 8 miles N. of Culm.

SACKENHAUSEN, a town of the duchy of Cour-
land; on a river which runs into the Baltic; 16 miles
W.S.W. of Goldingen.

SACKERIGURRY, a town of Hindooftan ; 36 miles
S. of Coimbetore.

SACKO, a town of Sweden, in Eaft Bothnia; 36 miles
S.E. of Braheftad.

SACKVILLE, Tuostas, lord Buckhurtt, and earl of
Dorfet, in Biography, one of the earlieft cultivators of Eng-
lith poetry, was the fon of fir Richard Sackville of Buck.
hurit, in the parifh of Withiam, in Suffex. It is not at all
certain at what time he was born. Dr. Abbot, in his
funeral fermon, fays it was in the year 1536; but Mr.
Wharton affumes it to have been in or about the year
1530. Having probably attained the elements of learning
at home, he was fent to Hart-hall, Oxford, whence he
removed to Cambridge, where he took his degree of M. A.
He was diftinguifhed at both the univerfities for his per-
formances in Englifh and Latin poetry, in which he alfo
excelled in after-life. From Oxford he went to the Inner
Temple, to ftudy the law, but probably without any inten-
tion of praétifing it, for he was born to the expeétation of an
ample fortune. He was a reprefentative in parliament for
the county of Weitmoreland in the reign of queen Mary,
and in 1557 he formed the plan of a poem, intended to
comprehend a view of all the illuftrious but unfortunate
characters of Englifh hiftory from the conqueft, by way of
moral example, under the title of the « Mirror of Magif-
trates.” Of this work he finifhed a poetical preface, and
one part only on the life of Henry Stafford, duke of
Buckingham. ‘The other parts were configned to different
hands. In 1561, his tragedy of ‘ Gorboduc’? was ex-
hibited before queen Elizabeth with great applaufe. It
was quite calculated to ingratiate the writer with the
fovereign, on account of the maxims of high loyalty which
he put into the mouth of Eubulus, the good ¢ounfellor,
who condemns refiftance to kings upon any accoynt what-
ever. Mr. Sackville married about the year 1557, after
which he fat in two parliaments for the counties of Suflex
and Bucks, when he travelled into foreign parts, on ac-
count, it is thought, of fome embarraffment in his circum-
ftances. At the time of his father’s death, in 1566, he
was a prifoner in Rome, but he foon obtained his releafe,
and returned to take pofleflion of his eftates. In the fol-
lowing year he was = and raifed to the ponee oy

2

SAC

the title of baron of Buckhurft. In 1570 he was felected
by the queen to go out at the head of a complimentary
embafly to Charles IX. of France, on account of his
marriage, on which occafion he “indulged his tafte for mag-
nificence to the injury of his fortune. In 1587 he was fent
ambaflador to the United Provinces, for the purpofe of
inquiring into their complaints againft the earl of Leicefter,
and his report of the matter was fo difpleafing to the fa-
vourite, that he influenced the queen, on lord Buckhurtt’s
return, to confine him feveral months to his own houfe ;
and he did not obtain his liberty till the earl of Leicefter’s
death. After this event the queen teftified her regard to
lord Buckhurft by conferring upon him, in the year 1589,
the order of the Garter, and by interfering to obtain for
him, in 1591, the chancellorfhip of the univerfity of Ox-
ford. In 1598 he was joined with the treafurer, lord Bur-
leigh, in negociations for a peace with Spain; and when the
States-General, taking the alarm, fent over deputies to
renew their own treaty with England, lord Buckhurit was
appointed to confer with them, and he at length figned a
new treaty, on terms very advantageous to the queen. In
1599, on the death of lord Burleigh, he was nominated to
the vacant poft of lord high treafurer. In this fituation he
was very inftrumental in difcovering and defeating the pro-
jeéts of the earl of Effex, and at the trial of that nobleman
he aéted as high fteward, in which office he conduéted him-
felf with prudence and humanity. He did not join any of
the factions by which the court was divided in that reign,
but, warmly attached to the glory of the queen, he lived in
her confidence till her death. On the acceflion of James,
his poft of treafurer was confirmed to him for life, and in
1604 he was created earl of Dorfet. Four years after this
he died.

Although the earl of Dorfet can fcarcely be ranked
among the more eminent ftatefmen in Elizabeth’s reign,
r he filled all the high offices entruited to him with

onour and integrity. He was a good fpeaker, and a
better writer. Asa poet he claims high praife, for having
brought Englith heroic verfe almoft to a ttate of perfection,
and fie having given the firft {pecimen of regular tragedy in
blank verfe. The following critique, or account of his
merits as a poet, may; for its accuracy, be juftly quoted.
“ The Induétion to the Mirror of Magifrates, contains an
imaginary defcent to the infernal regions, under the guidance
of Sorrow, introdu€tory to the ftories afterwards told by
the perfons themfelves, whofe misfortunes are the fubjeét
of the Mirror. It is written in ftanzas, of lines in heroic
meafure, the verfification of which is for the moft part as
pure and regular as that of any modern, while the ftrength
of defcription, and the force of imagination, difplayed in
inventing allegorical charaéters, are fcarcely furpafled by
Spenfer. His tragedy of ‘ Gorboduc,’ or, as it was entitled
when printed in 1571, ‘ The Tragidie, of Ferrex and Por-
rex,’ is a bloody tale from Englifh hiftory, compofed with-
out attention to dramatic rules, and without. intereft or
pathos, but with confiderable force of poetical conception
and moral fentiment, and in pure and perf{picuous language.”
This tragedy has been feveral times printed, the laft edition
2 undertaken by Spence in 1736, at the fuggeftion of

ope.

From this nobleman have defcended the dukes of Dorfet,
of whom the firlt was advanced to that high dignity in June
1720, by his majefty king George I. John George Fre-
deric, the fourth duke, was born in November 1793, and
fucceeded to the title at the death of his father, in July 1799.
This young nobleman, one of the mott accomplifhed and
amiable gentlemen of the age, was unfortunately killed by

5

SAC

a fall from his horfe, on the 22d of February 1815, and
was fucceeded in his titles by a coufin, vifcount Sackville.
Biog. Brit. Peerage.

SACKVILLE, in Geography, a townfhip of Nova Scotia, in
Cumberland county, on Chegneéto Bafon, called by the
French Beau Bafin and Tintamare, and the N. fide of the
river Au Lac.

SACKWITZ, a town of Saxony; 3 miles W.N.W.
of Schmiedeberg.

SACKYLA, a town of Sweden, in North Finland; 32
miles S.S.E. of Biorneborg.

SACKYMUNY, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of .
Cuddapa; 18 miles N.E. of Gandicotta.

SACLACTIC Acin, in Chemifiry, is one of the vege-
table acids, firtt difcovered by Scheele in treating the fugar
of milk with nitric acid, in the way that fugar is treated by
the fame to procure the oxalic acid. ;

The obje&t of Scheele, in this experiment, was to fee
whether the fugar of milk, which, in other refpeéts, feemed
fo much to refemble fugar, had alfo the property of afford-
ing oxalic acid with nitric acid. After many times diftillin
nitric acid from it, as directed in forming oxalic acid, he
obtained a {mall portion of the cryftals of the latter, mixed
with a white powder. Continuing to add frefh nitre to
the white powder, and repeating the diftillation, he at length
converted the whole into oxalic acid. He repeated this
experiment, for the purpofe of examining the white powder
which he had obferved before. He found it to poflefs
peculiar properties as an acid, and gave it the name of
acid of the fugar of milk.

Humboldt, about the fame time, made fimilar expe-
riments upon the fame fubftance. He, however, concluded
the white powder to be a fuper-oxalat of lime, and not a
peculiar acid. After due inveltigation and repeated expe-
riments, the opinion ef Scheele was confirmed, and the
fubftance was clafled among the acids. The French
chemitts afterwards gave it the name of faclactic acid, which
it {till retains.

The fame fubftance has been produced from gum arabic,
and other mucilaginous bodies with nitric acid, from which
Fourcroy gave it the name of mucous acid.

This acid is obtained by the following procefs : to one
part of gum arabic, or other Re fub{tance in a
retort, pour two parts, by weight, of nitric acid. Apply
a gradual heat to the retort. When red fumes begin to
appear, let the heat be flackened, and allow the retort to
cool. A white powder falls to the bottom, which, when
{eparated, is the acid in queftion. :

SaclaGtic acid, thus procured, is a white powder, rather
gritty to the feel, and flightly acid to the tatte.

When heated in a retort, with a view to its diftillation,
it is decompofed, and a liquor comes over, which cryftallizes
on cooling. This is accompanied with a reddifh oil, and
with carbonic acid and carburetted hydrogen gafes. Ac-
cording to Scheele, it diffolves in fixty parts of boiling
water ; and according to Morveau in eighty, depofiting
one-fourth in cryttals on cooling. The folution reddens
tincture of turnfole.

It combines with the different bafes forming falts; but
thefe properties are little known. It forms with potafh a
falt foluble in eight parts of water; and with foda a falt
foluble in five parts. The faccholat of ammonia is eafily
decompofed by heat. With the earths, it moltly forms in-
foluble falts, and the fame with the met slic oven .

-SACLAS, ia Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Seine and Oife; 5 miles $. of Ettampes.

SACO, a river of America, which runs into the fea,

11 miles

SAC

ti miles S.S.W. of Portland, in the diftri@ of Maine, and
forms a large bay, called ‘ Saco Bay,’’ at its mouth, four
miles E. of cape Porpoife. - N. lat. 43° 27'. W. long.
70° 20'. The fource of this river-is found on the S. fide
of the White mountains, in New Hampfhire. Having
croffed into Maine, it makes a large bend N.E. and S.W.
embracing the fine townfhip of Frejeburg, and purfuing a
S.E. courfe to the fea. Great and Little Offapee rivers
fall into it from the W. It is navigable for fhips to Saco
falls, about fix miles from the fea; and here it is broken
by Indian ifland, over which is the poft-road. A bridge
is thrown over each of the branches. A number of mills
are erected here, to which logs are floated from forty to
fifty miles above ; and veffels can come up to the mills to
take in the lumber. Four millions feet of pine boards
were annually fawed at thefe mills before the war. With-
out the bar, near the mouth, and between Fletcher’s peak
and the main land, is a pool, in which veflels of any fize
may lie at all feafons of the year, and take in their ladings
at pleafure. Indian river, which divides the river at the
falls, confilts of about thirty acres of land. Salmon falls are
ten miles above the ifland.

SACOLCHA, in Ancient Geography, atown of Ethiopia,
in the ifland of Meroe. Ptolemy.

SACOMOTO, in Geography, a town’ of Japan, in the
ifland ef Niphon ; 30 miles E.N.E. of Meaco.

SACORA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Galatia. Ptolemy.

SACOTTAY, in Geography, a town of Siam, on the
river Menon, near the mountains which feparate Siam from
Pegu. ~
“SACRA Mepia, and Sacr# Laterales, in Anatomy,
{mall arteries diftributed about the facrum. The former
is a branch of the aorta; the latter are produced from
the internal iliac artery. See Arrery.

Sacra Fifula, a name given by fome to the cavity in
which the fpinal marrow is lodged, and by others to the
fpinal marrow itfelf.

Sacra Gentilitia, among the Romans. Befide the public
feftivals obferved by the whole Roman people, and befide
the holidays kept on birth-days, marriages, or any other
perfonal account, there were likewife family feats cele-
brated annually by the defcendants only of particular
families. .

They thought themfelves obliged to keep thefe with the
utmoft exaétnefs and regularity, on pain of divine ven-
— Livy tells us, that a young man of the Fabian
amily, when the Capitol was befieged by the Gauls, made
his way through the enemy’s army, in order to celebrate
the yearly feftival of his family, to the no fmall altonifh-
ment both of the befiegers and befieged. Mem. Acad.
Infcript. vol. viii. p. 310.

Sacra Solis, in Ancient Geography, a promontory of
Arabia Felix, in the Perfian gulf, and in the country of the
Nerites. Ptolemy.

SACRALES Nerv1, in Anatomy, the five lat pairs of
nerves produced by the medulla {pinalis, and going out
of the vertebral canal through the foramina of the facrum.
See Nerve.

SACRAMENT, Sacramentum, in the general, de-
notes a fign of a holy or facred things

The word is formed from the Latin facramentum, which
fignified an oath, particularly that which the foldiers took,
to be true to their commanders; the words of which, ac-
cording to Polybius, were “ obtemperaturus fum et facturus
quicquid mandabitur ab imperatoribus juxta vires.”

In this fenfe, the word includes both the facrameuts of

SA C

the law of nature, as found morality, the manner of offer-
ing the bread and wine praétifed by Melchifedech, &ce. and
thofe of the law of Mofes, as the circumcifion, the pafchal
lamb, purifications, order of priefthood, &c.

SACRAMENT, with regard to the Chriftian church, is de-
fined, an outward and vilible fign of an inward and {piritual
grace annexed to the ufe of it.

But fome have objeéted againft this definition, as ob-
{cure ; unlefs it fuppofes fome divine influence of an ex-
traordinary nature infeparably annexed to the outward
fign; and if this be the meaning of it, they apprehend
there is reafon to queftion, whether there be any facra-
ment at all. Accordingly they have chofen to define
facraments to be ordinances inftituted by Chrilt, to be
ufed by all Chriftians as feals of the covenant of grace;
or as tokens of their accepting the gofpel covenant as
well as of the divine acceptance. Or, the term facra-
ment, originally fignifying the oath which the Roman
foldiers took to be Faith ul to their general (though it be
no feripture term), is properly enough transferred to de-
note the affe€tionate zeal, and inviolable fidelity, which
the followers of Jefus, in baptifm and the Lord’s fupper,
profefs and promife to the captain of their falvation.

There are two objeés in a facrament: the one a ma-
terial fign, the objeét of their fenfes; the other the thing
fignified, which is the objeét of faith. Thus it has pleafed
God to give as it were a body or fubftance to {piritual aéts,
that our faith might have the affiftance of fenfible figns.

From the nature of this inftitution, as well as the exprefs
words by which it is enjoined, it is inferred that it was intended
to be a perpetual memorial of Chrift, and particularly of his
death, as the completion df his miniitry and undertaking on
earth, and alfo as introductory to his refurreétion, and to his
fubfequent authority, and to the office of final judge. It
ferves the purpofe likewife of being a token of the engage-
ments to him, which Chriltians thus voluntarily avow, a
pledge of the bleflings of his covenant to be imparted to
them, and a badge of their mutual affection to each other.
But the various religious and moral ufes to which it is fubfer-
vient ought to be diltinguifhed from that which is its primary
objeé&t, viz. the commemoration of Chrift, in doing which
Chriitians implicitly avow that they are his difciples, and
publicly profefs their refpeét for his perfon, chara¢ter, and
undertaking, their relation to him as his voluntary difciples,
and their refolution to conform to his precepts, and to main-
tain and promote his caufe in the world. (See Matt. xxvit
26—28. Mark, xiv.22—26. Luke, xxii. 14—20.- 1 Cor.
x.16,17- 1 Cor. xi. 20, &c. compared with Ads, ii. 42—46.)
From the nature and defign of this ordinance as a commemo-
ration of Chrift, it has been inferred that no change takes
place, at the adminiftration of it, of the elements of bread
and wine into the fubftance of Chriit’s body and blood, as
the Catholics maintain; becaufe many initances occur ia
which a thing is faid to de, what it is only intended to repre-
Jent ; (fee Gen. xvii. to. xli, 26. Ezek. v. 5. Dan. vi. 23.
John, x.9. xv. 1. 1 Cor. x. 4. Rev. xvit. g.) and befides,
if thefe elements were the very body and blood of Chritt,
they could not be the commemoration of them. Moreover, no
propitiatory facrifice i3 offered to God in this ordinance ; be-
caufe it is the commemoration of that facritice, which 1s
frequently {aid to be offered once fur all, Heb. ix. 26—28.
x. 10. 14. (See TRANSUBSTANTIATION.) Sobtary mafies,
that is, the celebration of the Lord’s {upper im fecret by the
prielt alone, are evidently inconiiitent with one part of the
defign of this ordinance, which is to be regarded as a pledge
of mutual love among Chriftians. That this rite was in-
tended for continued ule in the church of Chrilt, appears 7

the

SACRAMENT.

the early teftimonies of Pliny, Juftin Martyr, Ignatius, and
all the oldeft writers, which aflure us, that it was in fa& prac-
tifed even from the time of the apoftles ; as alfo from St.
Paul’s declaring, that ** hereby we fhew forth the Lord’s
death till hecome,” 1Cor. xi. 26. This may be alfo farther
argued from the ends of the ordinance already {pecified.
Some have attributed a peculiar folemnity to this inftitution,
and a degree of criminality to the unworthy participation
of it; which have deterred many upright, humble, and dif-
fident Chriftians from the ufe of it. Perhaps this has been
owing partly to the adminiftration of it to dying perfons, and
to its having been thus confidered as a feal or pledge of ab-
folution, anda kind of “ viaticum,” a notion of it which is
not warranted by the New Teftament ; partly to a mifinter-
pretation of 1 Cor. xi. 29: the unworthinefs to which that
paflage refers, and the punifhment annexed to it, referring to
a particular cafe, which is not likely ever to occur in modern
times: partly to a miftaken notion of the facrednefs of the
elements, after prieftly confecration; partly to an idea
exploded among Protettants, that Chrift is materially pre-
fent in thefe elements ; and to the practice, {till enjoined in
fome eltablifhed churches, of kneeling in the participation
of them. All aéts of religious worfhip are folemn and im-
portant, and fhould be performed with a humble and ferious
mind; nor does there feem to be any reafon for imagining
that improper conduét in this inftance is more culpable and
dangerous in its confequences, than in offering our addreffes
to the Deity, or receiving inftru€tion from his word. Some
have laid great itrefs on the previous preparation that is ne-
ceffary for this fervice ; and it undoubtedly is neceflary and
ufeful, that the mind fhould be in a fit ftate for the difcharge
of every private and public duty, and no lefs fo in other
cafes than in this. The infrequency of communicating has
perhaps been one occafion of a greater folemrity afcribed to
this inflitution than to any other a€ of religion which more
commonly occurs; whereas it piainly appears, from the
mott credible account of the primitive church, that the
Lord’s fupper was ufed much more frequently in ancient
than in modern times, and that it made a part of their
public worthip every Lord’s day. Having above-mentioned
the “ confecration’’ of the elements, we {hall here obferve,
that fome have maintained that this has no foundation in the
original inftitution. Accordingly they objeé& to our tranfla-
tion of Matt. xxvi. 26. (compare Mark, xiv. 22.) where we
render whoyncas, bleffed it ; whereas they fuppofe it fignifies
Chrift’s giving thanks to God, when he brake the bread.

See alfo Luke, xvii. 22. 1 Cor. xi. 24.) The apoftle
peaks of “ blefling the facramental cup,” which bifhop
Hoadley (Plain Account, &c.) interprets, “ the cup over
which we blefs or adore God.”? However that may with
great propriety, in the language of Scripture, be faid « to
be bleffed,’’? which is ina Shes manner fet apart from a
common to a facred ufe (Gen. ii. 3.), and we may be faid
« to blefs it,’’ when we folemnly pray, that God may attend
it with fuch influences from above, a3 may make it effe@tual
to our {piritual edification. See Mark, xi. 9, 10, 11.

We obferve that there is no foundation for the great {trefs
that has been laid on the manner in which this ordinance is
adminiftered, or the pofure in which itis received. A table-
polture, fome have faid, feems moft eligible, as having been
ufed by Chrift and his apoftles, and being peculiarly fuitable
to the notion of a facred feaft ; and dneeling, which they fay
was never introduced into the church till tranfubltantiation
was received, may prove an occafion of fuperttition. Never-
thelefs, as long as either pofture is not abfolutely impofed as a
form of communion, it will appear to be the part of Chrif-
tian candour to acquiefce in the ufe of either by thofe who

prefer it. Standing was frequently ufed in the Chriftian
church, viz. always on the Lord’s day, and between Eafter
and Whitfuntide. (King’s Eng. pt. ti. c. vi. § 7. Pierce’s
Vind. of Diff. pt. ii. ch. 10. Hooker’s Ecclef. Polity, § 68.)
Whether this inftitution fhould be adminiftered at noon, or
in the evening, is a quellion of very {mall importance, and
not worthy of particular difcuffion in this place: nor fhall
we here introduce the fubjeét of infant communion, for which
Mr. Pierce and fome others have pleaded, but refer to Jn-
fant CoMMUNION. :

The ufe of this ordinance, as a qualification for civil
offices, is a perverfion of its defign, not to fay a profanation
of it, which has been much lamented by perfons of every
party and profeffion: we fhall fay nothing here of the ob-
jections, urged by fome on the foundation of juitice, againft
excluding peaceable and loyal fubjeéts from places of truit
and profit, merely on account of their religious opinions.
See Test. :

The cuitom of adminiftering the Lord’s fupper to con-
demned criminals juft before their execution, is both abfurd
and dangerous: it is natural for fuch to confider it as a token
that they are already in a {tate of pardon and acceptance,
which may prevent their employing their few remaining
moments of life in a manner fuited to their circumflances,
and may harden others ir vain and prefumptuous hopes,

The facrament is unqueftionably a folemn a&t of worthip,
whatever may be our opinion of its relative importance ; and
the Rubric requires three at leaft to communicate, and direéts,
that no one be admitted to the holy communion until he be
confirmed, or be ready and defirous to be confirmed; and a
minifter is not without lawful caufe to deny it to any who
fhall devoutly and humbly defire it; but notorious finners
are not to be admitted to it till they have repented ; nor thofe
who malicioufly contend, until they are reconciled, &c,
Alfo the facrament is not to be adminiftered to fuch who
refufe to kneel, or to be prefent at the prayers of the church,
or to {trangers ; for a minifter is not obliged to give it to any
but thofe of his own parifh; and the partakers of the hol
facrament ought to fignify their names to the curate at leakt
a day before it is adminiltered. (Can. 27, 28. Rubric.)
If a minifter refufes to give the facrament to any one, bein
required by the bifhop, he is to certify the caufe of fuck
retufal; and a parfon refufing to adminifter the facrament to
any, without juft caufe, is lable to be fued in aétion of the
cafe ; becaufe a man may fuftain a temporal lofs by fuch re-
fufal. By ftatute, no perfons fhall be chofen into any office
of magiltracy, or place of truft, &c. unlefs they have,
within one year before fuch elevation, received the facrament
according to the rites of the church of England, and deliver
a certificate of it to the court of king’s bench, or quarter
feffions, under the hand of the ceahen, and prove it b
witneffes. (13, 14, and 25 Car. II.) In every parifh cies
the facrament is to be adminiftered three times in the year
(of which the feaft of Eafter to be one), and every layman
is bound to receive it thrice every year, &c. In colleges,
and the halls of the univerfities, the facraments are to be ad-
mini(tered the firft and fecond Sunday of every month ; and
in cathedral churches every Sunday, and upon all principal
fealt days. (Canon 21, 22, 23.) The churchwardens, as well
as the minifter, are to take notice whether the parifhionerscome
fo often to the facrament as they ought; and on a church-
warden’s prefenting a man for not receiving the facrament,
he may be libelled in the ecclefiaftical court and excommu-
nicated, &c. Reviling the facrament of the Lord’s fupper is
punifhable by fine and imprifonment. 1 Edw. VI. c. 1,
1 Eliz. c. 1. }

Roman Catholics own feven facraments; viz. baptilm,

confirmation,

y AC

confirmation, the eucharift, penance, extreme unétion, ordi-
nation, and marriage. See each under its proper article.
See Popery.

The Proteftants admit of only two ; viz. baptifm and the

eucharift, or Lord’s fupper.
' The Romanifts, however, call the eucharift, by way of
eminence, the ‘“* Holy Sacrament,” Thus, to expofe the
Holy Sacrament, is to lay a confecrated hoft on the altar to
be adored. (See Host.) The proceffion of the Holy Sacra-
ment is that wherein this hoft is carried about the church,
or about the town. See Procession.

Ina like fenfe they fay, the Feaft of the Holy Sacrament,
the Congregation of the Holy Sacrament.

SacraMENT, Congregation of the Holy, a religious efta-
blifhment formed in France, whofe founder was Autherius,
bifhop of Bethlehem, and which, in 1644, received an
order from Urban VITI. to have always a number of eccle-
fiaftics ready to exercife their miniftry among pagan nations,
wherever the pope, or congregation de propaganda, fhould
appoint.

SacRAMENT, Feflival of the Holy, or of the body of
Chrift, a feftival obferved in the Romifh church, and efta-
blifhed in the following manner. A certain devout woman
of Liege, whofe name was Juliana, declared that fhe had
received a revelation from heaven, intimating to her, that
it was the will of God that a peculiar feftival fhould be an-
nually obferved in honour of the Holy Sacrament, or rather
of the real prefence of Chrift’s body in that facred inftitu-
tion. This pretended vifion was fupported by the bifhop of
Liege, who, in 1246, publifhed an order for the celebration
of this feftival through the whole province. Eve, one of
Juliana’s companions, after her death, prevailed with
Urban IV. to publifh, in 1264, a folemn edié, impofing the
obfervance of tis feaft on all Chriftian churches ; which was
confirmed, in the pontificate of Clement V. by acouncil-held
at Vienne, in France, in 13113; and this contributed more
to render the doétrine of tranfubftantiation agreeable to
the people than the decree of the council of the Lateran
under Innocent IIJ. or than all the exhortations of his
fucceffors.

SACRAMENT was alfo ufed, in the Roman law, fora
a or gage of money, which both the plaintiff and de-

endant, in areal ation, laid down in court to be forfeited by
him who fhould lofe the caufe. This was particularly called,
Sacramento prevocare, rogare, flipulari, &c.

SacraMenvt, St., in Geography, the fouth-wefternmoft
Portuguefe fettlement in Brazil, oppofite to Buenos
mr Ae It is alfo called the «« Sacramenti Colonia.”? It was
ta by the Spaniards in 1762, after a month’s fiege, but
reftored by the treaty of peace.

SACRAMENTARIANS, a general name given to all
fuch as have publifhed, or held erroneous doétrines of the fa-
crament of the Lord’s fupper.

The term is chiefly pres among Roman Catholics, by
way Of reproach, to the Lutherans, Calvinifts, and other
Proteftants.

The appellation is alfo applied, by the Lutherans, to
thofe who denied the prefence of the Lord’s body in the eu-
charift.

SACRAMENTARY, Sacnamentanrium, an ancient
church book, comprehending all the prayers and ceremonies
prattifed at the celebration of the facraments.

Pope Gelafius was the firlt author of the facramentarium :
it was afterwards revifed, correéted, and abridged, by St.
Ph, lA It was the fame with what the Cracks now call
Luchologium.

SACRAMENTUM Artanis, denotes the facrifice of

SAC

the mafs in Popifh countries; and with us the Lord’s
fupper.

SACRAMENTUM Decifionis, denotes the voluntary and de-
cifive oath of the civil law ; where one of the parties to the
fmit, not being able to prove his charge, offers to refer the
decifion of the caufe to the oath of his adverfary ; which the
adverfary was bound to accept, or tender the fame pro-
pofal back again; otherwife the whole was taken as con-
feffed by him.

SACRANUS Cotror, a name given by fome authors to
purple, or very deep red.

SACRAPATAM, in Geography, a town of Hindoo-
ftan, in Myfore ; 67 miles N.W. of Seringapatam. N. lat.
yao G/ ) Blong..75° 52'-

SACRAPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ;
15 miles N.N.W. of Tiagar.

SACRARIUM, among the Romans, a chapel in a pri-
vate family. It differed from /ararium, as being dedicated
to fome particular deity, and the lararium to the houfehold

ods in general.

SACRATA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in
Picenum, S. of Potentia.

SACRATAIN Mountains, in Geography, a moun-
tainous ridge of Africa, which extends from Tremecen to
Sahara.

SACRE, or Saker, in Ornithology, the name of a f{pecies
of falcon, called by authors Fatco facer (which fee), and
differently defcribed by different authors, but by all agreed
to be an extremely bold and ative bird. The defcription
Mr. Ray has feleéted of it is this: it is a larger bird than
the common falcon ; its head is flat and of a greyifh colour ;
its eyes large, and its beak blueifh ; its back and wings are
brown ; its breaft white, and variegated with brown {pots ;
its thighs are white within, and its tail is variegated with
{pots of the fhape of a kidney ; its wings are very long, and
its legs and feet of a blueifh colour. The yearling birds of
this fpecies are called fori, and differ confiderably in their
plumage from thofe of a more advanced age, having their
legs paler, and their breafts lefs fpotted. It will feize upon
the largeft birds, and on young goats, &c. for food. Ray.
See Hawkine.

SACRED, Sacer, fomething holy, or that is folemaly
offered, and confecrated to God with ceremonies, benedic-
tions, un¢tions, &c.

Kings, prelates, and priefts, are held facred perfons ;
abbots are only bleffed. The deaconhood, fubdeaconhood,
and priefthood, are all facred orders, and are {aid to imprefs
a facred indelible charaéter. . .

The cultom of confecrating kings with holy oil is derived,
according to Gutlingius, from the Hebrews ; among whom,
he agrees with Grotius, it was never ufed but to kings who
had not an evident right by fucceflion. He adds, that
the Chriftian emperers never ufed it before Juftin the
younger ; from whom he takes it to have pafled to the
Goths, &c.

Sacnep is alfo applied to things belonging to God, and
the church. .

Church lands, ornaments, &c. are held facred. The facred
college is that of the cardinals.

Sacnep Majefly, is applied to the emperor, and to the
king of England; yet Loyfeau fays it is blafphemy. See
Ma.resry.

The ancients held a place {truck with thunder as facred.
In the civil law, facred place chiefly denotes that, where
a perfon deceafed has been interred.

Sacnev Elixir. See Evixir.

SACRIFICE, Sacniricium, an offering made to God

on

SACRIFICE.

onan altar, by means of a regular minifter, as an acknow-
ledgment of his power, and a payment of homage.

Sacrifices (though the term is fometimes ufed to compre-
hend all the offerings made to God, or in any way devoted
to his fervice and honour) differ from mere oblations in this,
that in a facrifice there is a real deftruction or change of the
thing offered; whereas an oblation is only a fimple offering
or gift, without any fuch change at all: thus, all forts of
tythes, and firlt-fruits, and whatever of men’s worldly fub-
ftance is confecrated to God, for the fupport of his worfhip
and the maintenance of his minifters, are offerings er obla-
tions; and thefe, under the Jewifh law, were either of living
creatures or other things ; but facrifices, in the mere pecu-
liar fenfe of the term, were of Jiving creatures, of which five
forts were prefcribed as allowed by the law, viz. bullocks,
fheep, goats, doves, and turtles; beafts only were allowed
in public facrifices, and birds in private ones.

Divines divide facrifices into bloody, fuch as thofe of the
old law ; and d/oodle/s, fuch as thofe of the new law.

They alfo divide them again into impetratory, which are
thofe offered to obtain fome favour of God, or to thank him
for fome already received ; and propitiatory, which are thofe
offered to obtain forgivenefs of fins. :

The Pheenicians are ufually held to have been the firft
authors of facrifices; Porphyry, indeed, attributes the in-
yention to the Egyptians; who, he fays, firft offered the
firft-fruits of their grounds to the gods ; burning them upon
an altar of turf. At length they came to burn perfumes ;
and, ‘at la{t, he fays, they facrificed animals ; obferving, that
they firft eat fome herbs or fruits regularly offered on the
altars. He adds, that libations were very frequent, before
the facrifice of beafts was introduced.

Ovid obferves, that the very names vidim and hoffia im-
port, that they, were not flain till fuch time as victories
were obtained over enemies ; indeed, while men lived on herbs
and pulfe, it is no wonder they abftained from facrifices of
beafts ; fince the law of facrifices required, that they fhould
eat fome part of them. In effe&, it is fuppofed to be this
that firft introduced flefh as a food, and made man a car-
nivorous animal.

The truth is, in all antiquity, both facred and profane,
facrifices were ordinarily nothing elfe but holy banquets.

The {criptures furnifh us with a fomewhat different ac-
count; Noah certainly facrificed animals at his coming out
of the ark; and it is even fuggefted that Abel himfelf facri-
ficed the beft and fatteft of his flocks ; though Grotius thinks
it more probable, he contented himfelf with making a mere
oblation of his lambs, &c. to God, without facrificing them.

The origin of facrifices hath been a fubject of confiderable
controverly both among Jews and Chriftians. Maimonides,
R. Levi Ben Gerfon, and Abarbanel, among the former,
Juftin Martyr; Irenzus, Tertullian, Chryfoftom, Theo-
doret, Cyril of Alexandria, &c. among the early Chriftians,
and Spencer, Grotius, and Warburton, of later date, main-
tain, that facrifices were at firft an human inflitution; and
it is faid, that, in order to prevent their being offered to
idols, God introduced them into his fervice, not that he ap-
proved them as good in themfelves, or as proper rites of
worlhip. This was done by way of accommodation to the
prejudices of the Jewith people, who had been trained up
in the practice of facrifice among the Egyptians, to whom,
as we have already fuggefted, Porphyry attributes the in-
vention of facrificing, whilft others afcribe its origin to the
Pheenicians. But it has been alleged that it is unreafon-
able to fuppofe that thefe molt folemn rites of worfhip
fhould have been ordained by a God of infinite wifdom and
purity, who prefented himfelf to the Jews under the cha-

rater of a fovereign, jealous of his glory, merely in. com-
pliance with the abfurdities of Pagan fuperitition; and
that to imagine that the facrifices of the patriarchs could
have received the divine approbation, without the authority
of divine inftitution, is to contradié the general tenor and
exprefs language of {cripture ; which fupplies various in-
ftances in which God refented, and feverely punifhed, every
fpecies of will-worfhip (ase. g. in the cale of Nadab and
Abihu, who were ftruck dead for burning incenfe with
{trange fire), and which exprefsly condemns in Matt. xv. g.
and Coloff. ii. 22, 23, that <S:rcBexcxax, which {prung froma
the devices and inventions of men.

Dr. Geddes, indeed, (Pref. to Genefis,) has carried this
point yet further ; for he contends not only for the human
invention of facrifice, but for its mere human adoption
into the Jewifh ritual without any divine fanétion or au-
thority whatever.

On the other hand, it has been maittained that facri-
ficing was a mode of worfhip more ancient than idolatry
or the inftitutions of Mofes, and that though various fu-
perititious cufltoms were introduced refpeéting it among
the Heathens, they were all excluded from the religion of
the Hebrews. Moreover, as Mofes did not adopt any
of the heathen cuftoms, it is equally evident that they bor-
rowed nothing from him with refpeé& to facrifices. With
them we find no fuch diftinGtion of facrifices as is made in
the books of Mofes, fuch as ‘ burnt-offerings, fin-offerings,
trefpafs-offerings, and peace-offerings, or of the burning or
waving of the facrifices.’? Thefe particulars either had ae
origin in the time of Mofes, or, as is mo{t probably the cafe,
were prior to his time, and to the exiltence of idolatry.
From a general view of the fubje& it has been concluded,
that the two fyftems, viz. that of Mofes and that of the
Heathens, were not derived from each other; and the fupe-
riority of that of Mofesis fo great, that confidering his cir-
cumftances and thofe of his nation at the time, we cannot
err in pronouncing that .facrifices could not have had any
human, but mutt have had a divine origin. Accordingly,
thofe who apprehend that facrifices were originally of divine
inftitution, allege, that Abel offered his facrifice by faith
(Heb. xi. 4.), which’ muft imply a divine promife con-
neéted with that rite, and a divine direétion for the per-
formance of it (fee alfo Gen. iv. 4.) ; that the pafchal lamb,
which was a real facrifice, was exprefsly initituted by God
himfelf; and that the deity, who refented and punifhed will-
worfhip in other cafes (Lev. x. 1, 2.), would not have ap-
proved of the patriarch’s facrificing as he actually did, if he
had not commanded it. The advocates for this opinion,
therefore, fuppofe, that facrifices were firft inftituted by
God himfelf, and enjoined our firft parents foon after the
fall; from whom, and afterwards from Noah, they fay, all
nations received them by tradition. Thole who apprehend
that animal food was not ufed till after the flood, derive
from hence an additional argument in favour of the very
ancient ufe and probably divine inftitution of facrifices; for
the fkins ufed for cloathing (Gen. iii. 21.), they fuppofe
mult have been from beatts Sain for this purpofe.

The divine inftitution of facrifices may,,in the firlt in-
ftance, be reafonably inferred from the {trong and fenfible
atteftation of the divine acceptance of facrifice in the cafe
of Abel (above-mentioned), again in that of Noah, after-
wards in that of Abraham, and alfo from the fy{tematic
eftablifhment of it by the fame divine authority, in the dif-
penfation of Mofes; and whether we confider the book of
Job as the production of Mofes, or of that pious wor,
fhipper of the true God, among the defcendants of Abra-
ham, whofe name it bears; or of fome other perfon who

lived

SACRIFICE.

“lived a fhort time after, and compofed it from the materials
left by Job himfelf, the reprefentation there made of God,
as prefertbiug facrifices to the friends of Job, on every {up-
pofition, exhibits a ftrong authority, and of high anti-
quity, upon this queftion. The ingenious Mr. Hallet (on
Heb. xi. 4.) contiders the fingle fact of Abel’s facrifice as
affording fo ftrong an argument, that he does not hefitate to
pronounce it a demonfiration of a divine inititution. For,
he fays, Abel’s facrifice could not have been acceptable, if
it had not been of divine appointment, according to that ob-
vious maxim of all true religion, ‘ In vain do they worfhip
God, teaching for do€irines the commandments of men.’’
(Mark, vii. 7-) Thus, fays he, Abel muit have worfhipped
God in vain, if his facrificing had been merely a command-
ment of his father Adam, or an invention of his own.
And to make this matter more evident, he afks, why we do
not now offer up a bullock, a fheep, ora pigeon, as a thank-
offering, after any remarkable deliverance, or as an evidence
of our apprehenfions of the demerit of fin. The fure reafon
js, becaufe we cannot know that God will accept fuch
s¢ will-worfhip,’? and fo conclude that we fhould herein
worfhip God in vain. As Abel did not then facrifice in
vain, it was not ‘ will-worfhip,”’ but a divine appointment.
To this he adds, the want of a right to flay animals before
the flood, unlefs conferred by God for this very purpofe of
facrifice, gives yet farther confirmation. Dr. Richie re-
marks, that the divine acceptance is not confined to the facri-
fice of Abel, but we find it alfo extended to other facrifices
offered under the patriarchal difpenfation. Such was the
eafe in regard to Noah’s burnt-offering, and that of Job,
(ch.i.) Moreover, the honourable mention which is made
of the facrifices offered by other pious men in this period of
the world, leaves no room to doubt of their having been
likewife gracioufly accepted by God. We may alfo ob-
ferve, that the oblation of fome of thofe early facrifices
was exprefsly ordered by God himfelf ; as the burnt-offering
of Abraham (Gen. xxil.), and thofe which were offered
by the three friends of Job (Job, xi.) Now that it is more
natural to think that God would order and accept of the per-
formance of a mode of worfhip which had been inftituted
by hirnfelf, than that he would thus countenance one, which
had been the product of mere human invention, is a thing
which will not bear much difpute. Thofe who with to fee
this fubject farther difcuffed, may confult Outram de Sa-
crificiis, lib. i. cap. 1. § 3, 4: Richie’s Pec. Doétr. vol. i.

- 149, 150. amis oh Mife. Sac. vol. iii. p. 67—71-
irl Hift. Patr. Exercit. ili. § 52, 53. tom. i. The
laft-cited writer confiders the ¢uxv&zy0:, or the burning of
the facrifice by fire from heaven, a decifive proof of a divine
inftitution ; and that the patriarchs were favoured with this
infallible fign of the divine acceptance of their facritices, the
language of {cripture, as he thinks, leaves us no room to
doubt. That the acceptance of Abel’s facrifice was thus
teftified, is the almoft unanimous opinion of the fathers.
In this the Jewith doétors concur; fee Aben Ezra and
Jarchi on Gen. iv. 4. Theodotion tranflates the verb in this
verle wezveicw. ‘This manifeftation of the divine power was
undoubtedly vouchfafed in later times. (See Gen. xy. 17.
Pf. xx. 3.) The reliques of this praétice are to be found
even in the heathen traditions. Thus Servius, in A&n. xii.
200, fays, “ Amongft the ancients fire was not lighted
upon the altar, but by prayer they called down fire from
heaven which confumed the offering.’’

The principal objections to the divine inftitution of fa-
crifices are founded on the two following confiderations :
t. The filence of the facred hiftorians on this head; which,
in a matter of fo great importance, it is faid, is irrecon-

Vou. XXXI.

cileable with the fuppofition of a divine command: 2. Thofe
pallagcs in the Old Teftament in which God feems openly
to difown the inftitution of facrifice. The former objection
is thus urged by bifhop Warburton, (Div. Leg. b. ix. ch. ii.
vol. iy. pp. 661, 662. ed. Hurd.) ‘ The two capital ob-
fervances in the Jewifh ritual were the Sabbath and Saeri-
fices. To imprefs the higheft veneration on the Sabbath}
the facred hiftorian is careful to record its divine original, and
can we fuppofe that if facrifices had the fame original, he
would have neglected to eitablifh this truth, at the time
that he recorded the other, fince it is of equal ufe and of
equal importance; I fhould have faid, indeed, of much
greater?’ To this objeCtion it has been replied, that the
Hebrews, during their refidence in Egypt, were in danger
of neglecting the obfervance of the Sabbath, and therefore
it was neceflary to enforce their religious obfervance of it by
a particular information of the time and occafion of its firft
inftitution; but in a country, like Egypt, they were in
little danger of lofing their veneration for facrifices, and

‘therefore the fame neceflity for directing theit attention to

their inftitution did not exift. Befides, the rite of facritice,
as Delaney obferves, (Rev. Exam. Diff. viii. vol. i. p. 94.)
was loaded, at its revival under Mofes, with many additional
ceremonies, in order to guard the Jews from the infections of
the Heathens, fo that the law-giver might wifely defign, not
to recall their attention to its original fimplicity, leit they
fhould be tempted to murmur and rebel againit their own
multifarious ritual. Befides, we ought to take into con-
fideration the rapid manner in which the facred penman has
fketched out the hiftory of the firft ages of the world, and
which conitrained him to avoid a circumitantial detail ; and
this was the lefs neceffary on account of the notoriety of the
cuftom, and the cireumftances recited in the hittory, from
which the praCtice might be inferred. As to the fecond ob-
jection, we fhall merely cite the appropriate obfervation re-
lating to it, made by the learned Mede; who fums up his
entire argument in thefe words: ‘* According to one of
thefe three fenfes, are all paflages in the Old Teftament
difparaging and rejecting {acrifices literally to be underftood ;
namely, when men preferred them before the greater things
of the law ;—valued them out of their degree, as an ante-
cedent duty ;—or placed their efficacy in the naked rite, as
if aught accrued to God thereby ; God would no longer
own them for any ordinance of his; nor, indeed, in that
difguife put upon them, were they.’’

The univerfality of facrifice has been urged by Delaney
and Dr. Kennicot in proof of its divine origin. Whatever
practice, it is faid, has obtained univerfally in the world,
muil have obtained from fome diétate of reafon, or fome
demand of nature, or fome principle of interef, or elfe from
fome powerful influence or injunction of fome Being of
univerfal.authority. "The praétice of animal facrifice did not
obtain from reafon ; for no reafonable nottons of God could
teach men, that he could delight in blood, or in the fat of
flain bealts. Now will any man fay, that we have any
natural inflin@ to gratify in fpilling the blood of an inno-
cent creature. * could there e any temptation from
appetite to do this in thofe apets when the whole facrifice
was confumed by fire; or when, if it was not, yet mea
wholly abftained from flefh ; and confequently this practice
did not owe its origin to any principle of intere/fl. Nay,
fo far from any thing of this, that the deftruction of inno-
cent and ufeful creatures is evidently againft nature, againfi
reafon, and againft interefl; and therefore muft be founded
in an authority, whofe influence was as powerful as the
practice was univerfal ; aud that could be no other but the

authority of God, the a of the world; or of ee*
: the

SACRIFICE.

the founder of the human race. If it be faid of Adam,
the queftion ftill recurs, what motive determined Aim to the
practice? It could not be nature, reafon, or intereft ; it muft
therefore be the authority of his fovereign ; and if Adam had
enjoined it on his pofterity, it is not to be imagined that
they would have obeyed him in fo extraordinary and ex-
penfive a rite, from any other motive than the command of
God. If it be urged, that fuperititions prevail unaccount-
ably in the world; it may be anfwered, that all fuperitition
has its origin in true religion; all fuperftition is an abufe;
and all abufe fuppofes a right and proper ule. And if this
be the cafe in fuperititious pratices that are of leffer mo-
ment and extent, what fhall be faid of a praétice, exifting
through all ages, and pervading every nation? See Kenn.
Two Diff. pp. 210. 21. Del. Rev. Exam. Diff. 8.
pees —Sger uae

It is natural, in the difcuflion of this fubje&, to advert
to the time and occafion of the inftitution of facrifice. Ad-
mitting that the commiffion of fin and the promife of a
redeemer were the grand obje¢ts to which this rite referred,
no period feems more fit for its appointment than that, at
which fin firft entered and the promife was firft delivered ; that
is, the period immediately fucceeding the Fall. If then facri-
fice be allowed to have beer coeval with the fall, every argu-
ment which has been adduced to prove that Abel offered
facrifices in obedience to the divine injunGion, will apply with
increafed force to fhew, that Adam mutt have done the
fame. Scripture alfo fupplies additional confirmation by the
faét, which it relates, of the firft pair having been, by the
exprefs command of God, clothed with the fing of beatts.
There were no purpofes for which animals could have
been flain, unlefs for thofe of food, facrifice, or covering.
They were not flain for food, as thofe fuppofe who con-
ceive, that in the antediluvian world animal food was not
ufed; nor could they have been flain merely for covering,
fince it cannot be imagined that Adam would, immediately
after the fentence of the divine difpleafure, have dared to
kill God’s creatures without his permiffion ; nor is it likely
that God fhould order them to be flain folely for their fkins,
when man could have been fupplied with fufficient cover-
ing from the hair and wool; and when, the flefh of the
animal not being permitted for food, there muit have been
an unneceffary waite of the creatures. It mutt follow, then,
that they had been flain with a view to facrifice. This
alone fupplies an adequate reafon.

The whole of the animal (if the offering be fuppofed an
holocault, as there is reafon for fuppofing all facrifices to
have been until the Mofaic inftitution) would have been
devoted to the ufes of religion, except the fkin, which would
be employed for the purpofe of cloathing. It has been
maintained, that from the time of Abel’s facrifice to the
giving of the law, the facrificial offering is defcribed by
no other appellation than that of A5- or Py}, the holo-
cauft, or burnt-offering, and the Zabach, or immolated vitim.
See Gen. viii. 20. ch. xxii. Exod. x. 25. xviii. 12. Job, i. 5.
xin. 7,8. Numb. xxiii.

Dr. Richie is of opinion, that all the oblations prior to
the law, excepting that of Cain, were holocaufts: however
this be, it muft be allowed, as others have conceived, that
they were animal facrifices.

The next fubject of enquiry refpeéts the nature and de-
fign of facrifices. Some have maintained that facrifices
thould be confidered as gifts, intended to footh and appeafe
the Supreme Being, in like manner as they are found to
conciliate the favour of men. Spencer propofes this theory ;
and the author of the “ Scripture Account of Sacrifices”
adopts the fame, under certain modifications, reprefenting

facrifices as facred gifts, of things firft received from God,
and prefented back to him for an external expreffion of
gratitude, acknowledgment, faith, and every pious fenti-
ment. Dr. Prieftley has adopted a fimilar theory, affert-
ing that facrifices arofe from anthropomorphitical notions
of God, and that they are to be confidered originally as
gifts of gratitude ; and, like the author lait cited, he regards
of courfe an offering for fin, as differing in no refpe& from
any other fort of oblation. Mr. H. Taylor, better knowa
under the aflumed appellation of « Ben Mordecai,” alfo
deduces facrifices from the notion of gifts; pronouncing
them to have been nothing but free-will offerings of the firit
fruits of the earth, or fold ; and he exprefsly defines “ facri-
fice to be a facred gift, fet apart to God, whereby the
facrificer fhewed his readinefs to part with his property to
religious ufes, and thereby openly and publicly manifefted
his worfhip of God.’’ He thus totaliy excludes the gene-
rally receiyed notion of atonement, and accordingly he fub-
joins, that ‘¢ atonement and propitiation had no other meaning
or defign than to purify, or fandify, or fet apart, any perfon
or thing to the fervice of God, by feparating them from
common ufe.”? Dr. Sykes, in his « Effay on Sacrifices,”
explains them as “ federal rites,’ and as “ implying the
entering into friendfhip with God, or the renewal of that
friendfhip, when broken by the violation of former ftipula-
tions ;” and he fays, that the origin of facrifices may be
accounted for on the fuppofition, “ that eating and drink-
ing together were the known ordinary fymbols of friendfhip,
and were the ufual rites of engaging in covenants and
leagues ;” this mode of entering into friendfhip and form-
ing leagues with each other being transferred by the ancients
to their gods: and in confirmation of this he adduces in-
ftances from Homer, Virgil, Max. Tyr. and others, to
fhew that they magined that their gods did aétually eat
with them, as they ate with their gods. The learned Mede
and Cudworth, in the courfe of their refpective arguments
to eftablifh the eucharift as a federal rite, had, long before
the age of Sykes, maintained the doétrine for which he
contends; and in this they were followed by Dr. Water-
land, who has repeated their reafonings in his ** Nature,
Obligation, and Efficacy of the Chriitian Sacrament con-
fidered.”’ Bifhop Warburton (Div. Leg. b. ix. c. 2.)
reprefents the whole of facrifice as ‘ fymbolical.”? The
offerings of firft-fruits he holds to be an a¢tion expreflive of
gratitude and homage ; and thus he accounts for the origin
of fuch facrifices as were euchariftic ; and in thofe that are
expiatory denoting the acknowledgment of and contrition
for fin; ftrongly expreffed by the death of the animal, re-
prefenting that death, which the offerer confeffed to be his
own defert. To thefe different hypothefes, it may generally
be replied (fays Dr. Magee, ubi infra), that the fad of
Abel’s facrifice feems inconfiftent with them all:—with
the firft, inafmuch as it mutt have been antecedent to thofe
diftin@tions of property, on which alone experience of the
effe@s of gifts upon men could have been founded ; the in-
trodu@tion of property, or exclufive right among mankind
being fixed by Dr. Rutherforth (from Gen. iv. 20.) no
higher than the time of Jubal, the eighth from Adam ; be-
fides, no being, as Kennicot remarks, has a right to the
lives of other beings, but the Creator, or thofe on whom he
confers that right ; fo that if God had not — Abel fuch
a right, even the exiftence of the notion of property, and
the familiar ufe and experience of gifts, could not have led
him to take away the life of the animal as a gift to the
Almighty ; nor, if they could have done fo, can we con-
ceive, that fuch an offering would have been gracioufly ae-
cepted.— With the fecond hypothefis the pote
a

SACRIFICE.

fa&t is inconfiftent, inafmuch as it took place feveral ages
prior to that period, at which both the words of Scripture,
and the opinions of the wifeit commentators, have fixed the
permiffion of animal food to man, which is faid to take its
date from the age of Noah.—With the third hypothefis it
is, according to the author now cited, inconfiftent, as the lan-
guage, which Scripture exprefsly ftates to have been de-
rived to our firit parents from divine inftruction, cannot be
fuppofed fo defective, in thofe terms that related to the
worfhip of God, as to have rendered it neceflary for Abel
to call in the aid of a@tions, to exprefs the fentiment of
gratitude or forrow ; and {till lefs likely is it, that he would
have reforted to that /pecies of a€tion, which in the eye of
reafon mutt have appeared difpleafing to God,—the flaughter
of an unoffending animal. A late ingenious writer, no lefe
refpected and efteemed for his liberality and candour than
for his biblical learning, even by thofe who differ from him in
_ his theological creed, conceives the rite of facrificing to have
been a ‘*fymbolical a¢tion,”’ adapted and intended to convey
important initruction. This opinion he fupports by an ap-
peal to the nature and form of facrifices, to their origin, and to
the fentiments of thofe who pra¢tifed them. he u:flruction
thus conveyed, as he fuppoles, comprehended the following
principles :—that fin is an offence againit the blefled God,
mott heinous in its evil nature, aggravated in its infeparable
though varying circumftances, and abfolutely infufferable
before his holy prefence:—that the effential righteoufnefs
of Jehovah renders it neceflary and inevitable that fin fhould
be punifhed:—that death, in all its tremendous meaning
and extent, is the proper punifhment of fin:—that the finner
is totally unable, by any powers or refources of his own,
to efeape the punifhment due to his offence :—yet that God
is full of mercy, and gracioufly willing to pardon the guilty
offender :—that the way of pardon is through the fubftitu-
tion and fufferings of a piacular vi€tim: and that, on the
part of the fuitor for pardoning mercy, there mult be fuch
a proprietorfhip in the victim as to create a beneficiary in-
tereft ; and fuch a moral difpofition as cordially acquiefces
in the punitive aéts of divine juftice.

In this folemn and affeéting manner was it declared to
ages and generations, that ‘* God is the righteous Judge, of
purer eyes than to behold evil, and who cannot countenance
iniquity; that his wrath is revealed from heaven againit all
ungodlinefs and unrighteoufnefs of men; that the wages
of fin ig death; that there is forgivenefs with the Lord,
and plenteous redemption ; but that-without the fhedding
of blood there is no remiffion.”’

This writer further proceeds to fhew, that the ancient fa-
crifices were defigned reprefentations of the work and offtce
of Chrift as a fofferin mediator ; and, moreover, that what
they could only reprefent and teach, his facrifice did truly and
actually effeét. The truth of the firft of thefe propofitions
he labours to evince from explicit declarations of the O. T.
(lee Pi. xL6.8. - Lev. vis 2.9. Pfiicx. 4. Zech. vi..13.
Dan. ix. 24—27. If. lin. 4, &c.), and alfo from the au-
thority of the N. T. which, as he apprehends, reprefents the
fufferings of Chrilt as partaking of the nature of a facrifice
forfin, (See John, i. 2g. 1 Cor. v. 7. Eph.v.2. Rom.
ili. 25. 1 Pet. i. 19. 1 John, ii. 2. Teb. vil. ix. x.
Luke, xxiv. 46. Rev.v. 12.) T’o the plain evidence of
Scripture he fubjoins the confideration, that within a few
years after the death of Chrilt, the offering of the daily fa-
crifiee in the temple of Jerufalem utterly ceafed, and has
never been reltored. Our author likewife ftates, that all
the objeéts which the typical facrifices reprefented or de-
clared, are really effedtcd by the facrifice of Chrilt. See

Dr. Pye Smith’s Difcourfe on the Sacrifice of Chrift, its
Nature, Value, and Efficacy.”” London. 1813.

Dr. Magee concurs in fomewhat fimilar reprefentations of
the nature and intention of animal facrifices under the Jewifh
difpenfation. The facrifice of Abel, and the patriarchal f{a-
crifices down to the giving of the law, fays this writer, record
and exemplify thofe momentous events in the hiftory of man,
—the death incurred by fin, and that infli&ed on our Re-
deemer. When this expreffive act of primeval worfhip was
corrupted and perverted, in procefs of time, it pleafed God
to feleét a peculiar people, to whom, by exprets revelation,
the knowledge of the one God was reftored, and the {pecies
of worfhip ordained by him from the beginning, particularly
enjoined. Accordingly we find, that the principal part of
the Jewifh fervice confitted of fazrifice, to which the virtue
of expiation and atonement is exprefsly annexed. The
Jewith facrifices, therefore, feem to have been defigned, in
our author’s opinion, as thofe from the beginning had been,
to pretigure that one, which was to make atonement for all
mankind. And as iz this all were to receive their confumma-
tion, fo with this they all conclude ; and the inftitution clofes
with the completion of its objet. The facrifices under the
temporal and ceremonial difpenfation of the law, fays this
writer, had a real efficacy in releafing thofe who were fub-
jected to it from its temporal penalties and ceremonial dif-
qualifications; in like manner as the one great facrifice
under the gofpel poflefles the power to releafe mankind at
large from the everlafting penalties of that {piritual law under
which all men are bound, and to cleanfe the confcience from
thofe moral impurities, which forbid all accefs to that Holy
Being, who is to be worfhipped only in {pirit and in truth.
The expiation then, under the old law, was no lefs real than
that which is prefigured under the new, whilft it bore to
the difpenfation of which it was a part, the fame proportion
which that more perfect expiation by the death of Chritt
bears to the more perfect difpenfation to which it apper-
tains; the wifdom of the divine contrivance, in this as in
the other branches of providential arrangement, rendering
that which was complete and effe€tual for its own imme-
diate purpofe, at the fame time introduétory and fubfer-
vient to other and more important objects. As the facri-
fices under the law were preparatory to that of Chrift, the
facred writers in.the N. T. naturally adopt the facrificial
terms of the ceremonial fervice, and by their reference to the
ufe of them asemployed under the law, clearly point out the
fenfe in which they are to be under{tood in their application
under the gofpel. In examining then the meaning of fuch
terms, when they occur in the New Teftament, we are
clearly direéted to the explanation that is circumftantially
given of them in the O/d. Thus, when we find the virtue
of atonement attributed to the facrifice of Chrift, in like
manner as it had been to thofe under the law; by attending
to the reprefentation fo minutely given in the latter, we are
enabled to comprehend its true import in the former. If
it be allowed that the facrifice of Chrift was the great object
held to view in the appointment of all preceding facrifices,
it mutt follow, that the writers of the N. T. were fo far
from employing the facrificial terms in mere accommodation
to Jewith notions, as Mr. H. ‘Taylor, Dr. Prieftley, and others
imagine, that they muft have sled them as heeds belong-
ing to the death of Chrilt ; and as in ftrié reba more
aptly charaéterizing the Chriltian facrifice, than thofe facri-
fices of typical import to which they had been applied under
the law. It is obferved by the excellent archbifhop Tillot-
fon (vol, i. p. 440.), that the notion of the expiation of fin
by facrifigas of one kind or other feems to have obtained very

F 2 early

SACRIFICE.

early in the world ; and to have had an univerfal reception in
all times and places. He adds, that a great part of the Jewifh
religion and worfhip was a plain condefcenfion to the general
apprehenfions of men, concerning this way of appealing the
Deity by facrifice ; and the greateft part of the Pagan re-
ligion and worfhip was likewife founded upon the fame no-
tion and opinion, which, becaufe it was fo univerfal, feems
to have had its original from the firft parents of mankind,
either immediately after the creation, or after the flood, and
thence, as to the fubftance of this notion, to have been de-
rived and propagated to all their poiterity. With this ge-
neral notion of mankind, whatever the ground or found-
ation of it might be, God was pleafed fo far to comply, as
once for all to have a general atonement made for the fins of
all mankind, by the facrifice of his only Son. The fame
author elfewhere obferves, that God was pleafed to’ comply
with thofe notions that had generally pofleffed mankind fo
far, as, in the frame of the Jewifh religion, (defigned for a
type of the more perfeé inftitution of the Chriftian religion,
and a preparation for it,) to appoint facrifices to be flain
and offered up for the finner ; and that afterwards, in the dif-
penfation of the gofpel, the fame condefcenfion to the ap-
prehenfions of mankind was likewife obferved. Tillotfon’s
idea correfponds with that which was afterwards adopted by
Spencer, and which has been already mentioned.

It has been maintained by many writers on this fubject,
that expiatory facrifice, in the {trict and preper fenfe of the
word, was a part of the Mofaic inftitution ; and that pro-
pitiatory facrifices not only exifted through the Gentile
world, but had place under the law of Motes: It has alfo
been alleged, that the Mofaic facrifice had a vicarious im-
port ; or, in other words, that it exprefled an acknowledg-
ment of what the finner had deferved: this, it has been
afferted, not only feems direétly fet forth in the account of
the firft offering in Leviticus (xix. 20. 22.), where it is faid
of the perfon who brought a free-will offering, “ he fhall lay
his hand upon the head of the burnt-offering, and it fhall be
accepted for him, to make atonement for him;” but the
ceremony of the /cape-goat (which fee), on the day of ex-
piation, is thought to place this matter beyond doubt.

Dr. Magee, a writer to whom we have already referred,
ufes the expreffion vicarious import rather than vicarious, to
avoid the charge made againft the doétrine of atonement, of
fuppofing a real fubftitution in the room of the offender, and
a literal tranflation of his guilt and punifhment to the immo-
lated viétim ; a thing utterly incomprehenfible, as neither gui/t
nor punifbment can be’ conceived, but with reference to con-
fcioufne/s, which cannot be transferred. But, he fays, that to
be expofed to /uffring in confequence of another’s guilt ;
and thereby, at the fame time, to repre/ent to the offender,
and to releafe him from, the punifhment due to his tranf-
greffion, involves no contradi€tion whatever. In this fenfe,
the fuffering of the animal may be conceived a fubftitute for
the punifhment of the offender ; inafmuch as it is in virtue of
that fuffering the finner is releafed. The offering of the ani-
mal, fays this writer, flain in facrifice may be confidered vi-
carious in /ymbol (or, as reprefenting the penal effe&ts of the
offerer’s demerits, and his releafe from the deferved punifh-
ment, im confequence of the death of the viétim), and feems to
require little proof, beyond the paflages of Scripture to which
we have already referred. On the other hand, the vica-
rious nature of the Mofaic facrifices has been objected to by
Dr, Sykes, Mr. H. Taylor, and many others. The ob-
jeftions againft this theory have been clafled by the

writers now mentioned, under the following heads :—1. It
ts no where faid in the O. 'T. that the life of the vi@im was

given as a vicarious fubjlitute for the life of him who offered
it. 2. The atonement was not made by the death of the
animal, but by the fprinkling of the blood at the altar. 3. No
atonement could be made, where /ife was forfeited. 4. Atone-
ments were made by the facrifice of animals in fome cafes
where no guilt was involved. And, 5. Atonements were
fometimes made without the death of an animal, or any blood-
fhedding whatever. This, fays Dr. Magee, is the fum total
of the arguments colle&ed by the induttry of thefe writers,
againit the notion of the vicarious nature of facrifice. Fo
the firft it may be anfwered, that it is repeatedly afferted in
the O. T. that, in cafes where punifhment had been incurred,
and even where life itfelf was forfeited, the due oblaticn of
an animal in facrifice was effe€tual to procure the reverfal of
the forfeiture, and the pardon of the offender: that is, the
death of the animal was fo far reprefented, as {tanding in place
of the offender’s punifhment, and in fome cafes, even of his
death, that through it, whatever might be the mode of its
operation, the seve was enabled to efcape. But, as
Dr. Magee does not contend for a ftri& vicarious fubttitu-
tion, or literal equivalent, no fuch notion belonging to the
do&trine of atonement, it is not neceflary that any precife
and appropriate cafe expreffing it fhould be produced.
The words 45 and Nyy), in their facrificial application,
he fays, fufficiently admit the vicarious import: and the
defcription of the facrificial ceremony, and its confequences,
efpecially in the inftance of the fcape-goat, pofitively prove
it: and beyond this nothing further can be required.

To the fecond obje€tion it is replied, that it was by the
fprinkling of the blood before the altar, according to the
prefcribed rites of facritice, the life of the animal was offered ;
the law exprefsly declaring the life to be in the blood. See
on Ley. xvii. 11. Ainfworth and Patrick ; and for the opi-
nion of the Jewifh do€tors, Outram de Sacrif. |. i. c. 22. § 11.

To the third objeétion Dr. Magee replies, that it is un-
true, in point of faé, fophiftical in point of reafoning, and
impertinent in point of application.

We fhall here only felec&t what our author has urged on the
laft of thefe points, viz. that the whole argument is inap-
plicable: becaufe, as he fays, they who held the do&trine of
a vicarious punifbment do not find it neceflary to contend, that
the evil infliéted on the viétim fhould be exaétly the fame in
quality and degree with that denounced againft the offender ;
it depending upon the will of the legiflator, what fatisfa&tion
he will accept in place of the punifhment of the offender. (See
Outram de Sac. li. c. 21. § 1, 2. 9.) But ftill lefs will this
argument apply, where vicarious puni/bment is not contended
for, but merely an emblematic fubttitute, the refult of infli-
tution, and which in no refpeét involves the notion of an
equivalent.

To the fourth objeGtion it is anfwered, that fome fa-
crifices were not vicarious, inafmuch as there were fome
that were not for fin; it does not follow that, where
moral guilt was involved, the facrifice was not vicarious.
To the fifth and laft objeGtion Dr. Magee replies, that, al-
though no vicarious fubititution of a life could be conceived,
where life was not given at all; yet it does not from hence
follow, that where a life was given, it might not admit a vi-
carious import. The offering of four was made only where
the offerer was fo poor that he could not poflibly procure

an animal for facrifice.
In conneétion with the fubjeét of facrifices in Saat
ifferent
crifice of Chrift. The texts

we cannot forbear adverting to the opinions of

writers with regard to the ti

to which we are referred, that defcribe Chrift’s death as a

facrifice for fin, are as follow: viz. If. li, 5—8. a.
xx. 28.

SACRIFICE.

xx. 28. xxvi. 28. Mark, x. 45. Acts, viii. 32, 33.
Rom. ins 1245 (250. iv. 25. v.60: «ne Core ver 7.
xv. 3. 2Cor. v.21. Eph.i.7. Col-i-14. 1 Tim. it. 6.
Heb. i. 3. ii. 17. ix. 12—28. x. 10:14. 18. 1 Pet.i.
18, 19. 1 John, iv. ro. Rey. v.9g—12. xii. 8. All
thefe, it is alleged by fome authors, and feveral other paf-
fages, fpeak of the death of Chrift, in the fame facrificial
terms, that had been applied to the fin-offerings of old; {fo
that they who would reject the notion of Chrift’s death, as
atrue and real facrifice for fin, muft refine away the na-
tural and direét meaning of all thefe paflages ; or, in other
words, they » muit new-model the entire tenor of the
Scripture language, before they can accomplifh their point.
Some writers of this clafs affert, that, by the facrifice of
himfelf, Jefus Chrift voluntarily fuftained the guilt and
punifhment of iin ;—that the idea of fubftitution or vi-
carious fuffering was effential to the theory of facrifices, as
underftood and praétifed by profane and facred antiquity,
and originally initituted by God himfelf ;—that in virtue
of the union conftituted by the wifdom and grace of God,
between the Saviour and mankind, he voluntarily put him/elf
in their place, and fuffered as if he had been a tran{greflor, in
order that they might be delivered from the guilt, or legal
condemnation, of their fins, and by confequence from the
pollution and practical power of fin ;—arid that the divine
wifdom formed a moral conititution by which the guilt and
punifhment of fin, fo far as was neceflary for the purpofes of
facrificial atonement, were aflumed by the finlefs viGtim, and
the worth of his obedience and fufferings became imputable,
on grounds of right and reafon, to the finner who is brought
to a cordial acquiefcence in this plan of holinefs and grace,
&e. &e. (Smith’s Difc. ubi fupra.) Others have been of
opinion, that, in allufion and accommodation to the ancient
and almoft univerfal praétice of facrificing, and-with a view
to facilitate the reception of Chriftianity by gratifying the
prejudices of the Jews, the New Teftament reprefents Jefus
Chrift as having offered a facrifice to God; though, in a
real and proper fenfe, he did no fuch thing. Perfons be-
longing to this clafs affirm, that as the Jews had a profound
veneration for their temple, their priefthood, and their
altar, the firft Chriftian teachers endeavoured to ingratiate
themfelves, and procure acceptance to their fyftem, by find-
ing in it likewife a prieft, a facrifice, and an altar. Terms,
it has been faid, were borrowed from-the facrifices of the
law to exprefs the death and fufferings of Chrift, in a
manner more lively and impreflive. As a proof that the
application of thefe terms is but figurative, it is contended,
rit, that the death of Chriit did not correfpond /iterally and
exattly to the ceremonies of the Mofaic facrifice ; 2dly, that
being in different places, compared to different kinds of
facrifices, to all of which it could not poflibly correfpond,
it cannot be confidered as exaétly of the nature of any;
and, laftly, that there was no fuch thing as a facrifice of
tiation or expiation of fin, under the Mofaic difpenfation
coal; this vj root Lig dhe entirely of heathen origin.
Hence they have been led to entertain a different notion of
atonement from that which has been above ftated.

For a fummary of the different opinions that have been
entertained with regard to the doétrine of Atonement, we
refer to that article ; and for a fuller difcuffion of the fub-
jet, the reader may confult Dr. Magee’s “ Difcourfes and
Differtations on the Scriptural Doétrine of Atonement and
Sacrifice,” in 2 vols. 8vo. ed. 3. London, 1812.

We fhall now return to the confideration of facrifices in
— and more particularly of the prevalence of human

acrifices in the Gentile world. Of this favage cultom, M.
de Paauw (Rech. Phil. fur les Amer. v. i. p. 211.) aflerts,

that there is no nation mentioned in hiilory, which we can-
not reproach with having more than once made the blood
of its citizens ftream forth, in holy and pious ceremonies,
to appeafe the divinity when he appeared to be angry, or
to move him when he appeared indolent. Of this pofition,
fays Dr. Magee (ubi fupra), both ancient and modern hif-
torians fupply the fulleit confirmation. Heliodorus informs
us, that the Ethiopians were required by their laws to
facrifice boys to the fun, and girls to the moon. Among
the Pheenicians, it was cuftomary in great and public cala-
mities, for princes and magiltrates to offer up in facrifice to
the avenging demons the deareft of their offspring. Hero-
dotus defcribes it as a cuftom with the Scythians to facrifice
every 10odth man of their prifoners to their god Mars.
Keys reprefents the fpreading oaks under which they were
ufed to perform their fanguinary rites, as being always
profufely {fprinkled with the blood of the expiring viGtims.
The Egyptians, as we learn from Diodorus Siculus, facri-
ficed red-haired men at the tomb of Ofiris, from which, as
he fays, mifunderftood by the Greeks, arofe the fable of the
bloody rites of Bufiris. With thefe people it was cuf.
tomary to facrifice to the river Nile a young and beautiful
virgin, by throwing her, decked in the richeft attire, into
the ftream ; and this cuftom is faid to remain to the prefent
day. (See Nie.) The fame cruel praétice prevailed
among the Chinefe, with a view to pacify their offended
deity, and to avert from the nation dreadful calamities.
The Perfians alfo were addiéted to the fame ufage ; as ap-
pears by the teftimonies of Herodotus, Xenophon, Arrian,
Ovid, Strabo, Suidas, &c.: and Herodotus fays it was the
Perfian cuftom to offer human viétims by inhumation. The
ancient Indians, likewife, are reprefented, both by fir W.
Jones (Afiat. Ref. vol. i.) and Mr. Wilkins, as having
been polluted by the blood of human viétims: the praétice
feems to have been enjoined by the very code of Brahma.
(See Maurice’s Ind. Antiq. p. 164—166.) Of the fame
horrid nature were the rites of the early Druids. (See
Druin.) It is faid to have been the cuftom of the Gallic
Druids, to fet up an immenfe gigantic figure of a wicker
man, in the texture of which they entwined above 100
human victims, and then confumed the whole as an offering
to their gods. oe Clarke’s Czfar.) The Druids of
Mona were no lefs cruel in their religious ceremonies than
their brethren of Gaul. Tacitus reprefents it as their
conftant ufage to facrifice to their gods the prifoners taken
inwar. In the northern nations, thefe tremendous mytteries
were ufually buried in the gloom of the thicket woods.
We learn from Porphyry, that it was anciently a rule with
every Grecian itate, before they marched againft an enemy,
to fupplicate their gods by human viétims ; and schieilingly
we find human facrifices attributed to the Thebans, Corin-
thians, Meflenians, and Temmefenfes, by Paufanias ; to the
Lacedemonians, by Fulgentius, Theodoret, and Apol-
lodorus ; andto the Athenians, by Plutarch ; and with the
Athenians, as well as the Maffihans, it was a cuftom of
facrificing a man every year, after loading him with dreadful
curfes, that the wrath of the gods might fall upon his head,
and be turned away from the reft of the citizens. The
practice prevailed alfo among the Romans, as we learn from
Livy, Plutarch, and Pliny. The fame cruel mode of
appeafing their offended gods is afcribed to all the other
heathen nations; to the Getw, by Herodotus; to the
Leucadians, by Strabo; to the Goths, by Jornandes ; to
the Gauls, by Cicero and by Cafar; to the Heruli, by
Procopius; to the Britons, by ‘Tacitus and by Pliny ; to
the Germans, by Tacitus ; to the srt Sep by Sancho-
niathon, by Plato, by Pliny, by Silius Italicus, by en

7 bf

SACRIFICE.

by Ennius, and by Diodorus, The latter writer reports,
that they offered 200 victims at ence, and that this horrid
fuperitition was carried to fuch an extreme, as that it was
u(ual for the parent himfelf to flaughter the deareit and
molt beautiful of his offspring at the altars of their bloody
deities. We learn from Scripture, that the prattice exifted
in Canaan, before the Ifraelites came thither. Of the
Arabians, the Cretans, the Cyprians, the Rhodians, the
Phoceans, thofe of Chios, Lefbos, and Tenedos, the fame
fa&t may be affirmed. (See Porphyr. apud Eufeb. P.
Evang. lib. iv. c. 16.) The fame is charged upon the
inhabitants of Pella. The univerfality of the praétice in
the ancient Heathen world cannot be difputed. Upon the
whole, it is evident that the Gentile religion, in carly
ages, appears to have been in a high degree, to fay the leatt
of it, a religion of fear; and the fame principle has very
much and too generally a€tuated it to the prefent day.
Slaves have been very commonly facrificed in later times,
efpecially among the northern nations ; and we are informed
by Mallet (North. Antiq. vol. i.), that the practice was
not abolifhed in thofe regions until the gth century ; and in
the ifland of Rugia, as Jortin fays, on the authority of
Fleury, this cuftom fubfifted fo late as the clofe of the 12th
century. The fame dreadful practice is found, even now,
to exift in Africa, where captives, taken in war, are facri-
ficed to their fetiches; and among the iflanders of the
South feas, as we learn from captain Cook and other
voyagers, human facrifices are very frequent. Befides, the
annual facrifices of the Mexicans have required many thou-
fands of yi&tims; and in Peru, 200 children have been
devoted for the health of the Inca. Mr. Maurice alfo
informs us, that at this day, among certain tribes of the
Mahrattas, human victims, difltinguifhed by their beauty
and youthful bloom, are fattened like oxen for the altar;
nor is the notion of the efficacy of human facrifice extiné
in India at the prefent time. For various inftances of this
kind, we refer to Dr. Magee, ubi fupra ; Dr. Smith’s Ditc. ;
Grotius de Satisf. Chrifti; Dr. Owen, De Natura, &c.
Verx Theol. &c. &c.

Macrobius tells us, that the Egyptians, long accuftomed
to bloodlefs facrifices, being at length obliged to admit the
worfhip of Serapis and Saturn, to whom viéims were to be
facrificed, would not allow their temples to be built in the
cities. Thefe viétims, however, or bloody facrifices, at
length ebtained, in exclufion of almoft all the reft : the moft
ufual of thefe among the ancients, were bulls, oxen, cows,
fheep, and lambs, becaufe thefe were the moft ordinary
food of man.

The manner of facrificing among the ancient Hebrews
is amply defcribed in the books of Mofes. That in ufe
among the Romans is as follows. In the choice of the vic-
tim, care was taken it were without blemifh or imperfeétion ;
its tail not too {mall at the end; the tongue not black, nor
the ears cleft ; andthe bull, fuch as had never been yoked.
The victim being pitched upon, they gilded his forehead and
horns, efpecially if a bull, heifer, or cow. The head they
alfo adorned with a woollen infula, whence hung two rows
of chaplets with twifted ribbands ; and on the middle of the
body a kind of ftole, pretty large, hung down on both
fides: the lefler vi€tims were only adorned with bundles
of flowers and garlands, together with white tufts or
wreaths.

The victims, thus made ready, were brought before the
altar: the leffer were not led in a ftring, but driven to the
place; the greater were conducted in a halter: if they made
any ftruggle, or refufed to go, the refiltance was taken for
an jl] augury, and the facrifice was often fet afide. The vice

tim, thus brought before the altar, was examined very cir-
cum{pe&ily, to fee if there were no defeét in it ; then the
prieft, being clad in his facerdotal habit, and accompanied
with the facriticers and other attendants, and being wafhed
and purified according to the ceremonies prefcribed, began
the facrifice, with making a loud confeffion of his unwor-
thinefs, acknowledging himfelf guilty of divers fins; for
which he begged pardon of the gods, hoping they would
be pleafed to grant his requefts. The confeffions were like
thofe of the Hebrews ; withthis difference, that the Pagans
confefled the frailty of mankind, and owned their faults ;
the Jews confefled chiefly the greatnefs of God, accompany-
ing it with hymns and mufical inftruments,

The confeflion being finifhed, the prieft cried aloud, Hoe
age ! i.e. compote yourfelves, and mind your bufinefs ; and
prefently an ufher, holding a rod in his hand, called com-
mentaculum, went through the temple, and made all thofe
withdraw who were not initiated in the myfteries of re-
ligion, or fuch as were excommunicated.

Sacrifices among the Greeks were of four kinds, viz.
1. Free-will offerings, or fuch as were paid in confequence
of a vow, Mneisners and <vxJasa ; for a victory obtained, the
firft-fruits offered by hufbandmen fora plentiful harveit, and
the like. 2. Propitiatory offerings, :Axsix«, to avert the anger
of fome offended deity, and fuch were all facrifices ufed in
expiation. 3. Petitionary facrifices, avilixe, for fuccefs in
any enterprife. 4. Sacrifices exprefsly commanded by fome
oracle or prophet, 7% a0 parlevace

The cuftom of the Greeks, from whom the Romans bor-
rowed theirs, was, that the prieft coming to the altar,
fhould aflc aloud, Ts; ++ 3:2 Who is here? The people an-
{wered, Todo: xx+ ayx90, Many good perfons: then the
ufher went through the temple, crying, Exas exas ext, BeCnroty
that is, Out with the wicked. The Romans commonly
ufed the words, Nocentes, Profani, abfcedite. All thofe who
were driven out of the temples among the Greeks, were
comprehended under thefe general words, A:GrAc, cuunroly
ona4xecr. The profane being withdrawn, they cried, Favete
linguis, or animis, and Pa/cite linguam, to require filence and
attention during the facrifice.

Thefe ceremonies ended, the chief facrificer being fat
down, and the reft of them ftanding, the magiftrates or
private perfon, who offered facrifice, came before him, and
prefented him with the firft-fruits and viétim, and fometimes
made a fhort difcourfe, by way of compliment, as we find
Homer makes Ulyffes do, when he prefented the high prieft
with Iphigenia to be facrificed. As any perfon came to pre-
fent his offering, he wafhed his hands in a place appointed in
the temple for that purpofe,

Laftly, when the offering was made, the prieft that offi-
ciated perfumed the victim with incenfe, and fprinkled
it with the luftral water ; and having wafhed his hands,
and got up again to the altar, he prayed to the
to whom he prefented the facrifice, with a loud voice,
that he would accept of thofe offerings, and be pleafed
with the viétim he facrificed to him for the public good,
and for fuch and fuch things in particular. In the clofe
of the offertory and prayer, made by the prieit to the
god, he came down the fteps of the altar, and from the
hand of one of his affiftants, received the facred paite, called
mola falfa, made of barley or wheat flour, mixed with falt
and water, which he threw upon the head of the vidtim,
fprinkling a little wine upon it, which was called immolatio.
Servius fays, the prieft {cattered little bits of this pafte upon
the head of the victim, and alfo on the altar where the facred
fire burned, and on the knives, by way of confecration.

He then took wine in a vellel called fimpulum, and ps

ta

I

SAC

tafted it himfelf firft, and made his affiftants do the fame, to
fhew that they partook of the facrifice, he poured it between
the horns of the vittim, pronouncing thefe words of the
confecration, Ma@us hoc vino inferis effo. "This done, he
pulled off the hairs from between the horns, and threw them
into the fire; and commanded the vidtimarius (who afked
him, 4gon? Shall I ftrike?) to knock down the viétim with
a blow onthe head with a hammer or axe; upon which
another affiftant, named popa, prefently thruft a knife into
its throat ; whilit a third received the blood, with which the
prieft {prinkled the altar.

When the viétim was flain, they flayed him, if it was not
a burnt-offering (for they then burned {kin and all) ; they
then took the flefh of the head, and adorning it with garlands
and flowers, faftened it to the pillars of the temples, as well
as the fins, as enfigns of religion ; carrying them about in
proceffion in public calamities. Not but that the priefts
oft wore the fkins, and others went to fleep upon them in the
temple of AX{culapius and Faunus, that they might receive
favourable refponfes in their dreams, or be cured of their
maladies. They then opened the viétim’s entrails, and after
circum{pe@tly viewing them, to draw prefages therefrom,
according to the art of the arufpices, they floured them with
meal, and {prinkled them with wine, and made a prefent of
them tothe gods, reddebant exta diis, by throwing them into
the fire in {mall bits, boiled or parboiled ; and hence the en-
trails were called porrice. :

The entrails being burned, and the other ceremonies
finifhed, they believed the gods to be fatisfied ; and that they
could not fail to find the vows accomplifhed, which they ex-
prefied by the word /itare, q. d. allis finifhed, and well done ;
whereas zon litare, on the contrary, intimated there was
fomething wanting to the perfeétion of the facrifice, and that
the gods were not appeafed. The prieft afterwards dif-
miffed the people with this form, J/icet.

Hence it may be obferved, that the facrifices confifted of
four principal parts; the firft called /ibatio, or the pour-
ing a little wine upon the viétim ; the fecond immolatio, when,

ter they had fcattered the crumbs of falted pafte thereon,
they killed it; the third redditio, when they offered the en-
trails to the gods ; and the fourth /itatio, when the facrifice
was perfected, and accomplifhed without any fault. Fora
more particular account of the materials and rites of facrifice,
fee Potter’s Archzol. Grec. tom. i. p. 200, &c.

Sacririce Rock, in Geography, a rocky iflet in the Indian
fea, near the coait of Malabar; fo called, becaufe when
the Portuguefe firft fettled in India, the whole crew of one
of their veffels, which the natives had feized, were facri-
ficed upon it ; 18 miles S. of Telicherry. N. lat. 11° 43).
E. long. 75° 27'.

Sacnirters, [/land of, a {mall ifland in the Pacific ocean,
near the weft coait of New Mexico. N. lat.15°40!. W.
long. 98° 6/.—-Alfo, a {mall ifland in the gulf of Mexico ;
8 miles S. of St. Jean de Ulua.

SACRILEGE, Sacrizecium, the crime of profaning
facred things, or things devoted to God ; or of alienating to
laymen, or common purpofes, what was given to religious
perfons, and pious ufes.

Our forefathers were fo tender in this cafe, that, when
the order of knights Templars was diffolved, their lands,
&c. were all given to the knights Hofpitallers of Jerufalem,
for this reafon, “ Ne in pios ufus erogata, contra donatorum
voluntatem, in alios ufus diftraherentur.”’

Church robbery, or a taking of things out of a holy
place, is facrilege ; as where a perfon fteals any veflels,
ornaments, or on of the church: and it is faid to bea

robbery of God, at lealt of what was dedicated to his fer-

SAC

vice. If any thing belonging to private perfons, left in a
church, be ftolen, it is only common theft, not facrilege :
but the canon law determines that alfo to be facrilege; as
likewife the ftealing of a thing known to be confecrated, in
a place not confecrated. By the civil law, facrilege is
punifhed with greater feverity than any other thefts; and
the common law diltinguifhed this crime from other robberies,
for it denied the benefit of the clergy to the offenders, which
it did not do to other felons; but by ftatute it is put upon
a footing with other felonies, by making it felony excluded
of clergy, as moft other felonies are.

All perfons ‘not in holy orders, who fhall be indiG@ed,
whether in the fame county where the fa& was committed,
or inadifferent county, of robbing any church, chapel, or
other holy place, are excluded from their clergy, by
2gyH. VIII ci 2.) 25 He Vile.) 57816 Ed. V1.
c. 10. And all perfons in general are ouited of their clergy
for their felonious taking of any goods out of any parifh
church, or other church or chapel, by the 1 Ed. VI. c. 12.
But the word rebbing being always taken to carry with it
fome force, it feems no facrilege is within thefe ftatutes,
which is not accompanied with the actual breaking of a
church, &c. And the ftatute 23 Hen. VIII. is the only
ftatute which extends to acceffaries to thefe robberies, ex-
cept the offence amount to burglary ; in which cafe acceflaries
before are oufted of clergy, by 3 &4W. &M. c.g.

SACRIMA, among the Romans, the new wine which
was offered to Bacchus, as an acknowledgment of his
protecting and preferving every thing that belonged to
wine.

SACRISTA, or SacrisTan, a church-officer, other-
wile called fexton. ;

SACRISTY, Sacrist1a, a place or apartment in the
church, where the veffels, and other utenfils and ornaments
of the church, are preferved ; and where the minifters drefs
and undrefs themfelves before and after the fervice.

The facrifty is alfo called in ancient authors, /écretarium :
among us the veftry.

SACROBOSCO, Joun pz, in Biography, an eminent
mathematician in the 13th century, has been claimed for a
countryman by writers of the Englifh, Scotch, and Ivith
nations. According to Leland and Pitts, he was born at
Halifax, in Yorkfhire, whence they derive his furname.
According to Stainhurft, he was a native of Holywood,
near Dublin; but according to Dempiter and Mackenzie,
he was born at Nithfdale, in Scotland. His Englith bio-
graphers ftate, that he received his academical education at
Oxford ; and by Mackenzie it is faid, that, after finifhing
his {tudies, he took holy orders, and became a canon-regular
of the order of St. Auguttine, in the monaftery of Holy-
wood, in Nithfdale. He {pent the greater part of his life
at Paris, where, in 1221, he was admitted a member of the
univerfity, under the fyndics of the Scotch nation. Here
he diftinguifhed himfelf by his proficiency in polite literature
and philofophy, and more particularly by the ardour and
fuccefs with which he cultivated the mathematical {ciences.
Being appointed profeffor of mathematics, he dilcharged
the duties of his high office with great reputation for many
years, and became one of the ableft mathematicians of hie
time. He died in 1256. He was author of a learned trea-
tife, “ De Sphera Mundi,” which has been frequently re-
printed, and illuftrated with the commentaries of Clavius,
Valerian, Venetus, Nonius, and other learned mathema-
ticians. His other works are, “ De Anni Ratione feu de
computo Ecclefialtico ;”’ De Algorifmo ;” “ De Altros
labia ;”? “* Breviarium Juris.”

SACRO-COCCYGEUS, in Anatomy, a name given

Y

SAC
by Winflow to a mufcle now generally called fimply the

coccygaeus ; he calls it alfo coccygaeus ke erior.

SACRO-LUMBALIS, a mufcle of the back, of an elon-
gated figure; thick and triangular below, where it is clofely
conneéted to the longiffimus dorfi ; flattened and thin above,
where it ends in a point ; extending from the facrum and os
innominatum to the ribs, and to the tranfverfe procefles of
the four or five lowelt cervical vertebre. Thus it fills the
outer part of that hollow which is left at the fide of the
fpinous procefles: below, this mufcle and the longiffimus
dorfi form a Jarge and common mafs of mufcular and ten-
dinous fibres, which fills up the {pace between the facral
{pine and the back of the os innominatum. Oppofite to the
laft rib, the two mufcles become diftin@. We may diftin-
et in the facro-lumbalis, an anterior and a pofterior fur-

ace, an inner and an outer edge.

The pofterior furface, which is broad below and narrower
above, is covered by the aponeurofes of the obliquus in-
ternus, and tranfverfus abdominis of the ferratus inferior
pofticus and latiflimus dorfi: above the latter it is covered
by the trapezius, the rhomboideus, the ferratus fuperior
pofticus, and the levator fcapule. A thin aponeurofis,
continued from the ferratus fuperior to the ferratus inferior
potticus, covers the facro-lumbalis and the longiffimus dorfi.
The outer edge of this aponeurofis is fixed to the angles of
the ribs, the inner to the fpinous procefles of the dorfal
vertebre.

The anterior furface of the facro-lumbalis covers, below,
the pofterior furface of the facrum, to which it is attached ;
above this bone, it covers the middle layer of the aponeurofis
of the tranfverfus abdominis, and the tranfverfe proceffes of
the lumbar vertebre, to the extremities of which it 1s at-
tached ; laftly, it covers the ribs, the external intercoftal
mufcles, the longiffimus dorfi, and the tranverfalis colli, to
which it is connected.

The internal edge of the mufcle is united to the longiffi-
mus dorfi, from its lower part to the laft falfe rib; then it
lies on this mufcle, from which it is feparated by a line of
cellular tiflue, and by the filaments of the pofterior branches
of the dorfal nerves. The upper part of this edge adheres
to the tranfverfalis colli. The outer margin is attached
below to the polterior end of the criita of the os innomina-
tum, to the neighbouring part of theinternal furface of this
bone, and to the facro-iliac ligaments. From the crifta of
the ilium to the lait rib, it hes between the pofterior and
middle layers of the aponeurofis of the tranfverfus abdo-
minis; then it is fixed to the angles of the eleven lower ribs,
and to the tubercle of the firft. It then is inclined forwards,
and attached to the tranfverfe procefles of the four or five
lower cervical vertebre.

The facro-lumbaris confifts of aponeurofes, tendons, and
mufeular fibres. At its lower and back part we find a thick
and ftrong aponeurofis, common to it with the longiffimus
dorfi, arifing from the back of the facrum, and of the crifta
of the ilium, and from the {pinous proceffes of the lumbar
vertebra, and terminating on the facro-lumbalis, midway
between the crifta and the laft rib. The portion of this
aponeurofis, belonging to the longiflimus dorfi, afcends
high on that mufcle, and is not feparated from that of the
facro-lumbalis. The latter affords attachment, below, to
the gluteus magnus. On the outer edge of the mufcle we
find fifteen or fixteen tendons, of which the eleven lowett
are’ attached to the angles of the eleven loweit ribs, the
twelfth to the tubercle of the firft rib, and the three or four
others to the tranfverfe procefles of the inferior cervical
vertebra. ‘The lower tendons are broad and fhort; the
middle narrower and longer; the upper ones narroweft and

Ss Are

longeft. Each tendon terminates in an aponeurofis, which
is extended over the back of the mufcle: often feveral of
thefe unite together at their edges, and form a fingle more or
lefs extenfive aponeurotic plane. When the facro-lumbalis is
feparated from the longiflimus dorfi, and turned outwards, a
feries of mufcular fafciculi, terminating in tendons, is feen
on its anterior furface. There are twelve of thefe: they
are thick and fhort below, longer and flenderer above.
The tendons arife from the upper edges of the ribs at their
angles, afcend obliquely from without- inwards, and ter-
minate in the mufcular fafciculi, which join the front fur-
face of the facro-lumbalis. Thefe are called by fome ana-
tomifts, mufculi accefforii ad facro-lumbalem.

The mufcular fibres run obliquely from the great pof-
terior aponeurofis, the critta ilii, and the tranfverfe proceffes
of the lumbar vertebr, to the tendons at the outer edge of
the mufcle: the inner ones are the longelt.

The portion fixed above to the tran{verfe procefles of the
cervical vertebrx is often defcribed as a particular mufcle,
under the name of cervicalis defcendens ; and thofe portions,
which are fixed to the upper edges of the ribs, are alfo
feparately defcribed as the mufculi accefforii.

When the cheft has been inclined forwards on the pelvis,
the facro-lumbalis, extending the vertebral column, rettores
the trunk to tke ere€t pofition, and inclines it backwards,
as much as the ftruéture of the {pine will admit. This and
the longiflimus dorfi are the great extenfors of the fpine,
and hence have been included together under the common
term of ereétor dorfi. The upper portion, fixed to the
cervical vertebre, extends the neck upon the back, and in-
clines it backwards. The mufcle of one fide, aéting fepa-
rately, inclines the trunk or neck to its own fide; but if
the right and left a& together, they move the fpine dire&ly
backwards. Their contig action is neceflary to maintain
the trunk in its perpendicular attitude ; becaufe the weight
of the head and of the abdominal vifcera would carry the
trunk forwards, if the parts were left to themfelves.

SACRO-SCIATIC, or Sacro-iscHiATIc, a name
given to the two notches (the greater and the lefs) in the
potterior and lower part of the os innominatum. The fame
name is alfo given to the two large ligaments, which extend
from the os innominatum to the fide of the facrum and
coccyx, and which are diftinguifhed as the great and fmall
facro-{ciatic ligaments. ‘Thefe ligaments convert the notches
of the bone into foramina, which are alfo called facro-fciatic
foramina. See Exrrenities and Petvis.

SACRUM, the bone which forms the lower end of the
vertebral column, and the middle poiterior part of the pelvis.
It is faid to have been fo called, becaute this portion of the
animal was particularly felected for burning in facrifices.
It is defcribed under Spine.

Sacrum Promontorium, in Ancient Geography, a promon-
tory of Lufitania, now cape St. Vincent.—Alfo, a pro-
montory of Afia Minor, in Lycia, between the mouth of the
river Lymiros and the town of Olympe., Ptolemy.—Alfo,
a promontory of European Sarmatia. Ptolemy.—Alfo, a
promontory in the north of the eaitern part of the ifland of
Corfica. Ptolemy.—Alfo, a promontory at the entrance
of the Euxine fea, 200 ftadia from Chalcedon.

SACSAHUANA, in Geography, a town of Peru, in
the diocefe of Cufco; 15 miles W. of Cufco.

SACTA. See Sakta.

SACTAGONG, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in the circar of Aurungabad; 18 miles S.W. of Aurun-
gabad.

SACTI. See Saxtr.

SACTIM,

wes

SAD

SACTIM, a word ufed by fome of the chemical writers
to exprefs vitriol. : ‘

SACUDA, in Geography, a town of Hindoottan, in
Candeifh ; 21 miles S.W.of Burhampour.

SACUMBA, an inland~country of Africa, north of
Monomotapa, about S. lat. 16°. E.long. 27°. ~

SACY, Lovts pe, in Biography, an advocate and an
eftimable man of letters, was born at Paris in 1654. He
was educated for the bar, and became diitinguifhed for the
eloquence and foundnefs of his pleadings, as he was for the
probity of his conduét, and the polifh and amenity of his
manners. He employed all his time in the purfuits of litera-
ture ; and in 1699 and 1701 he publifhed «* A Tranflation
of Pliny’s Epiftles,”’ which was well received by the public,
and obtained for him a feat in the French academy. It is
fpoken of in very high terms by d’Alembert, who {ays it is
as agreeable to read as the original, and at the fame time it
is lets fatiguing ; becaufe the tranflator, while he enters into
all the refinement of Pliny’s thoughts, exprefles it with
more fimplicity ; fo that the author’s wit appears with more
advantage, by being freed from the ftudied drefs which too
frequently impairs its beauty in the Latin. The author pre-
fixed to his work an elegant life of Pliny the younger,
which he followed with a tranflation of his “ Panegyric of
Trajan.” The reputation of this writer, and the amiable
qualities of his heart, gave him admiffion into a fele& fo-
ciety; of which the celebrated marchionefs de Lambert was
the centre, and he became her moit confidential friend. It
was in the bofom of this fociety that he wrote his “ Traité de
PAmitie,” a work which difplayed the influence of friend-
fhip on his own mind. Soon after he publifhed a ‘ Traité
de la Gloire.” In thefe, and in fome other works, he kept
in view the imitation of the great Roman orator, whom,
however, he followed in very diftant fteps. He was never
furpafled in the generous manner in which he exercifed. his
profeflion.. The eulogium pafled on him by the prefident
Montefquieu, who fucceeded him in the academy, was,
that ‘all who wanted his afliftance became his friends. “At
the clofe of every day, he found fcarcely any other recom-
pence than the confcioufnefs of fome additional good ac-
tions ; and growing continually lefs rich, but much more
difinterefted, he left to his children only the honour of
having had fo refpeétabie a father.”? _M. de Sacy died at
Paris in 1727, at the age of 74. Gen. Biog.

Sacy fe Grand, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Oife; 6 miles E.S.E. of Clermont.

SADA, Sepoa, in Ancient Geography, a maritime town
of India, on the weftern fide of the Ganges, north of Bera-
bonna. Ptolemy. bs

SADACORA, a town of Afia, in Armenia Minor, on
the route from Garfaura to Mazaca. Strabo.

SADAF, in the Materia Medica, a name given by the
Arabian writers, fometimes to the purpura or purple fith,
and fometimes to the purple fucus, with which the ancient
Greek women ufed to ttain their cheeks. This was the ori-
ginal of all painting, and the fubftance was the common purple

pwracks. After this every thing was called fucus that
was ufed by the women to paint their faces ; and they had a
fucus secnllica made of white lead or cerufs ; and the purple
roots of alcanet, &c. were called fuci.

SADAFERIN, in Geography, a toven of Perfia, in the
province of Irak; 35 miles N.W. of Schiras, or Shirauz.

SADALL, a town of Scotland, in the county of Ar-

le, and peninfula-of Kintyre ; 7 miles N.N.E. of Camp-

ltown. |
Hesgert ae RACH, atown of Arabia, in the province of
ja%; 216 miles $.S,E. of Mecca.
Vou. XXX.

me «f

SAD

SADAR, or Axsapar, the Arabian name of the medi-
cinal lotus, defcribed by Diofcorides, and) many others of
the ancients. The fruit of this tree, called by Virgil the
berries of the acanthus, is the xabac of the Arabian writers,
though fome would have it to be a kind of fig. . Serapion
evidently declares the fadar and acanthus of Virgil, that is,
the lotus cyrenaica of Herodotus, and the lotus of Diof-
corides, to be one and the fame plant. Bellonius has alfo
defcribed it under the name.of nabeca, a name probably des
rived from nabac, the appellation ufually given its fruit: he
fays it is an ever-green fhrub, and was called by fome of the
Greek writers enoplia. Profper Alpinus, in his account
of the Egyptian plants, alfo deferibes the nabeca as a thorny
fhrub ; though authors have obferved that there are two
{pecies of it, the one thorny and the other not. Leo Afri-
canus, in his third book, mentions alfo the fame tree ; but
he miftakes the name, writing it rabech inftead of nabech.
He fays it is a prickly tree, producing a fruit refembling a
cherry, butmaller, and of the taite of the zizyphus.

SADARU, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Irak; 45 miles N.E. of Hirabad. ;

SADARUS, in Ancient Geography, ariver of Afia; in
Axia; being one of the three navigable rivers which dif-
charged themfelves into the Cephas. Pliny.

SADAS, a river of India, on the other fide of the
Ganges.

SADAVA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Arra-
gon; 17 miles S. of Sanguefa.

SADBERGE, a townthip and chapelry in the parifh of
Haughton-le-Skerne, fouth-welt divifion of Stockton ward,
county palatine of Durham, England, is fituated at the dif-
tance of four miles E.N.E. from the town of Darlington.
Though now an infignificant village, it was anciently a
place of very confiderable importance ; enjoying not merely
the ordinary rights and immunities of a borough, but being
alfo a county of itfelf, governed by its proper fheriff, co-
roner, and other civil officers. Here the fheriff held his
tourn, and here alfo the juttices itinerant, commiflioned by
the bifhop of Durham, held their affizes. Sadberge was
alfo, in remote times, a local earldom, and had the pri-
vileges of a wapentake. In the pleas of guo warranto, in
the reign of Edward I., it was certified that the bifhop had
his coroner at this town. A court of pleas was alfo held at
Sadberge, and fines were regularly levied there of lands
within that liberty. In the time of bifhop Langley, it was
maintained that Barnard Ca{tle, Marwood, Cleatlam, Eg-
glefton, Langton, Middleton in Teefdale, Newbigging,
Stainton, and other places in the weltern extremity of the
county of Durham, were members of Sadberge wapen-
take. Here was formerly a gaol for the continement of
criminals and debtors; and fundry manors and lands were
held, by the f{pecial fervice of keeping the fame in repair,
and for fupporting the prifoners.

The pretent village of Sadberge occupies a fine eminence,
which rifes with an eafy afcent from every fide to fuch a
height, that it commands an extenfive profpect over the
fouth-eaft part of the county of Durham, and up Tcefdale,
as far as the high lands above Barnard Caftle. The ground
on which the chapel ftands is more elevated than any other
fpot within the townfhip ; and from the circumitance of its
being trenched round, it is prefumed to have conftituted the
{cite of the caltle, gaol, and court-houfe, in ancient times.
The {tones of which the chapel is built were moft probably
taken from the ruins of thefe ftru€tures, as fuch materials’
are fo difficult to be obtained in this pact of the geil
that it feems unlikely the founders of the church would
have employed them, had they not found them on the f{pot.

G The

SAD

The Hiftory and Antiquities of the County Palatine of
Durham, by William Hutchifon, F.S.A. vol. iii, with
enlargements, 4to. Carlifle, 1794. Beauties of England
and Wales, vol. v. by E. W. Brayley and John Britton,
8vo. 1803.

SADDAMOL, atown of Bengal; 10 miles W.N.W.
of Dinagepour.

SADDER, in Modern Hiftory, a portion or com-
pendium of the Zend in modern Perfian, containing an ab-
itra& of the religious fyftem of the Perfees. This is read
to the people, on every faered day, by their priefts,
a Latin verfion of it in Hyde’s Rel. Perf. p. 431, &c.

SADDLE, in the Manege, a kind of ttuffed feat, laid
on the back of a horfe, for the convenience of the rider,

The origin of the faddle is not well known. Gorop.
Becanus attributes its invention to the Salii, a people among
the ancient Franks; and hence, fays he, came the Latin
fella, {addle.

The Greeks, inftead of faddles, ufed cloths or houfings ;
and thofe of the lower clafs often rode without any. Arrian,
fpeaking of the manner of riding among the Indians, fays,
that faddles were not in ufe among them, and that they had
no bridles made after the fafhion of the Greeks and Celts;
but inftead of them, they governed and guided their horfes
with a thong or ftrop, cut from the raw hide of a bull,
which they bound acrofs their nofes. On the infide of this
nofe-band they fixed certain little pointed pieces of iron or
brafs, moderately fharp: the richer fort ufed ivory.

Athenzus (lib. xii. 4.) fays, that the Perfians covered
their horfes with many foft and thick houfings, or cloths ;
being more defirous of fitting at their eafe, than of approv-
ing themfelves dextrous and bold horfemen.

The inhabitants of Numidia, Mauritania, Nafamonia,
Maffilia, and other adjacent traéts of the fame region, rode
their horfes, which were very fleet and vigorous, without a
bridle or faddle ; ufing merely a wand or fwitch to guide
and command them.

Saddles were unknown to ancient Greece. Intftead of
thefe, certain cloths or houfings were thrown upon the horfe,
and faltened by a girth or furcingle. Upon thefe the rider
fat. They were known by the general name of “ ephippia;””
and the trappings or horfe-furniture, known and ufed in
every part of the modern world, may be fuppofed to owe
their origin to them. They were compofed of different
materials, leather, cloth, and the fkins of wild beafts, and
fometimes adorned with gold, filver, and precious ftones ;
the horfes, befides thefe ornaments, being decked with bells,
rich collars, and richer devices.

It is certain the ancient Romans were unacquainted with
the ufe either of faddle or itirrups; whence Galen obferves
m feveral piaces, that the Roman cavalry, in his time, were
fubjeé&t to feveral difeafes of the hips and legs, for want of
having their feet fuftained on horfeback, And long before
him, Hippocrates had noted, that the Scythians, who were
much on horfeback, were frequently troubled with de-
fluxions in their legs, becaufe of their hanging down.

The firlt time we hear of faddles among the Romans was
in the year of Chrift 440, when Conftantius, endeavouring
to deprive his brother Conftantine of the empire, made head
againtt his army, and entering the {quadron where he him-
felf was, threw him off his faddle, as we are informed by
the hiftorian Zonaras. Before this time, they made ufe of
fquare pannels; fuch as we fee in the ftatue of Antoninus
in the Capitol.

The fuccecding emperors made many regulations con-
cerning horfes, and occafionally take notice of faddles. In
the Theodofian code there is a refcript, given by the em-

See’

SAD
perors Valentinian, Theodofius, and Arcadius, which pre-
{cribes the exaét weight of a faddle, confining it to fixty
pounds, including the bridle. ‘

The ufe of faddles, fays Mr. Chambers, in his « Cyclo-
pedia,” wae firft eftablifhed im England, by a law of
Henry VII., by which the nobility were obliged to ride
on faddles. But this affertion, as Mr. Berenger (Hift. and
Art of Horfemanfhip, vol. i. p. 174.) obferves, is not coun-
tenanced by any aét of parliament, or proclamation. It is
much later that the Irifh have taken to it.

When king Richard II. went to Ireland in the year
1399, to chaftife Mac-Morough for afluming the title of
king of Ireland, and other crimes, Mac-Morough is faid to
have defcended, between two woods, from a mountain,
mounted upon a horfe without a faddle, which, it is re-
ported, coft him 400 cows; the method of bartering one
commodity for another being then praétifed in that country,
This horfe is faid to have ran as {wift as any ftag. Per-
haps, fays Berenger, the cuftom once in this kingdom of
making horfes draw by their tails may be afcribed to the
fame caufe as that of riding without faddles, the ignorance
of the age in the art of making faddles and harnefs.

According to Mr. John Lawrence, the English faddle
has been highly improved within the laft twenty or thirty
years ; not only in refpect to fymmetry, fitnefs, and beauty,
but of eafe both to the rider and the horfe. But nothing has
contributed fo much in the modern faddle to the eafe and
convenience of the rider, as the forward projection of the
pads, where the knees reft, and the fituation of the {kirts,
or flaps, above and below the knee. It is true, the knees
are apt to be galled in a long journey by the ftirrup-leathers,
which are now placed without the long flap; but they may
occafionally be drawn beneath it. The faddle is fecured by
two girths only, and thofe placed exaétly one over the other,
appearing asif fingle. All forts of faddles have lately under-
gone much improvement, but particularly thofe of the mili-
tary kind. :

There are various kinds of faddles; as the

Sappiz, Hunting, which is compofed of two bows, two
bands, fore-bolfters, pannels, and faddle-raps: and the
great faddle has, befides thefe parts, corks, hind-boliters, and
a trouflequin. The pommel is common to both. A horfe-
man that would fit a horfe well, ought always to fit on his
twift, and neveron his buttocks, which ought never to touch
the faddle ; and whatever diforder the horfe commits, he
ought never to move above the faddle.

Sappie, Running, avery {mall one, with round {kirts.

Sappie, Burford, which has the feat and fkirts plain.

Sappixr, Pack. See Pack-Saddle.

SappLE, Pad, of which there are two kinds: the one
made with burs before the feat, the other with ‘bolfters
under the thighs. .

Savoie, Lrench pad, the burs of which come round the
feat.

Sapp, Portmanteau, furnifhed with a cantle behind the
feat, to keep a carriage off the rider’s back. _

Sappie, War, furnifhed with a cantle, anda boliter, both
behind and before. 4

Savpie-Backed, among Horfemen, a name given to a hor
that is hard to fit with a faddle, his reins being low, and
his head and neck raifed, fo as to require a faddle to be
made on purpofe for him.

Sappie-Galled, is when a
with the faddle.

It is to be cured by bathing the part with urine, or warm
wine: when the fore is large, they bathe it with aqua
fecunda, {trewing over it the powder of old ropeagor

X>

horfe’s back is hurt or fretted

* in the county of

SAD
fiax, and confuming the proud fiefh with vitriol,’ or cols

cothar.

Good horfes are oftenfubje& to gall upon their backs, and
the utmoft care ought to be taken to prevent or cure it.
The beft method of prevention is to take a hind’s fkin, well
furnifhed with hair, and fit it neatly beneath the pannel of
the faddle, fo that the hairy fide may be next the horfe ;
this does not harden by fweat, but keeps the horfe from

ing. This is alfoamethod that fhould never be omitted
with horfes that are newly cured of fuch a hurt, as it will
prevent their falling into it again.

Tn long journies, and in horfes that are fubje& to gall, it
is always proper to take off the faddle as foon as the horfe
is brought in, and examine whether the back be at all prefied,
or pinched in any part: it will be well to re-examine it after
an hour or two, to fee what effe& the ftanding has had, for
often the part hurt will not fhew it at firft, but will fwell
very violently afterwards. In this cafe, where the fkin is
not fretted, but a {welling comes on, a bag of coarfe cloth
fhould be filled with warm dung, and tied upon the fwelling,
which will not only prevent it from growing worfe, but will
take it often quite down; or the {welling may be well
rubbed with good brandy, laying on a paper foaked in it.
If the fkin be broken, a mixture of red wine, and falad oil,
is a good remedy. :

Sappte-Cafe. See Housixe.

* Sappie-Roll. See Troussequin.

SappLe-Straps, are {mall leathern ftraps, nailed to the
bows of the faddle, which are ufed to hold the girths faft tu
the faddie. See Bows.

Sappte; in the Sea Language, a {mall cleat or wooden
block, hollowed on the upper and lower fide, and nailed on
the lower yard-arms, to retain the ftudding-fail-booms in a
firm and iteady pofition. For this purpofe the cavity on
the lower- part of the faddle conforms to the cylindrical
furface of the yard to which it is attached; and in like
manner, the hollow, on the upper fide, anfwers to the figure
of the boom, and ferves as a channel, by which it may
be run out or in, along the yard, as occafion requires.
Falconer.

Savpte J/land, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Eaft
Indian fea, near the ifland of Paraguay. N. lat. 11° 15).
E. long. 119° 28'.—Alfo, af{mall ifland near the W. coatt of
Sumatra. N. lat..3° E. long. 97° 27'!.—Alfo, a {mall
ifland in the Mergui Archipelago. N, lat. 10° 24.

SappLe Points. See Brack Point.

Sappie River, a river in Bergen county, New Jerfey,

SADDLEBACK, an ifland in Hudfon’s ftraits. N.
lat. 62°. W. long. 68° 5'.—Alfo, a mountain of Tpgltd,

umberland, upwards of 3000 feet above
the level of the fea ; about five miles E. of Kefwick.

SADDLEHEAD, a cape of Ireland, on the weftern
coatt, being the extremity of the hillin Achill ifland, county
of Mayo, which was fuppofed to refemble a faddle. © N. lat.
54° 7’. W. long. 10° 6.

SADDLEHILL, a promontory on the W. coaft of
North America. .N. lat. 46°25'. |W. long. 124°.

Sappiemct Sfland, a {mall ifland in the Mergui Archi-
pelago. N. lat. 10° 19/.

SADDUCES, or Sanpucers, Sadducai, a fe& amon
the ancient Jews, confifting of perfons of the srestell
quality and opulence, efteemed as Deitts, or Free-thinkers,
rather than real Jews ; though they affilted at all the cere-
monies of the worfhip in the temple, and had an equal fhare in
that adminiftration of affairs which was allowed to the Jewith
nation by the Romans, with the Pharifees. In their judicial
proceedings they were the more cruel of all the Jews. The

SAD

high priefts themfelves were fometimes Sadducees ; fuch were
John Hyrcanus, who died B. C. 107, and Ananus, who was
high prieft about the year of our Lord 60. ,

St. Epiphanius will have the Sadducees to have taken their
rife from Dofitheus, a Samaritan fetary ; and Tertullian
is of the fame opinion. St. Jerom, and other writers add,
that the Sadducees came near the Samaritans in many things;
particularly in this, that they allowed no books of Scripture,
but the five books of Mofes. The Jefuit Serrarius has alfo
embraced this opinion, as feeming to be fupported by Jofe-
phus. But Jofephus fays only this, that they admitted all
that was written, 7. ec. all the books of Scripture; intimating
hereby, that they difowned the unwritten traditions of the
Pharifees. In effe€&, St. Epiphanius is forced to own, that
the Sadducees were Jews, and not Samaritans : inafmuch as
they affifted at the worfhip and facrifices of the temple at
Jerufalem ; whereas the Samaritans facrificed on Mount
Gerizzim.

Some authors afcribe the origin of this fet to one Sadoc,
or Sadduc, a difciple of Antigonus Sochzus, a native of
Socko, on the borders of Judea, prefident of the fanhedrim,
about 300 years before Chrift, who frequently inculcated
upon his fcholars, that God is to be ferved for his own fake,
and not out of view to any reward from kim in the next
world, as flaves ferve their mafters merely for recompence.
Sadoc, add they, putting a falfe interpretation on thefe
words of his matter, publifhed, that there was no reward
allotted to good aétions done in this world. (Se the article
Ayticonus Socnzus.) And hence arofe the fe& of
Sadducees, thus denominated from their leader, Sadoc.
Though St. Epiphanius, and fome modern writers after him,
take the Sadducees to have been thus called from the Hebrew,
py fadec, jufl, or fedec, juftice, in regard of the great
juftice and equity which they fhewed in all their actions.

But this derivation neither fuits the word Sadducee, nor
the true charaéter of the fe&; for fo far were they from be~
ing eminently righteous, that they are commonly faid to be
the moft wicked and profligate of all the Jews; neither
were they given to boait of their own righteoufnefs, as the
Pharifees were.

The fe& of the Sadducees long continued to flourifh in
Judea, and to poflefs great authority. Althou h they
differed in fundamental points of faith from the rele of the
nation, they were admitted, as we have hinted already, to
facred privileges and offices, and even to the higheit dignity
of the priefthood. Notwithftanding the enmity which fub-
fifted between them and the Pharifees, on account of the
contempt with which they treated the traditionary law,
thefe fe&ts frequently united in public councils, and in de-
fence of the common caule of religion, and in their malig-
nant oppofition to our blefled Saviour. Under the reign
of Hyrcanus, who, about 130 years B.C., poffefled the
fupreme civil and facerdotal power in Judea, the Saddu-
cees were the leading feét ; for that prince, being oppofed by
the Pharifees in the execution of the office of high prieit,
treated them with great feverity, and efpoufed the Sadducean
party, requiring the whole nation, on pain of death, to
profefs the do¢trine of this fet. After the death of Hyr-
canus, the perfecution of the Pharifees was for fome time
continued by his fon, Alexander Janneus; but Alexandra,
the wife of Jannzus, who fucceeded him in the government,
finding that the Pharifaic fe&t was more popular than the
Sadducean, efpoufed the intereft of the Pharifees, and reftored
their power and influence, The Sadducees, however, after-
wards regained a confiderable fhare of political and ecclefi-
aftical confequence ; for we find, that Caiaphas (as fome
have fuppofed), and Ananus (as we have already menpaeet)>

G 2 who

SAD

who were both of this fe&, poffeffed in fucceflion the office
of high prieft. After the dehtruétion of Jerufalem, the fe&
of the Sadducees fell into contempt among their country-
men, and even incurred the hatred of the Chriftians. The
emperor Juftinian iffued a fevere edi& againit them (Noell.
145.); infli@ting banifhment, and, in cate of obftinate per-
feverance, even death, upon thofe who fhould teach their
doétrines.

The chief heads of the Sadducean tenets were thefe :

fee “A@s, xxiii. 6. 8. Matt. xxii. 23. Mark, xii. 18.

uke, xx. 27. Jofeph. Ant. 1. xiii. c. 18. 1. xviii. ¢. 2.
De Bell. Jud. 1. ii. c. 12.) All laws and traditions, not
comprehended in the written’ laws, are to be rejeéted as
merely human inventions. . Neither angels nor fpirits have a
diftin@ exiftence, feparate from their corporeal veftment :
the foul of man, ‘therefore, does not remain after this life,
but expires with the body. There will be no refurreGtion of
the dead, aor any rewards or punifhments after this life.
Man is not fubjected to irrefiftible fate, but has the framing
of his condition chiefly in his own power ; fo that they at-
‘tributed all things to free-will, ‘and thus oppofed the opinion
of the Pharifees, who admitted a kind of deftiny or fatality
in all our actions. Polygamy, according tothe Sadducees,
ought not be praétifed. It has been afferted (fee Tertull.
Ba Prclesipi: li. c. ng. Orig. cent. Celf. 1. i. p. 39.), that
the Sadducees only received, as of facred authority, the five
books of Mofes. But the contrary clearly appears from
their controverfy with the Pharifees, in which the latter
appeal to the prophets and other facred writings, ‘as well as
the law, which they could not have done with any propriety
or effect, if the Sadduceés had not admitted their-authority.
To this we may add, that if this had been the cafe, it is
very improbable that fuch herefy would have pafled without
cenfure.

The Sadducees are fometimes ranked with the Epicureans,
but improperly ; for though they agreed with them in deny-
ing the doétrine of a future ftate, they differed from them
elfentially in their ideas of God and providence. Whilft the
Epicureans admitted no fupreme intelligent ruler of the
world, and fuppofed the gods wholly unconcerned in human
affairs, the Sadducees acknowledged the exiitence of the
one true God, the Jehovah of the Jews, and admitted his
univerfal providence, only rejeGting the notion of an abfo-
lute and uncontroulable influence over the volitions and
actions of men: they admitted, too, the reafonablenefs and
obligation of religious worfhip.. Their denial of 1a ftate of
future rewards and punifhments may perhaps in part be
afcribed to their believing in the homogeneous ‘nature of
man; for Jofephus exprefsly fays (De Bell. Jud.1. ti. c. 12.
Ant. Jud. lL. xviii. c. 2. 1. xx. c. 84), that they took away
the diftin& and permanent nature of the foul: Luxic re -wy
Sapoms drxudes. This was, probably, the chief ground of
their oppofition to Chriftianity, whofe diftinguifhing doc-
trine is that of the refurreGtion from the dead. Brucker’s
Phil. by Enfield, vol. ii. p. 173, &c.

It is certain they denied the refurre€tion’and the exiftence
of angels and fpirits (Matt. xxii. 23. Acts, xxiii. 8.), and
allowed of no happinefs but what is enjoyed in this life ;
believing, that every thing told of the other world had
been artfully invented by the Pharifees. Hence, alfo, they
attributed all things to free-will; in which they oppofed
the opinion of the Pharifees, who admitted a kind of
deftiny, or fatality in all our aétions ; fo that they
were, upon the whole, Epicurean deifts in all other, re-
fpeéts, except that they acknowledged the world to have
mr created, and perhaps to be cokeld and preferved, by

od, ,

SAD

_ SADERBELE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, —
in Guzerat ; 12 miles S. of Noopour.

SADI. See Rosary. .

Savi, in Geography, a river of Hindooftan, which runs
into the Jumnah; 10 miles below Delhi. . ;

SADIA, a fea-port town on the W. coaft of Madagaf-
car. §, lat. 19° 5’.—Alo, a town of Arabia, in the pro-
vince of Yemen; 34 miles S.E. of Loheia.’

SADJAKLU, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia;
16 miles S. of Karahifar. :

SADIR, a word ufed by fome chemifts to exprefs the
f{coria of any metal in fufion. . :

SADLER. Under this title is carried on a very confi-
derable trade, but in very different degrees. The bufinefs
of fadlers is not only faddle-making, which is a curious as well
as very ancient employ, but to complete fome, and fell all
other, neceflaries for the faddle, nag, and horfeman. They
were a company before the year 1190, but not incorporated
till 1272., In the reign of king Edward I. the livery-fine
was 1o/. Their hall is near Fofter-lane, Cheapfide: and
their court-day on the firit Tuefday in the month. See
Company.

SapLer’s Wells, a well-known place of entertainment in
the neighbourhood of London. It derives its name from
Mr. Sadler, who erected a mufic-houfe near the fpot, which
was much frequented, before the Reformation, on account
of the famous well, to the waters of which many extraordi-
nary cures were afcribed, and which was, therefore, deemed
facred, and called holy well. The priefts belonging to the
priory of Clerkenwell ufed to attend there, and hence the
people were led to believe, that the virtues of the water
proceeded from the efficacy of their prayers.

Upon the Reformation the well was ftopped up, on ac-
count of the fuper{titious ufe that was made of it; till, in
1683, Mr. Sadler found it, covered with a carved arch of
ftone. After his deceafe, one Francis Forcer, a mufician,
became occupier of the wells and mufic-houfe. His fon
fucceeded him, and firft exhibited in this place the diverfions
of rope-dancing, tumbling, &c. ‘

SADLISTOVA, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the
river Volga, where veffels are entered that trade on the
Cafpian fea; 50 miles S. of Aftrachan.

SADMETI, a town of Imiretta; 30 miles N.E. of
Cotatis. 3

SADO, an ifland of Japan, about go miles in circum-
ference, in a large bay on the N. coaft of the ifland of Ni-

hon. _N. lat. Fe 4o!. E. long. 138° 54!

ADOLETO, Jacopo, in Biography, a celebrated car-
d porn at Modena‘in 1477, was the fon of Giovanni
Sadoleto, an eminent jurilt. e ftudied at Ferrara, where
one of his mafters was the learned Niccolo Leoniceno. His
father intended him for his own profeflion, but finding that
he had a decided turn for polite literature and ohilofb hy,
he gave way, and permitted him to follow his own indie.
tions. Repairing to Rome in the time of Alexander VI.
he obtained the patronage of cardinal Oliviero and
he had for his inftru&tor Scipione Carteromacho, whom
he made confiderable progrefs in elegant literature. He
diftinguifhed himfelf fo much by his Latin ftyle, that Beo X.
nominated him and Bembo his fecretaries, after which he
was, by the fame pontiff, raifed to the bifhopric of Carpen-
tras. ‘This was in the year 1517. In the fucceeding pon-
tificate of Adrian, he was not only lefs favoured, but even
calumniated as having falfified a brief. He therefore, in-
1524, retired to his fee, to the great regret of all lovers ©
polithed writing and manners in the Roman court. —Cle-
ment VII. recalled him to his former polt, and manifefted

1

for

SAD

for him the greateft regard. That pontiff did not, however,
pay the deference to his prudent counfels, which might have
averted the dangers hanging over the city, of which Sado-
leto was fo well aware, that he obtained permiffion to retire
to his bifhopric only twenty days before the fack of Rome.
In that tremendous cataftrophe he loft all the property
which he had left in the capital, and it was the eventual
caufe of the difperfion of a rare and molt valuable library
hich he had colle@ed. The books were put on board a
fhip for France, and had arrived on the coaft, when the
plague breaking out among the paflengers, the fhip was not
Perea to enter a port. The bifhop’s library, therefore,
with the reft of the fhip’s cargo, was tranfported to fome
’ diftant country, and entirely loft to its owner. At Carpen-
tras he employed himfelf in paftoral cares, and obtained no
lefs honour as an éxemplary prelate, than he had done as one
of the moft elegant fcholars of the age. He was held in
t eftimation by Francis I., who made him confiderable
offers to induce him to come to his court, but he felt it his
duty to accept the invitation of Paul III., who, in 1536,
created him a member of the congregation of reform, and
elevated him to the cardinalate. He gave advice with
perfe& freedom to that pontiff, who took him to Nice in
1538, when he had a conference with Charles: V. and
rancis I. It was ftill the cardinal’s ambition to refide in
his fee, and employ himfelf in paltoral duties, and the culti-
vation of letters, and he was allowed to follow the bent of
his inclination till 1542, when the pope {ummoned him to
Rome, and appointed him his legate to the king of France,
for the purpofe of negotiating a peace between that mo-
narch and the emperor. He fucceeded in difpofing the mind
of the French monarch to an accommodation, but infuper-
able obftacles were raifed on the part of Charles. Sadoleto
returned to Rome, and affiited in the frequent congregations
held previoufly to the convocation of the council of Trent,
till his death in 1547. He was interred without pomp, ac-
cording to his own direétion, in the church of St. Peter ad
Vinculs, and his funeral oration was pronounced by cardinal
Caraffa. Few men of the age left a more thoroughly efti-
mable charaéter than the fubje¢t-of this article. His temper
was mild, but he had great fenfibility and elevation of foul ;
and he united folid piety and fervent zeal, with freedom
from fuperftition and Chriftian charity. His addrefs to the
people of Geneva, who had begun to throw off the papal
yoke, is faid to be a model of epifcopal eloquence, and pa-
ternal mildnefs. Early in life he obtained a high rank
among thofe Italians who, at that period, cultivated polite
literature With a fuccefs that has caufed them to be con-
fidered a fort of fecond claffics. His Latin profe was
formed upon an imitation of that of Cicero; and his verfe
be that of Virgil: of both thefe great authors the phrafe-
ology was freely copied by Sadoleto, as well as by his con-
temporaries. iis work entitled “ Curtius,”’ and that upon
the ftatue of Laocoon, are the moft admired pieces of his
Latin poetry. Tn profe, one of the molt important of his
works is ended « be liberis inflituendis ;”’ it contains many
valuable precepts, and juft obfervati6ns on moral and literary
education : but his two books “ De laudibus Philofophiz,”’
happily imitate not only the ftyle but the manner of think-
ine Cicero. Of his theological works, that which is
fly celebrated is his “ Commentary on St. Paul’s Epiftle

to the Romans,”’ publifhed in 1535, and for which he was
po in ecclefiaftical cenfure, but by fubmiffion to the
rity of the church he recovered his réputation, and the
work was allowed a circulation. Sadoleto was the friend
and ¢orr ent of moft of the eminent men of his time,
among whom were Melanéthon and Erafmus. The works

SAE

of Sadoleto were colledted and publifhed at Verona, in three
vols. 4to,. in 1740.

SADOVA, in Geography, a town of Walachia; 16 miles
W.S.W. of Karacal.

SADRAS, a town of Hindooftan, in the territory of
Madras, belonging to the Dutch: it is fituated in a fertile
foil, and receives a fupply of vegetables from the gardens in
the vicinity of Madras. Near the town and N. of it are
feven pagodas for Hindoo worfhip, hollowed out of a folid
rock, at different heights; 35 miles S. of Madras. N. lat.
12° 33/. E. long. 80° 18/.

SADRAZA, a town of Hindooftan; 15 miles E. of
Benares.

SADRE, a title given by the Perfians to the chief of
the Mahometan religion. See CaLipn.

SADRU, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Irak ; 80 miles E.N.E. of Gnerden.

SADSBURY, a townthip in Chefhire county, Pennfyl-
vania; containing 1192 inhabitants.

SADSKAR, or Srcer, a diftri€t of Arabia, in the
N.E. part of Hadramaut. i

SADUMRAH, a town of Arabia, in the province of
Hedsjas ; 105 miles N. of Ghezan.

SAZZELANTHUS, in Botany, a hybrid name of Forfkall’s,
compoted of Sz/a, the Arabic appellation of the plant, and
edoc, a flower. Juffieu refers moft of the fpecies, if not
the whole of this genus, to Cissus; fee that article.

SAEMUND, Sicrusson, in Biography, a celebrated
Icelandic writer, was the fon of a prieft named Sigfus, and
born in 1054. He travelled at a very early period into
foreign countries, in order to improve himfelf in knowledge,
and for a confiderable time his countrymen were not -at all
aware of what had become of him. At length John Qg-
mund{fen, afterwards bifhop of Holum, when on a tour to
Rome, found him at Paris, and carried him back to Iceland.
He now entered into holy orders, and eftablifhed a {chool.
He contributed with others to induce the Icelanders to pay
tithes, and took a confiderable part with regard to the
formation of the ecclefialtical code of laws. He died in
1133- At the age of 70 he wrote a hiftory of Norway,
from the time of Harold Haarfager to that of Magnus the
Good. He is generally allowed the merit of having col-
le&ted the poetical Edda, by which means he preferved thefe
curious and valuable remains of the ancient Scandinavian
mythology, poetry, and morality from nenlg loft. Not-
withf{tanding that this honour is ufually afcribed to Saemund,
it is very doubtful whether he has a jutt claim to it. See
the fubjeét more at large in the Gen. Biog.

SAL P/E, ‘a name given by fome medical writers to fharp
corroding: pultules.

SALPINUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in
Samnium, faid by Frontinus to have been a colony formed
under Nero and Claudius.

SJEPONA, a town of Hifpania, in Beetica. Pliny.

SATABIS, a town of Hifpania Citerior, belonging to
the Conteftani, at a fmall diftance $.W. from the mouth of
the Suero. ‘This town feems to have been founded by the
Sedetani or Edetani, and was. fituated, according to Silius
Italicus, on an eminence: famous for its flax. It was called
by the Moors * Xativa;’’ but haying been deftroyed by
Philip V., it was rebuilt under the name of St. pe gi
Alfo, a river of Hifpania Citerior, in the country of the
Conteftani, the mouth of which is placed by Ptolemy be-
tween Alone and Illicitanus Portus.

SAETWITZ, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Holflein ; 4 miles N.E. of Oldenburg.

SAFA,

SAF

SAFA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, fituated
near the weftern bank of the Tigris, towards N. lat. 37° 25’.

SAFAD, or Sapuet, in Geography, a town or rather vil-
lage of Palettine, in the pachalic of Saide, or, as it is now called,
of Acre, fituated on the brow of a hill about feven leagues
N. of Tabarai; which Volney defcribes as the feat of pacha
Daher’s power. Under his government an Arabian college
flourifhed at this place, in which the Motoualis’ doors in-
ftruéted youth in the {cience of grammar, and the allegorical
interpretation of the Koran. ‘The Jews, who believe that
the Meffiah will eftablith the feat of his empire at Safad,
had conceived an affeétion for this place, and colleéted there
to the number of 50 or 60 families; but the earthquake of
1759 deftroyed every thing; and Safad, regarded by the
Turks with an unfavourable eye, is now only a village al-
moft deferted. Towards the N. from Safad is a chain of
lofty mountains, named ‘ Djebal-el-fhaik,’’? among which
are the fources of the river Jordan, and thofe of a number
of rivulets, which water the plain of Damafcus. The high
diftri@, from which thefe rivulets flow, is called « Haf-
beya,’’ at prefent governed by an emir, and farmed for 60
purfes. The country is mountainous, and much refembles
the Lower Lebanon. The troops of the ruling fheik or
fheick are called Safadians, becaufe the feat of his govern-
ment was originally at Safad. Some have fuppofed that this
was the ancient Bethulia; 65 miles S.W. of Damafcus,

and 54 N.N.E. of Jerufalem. N. lat. 32° 47'. E. long.
35° 32".

SAFAN, a mountain of Arabia, in Yemen; 16 miles N.
of Dsjebi.

SAFANI ¢/ Bahdr, a {mall ifland in the Red fea, near
the coaft of Egypt. N. lat. 27° 35.

SAFE-CONDUCT, Salous condu@us, a fecurity given

by the prince under his great feal, and inrolled in chancery,
to cae for his quiet coming in and paffing out of the
realm.
The fafe-condu& is granted to thofe who otherwife could
not fafely go to the places where he who grants it, is mafter,
s. g. to perfons charged with fome mifdemeanor, or to ene-
mies ; the paffport to friends, or to perfons with ref{pe& to
whom there is no particular exception againft their coming
or going in fafety, and who are thus the better fecured for
avoiding all debate, or difpenfing them from fome general
prohibition.

Paffports under the king’s fign manual, or licences from
his ambafladors abroad, are now more ufual, and are allowed
to be of equal validity with letters of fafe-condué.

All fafe-conduéts flow from fovereign authority ; but the
prince may delegate to his officers the power of furnifhing
fafe-conduéts, and with this they are invefted, either by an
exprefs commiflion, or in confequence of the nature of their
funétions. A general of an army, from the very nature of
his poft, can grant fafe-conduéts ; and as they are derived,
though mediately, from the fovereign authority, the other
generals or officers of the fame prince are to refpec& them.
The perfon nominated in the fafe-condu& cannot transfer
his privilege to another. If this fafe-condu& be granted,
not for perfons, but for effeéts, thofe effeéts may be removed
by others befides the owners. The choice of thofe who re-
move them is indifferent, provided there be no perfonal ex-
ception, which renders them juftly fufpeéted by him who
gives the conduét, or interdiéts them from entering his ter-
ritories. He who promifes fecurity by a fafe-conduc, pro-
mifes it where he is mafter, not only in his territories but
likewife wherever any of his troops may be, and he not only
is to forbear violating this fecurity, either by himfelf or his
people, but he is to proteét and defend him to whom he has

SAF

promifed it, to punifh any of his fubjeéts who have offered
any violence to him, and oblige them to make good the
damage. As the right arifing for a fafe-condu&t proceeds
entirely from the will of him who grants it, this will is the
{tandard by which the extent of it is to be meafured; and
this will is manitefted ia the end for which the fafe-condu&
was granted: confequently, he who has been permitted to
go away has no right to return; and a fafe-condu& granted
merely for going cannot ferve for repafling. If granted for
certain affairs, it is to be of force till thofe are concluded,
and the perfon has time to depart: if it is fpecified to be
granted for a journey, it will alfo ferve for the repafling ;
the journey including both the paffage and return. As this
privilege confifts in the liberty of going and coming ia
{afety, it differs from the permiffion of fettling in any part,
and confequently cannot give a right of ftopping any where
for a long time, unlefs on bufinefs, with a view to which
the fafe-condué& was afked and granted. A fafe-condu&
given to a traveller naturally wiclices his baggage or his
clothes, and every thing neceffary for his journey, with even
a domeftic or two, according to the rank of the perfon; but
with regard to thefe particulars, the fafelt way, efpecially
among enemies, and other fufpected perfons, is to enume-
rate and categorically exprefs ery thing, which is now the
practice: the baggage and domettics, where requifite, are
particularized. Safe-condu& granted to a father does not
include his family ; becaufe in journeys, his family is ufually
left at home. . y

The fafe-condu& granted to a perfon ‘ for himfelf and
his retinue,” cannot give him a right to bring with hi
perfons juftly fufpe&ed to the ftate, or who had been ba-
nifhed, profcribed, or who were fugitives for fome time ;
nor give fecurity to fuch: for the fovereign granting fafe-
condué in thofe general terms, does not fuppofe any fuch
infolence as to abufe it, for bringing into his country delin-
quents, or perfons who have pathculatly offended him.

A fafe-condu@&, given for a {tated term, expires at the
end of the term {pecified in it ; and the bearer, if he does
not return before that time, may be feized and even punifhed,
according to circumftances : efpecially if he has given room
for fufpicion by a delay of his own Spr But if de-
tained by force, or ficknefs, fo as to be unable to depart in
time, a-proper refpite fhould be allowed him ; for fafety has
been promifed to him, and though affured to him only for a
limited time, it is not his fault that he has not departed
within the term. This cafe is different from that of an
enemy coming into our country during a truce ; he has no
{pecial promife from us: he at his own peril makes ufe of a ©
general liberty allowed by the fufpenfion of hoftilities : all
we have promifed to the enemy is, to forbear hoftilities for
a certain time, and at the expiration of it we are concerned
to fee that their courfe be freely renewed. without the dif-
turbance of endlefs excufes and pretences. The fafe-con-
dud does not expire at the deceafe or depofition of him who
granted it ; for it was given in virtue of the fovereign autho-
rity, which never dies, nor is the efficacy of i nexed to
the perfon who exercifes it. Neverthelefs, the fucceffor may,
on good reafons, revoke a fafe-condu& : even he from whofe
hands it came may in like cafe revoke it, and is not always
obliged to make known his reafons. Every privilege, when
it becomes detrimental to the ftate, may be revoked, fuch as
a gratuitous privilege, freely and fimply, a purchafed Be
vilege, by indemnifying the parties concerned. Suppofe a
prince or his general to be aS | a fecret expedition, is
he to fuffer, that by means of a fafe-conduét, previoufly
obtained, his preparations fhall be infpe&ted, by which the
enemy may gain intelligence of them? But a fafe-conduc&t

18

—_——e

SAF

is not to be ufed as a {mare: if it be revoked, the bearer
mutt be allowed time and liberty to depart in fafety. If he,
like any other traveller, be detained fome time, to prevent his
carrying intelligence to the enemy, no ill treatment is to be
offered him ; nor is he to be kept longer than while the rea-
fons of his detainder fubfilt. If the fafe-conduét has this
claufe, «‘ For fuch tirae as we fhall think fit,” it gives only
a precarious right, and is every moment revocable; but
while it is not expre/s, it remains valid : it expires on the death
of him who gave it, for from that time he ceafes to will the
continuation of the privilege : neverthelefs, it muft be under-
ftood always, that from the moment of the expiration of
fuch fafe-condu€t, the bearer is to be allowed a proper time
for his fafe departure. Vattel’s Law of Nations, b. iii.
P» 104.

For the violation of fafe-condu&t, &c. fee Passport.

Judges fometimes give fafe-conduéts to delinquents, or

“prifoners, to enable them to aé& in their affairs.

SAFE-GUARD, Salva guardia, in a Law Senfe, a pro-
teGtion given by the king to a perfon fearing the violence of
fome other, for feekimg his right by a courfe of law: or
more generally, a fafe-guard and paffport area kind of privi-
lege, which give perfons a right to go and come fafely, or
a right of removing certain things in fafety.

SAFE-GUARD, at Sea, denotes a rope which faves and fe-
cures any thing: for initance, that by which perfons walk
fecurely over the bolt-fprit.

Sare-GuARD of the Helm, is a rope which goes through
the helm, and is faftened to the futtocks of the fhip.

SAFE-PLEDGE, Sa/vus plegius, in Law, a fecurity
given for a man’s appearance on a day afligned. See
PLEDGE.

SAFETY Cove, in Geography, a harbour on the E. coait
of Calvert’sifland, in Fitzhugh’s found. N. lat. 52° 31'.
E. long. 232° 2!.

Savery Gate, is a moveable door in the bottom of a
canal, generally under a bridge; as L Mor N O, ( Plate IV.
Canals, fig. 26.1; fo contrived, that in cafe of a current
being formed in the canal by the breach of a bank, the door
or gate will rife up, and ftop the communication at that
place. SéeCanar. _

SAFFI, or Avrr1, or Azazi, or Moff. or Ab fi, a fea-port
town of Morocco, in the province of Abda, eight leagues
from Valedia, towards the fouth, after doubling Cape Can-
tin. This is a very ancient place, and was probably one of
the cities built by the Carthaginians. The Portuguefe
made themfelves mafters of it in the year 1508, and aban-
doned it in 1641. Saffi was long the centre of the com-

‘merce carried on with Europe. The French had feveral

factories in it, and refiding here, confided in the laws of hof-
pitality, and brought from hence great quantities of wool,
wax, gum, and leather; but when the emperor made Mo-
gador a principal port, Saffi lott its trade. It has a very
fine road, where thips may anchor fafely, except in winter,
when the winds blow from the S. or S.W., and they are
driven out to fea. The enyirons of Saffi are a arin | and
dry defart, and the Moors of the town are rude, fanatical,
and.unfociable. At the entrance of the town there is a
number of tombs, or afylums of faints, which have been
made a pretext for obliging the Jews to enter it bare-footed ;
nor was aay Chriltian allowed, till the year 1767, to ride in
or out of town onhorfeback. The river Tanfif, bounding
the province of Abda, runs about five leagues to the fouth
of Safi; 16 miles S. of Cape Cantin. N. lat. 32° 201.

W. 1t2 9° 5’.
SAFFLOWER, or Baflard Saffron, in Botany. See
Cantuamus.

SAF

SAFFLOWER is a name alfo erroneoufly given to a {pecies
of lake. ;

SAFFRANI, in Geography, a {mall town of Egypt,. in
Bahira, under the command of a kiafchef, about a league
E. of Honéze, on the borders of the defart, a village which
marks the boundary between the mot brilliant vegetation
and the moft complete aridity, between a land fertilized by
the overflow of the Nile, and fands moiftened in vain by co-
pious dews.

SAFFRON, in Botany, &c. See Crocus.

SAFFRON, in the Materia Medica. 'To what the reader
will find under the article Crocus, we fhall here add fome
further particulars relating to the medicinal properties and
ufes of this plant. The Mi rola of the * crocus fativus,’?
which conftitute the officinal faffron, are eafily to be dittin-
guifhed from thofe of the other varieties. It has been long
cultivated for ufe in this and in other countries, as Si-
cily, France, and Spain; but Englifh faffron is generally
preferred here to that which is imported from abroad, and
may be diftinguifhed by its parts being larger and broader.
It fhould be chofen frefh, not above a year old, in clofe,
tough, compa cakes, moderately moiit, {taining the hands
in rubbing it, and of the fame colour within as on the out-
fide. Saffron is cultivated for medicinal ufe, in great
abundance, in Cambridgefhire and Effex, formerly about
Saffron-Walden chiefly, but it is now confined to Stapleford.
For a fuller account of the culture and management of
faffron, fee Douglas in Phil. Tranf, vol. xxxv. or Abr.
vol. vii. p. 311, &c. and the next article.

Saffron, thus prepared, has a powerful, penetrating, diffufive
odour, and a warm, pungent, bitterifh taite. It gives out the
whole of its virtues and colour to re&tified {pirit, proof {pirit,
wine, vinegar, and water, and ina{maller degreetoether ; about
three parts in four of the faffron being taken up by each of
thefe menftrua; and the matter, which remains undiflolved,
is inodorous, infipid, and of a pale clay colour. The ace-
tous and even vinous tinctures of faffron, on long keeping,
lofe a little of their colour and ftrength, but thofe made
with reétified {pirit remain in perfection for years. In dif-
tillation it impregnates water {trongly with its flavour: if
the quantity of faffron is large, a {mall portion of a fragrant
and very pungent eflential oil may be collected, amounting,
as Vogel fays, to about 14 drachm from 16 ounces. Reéti-
fied fpirit alfo elevates a confiderable fhare of its favour, but
leaves much the greater part concentrated in the extraé.
The watery infufion, which has the deep orange-red colour
of the faflron, is rendered of a very deep purple by ftrong
fulphuric acid, the mixture emitting the fmell of vinegar,
and yielding a copious black precipitate when diluted with
water : and the oxymuriatic acid produces a copious yellow
precipitate, the liquid retaining only a pale lemon colour.
Hence, fays Thomfon, faffron feems to contain chiefly ex-
traGtive, which, according to Hermbftacdt, is nearly pure,
and in proportion of 10 parts in 16 of the vegetable; the
remaining parts being chiefly ligneous fibre. From our ex-
periments, fays the fame author, we find that it contains refin
alfo; for fulpburic ether digefted on faffron is coloured,
and when evaporated on the furface of water, a pellicle of
refin is left, whillt the coloured extra¢tive, which was taken
up by means of the retin, is diflolved in and colours the
water.

Saffron, the xeoxo; of the Greeks, crocus of the Latins,
afid zaffaran, or zahafaran of the Arabians, was held in much
eltimation by the Hebrews, who called it carcom, and was
greatly celebrated ia ancient times both by phyficians and
poets. In medicine, it was confidered to be very powerful,
Schroder afferts, that if taken to the quautity of two or

9 three

SAFFRON.

three drachms, it proves fatal ; and by feveral authors we are
informed, that in large dofes it produced cephalalgia, in-
toxication, and mania. It is alfo faid to penetrate every
part of the body, tinging the folids and excretions with a
yellow colour; and that even the odour or effluvia of this
drug have been known to produce deleterious effeéts. It
appears, however, from the experiments of Dr. Alexander
(Exp. Eff.), that faffron poffefles but very little active
power, and may be taken in confiderable quantity, without
producing any remarkable effect ; and it was lately ‘given,
we are informed, in the Edinburgh Infirmary by Dr. H.
Cullen, even to the quantity of half an ounce a day, in
feveral hytterical cafes, without any fenfible effe&. » It has
been generally regarded and defcribed as a molt exhilarating
cordial ; and with this view Boerhaave preferred the ex-
tract, infpiffated only to the confiitence of oil; but modern
phyficians do not furnifh any inftance in which this drug
has had any remarkable effect in raifing ‘the fpirits; but
Berzius mentions an inftance of a very contrary effect. It
has alfo been confidered as having confiderable efficacy as
an emmenagogue ; but though it has fometimes fucceeded
in this intention, Dr. Cullen mentions many inftances in
which, though repeatedly employed in large dofes, no
ood effe&t was produced. Another quality for which
affron has been efteemed, is that of an antifeptic ;
but though it has been found to retard the putrefactive
procefs Of animal matter, no proof occurs of its efficacy
in this way on the living body, infe&ted by a putrid
difeafe. Saffron has alfo been employed as a diapho-
retic, and for the purpofe of throwing out variolous
puftules, and other exanthemata; but this practice ori-
inated in a miftaken notion of its a€tion, as well as in a
Filacious pathology. Upon the whole, it may be obferved,
that in modern praétice no confidence is placed in this
medicine, and that it is fearcely ever employed otherwife
than as a cordial adjuné& to more active remedies. ‘The
dofe in fubftance is-from x grs. to 3fs. The officinal pre-
parations are as follow: viz. Syrup of fuffron, “ Syrupus
croci,’”? which the Lond. Pharm. orders to be made by
macerating an ounce of faffron in a pint of boiling water
for twelve hours, in a flightly covered veflel ; then filtering
the liquor, and adding to it 2% pounds of refined fugar.
This fyrup is cordial in a fmall degree; but it is chiefly
valued on account of its beautiful culos Tin@ure of faf-
fron, * Tin&ura croci Anglici’”’ of Edinb. Ph. « Tinétura
croci,’? Dub. is prepared by cutting one ounce of Englifh
faffron in fhreds, and digefting in fifteen ounces (pint,
Dub.) of proof fpirit for feven days, and filtering through
paper. The tinéture contains almoft pure cattutiive, an
is fuppofed to be ftimulant and diaphoretic ; but its chief
value, perhaps, arifes from its colour. Tin¢ture of faffron
is ufed as a yellow wafa with water colour: it is a fine
warm yellow, and when very itrong, makes a very proper
fhade for the gamboge, or other yellows that are bright,
and it will {tand as well as any of the vegetable tinétures.
Saffron likewife enters into the compofition of « Confectio
aromatica,’ L.D. « Pilula aloes cum myrrha,” L.
*¢ Tin&. aloes compofita,”’ L. E. D. ‘ Tin&ura cin-
chonz compofita,’ L.D. «“Tinétura rhei,”’ Ls; and
« Tinétura rhei compofita,” L. See Tincture. Lewis.
oodville. Thomfon.

Savrron, in Rural Economy, a plant which has aroundifh
bulbous root, as large as a {mall nutmeg, which is a little
comprefled at the bottom, and is covered with a coarfe
brown netted fkin ; from the bottom of this bulb are fent
out many long fibres, which {trike pretty deep into
the ground, and from the upper part of the root come

.

out the flowers, which, together with the young leaves,
whofe tops juft appear, are clofely wrapped about by 2
thin fpatha or fheath, which parts within the ground, and
opens on.one fide. The tube of the flower is very long,
arifing immediately from the Sulb, without any footftalk, and
at the top is divided into fix ovate obtufe fegments, which are
equal, of a purple blue colour. In the bottom of, the tube
is fituated a roundifh germ, half the length of the petal,
crowned with three oblong golden ftigmas, which fpread
out each way, and which, when carefully picked and
prefled together into cakes, conftitute the fatron of the
fhops. Itis a perennial plant, which flowers in O&ober,
and the leaves keep growing all the winter, but it never
produces any feeds in this climate. See Crocus.

It may be obferved, that this is a plant that was formerly

much cultivated for the above purpofe, but at prefent it is, »

we believe, but little attended to by the farmer, though it is
prebably ftill grown in {mall quantities in Cambridgefhire,
to which diftri& it has removed from Saffron-Walden in
Effex, where it was perhaps firft cultivated. It was, how-
ever, grown at an early period in Herefordfhire. It is re-
marked by ‘the editor of Miller’s Dictionary, that in the
firft of thefe counties the quantity of land under faffron has
been gradually leflening during the lait twenty or twenty-
five years, owing, as it 1s thought, at firlt, to the lownels of
the price occafioned by the great importation of forei
faffron, _ It is now confined to two or three parifhes aa
of which Stapleford is one ; and if fome means are not ufed
to encourage it, the cultivation of faffron will probably
foon be entirely loft in this country. But whether faffron
be of any national confequence he is not a competent judge,
he only knows that when the culture is entirely dropped, it
will be no eafy matter to revive it.
riority of Englifh faffron was much celebrated, but lately it
has been depreciated. This is not owing to our com-
modity being inferior to what it was, for it has at all times
come out the hands of the growers pure and genuine,
but perhaps the foreign dealers are not wife enough to
leave off their old fophiftications with ba{tard faffron, or
faflower, marygolds, &c.; and if fo, their commodity,
coming from a warmer climate, may have the fuperiority ;
he only knows, that if the foreign faffron can be afforded
cheaper, it will be encouraged without attending to its
quality, and that he has very lately experienced a ver
fenfible difference between the foreign and Englilh faffron,
greatly to the advantage of the latter.

Mode of Culture—The manner of growing it in the
extenfive tra&t of ground between Saffron-Walden and
Cambridge, is this, aceording to fir James Douglas. The

reateft part of this tract is an open level country, with
a inclofures; and in which the cuftom is, as in moft
other places, to crop two years, and let the land lie fallew
the third. It is always planted upon fallow ground ; sand,
all other things being the fame, they prefer that which has
borre barley the year before. The grounds for this ufe
are feldom above three acres, or lefs than and in
choofing them, the principal thing which is he actepo
is, that they be well expofed, the foil not poor, nor a very
{tiff clay, but good dry mould, fuch as commonly lies
upon chalk, and is of an hazel colour; though if eve
thing elfe anfwers, the colour of the mould is not of muc
ala wah cl
bandry and Gardening,” fays, that he has found it fucceed
well in land of the common heath kind, where the furface
has been pared and burnt, and that by his diretion fome
acres had been planted with fuccefs on fuch fort of ground,
which was fcarcely worth one fhilling the acre. The athes,
in

Formerly the fupe-.

But Mr. Bradley, in his « Treatife on Huf- _

s

aie)

SAFFRON,

in thefe cafes, he confiders as a fufficient manure. But
this fort of foil does not feem to have fully anfwered in the
culture of the faffron plant, as no mention is made of it
afterwards.

In the preparation for it, about the beginning of April
the land is carefully ploughed, the furrows being drawn
much clofer togetker, and deeper, if the foil will allow it,
than is done for any kind of corn; and, accordingly, the
charge is greater. And about five weeks afterwards, at
any time in the month of May, between twenty and thirty
loads of dung are laid upon each acre ; and, having {pread
it with great care, it is ploughed in as before ; the fhorteft
rotten dung is the beft, and the farmers, who have the
conyeniency of making it, {pare no pains to make it good,
being fure of a proportional price for it. About mid-
fummer a third ploughing is given, and between every
fixteen feet and a half, or pole in breadth, a broad furrow
or trench is left, which ferves both as a boundary to the
feveral parcels, where there are feveral proprietors to one
inclofure, and to throw the weeds into at the proper
feafon. ;

And the fencing in of the ground is likewife neceflary, and
is moft commonly, though not always, done before planting.
The fences confift of what is termed dead hedges, or hur-
dles, fo as to keep out not only cattle of all forts, but
efpecially hares, which would otherwife feed on the faffron-
leaves during the winter. In refpe& to the weather, the
hotteft fummers are always the beft ; and where there are

tle fhowers from time to time, there can hardly mifs

ing a plentiful crop, where the extreme cold, fnow, or’

rain of the preceding winter have not prejudiced the heads
or bulbs of the plants.

Planting.—The next bufinefs ia this fort of culture is
planting, or fetting the roots; the only inftrument ufed for

ich is a narrow fpade, commonly termed a fpit-fhovel.
In refpe& to the time of planting, it is commonly ia July,
a little fooner or later, according as the weather an{wers.
The method is this: one man with his fpit-fhovel raifes
between three and four inches of earth, and throws it
before him about fix or more inches: two perfons, gene-
rally women, following with heads or bulbs, place them in
the fartheft edge of the trench, which he makes at about
three inches diflance from each other : as foon as the digger
or fpitter has gone once the breadth of the ridge he begins
at the other fide, and digging as before, covers the roots
laft fet, and makes the fame room for the fetters to place a
new row, at the fame diftance from the firft as they are from
one another: thus they proceed till a whole ridge is
planted ; and the only nicety in digging is, to leave fome
part of the firft ftratum of earth untouched, to lie under the
roots, and in fetting, to place the roots direétly upon their
bottoms.

But with regard to the roots formerly, when they were
very dear, they did not plant them fo thick as they do
now, and they have always fome regard to the fize of the
ruots, placing the larger ones at a greater diftance than the
fmaller ones. ‘The quantity of roots planted in an acre is
generally about fixteen quarters, or one hundred and twenty-
eight bufhels; which, aceording to the dillances left between
them, as before afligned, and fuppofing all to be an inch in
diameter one with another, ought to amount to three
hundred and ninety-two thoufand and forty in number.
But this very large quantity is probably much more than is

uired. ‘

From om a that the roots are planted, till about the

pi ma September, or fometimes later, there is no
or, XXXII.

more labour about them ; but as they then begin to fpire,
and are ready to thew themfelves above ground, which is
known by digging a few out of the earth, the ground muft
be carefully pared with a fharp hoe, and the weeds, &c.
raked into the furrows, otherwife they would hinder the
growth of the plants. In a little time afterwards the faf.
fron flowers appear. Thefe flowers are gathered both
before and after they are full blown; and the moit proper
time for this is early in the morning. The owners of the
faffron get together a fufficient number of hands, who place
themfelves in different parts of the field, pull off the whole
flowers, and throw haadful by handful into a bafket, and fo
continue till all the flowers are gathered, which is commonly
about ten or eleven o’clock. Having then carried home all
they have got, they immediately fpread them upon a large
table, and begin picking out the filaments, or chives, and
together with them a pretty long proportion of the ftyle
itfelf, or {tring to which they are joined ; the reft of the
flower they throw away as ufelefs. The next morning they
return into the field again, whether it be wet or dry weather ;
and fo on daily, even on Sundays, till the whole crop be
gathered. ‘

Drying.—The ftigmas, or chives, being all thus picked
out of the flowers, the next labour is to dry them on a kiln,
which is built upon a thick plank, that it may be removed
from place to place, fupported by four fhort legs; the
outfide having eight pieces of wood about three inches
thick, in form of a quadrangular frame, about twelve
inches fquare at the bottom of the infide, and twenty-two
inches at top; which. ie likewife equal to the perpendicular
height of it. On the fore-fide is left a hole, about eight
inches fquare, and four inches above the plank, through
which the fire is put in. Over all the reft laths are laid
pretty thick, clofe to one another, and nailed to the frame
already mentioned: and then plaitered over on both fides,
as alfo the planks at bottom very thick, to ferve for an
hearth. Over the mouth, or wideft part, goes an hair-cloth,
fixed to the fides of the kiln; and likewife to two rollers
or moyeable pieces of wood, which are turned by wedges
or ferews, in order to ftretch the cloth. Inftead of the
hair-cloth, many people ufe a net-work, or iron wire, with
which it is obferved that the faffron dries fooner and with
a lefs quantity of fuel: but the difficulty in preferving the.
faffron from burning makes the hair-cloth be preferred by -
the niceft judges in drying.

The kiln is placed in a light part of the houfe ; and the
work is begun by laying five or fix fheets of white paper
on the hair-cloth, upon which is fpread the wet faffron be-
tween two and three inches ape this is covered with
other fheets of paper, and over thefe they lay a coarfe
blanket, five or fix times doubled ; or, inftead of it, a can
vas pillow filled with ftraw; and, after the fire has been
lighted for fome time, the whole is covered with a board,
having a large weight upon it. At firlt a pretty flroag
heat is given to make the chives {weat, as their expreffion is ;
and in this, if they do not ufe a great deal of care, they are

‘in danger of fcorchiag, and confequently of {poiling, all

that is on the kiln.

When it has been thus dried about an hour, they take
off the board, blanket, and upper papers, and take the
faffron off from that which lies next it; raifing at the fame
time the edges of the cake with a knife; then laying on
the paper again, they flide in another board between the
hair-cloth on under papers, and turn both papers and faffrou
upfide down, afterward covering them as before. The

fame heat is continued for an hour longer ; then the cake is
H examined

SAFFRON.

examined again, freeing it from the papers, and turning it ;
then covered, and the weight laid on as before. If nothing
happens amifs during the firft two hours, the danger is faid
to be over; as there is nothing more to do but to keep a gentle
fire, and to turn the cakes every half hour, till thoroughly
dry ; for the doing which properly, full twenty-four hours
are neceflary.

But though, in drying the layers of plump chives, nothing
more is ated 3 yet towards the latter end of the crop, when
thefe come to be f{maller, the cake is fprinkled with a little
{mall beer, to make it {fweat as it ought ; and it is now fup-
pofed that ufing two linen cloths next the cake, inftead of
the two innermoft papers, is of fome advantage in drying ;
but this practice is followed only by few. The fire may be
made of any kind of fuel; but that which fmokes the leaft
is beft; and charcoal for that reafon is preferred to any

other.

In refpe& to the quantity of faffron a firft crop will
produce, it is very uncertain; fometimes five or fix pounds
of wet chives are got from one crop; fometimes not above
one or two, and fometimes not enough to make it worth
while to gather and dry it. But it is always to be obferved,
that about five pounds of wet faffron go to make one pound
of dry, for the firft three weeks of the crop; and fix pounds
during the laft week ; and now when the heads are planted
very thick, two pounds of dried faffron may, at a medium,
be allowed to an acre for the firft crop, and twenty-four

ounds for the two remaining ; the third being confiderably
Ever than the fecond.

In order to obtain thefe, there is only a repetition to be
made every year of the labour of hoeing, gathering, picking,
and drying, in the fame manner as before, without the
addition of any thing new; except that the cattle are
let into the field, after the leaves are decayed, to feed
upon the weeds; or they are, perhaps, mown for the fame
ufe.

Taking up the Roots.—About midfummer, after the third
crop is gathered, the roots mult be all taken up and tranf-
planted. To take up the faffron-heads, or break up the
ground, as the term is, they fometimes plough it, fometimes
ufe a forked kind of hoe, called a pattock, and then the

und is harrowed once or twice over; during all which
tume of ploughing or digging, and harrowing, fifteen or
more people will find eae enough to follow and gather the
heads, asthey areturned up. They are next to be carried
to the houfe in facks, and there ate and raifed: this
labour confifts in cleaning the roots thoroughly from the
earth, and from the remains of old roots, old involucra, and
excrefcences ; and thus they become fit to be planted in new

ound immediately, or to be kept for fome time without
ER of fpoiling. The quantity of roots taken up, in
proportion to thofe that were planted, is uncertain; but, as
a medium, it may be faid, that, allowing for all the accidents
which happen to them in the ground, and in breaking up,
from each acre may be had twenty-four quarters of clean
roots, all fit to be planted. . The owners are fure to choofe
for their own ufe the largeft, plumpeft, and moft flethy
roots; but approve leaft of all the long-pointed ones, which
they call fpickards, for very fmall round or flat roots are
fometimes obferved to flower. This is the whole culture
which is requifite. With refpeé to the charges and profits
which may be expe€ted from this fort of culture, the follow-
ing was the computation for one acre of ground, before the
Jate rifes in the price of labour and the value of land;
which is, of courfe, much below what the prefent expences

would be. 5

Expences of Cultivation for three Years.

: £8. de
Rent for three years - - - - 3.0 0
Ploughing for three years - - - o18 o
Dunging ene Tei olitva, | (See RE geri}
Hedging - - - - - - 116 0
Spitting and fetting the heads - - - 112 0
Weeding or paring the ground - - F 4kG
Gathering and picking the flowers - - 610 0
Drying the flowers - - - - LO.n0,
Initruments of labour for three years,
with the kiln, about - - - ee oe
Ploughing the ground once, and har-
rowing twice - - - - i th
Gathering the faffron-heads - - - 1oo
Raifing the heads - - - - =) Miwon
Total charge 23:12¢ 9

This calculation is made upon the fuppofition that an acre.
of ground yields twenty-fix pounds of net faffron in three
years ; which is ftated only as a mean quantity between, the
greateft and the leaft; and therefore the price of faffron
mutt be judged accordingly, which cannot be done better
than fixing it at thirty fhillings per pound ; fince, in plentiful
years, it is fold at twenty, andis fometimes worth three or
four pounds; at this rate, twenty-fix pounds of faffron are
worth thirty-nine pounds; and the net profit of an acre of
aoe producing faffron, will, in three years, amount to

fteen pounds thirteen fhillings, or about five pounds four
fhillings yearly. And this, it is fuppofed, may be confidered
the net profit of an acre of faffron where all the labour is
paid for in ready money ; but as the planter often does much
of the work, fome of the expences may be faved. Hemay,
of courfe, expe& to clear five pounds, befides fupporting his
family part of the year. But all fuch calculations mut. be
liable to great inaccuracy. Nothing is faid concerning the
charges in buying, or profits in felling, the faffron-heads ; as
in large traéts of ground thefe mutt, it is fuppofed, at length
balance each other, while the quantity of ground planted
yearly continues the fame.

Sarrron, Baflard, in Botany. See CARTHAMUS.

Sarrron, /ndian. See TURMERIC. ;

Sarrron, Meadow, in Botany, Mat. Med; &c. - Seo
Cotcuicum. Mr. Want, late furgeon te the Northern Dif-
penfary, confiders colchicum as the bafis of the “ Eau Me-
dicinale,” lately highly extolled as a remedy for the gout.
Accordingly he recites in the * Medical Journal’? feveral
cafes, in which the colchicum was fuccefsfuily adminiitered
in paroxyfms of this difeafe. The colchicum, he fays
(Med. Journ. N° 188.), though it has generally a purgative
and often an emetic property, appears to have fome fpecific
operation in the treatment of gout, which it remains for
future experiments to develope.

SAFFRON, Common Meadow, in Farming, a plant of the
poifon-weed kind, which has a bulbous root of the fize and
fhape of the tulip, but not fo fharp, pointed at the top; the
fkin or cover is alfo of a darker colour: thefe bulbs are re-
newed every year, for thofe which produce thé flowers
decay, and new roots are formed above. The flowers,come
out in autumn; they arife with long flender tubes from the
root about four inches high, fhaped like thofe of faffron, but
larger: the number of flowers is generally from two to
feven or eight: in March the green ear appear, thefe are
commonly four to a full grown root ; they are folded over
each other below, but fpread open above the ground, ftand-

ing

SAF

ing erofswife; they are of a deep green, and when fully

wn are five or fix inches long, and one and a half broad.
The feed-veflels come out from between the leaves in April,
and the feeds ripen in May, foon after which the leaves
decay. The feeds lie buried all winter within the bulb, but
in {pring they grow up on a fruit-ftalk, and are ripe about
the time of hay harveit. See CoLcHicum. 7

Mr. Carpenter, in his * Treatife on Agriculture,” fays,
this plant is moft frequently found in fpongy lands inclined
to moifture, and is a very pernicious and deadly plant,
fearcely noticed by the farmers in general; but it is well
known by otliers to prove fatal both to cattle, deer, and
fawns, when eaten by them in its different ftates: it is
more efpecially poifonous in a withering ftate; and, like the
branches of box or yew, univerfally known to deftroy almoft
every fpecies of the brute creation. And that as pre-
vention is preferable to cure, he advifes and entreats every
farmer totally to extirpate it from his premifes, by drawing
the roots and branches in the fame way as docks, obferving
to deftroy them immediately, as by firlt chopping, bruifing,
and then burying them very deep under ground, or burning
them, that cattle may not devour a particle of fo deftructive
a plant. He afferts that two grains of this root is certain
and fpeedy death to aay human being.

But, according to Dr. Woodville, in his Medical Botany,
no cattle eatit. He fays that he had a pafture where there
were feveral horfes, and which was eaten down pretty bare ;
the grafs was clofely cropped, even under the leaves, but
not a leaf of the meadow faffron was bitten. There are
feveral varieties of this plant.

It is however added by Mr. Carpenter, that the fymptoms
of the effects of the malady caufed by cattle eating this
plant, are generally, difficulty in breathing and in difcharging
urine, which is very high coloured, the body coltive, and
the excrements hard and knotty, with dimnefs of fight and
a general lofs of the limbs. When the beaft offers to ftand
he ftaggers, and then tumbles, and dies with a great {welling
all over the body, ‘which on opening the lungs are appa-
rently diftended, and in a flate of mortification. The moft
preferable means to be ufed to effe& a cure in thefe cafes
are, he thinks, by honey, and other {trong opening and
evacuating remedies, where the diforder is taken in time.
He ttrongly advikes noblemen, gentlemen, and farmers,
ftri&ly to obferve the above direGtions, as many cattle, deer,
and fawns, may be preferved from an dustetted death by
it, the real caufe of which is almoft unknown, and confe-
quently unaccounted for, by thofe concerned in endea-
vouring to adminifter remedies to thefe moft profitable, ufe-
ful, and innocent animals.

Sarvnon-Tree, in Natural Hiflory, the name of an Eatt
Indian fthrub, which grows to about two feet high, having
f{quare branches, which are befet with leaves in pairs. The
pedicles of the flowers come from the ale of the leaves,
and are branchied, each pedicle fupporting about five flowers ;
thefe are of the fhape of the jafmine flowers, and are white
above, and of the fine reddifh-yellow colour of faffron below.
The flowers never open but in the night, and then do not
peiely expand themfelves, but all the petals remain in

uch a pofition, that they can clofe inftantaneoufly on occa-

fiou of the leaft heat ; they are placed each in a green cup,
to which they are fo flightly faltened, that the leaft motion
makes them fall. They feldom ftand more than’ four days,
often not fo long; the fow.rs have no {mell, but are of a
cordial virtue, approaching to that of faffron. Mem.
Acad. Paris. 1699.

Savrton is alfo a name given to feveral chemical pre-

parations, from the refemblance of their colour to that of

SAF

the vegetable faffron, but more ufually called ¢roct. See
Crocus. Such are,

Sarrron of Venus. See Coprsr, and Venus.

SAFFRON of Mars. See Crocus Martis.

SAFFRON of Gold. See Aurum Fulminans.

SAFFRON-WALDEN, Watpen, or Chipping-Wal-
den, n Geography, a market-town with feparate jurifdiGtion,
locally fituated in the hundred of Uttesford, and county of
Effex, England; is 25 miles N.N.W. from Chelmsford, the
county town, and 42 N.N.E. from London. The fituation
of this place is peculiar; Dr. Stukeley conjeCtures it to
have been the {cite of a Roman ftation, and ‘ the moft beau-
tiful he ever beheld.””—« A narrow tongue of land,” he
continues, ‘ fhoots itfelf out like a promontory, encom-
pafled with a valley in the form of a horfe-fhoe, inclofed by
diftant and moft delightful hills. On the bottom of the
tongue ftand the ruins of a caftle; and on the top, or ex-
tremity, the church, round which, on the fide of the hill,
and in the valley, is the town built; fo that the bottom of
the church is as high as the town, and feen above the tops
of the houfes.””? At the period of the Domefday furvey,
Walden was one of the numerous lordfhips poffeffed by
Geoffrey de Magnaville, a Norman chief, who accome-
panied the Conqueror into England, and whofe fervices were
rewarded with 118 lordfhips, of which forty were in this
county. This nobleman founded a caftle here, and, accord-
ing to the expreflion of Camden, ‘‘firft gave life to the
place,” which afterwards became the head of the barony
and honour of Magnaville. This caftle occupied the higheit
part of the town, and, from the remaining fragments, ap-
pears tochave been of great ftrength; the walls having been
compofed of fmall flints, bound together by a very {trong
cement. Geoffrey, grandfon of the above, was a man of
great perfonal bravery ; a quality which, in his turbulent
age, was of the firft neceffity. King Stephen made him
keeper of the Tower of London, and created him earl of
Effex ; probably with a view of retaining him firmly in his
intereft ; but the more advantageous offers of the emprefs
Maud allured himto her party. Befides very ample grants
of land, fhe conftituted him hereditary fheriff of London,
and of the fhires of Middlefex, Hertford, and Effex; fhe
confirmed to him the poffeflion of all his forts and cattles ;
and gave him liberty to retain and fortify the Tower of Lon-
don at his pleafure. She alfo granted him liberty to remove
the market from the neighbouring town of Newport, to his
caltle at Walden, there to hold it twice weekly, on Thurf-
day and Sunday; with the right of all tolls, cuftoms, &c.
Stephen being privately informed of the defection of the
earl, caufed him to be arrefted at St. Alban’s, in 1143;
and, before he could obtain his liberty, he was obliged to
furrender the government of the ‘Tower, together with his
own eaftles of Walden and Plefhy, to the king. Inflamed
by vengeance for this treatment, with a band of defperate
partifans he ravaged the demefnes of the fovereign and his
adherents, without mercy; but was at length fhot by an
arrow (A.D. 1144), while befieging the caltle of Burwell,
in Cambridgefhire, when under fentence of excommunication
for having plundered the abbey of Ramfey, in Huntingdon.
fhire. Betides the growing importance obtained by this
town through the removal of the market from Newport,
its confequence was further advanced by the founding of a
Benediétine priory here, by the above earl Geoffrey, in the
year 1136; and which was converted into an abbey in 1190.
[t itood on the {pot now occupied by Audley Houfe ; and
was fupported by confiderable endowments from eftates and
churches in various counties, At the fuppreflion of mo-
nalterics, its pofleflions et granted by Henry VIII. fe

pee the

SAF

the lord chancellor Audley, who alfo obtained licence to
enlarge his park by enclofing 200 additional acres. This
grant included the manor of Walden, and defcended to
Thomas Howard, created earl of Suffolk in 1603, who
erected the magnificent manfion of Audley End, to which
he gave that name out of refpe€ to his maternal anceftor the
lord chancellor, from whom he derived the eftate. Walden
was made a corporate town by Edward VI. in 1549, when
its government was vefted in twenty perfons, out of whom a
treafurer or chief officer, and two chamberlains, were annually
chofen. Thefe officers were changed, by charter of Wil-
liam III., into a mayor, twelve aldermen, a recorder, town-
clerk, &c., by whom the police is now regulated. The
church is a fpacious and elegant pile of ge: archite€ture,
and confilts of a nave, chancel, and fide aifles. It is called
by Walpole one of the lighteft and moft beautiful parifh
churches in England... This fabric was thoroughly repaired
in the yeats 1791, 1792, and 1793, at the expence of nearly
8000/., to which the late lord Howard contributed nearly

cool. ; he was a liberal benefa€tor to the parifh, particu-
arly to the poor, to whofe ufe he bequeathed the intereft
of a fufficient fum to clothe twelve of each fex annually for
ever. He died in May 1797, and was buried with his an-
ceftors in the family vault in thischurch. At the fouth-weft
end of the town are fome alms-houfes, founded in the reign
of Edward VI. Here is alfo a free-fchool, of ancient
foundation, on which that monarch beftowed fome addi-
tional endowments. The number of inhabitants of this town,
as returned under the population a& of 1811, was 3403;
that of houfes 686. On the green, behind the caftle, was
formerly a fingular work, called the Maze, formed by a num-
ber of concentric circles, with four outworks, all cut in the
chalk ; which Dr. Stukeley fuppofes to have been a Britifh
curfus, for exercifing the foldiery. About half a mile from the
caftle, on the weil, are the remains of an ancient encamp-
ment, called the Pell Ditches; the fouth bank is 730 feet
long ; the weft bank 588. Both banks and ditches are ex-
tremely bold, and in good prefervation.

About the diftance of one mile weftward from the town,
is Audley-End, or Audley-Houfe, the feat of lord Bray-
brooke, who derived it from the late lord Howard de Wal-
den, as he did from Thomas, lord Howard de Walden, al-
ready mentioned as created earl of Suffolk, 1{t James I.
This nobleman, while lord high treafurer of England, built
the fplendid and fpacious palace of Audley-Inn, which
was calculated to furpafs all the manfions of the country.
The proprietor feemed determined, as Walpole obferves, to
**have an immenfe pile of building,’ and to effe& this, it is
related that his lady raifed erable fums in the fale of
commiffions, court-patronage, &c. The earl alfo is faid
to have fold an eftate of great value, to defray the exorbitant
expences of building, &c. ; and his uncle, the earl of North-
ampton, affifted him by large contributions. The houfe ap-
pears to have been erected in 1616; but whether it was then
begun, or finifhed, is not ftated. A model of the defign
was procured from Italy, sand coft soo/. ; but it is prefumed
that plans and working drawings were provided by a fur-
veyor, or clerk of the works. The whole expence of ereét-
ing the manfion is ftated at 190,000/. Philip, earl of Pem-
broke, in a MS. note, fays, “I heard my lord treafurer
Suffolk once tell king James, that, infide and outfide, in the
furniture, it coft him 200,000/. fterling.””. The complete
manfion originally furrounded two quadrangular courts ;
befides other offices and out-houfes. The wettern court
was very fpacious, and was approached through a grand
entrance gateway between four round towers. On the
north and fouth des were corridores, fupported by columns

SAF

of alabafter ; and on the eaft fide was an entrance into the
great hall. Paffing through this, there was a {maller fquare
court, three fides of which remain, and conftitute the prefent
manfion. In its perfect ftate, the entire pile appeared like
a large college, with numerous turrets, cupolas, and pin-
nacles. The rooms were large, inconvenient, and many of
them unpleafant ; and to keep the whole in good repair re-
quired an immenfe fortune; great part of it was, in confe-
quence, pulled down, and the materials fold. At the eatt
end of the building was a gallery, meafuring 226 feet in
length, 32 feet in width, and 24 in height. The weftern
quadrangle, according to Walpole’s {tatement, was deftroyed
by the advice of ‘¢ that injudicious archite@’”’ fir John Van-
brugh, who defigned the prefent fkreen and ftairs at the
fouth end of the great hall. Atthe north end of this room
is the old carved fkreen with two doors, or hatches, and a
mufic gallery over it. The fire-place is large and appro-
priate ; oppofite to which is a large bay window, extending
nearly from the floor to the cieling. To the north are the
kitchen, fervants’ offices, &c.; and to the fouth, the dining
rooms, drawing rooms, and libraries... Above the dining
room is a large handfome faloon, the cieling and mantle-
piece of which are highly ornamented with ftucco, carving,
painting, and emblazoning. The grand entrance front of
the prefent edifice, which, though fo much curtailed, may
ftill be regarded as a large manfion, is adorned with two
uniform projecting porches, each having feventeen marble
columns at the angles. Some of thefe are white, with black
bafes amd capitals; the others are of dark veined marble,
with white bafes and capitals. The various apartments were
furnifhed and decorated in a coftly and elegant ftyle by the
late lord Howard. The hall {till preferyes its ancient cha-
raéter ; and exhibits an interefting {pecimen of the magnitude
and ornaments which charaéterized thefe apartments in old
baronial manfions. The grounds are pleafingly diverfified
with hill and dale ; the former is richly adorned with wood ;
the latter enlivened with the clear waters of the river Granta,
which forms a wide canal in front of the houfe. A hand-
fome bridge of three arches was built acrofs this river by
Mr. Adams, in 1764.

On the top of Ring-hill, to the weft of the manfion, is a
circular temple, occupying the {cite of an ancient tower,
which Dr. Stukeley has given a print of, with fome account,
in his Itinerary ; but which appears to have been only the
remains of a Warren-houfe, or Belvidere. The whole
fummit of this bill is inclofed with an intrenchment, nearly
circular, including an area of about fifteen acres; it is fup-
pofed by Salmon, in his fragment of a hiftory of Effex, to
have been the Canonium of the Itinerary.

At Littlebury, a village about one mile north from
Audley End, was another encampment, within the area of
which is the prefent church; a {mall plain fabric, having a
nave, chancel, and fide aifles: near it is an alms-houfe, and
a free-fchool. Hiftory and Antiquities of Effex, by the
Rev. P. Morant, two vols. folio. Beauties of England and
Wales, vol. v. by J. Britton and E. W. Brayley. Archi-
tetural Antiquities of Great Britain, by J. Britton, F.S.A.
vol. iii. gto. 1812.

SAFFURE, or Sarura. See SEPHOURY.

SAFIA, a river of Arabia, which runs into the Red
fea, two miles N. of TYfor, or Sur.

SAFIEHA, a town of Nubia; 30 miles S.S.E. of
Syene.

*SAFNAS, a town of Egypt; 12 miles S.W. of Tineh.

SAFRA, atown of Arabia Petrea ; 40 miles §.S.W.
of Medina.—Alfo, an extenfive mountain of Arabia, in
the province of Hedsjas, three days’ journey diftant —

+7 the

SAG

the Arabic gulf; which furnifhes a confiderable quantity of
balm of Mecca.

SAFRANI, a {mall ifland in the Grecian Archipelago ;
nine miles S.E. of Stampalia.

SAFVA, a town of Sweden, in the province of Up-
land; eight miles W. of Upfal. ;

SAFVAR, a town of Sweden, in Weft Bothnia; eight
miles N.N.E. of Umea.

SAFVAS, a town of Sweden, in Weft Bothnia; 20
miles N.W. of Lulea.

SAG Et, a {mall ifland in the river Nile, anciently
called <« Elephantina ;”’ the northern part of which is moun-
tainous, and covered with ruins.

SAGADAHOGC, a name formerly given to a great part
of the diftri€&t of Maine in America. The territory dif-
tinguifhed by this appellation was granted by king Charles IT.
to his brother the duke of York, called the duke of York’s
property, and annexed to the government of New York.
At the revolution in 1688 it reverted to the crown.

SaGADAHoc, or Amerafcoggin, ariver of America, which
runs into the Kennebeck, about ten miles from its mouth.

SAGADENON, a name given by the ancients to what
they fay was the very fineft kind of opobalfamum, produced
in Paleitine and the adjacent country.

SAGALA, in Ancient Geography, a town of India, on
this fide of the Ganges.

SAGALESSUS, or Sacatassus, a confiderable town
of Afia Minor, S. of Apamza Cibotos; placed by Ptolemy
in Lycia, by others in Pifidia, and by M. D’Anville in the
interior of the limits of Phrygia. Hierocles calls it « Aga-
leffus.”” According to Strabo, it was within the depart-
ment of the governor eftablifhed by the Romans in the king-
dom of Amyntus. According to Livy the territory of this
town was fertile, and its inhabitants a brave people.

SAGAMOND, in Geography, a river of America, in
the N.W. territory, which has a S.E. courfe, and enters
Illinois river, 30 miles below Demi-quian river, and 135
from the Miffifippi; 100 yards wide at its mouth, and navi-

able for {mall boats or canoes upwards of 150 miles.

SAGAN, atown of Silefia, and capital of a principality
of the fame name, fituated on the Bober, and furrounded
by a double wall. The magiftrates are Catholics, but the
Lutherans have a church and a fchool. In this town are
feyeral iron-mills and a copper-mill ; 80 miles N. W. of Bref-
lau. N. lat. 51° 37’. E. long. 15° 20'.—Alfo, a princi-
pality of Silefia, bounded on the N. by the duchy of Croffen,
on the E. by the principality of Glogau, and on the S. and
W. by Lufatia and the duchy of Croffen.. It contains a
number of woods, and abounds in iron-ore. It was formerly
united to Glogau. It contains four towns, the capital being
Sagan.

SAGAN, in Scripture Hiflory, the fuffragan or deputy of
the Jewith high prieft: who, according to fome, was only
to officiate for him, when he was rendered incapable of at-
tending the fervice through ficknefs, or legal uncleannefs,
on the day of expiation; or, according to others, who was
to affilt the high prieft in the care of the affairs of the tem-

: ple and the fervice of the prictts.

SAGANAK, in Geography, a town of Turkeftan, on
the Sir. It was large and ftrong, when taken by Jenghiz
Khan, who put 10,000 of the inhabitants to death; go
miles W. of ‘T'araz.

SAGANAUM, or Sacane, Bay, a bay of lake Huron,
in the S.W. part, about 80 miles long and 18 or 20 broad.
The territory furrounding it is inhabited by the Chippaway
Indians. —Alfo, a river which runs into this bay, N. lat.
44°. W. long. 83° 35’.

SAG

SAGANIAN, a river of Grand Bucharia, which joins
the Gihon at Termed.—Alfo, a town of Afia, in the coun-
try of Bucharia; 60 miles E. of Samarcand. :

SAGANKA, a name of the moon among the Hindoos,
or rather of its perfonification in the form of Chandra, or
Soma. See Soma.

SAGANUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Caramania. Ptolemy and Ammianus Marcellinus.

SAGAPENUM, ayarnov, a medicinal gum refin,
whofe {mell comes very near that of a pine; whence its
name.

It flows, by incifion, from the trunk of a ferulaceous
plant growing in Perfia; the beft is in bright tranfparent
tears of a ftrong, pungent, porraceous {mell: and the whiter
and freer from dirt, the better. Sometimes it is found as
white, both within and withoutfide, as milk; though this
is very rare. Diofcorides mentioned it as the juice of a
ferula growing in Media. Willdenow fuppofes it to be the

Ferula perfica.

The fagapenum is brought dire@tly from Alexandria ;
either in.diftin@ tears, or run together into large maffes;
outwardly of a yellow colour, but internally fomewhat paler
and clear, like horn; growing foft on being handled, fo as
to ftick to the fingers. It melts at a low heat, and burns
with a crackling noife and white flame, yielding much fmoke,
and leaving behind a light fpongy coal. It is diffolved par-
tially by water and {trong alcohol, and almoit completely by
proof fpirit. Diftilled with water it yields a little volatile
oil, and impregnates the water ftrongly with its flavour. Its
conftituents appear to be gum, refin, and an effential oil,
on which its virtues chiefly depend. It is fometimes fup-
plied in the fhops by the larger and darker coloured mafles
of bdellium. It has a ftrong difagreeable fmell, refembling
that of the leek-kind, or a mixture of galbanum with a little
afla-foetida ; and a moderately hot biting tafte. It is one
of the itrongeft deobftruent gums, and frequently preferibed,
either by itfelf, or in conjun@ion with ammoniacum or gal-
banum, in hyfteric cafes, uterine obftructions, afthmas, and
other diforders in which afla-feetida has been found fervice-
able ; but its powers are much weaker. It may be commo-
dioufly taken in the form of pills from grs. x to 3{s; in
dofes of a drachm, it loofens the belly. See Pitus of Gal-
banum, Compound.

It is alfo ufed externally to afluage pains, and refolve
tumours. Lewis. Thomfon.

SAGAPOLA, in Ancient Geography, a mountain in the
interior of the eaftern part of Mauritania Cefarienfis, in
which was the fource of the river Sabus.

SAGARA, in Hindoo Mythology, is a perfonification of
the fea. Samudra and Nadit are other names, anfwering to
the charaéter of Oceanus in wellern mythology. Samudra is
read of as officiating prieft at the nuptials of Vifhnu and
Lakfhmi ; an allegory conne&ted with the phyfical pheno-
mena, perhaps of rarefaction and condenfation, Lakfhmi
being the daughter of the ocean, and Vifhnu the fun, to
whom fhe is offered by her parent Samudra, (See SamuDRA.)
In other allegories Sagara is made to efpoufe Sumati, a maid
of furpafling beauty, daughter of Garuda, or Superna, the
man-eagle that ferves as a vehicle for Vifhnu, (See Su-
penNA.) ‘This marriage, and its extravagant progeny, is
conneéted, by a long allegorical chain, with the fource and
courfe of the Ganges, and is very poetically detailed in the
firft book of the Ramayana. (See Ramayana.) Sagara is
a name occurring alfo in hiftorical relations, as the fon of a
Raja Bahu, fovereign of Oude; but fo intermingled with
fable as not to be deferving of farther notice in that light.
The extravagant progeny above alluded to were 60,000 i

which

SAG

which fprang from a gourd, produced by Sumati; they
were all deftroyed by the power of the Muni Kapila, as
noticed under the articles Muni and Sumati.

Sacara Nacken Bay, in Geography, a bay on the E.
coait of theiflandof Java. S. lat. 7°33/. E. long. 109° 21’.

SAGARAWIDA Bay, a bay on the S. coaft of the
ifland of Java. S, lat. 8°15’. E. long. 113°.

SAGARIS, Berezen, in Ancient Geography, a river of
Sarmatia, the mouth of which was in the ifland Leuce, the
fame with that of the Bory{thenes.

SAGARTES, in Geography, a town of New York, in
the county of Ulfter; 15 miles S. of Hudfon.

SAGARTILI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia,
in Media, E. of mount Zagros (Ptol.) and reckoned by
Herodotus among thofe of Perfia.

SAGATA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Capi-
tanata; 13 miles S.E. of Termoli.

SAGATAY. See Zacartay.

SAGATHEE, in Commerce, a flight woollen ftuff ;
being a kind of ferge, or ratteen ; fometimes mixed with a
little filk. It is manufaétured chiefly at Amiens; though
we have our fhare of it in England. 2

The word is formed from the French, /ayette, a diminu-
tive of faye, fay. (See Say.) The’ French name /ayette again
is derived from that of the thread ufed herein, which is
chiefly prepared and fpun in Flanders, about Turcoing, &c.
and called fl de fayette.

SAGATUK, in Geography, a {mall river of Conneéticut,
which rifes in Ridgefield, in Fairfield county, patles through
Reading and Weiton, and running fouthward, feparates
Fairfield from Norwalk, and difcharges itfelf into a harbour
of its own name in Long Ifland found.

SAGDA, or Psacpa, in Natural Hiflory, the name of
a ftone defcribed by Aldrovand, which he fays is of a green
colour, and has the property of attra&ing wood.

Pliny and the ancients give this name to a gem of a
greenifh colour, very much efteemed at that time; and
about the origin of which the ancients had many fabulous
reports. Solinus tells us, that it is produced at the bottom
of the fea, and thence rifes up of itfelf as fhips pafs over
the place where it is, and fixes itfelf to their bottoms, and
that it cannot be got off again without cutting away a part
of the wood. This author has generally taken his accounts
of things from Pliny ; though he has been at the pains to
difguife them, in fuch a manner, that they are often unin-
telligible. All that Pliny fays on this oecafion is, that the
fagda was of a green célour, and was found by the Chal-
dzans at the bottoms of their fhips; even this, however, is
not very intelligible, unlefs they meant that the fhips which
traded to the Red fea, and lay long in the harbours, and
were fometimes a-ground, picked up at their bottoms the
ftones which make up the fhores, and fome of thefe are of
the jafper kind, and ufually green; at this rate it could not
be a ftone of any great value, nor do we indeed find any
where that it was, except in Solinus.

It is to be obferved, that the ancients called a certain
Ointment by the name fagda as well as this ftone ; this oint-
ment was green, and probably the ttone had its name from
the refembling it in colour. This was a cuftom common
among the wniters of early times; and they have the names
of libanotis, myrrhites, fladachates, and aromatites, from the
refemblance which certain agates and jafpers had to the
drugs, &c. in common ufe among them.

SAGE, Avatn-Rent Le, in Biography, was born about
the year 1677, at Ruys, in Brittany. He went in early life
to Paris, with no other view than to gain a fubfiftence as a
writer, and firit made himfelf known by a verfion of the

SAG

Greek letters of Ariftenes. Having acquired a good know-
ledge of the Spanith language, and ftudied its writers with
critical care, he made its novels or romances the foundation
of feveral works of the fame clafs, and introduced the
{cenery and manners of Spain into others. His moft popu-
lar work, and that which is known and read in every coun-
try of Europe, is the “ Avantures de Gil Blas de Santil-
lane.””? The manners and charaéters drawn in this work are
extremely lively and amufing ; and though its moral is not
of the pureft and moft elevated kind, it contains much
wholefome inftruétion, and difplays much knowle of
real life. From this work Le Sage derives his pei 1
but his “ Diable Boiteaux’’ is very popular, though it is
rather a feries of charaéters and {tories than a proper novel.
Le Sage was author of ** Nouvelles Avantures de Don Quic-
chotte,’”? and a novel entitled « Eftawanille, ou le Garcon
de bonne Humeur.’? He was alfo a dramatic writer, and
the « Crifpin rival de fon Maitre,”? and « Turcaret,” are {aid
to contain {cenes worthy of Moliere. Le Sage died in 1747:
he had always borne an eitimable charaGter, and was fo enter-
taining in converlation, that he was always furrounded in
coffee-houfes with an audience eager to liften to his fallies
and anecdotes. His works prove that he thought very freely,
neverthelefs he is faid to have been suse punctual 4
performing all the duties of religion, He wrote with fa-
cility and purity, and his Gil Blas is reckoned one of the
beit inftruétors in the French language.

Sacre, Davip LE, a French ‘poet, was born at Mont-
pellier, and was author of a collection of fonnets, elegies,
fatires, and epigrams, called ‘* The Follies of Le Sage.”
He died about the year 1650.

SaGe, Jonny, a Scotch divine, was born in Fifefhire in
1652. Hewas educated at St. Andrew’s, and in 1684 was
epifcopally ordained. After the revolution, in 1688, he

‘was much perfecuted by the Prefbyterian party. He died

in 1711. He was author of an able defence of epifcopacy,
entitled ‘‘ The Principles of the Cyprianic Age,” and fome
other works,

SAGE, in Botany. See SALviA. ‘

Sace, Common or Offcinal, in the Materia Medica, has
many varieties, poffeffing the fame properties. Of thefe
the principal, and thofe ufed medicinally, are the common
or greater garden fage, or red fage, and the fmall narrow-
leaved fage, or fage of virtue, which latter many prefer
to the former, or broad-leaved fage. The fage preferved
for ufe is cut when in flower, and hung up in a fhady
place to dry. Sage has a fragrant ftrong fmell, and ‘a
bitterifh aromatic tafte, which qualities depend on an ef-
fential oil that may be obtained feparate in diltillation
with water. Of both kinds the floWers are weaker and
more grateful than the leaves; and the cup of the flower
ftronger, and obyioufly more refinous than any other part.
The tees of fage give out their virtue both to water and
rectified fpirit, but molt perfectly to the latter. To the
former they impart a brownifh; to the latter a dark green
tinéture. Sulphate of iron makes a deep black colour
with the infufion. The broad-leaved fage, called by the
gardeners balfamic fage, is preferred to all the athers for
making tea. ;

In ancient times fage was celebrated as a remedy of
general efficacy: accordingly the fehool of Salernum re-
commends it as an antidote in all difeafes: hence the verfe,

« Cur moriatur homo, cui falvia crefcit in borto?
Contra yim mortis non elt medicamen in hortis.”’
« Why fhould a man die, while he has fage in his garden 2”?
Again;

SAG
Again:

« Salvia falvatrix nature conciliatrix.’?
«¢ Salvia cum-ruta faciunt tibi pocula tuta.”

Accordingly they derive the name falvia from falvando,
and extol the praifes of fage in tremblings of the limbs,
palfy, obftru€tion of the menfes, fluor albus, gout and
rheumatifm, contagious difeafes, aphthe, ulcers, and many
other difeafes. See Murray Ap. Med. vol. ii. p. 167.

At prefent, however, few practitioners confider {age as
an article of much importance in the Materia Medica. Al-
though frequently employed as a fudorific, it feems to have
no advantage over other plants, whofe aromatic flavour ren-
ders the fluid in which they are infufed more acceptable to
the ftomach; and by fome it has been fuccefsfully ufed even
fcr the purpofe of reftraining inordinate {weating. Infufed
in wine or {pirit, Van Swieten found it remarkably effica-
cious in ftopping night fweats: he alfo found it ufeful in
reftraining the improper continuance of a flow of milk from
the brealts of women, after they had weaned their children.
Infufions of the leaves, ftrained before too much of the
bitter is extracted, prove very grateful to the ttomach, when
naufea is troublefome in febrile complaints ; and when drunk
cold they are faid to check heétical perfpirations, as Van
Swieten has obferved, and thofe which frequently attend
convalefcencies. Sage, as poflefling a {mall fhare of aro-
matic and aitringent power, may prove a ferviceable tonic
in fome cafes of debility of the ftomach and nervous fy{tem.
Some have alleged, in favour of its medicinal efficacy, its

wer of refitting the putrefaction of animal fubitances.
The infufion alone, or mixed with honey and vinegar, is a
well-known gargle, in cafes of fore-throat and relaxation of
the uvula. The dofe of the pulverized leaves may be from

xv to 3fs; or of an infufion made with 3] of the dried
an and oj of boiling water, f5ij may be taken every three
or four hours. Its deco¢tion is grateful and cooling, with
the addition of a little lemon juice.

The Chinefe, who are faid to have experienced the good
effe&ts of age, value it highly, and prefer it to their
own tea.

It is faid to be both detergent and abforbent, and as fuch
to have found a place in diet-drinks and medicated ales, in-
tended for fweeteners and cleanfers of the blood ; and mixed
with honey, it has been reported to be one of the belt known
cures for the aphthz and erofions of the mouths of children.

There ufed to be a fyrup, conferve, and fimple water of
fage, kept in the fhops; which are all difufed, and only the
dried herb retained.

Sage, when viewed with a microfcope, often appears
covered all over with little fpiders, which are feen moving
about. Woodville. Thomfon.

Sace-Tree, or Jerufalem Sage. See Putomis.

The leaves of two of the {pecies, viz. the thrubby Jeru-
falem fage with a broader and rounder fage-leaf, and the fame
with a narrower and longer fage-leaf, have been much recom-
mended by fome perfons to be ufed as tea for fore-throats.

Sace-Appler, a name given by naturalifts to a fort of foft

e or protuberance, found frequently on the leaves and:
ks

of fage in the eaftern parts of the world, and much
refembling the foft gall of the oak-leaf, called the oak-apple.
Thefe are both owing to the fame caufe, the punéture of an
infeét of the fly-kind, which depofits its eggs in the wound,
afd the worms or maggots hatched from thofe eggs feed on
the infide of the gall, and occafion a preternatural deriva-
tion of juices to the part, whence it {wells and aflumes this
form. The leaves of many other plants are alfo liable to
the fame accident, particularly thofe of ground-ivy, on

SAG

which there grow eatable galls of this kind. The fage-
apples are fo frequent in the Eait, that they are brouglit to
market at Conftantinople, and eaten as delicacies. See
GaLts. :

SaGE of Jerufalem, in Botany. Sce PULMONARIA.

Sace, Wild, or Wood Sage. See GERMANDEN.

Sace, Indian Wild, a {pecies of lantana; which fee.

Sace-Chee/e, in Rural Economy, that fort of cheele which
is made by means of an infufion of fare, fo as to render it
of different colours. See Currse and Darryine.

Cheefes of this fort are made in many different ways,
being fometimes coloured all through, at other times only
in layers, and occafionally in a figured manner throughout
the whole, fo as to have a curious appearance.

SAGEN, in Geagraphy, a town of Pruffia, in the palati-
nate eof Culm; 19 miles E.N-E. of Culm.

SAGENDAGO, or Socanpaco, a head-water of Hud-
fon’s river, the mouth ef which is about 20 miles W. of
Fort Anne. :

SAGENE, Sazzg, Sa/be, or fathom, a Ruffian meafure,
equivalent to three arfheens, or feven Englifh feet. Five
hundred fagenes make a werft, or verit.

SAGENITE, in Mineralogy, a name given by Sauflure
to the capillary cryftals of rutile. See Rurixe.

SAGG Harszour, in Geography, a poit-town and port of
entry in Suffolk county, New York, at the E. endof Long
ifland. It has an excellent harbour, and is well fituated for
trade and navigation. Since the peace of 1783, the po-
pulation and bufinefs of this place have greatly increafed.
The whole fifhery of this harbour produced annually, to-
wards the clofe of the laft century, 1000 barrels of oil ; and
its exports in 1794, amounted to the value of 6763 dollars,
It is 12 miles N.W. of Southampton, and 107-E. of New
York. 1

SAGGING, in Sea Language, a term applied to the
hull of a fhip when the middle part of her keel and bottom
are fo ftrained by the weight of her cargo as to arch downs
wards. This term is, therefore, oppofed to sogging, which,
when applied in a fimilar manner, means by a different fort of
{train to curve or arch upwards. In feamanfhip, /agging to
leeward, fignifies the movement by which a fhip makes con-
fiderable lee-way, or is driven far to leeward of the courle on
which fhe apparently fails. It is generally exprefled of
heavy failing veflels, as oppofed to keeping well to wind-
ward, or “ ine a good wind.”

SAGHALIEN, Sreacien, or Sagalian Oula, in Geos
graphy, a name given by the Mantchew Tartars, or Mande
{hurs, to the river called by the Ruffians Amur (which ie-),
and clafled among the largett rivers ; it rifes near the Yabloe
noi mountains, being firlt known by the names of Kovlon,
and Argoon or Argun, and purfues an eaiterly courie of
about 1850 Britilh miles. This is the grand receptacle of
the Mandfhur ftreams, among which the moft confiderable
isthe Songari, which receives the large mver Nonni. It
runs into the Pacific ocean, oppolite to the ifland of Sagha-
lien, N. lat. 53°. E.long. 142° 14/.. This river, fays La
Péroufe, receives all the {treams which runto the we(tward.
Thofe to the eaftward are divided into rivulets in all the val-
leys ; and no country is better watered, nor difplays amore
delightful frefhnefsin fummer. The total of the inhabitwuts
compofing the little colonies of this country was eltimated
at lefs than 3000, from lat.42° to the bay of Caltries,
near the mouth of the Segahen. This river, which the
Mantchew 'lartars defcend in canoes to the fea, from whence
they {pread over the goalt, both to the northward and touth-
ward, forms the only avenue to their internal commerce,
Accordingly it is very much frequensed; nor is er per-

laps,

SAG

haps, a fingle individual on this part "of the continent, and
on the iflands of Jeflo and Oku-Jeffo (fee the next article)
who is not as well acquainted with the Segalien as the inha-
bitants of Egypt and Judea were with the Nile. But their
commerce is carried on only eight or ten days’ fail up that
river ; and it appears that its mouth, like that of the Ganges,
prefents an uninhabited country : a circumftance which is to
be attributed to the fterility of a foil, almoft inundated, and
covered with fwamps and marthes, where the flocks of cat-
tle, which form the riches of the Tartars, cannot find a fa-
lubrious fubfiftence.
SAGHALIEN, Sagalian, Segalien, or Tchoka, an iland, fup-
pofed, previoufly to the voyage of La Péroufe, to have
been a {mall ifland at the mouth of the Amur, the fouthern
extremity of which was placed by M.d’Anville about 4°
to the north of Jeffo. La Péroufe fays that it forms one
of the largeft iflands in the world, in a dire&tion from N. to
S., its northernmoft point being in 54°, and its fouthernmoft
at Cape Crillon, in N. lat. 45° 57’, fo that its length is about
480 geographical miles, and its medial breadth not lefs than
80 miles ; and it is feparated from Tartary nearly in 52°,
by the pretended ftrait of Teffoy, being that of Segalien, or,
as now denominated, of La Péroufe. The French editor of
his Voyage thinks it probable that the {trait of Sagalien
has been Rnaaty navigable for fhips, but it is likely foon to
be dry, and the ifland to become a peninfula. This change
will take place either from the immenfe accumulation pro-
duced by the river Sagalien, which, through a courfe of
500 leagues, receives other confiderable rivers, or by the
fituation of its mouth, almoft at the narroweft point of a
long channel, which fituation is extremely favourable to the
forming of land. Between the fand-banks to the northward
there is no paflage for fhips, although there is probably fome
channel for canoes through the fea-weeds that obftrué the
ftrait. This ifland has been defignated by geographers under
various names, fuch as Sahalien, Ula-hata, Saghalien, Anga-
hata, Amur, Amour, &c. In Cook’s Voyages it is eae
Sagalien; but La Péroufe gives its true appellstibn, alleg-
ing that the natives pronounce the name of their oo
exactly as the French pronounce “ Ségalien.”” This is alfo
called Oku-Jeflo, i.e. Upper or North Jeffo, and by the
Chinefe Ta-ban. The ifland of Chicha, fometimes con-
founded with Segalien, is feparated from it by achannel, 12
leagues wide, andfrom Japan by the ftrait of Sangaar, and
is the Jeffo of the Japanefe, extending to the fouthward as
far as the ftrait of Sangaar. This ifland is very woody, and
very high in the middle, but flat towards its extremities,
where it appears to offer a foil favourable to agriculture.
Vegetation is there very vigorous, and its forefts are ftocked
with willows, oaks, and birch. The fea that wafhes its
fhores is extremely well fupplied with fifh, as are alfo its
rivers and ftreams. The inhabitants are of a robutt, healthy
complexion, which they retain to a very advanced age; nor
did they manifett any appearance of defeétive conformation,
or any’trace of contagious eruptions, or any other difeafe.
They are intelligent, refpect property, indulge no fufpicion
and miftruft, and are very communicative with ftrangers.
They are of a middling ftature, ftrongly built, a little en-
bonpoint, and their figure and mufcles ftrongly marked.
Their molt common Shatigte is five feet, few or none ex-
ceeding five feet four inches. All have large heads and
broad faces, rather rounder than thofe of Europeans.
Their countenance is animated and agreeable, though def-
titute of that er cane and grace which we admire.
“Almoft all have large cheeks, a fhort nofe, rounded at
the end, and very thick noftrils, fharp cyes, middle fized
and well-formed, in fome inftances blue, but generally black,

SAG

thick eye-brows, middle-fized mouth, {trong voice, and
thick lips, of a dark hue. The upper lips of fome were
tattooed blue, and thefe parts, as well as the eyes, are ca-
pable of exprefling every kind of fentiment. They have
fine teeth, well fet, andof the ufual number; a round chin,
with very little prominence, and fmall ears, which they
pierce, wearing in them ornaments of glafs, or rings of
filver. The women are rather {maller than the men, with a
rounder and more delicate figure, but with little difference
in their features.’ Their upper lip is completely tattooed in
blue, and they wear their hair at its full length. Their cloth-
ing does not differ from that of the men ; and in both fexes
the colour of the fkin is tawny. :

Thefe iflanders are very full-bearded and hairy ; their
beard, being long and briftly, gives to the old men a grave
and venerable appearance, and the young regard them with
great attention and refpeét. Their hair is black, fmooth,
and moderately ftrong: in fome cafes it is chefnut. They
all wear it round, about fix inches long behind, and cut in a
bufh on the forehead and temples. Their drefs confifts of
a caflock, or kind of bedgown, which crofles before,
where it is faftened with fmall buttons, itrings, and a girdle
above the hips. The caflock is made of fkin, or a kindof
quilted nankeen, made with the bark of the willow, gene-
rally defcending as far as the calf of the leg, and fometimes
lower, fo that they generally difpenfe with drawers. Some
wear bufkins of feal’s {kin ; but moft of them have both the
head and feet naked. Like the inferior caft of the Chinefe,
they all wear a girdle, to which they fufpend their knife, a
boar’s tufk, and feveral little pouches, in which they put
their flint, fteel, pipe, and the box containing their tebaceo,
the ufe of which is very general.

Their huts afford them fhelter from the rain and wind, but
they are too {mall forthe number of inhabitants. The roof
forms two inclined planes, about 10 or 12 feet high at
their point of jun&tion, 3 or 4 feet on the fides, and
14 or 15 broad, by 18 in length. Thefe cabins are con-
ftructed of rafters, firmly conneéted together, and flanked
with the bark of trees and dried plants, difpofed like the
ftraw thatch of the cottages of our peafants. Within thefe
huts is a {quare heap of earth, elevated about fix inches above
the ground, and fupported by fmall thick planks on the
fides. Thisis their fire-place. At the fides and at the end
of the apartment were treifels, 12 or 15 inches high, on
which are mats on which they fleep. The utenfils they em-
ploy in preparing and eating their food, confift of iron caul-
drons, porringers, or veflels of wood, and of birch-bark
of different fhapes, and various workmanfhip ; and they eat
with {mall fticks, like the Chinefe. The times of repaft in
each family are at noon, and towards the clofe of the day.
In the fouthern part of the ifland their habitations are
con{truéted with mote care, are better decorated, and moft
of them floored. They had fome veflels of Japan porcelain,
which muft have been procured at confiderable expence.
They employ no cultivation ; live on fifh {moked and dried
in the air, and a {mall quantity of game produced by the
chace.

Each family has its canoe and implements for fifhing and
hunting. Their arms -are the bow, the javelin, and a fort
of {pontoon or half pike, which they ufe chiefly in hunting
the boar. By the fides of their huts are ftore-houfes, in
which they lay up, during fummer, their winter provifions.

Dogs are the only domeftic animals which they feem to
poflefs. Thefe iflanders are the orfly people, among the un-
civilized nations vifited by La Peroufe, among whom were
obferved weavers’ looms, which were complete, and yet {mall
enough to be portable. They ufea diftaff to fpin the ae

©

SAG

of animals, the bark of the willow, and the great nettle,
of which they form their ituffs. La Péroufe has given a
ipecimen of their language, fome words of which are pro-
nounced in the throat; but their pronunciation is foft, re-
fembling that of perfons who fpeak rather thick. If there
be any difference between the fingular and the plural, it is
not exprefled by their pronunciation. They were obferved
neither to dance nor fing, but they all produce pleafing
founds from the principal italk of alarge kind of celery, or
fpecies of euphorbium, open at each extremity. They blow at
the {mall end, and their tones are a tolerable imitation of the
fofter notes of atrumpet. They play no determinate air,
but a mere fucceffion of high and low notes, the compafs of
which may extend to an oGiave and a half, or two ottaves,
that is, to 12 or 16 tones. No other mufical initrument was
perceived among them.

Thefe people are reprefented as being of a very mild
and unfufpicious character ; and they appear to have fome
commercial dealings with the Chinefe through the me-
dium of the Mantchew Tartars, with the Ruffians by
the north part of their ifland, and with the Japanefe by
the fouth: but the articles of their traffic are of little
importance, confifting only of a few furs and fome whale
oil. Their whale fifhery is confined to the fouthern part
of the ifland, and the manner in which they extraé& the
oil is far from being economical. They draw the whale upon
the beach, which lies on a declivity, and leaving it to putrefy,
the oil thus feparated of itfelf is received in a kind of tub
placed’ at the fteepeit part of the ground, to which it is
dire&ted in its courfe by little furrows. :

SAGHALIEN cula Hotun, a town of Chinefe Tartary, on
the Saghalien, N. lat. 50°. E. long. 127°.

SAGHALIEN eula Kiamen, a poft of Chinefe Tartary; 10
miles N.N.W. of Saghalien oula Hotun.

SAGIDA, or Sacepa, in Ancient Geography, a town
of India, fituated on this fide of the Ganges, and the capi-
tal of the Adifathri, according to Ptolemy. It is the new
Sagur, which fee.

SAGINA, in Botany, an old name, from /agino, to cram
or fatten, which appears to have belonged to fome kind of
corn, as Millet or Sorghum. This name is but ill applied to
the prefent diminutive genus, and perhaps defcended to it
by chance ; having firft been joined as an adjeCtive to A/fine,
Chickweed, (on which feveral animals do feed) ; and then,
for want of a better denomination, retained by Linnzus,
for what we are about to defcribe. Small birds indeed may
probably eat the herbage or the feeds of this genus, as
well as of many of its near relations, which they greedily
devour.—Linn. Gen. 68. Schreb. 93. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.
718. Mart. Mill. Di@. v.4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 1. 281.
Sm. FL Brit. 199. Juff. 300. Lamarck Illuftr. t. go.
Gaertn. t. 129.—Clafs and order, Tetrandria Tetragynia.
Nat. Ord. Caryophyllci, Linn. Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of four ovate, concave,
fpreading, permanent leaves. Cor. Petals four, ovate, ob-
tufe, fhorter than the calyx, f{preading, fometimes dimi-
aifhed or defe€tive. Stam. Yilaments four, capillary ;
anthers roundifh. Pi. Germen fuperior, nearly globular ;
ftyles four, fhort, awl-thaped, recurved ; ftigmas oblong,
downy on the upper fide. Peric. Capfule ovate, erect, of
one cell, {plitting from the top, ufually into four valves.
Seeds numerous, minute, attached to acentral receptacle.

Obf. 8. procumbens and maritima fometimes want the
petals, and 5. apcetala has them fo very minute as generally
to have efcaped obfervation. S. erc@a has lanceolate pointed
calyx-leaves, and a cylindrical capfule, which {plits, as in
— into eight or ten teeth, The habit of this

or. XXXI.

5S A.G

fpecies alfo differs from the reft, fo that perhaps Ehrhart:
may be juitified in making it a genus, by the name of Morn-
cut ; fee that article.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of four leaves.
fuperior, of one cell.

1. S. procumbens. Procumbent Pearl-wort. Linn. Sp.
Pl.185. Willd. n. 2. Fl. Brit. n. 1. Sm. Prodr. Fl.
Gree. Sibth.v. 1.110. Purfh Am. Sept.v. 1.119. Curt.
Lond. fafc. 3.t. 12. Engl. Bot. t. 880. Arduin. Spec.
fafc. 2. 23. t. 8. f. 2. —Stems procumbent, fmooth. Leaves
acute, with a minute briftly point. Petals very fhort.—
Common throughout Europe, in fandy, barren, moift or
dry, grafly or bare, wafte places, court yards, neglected
walks of gardens, &c. flowering: plentifully from May to
theend of autumn. Itoccursalfoin North America. The
root is imall and fibrous, but perennial. Stems feveral, pro-
cumbent, branched, taking root at their joints, leafy through
the winter. Leaves oppoiite, and even connate, linear, con-
vex beneath, {mooth in every part, tipped with a very {mall
point. Flower/lalks axillary, folitary, longer than the
leaves, fimple, tmooth, each bearing a little nodding flower,
whofe round white feta/s are but half as long as the caly»
Seeds kidney-fhaped, of a rufty hue. The whole plant,
though flender, is in fome degree fucculent.

2. S. maritima. Sea Pearl-wort. “Don. Herb. Brit.
fafe. 7. 155. Engl. Bot. t. 2195.—Stems nearly upright,
divaricated, fmooth. Leaves obtufe, without briftles. Petals
obfolete.—Difcovered by Mr. R. Brown at Bally-caftle in
Ireland, near the Giant’s caufeway. Mr. G. Don found
the fame in various places on the Scottifh coaft, as well as
on the fummit of Ben Nevis. It is annual, flowering from
May to Auguit. Root fibrous. Stem much branched, two
to four inches high, afcending or ere€t, often purplifh.
Leaves fhort, obtufe, clafping the item with a white mem-
branous edge. They are fometimes tipped with a point,
but no briftles. Flowers ere&, on folitary, axillary or ter-
minal, ftalks, much longer than the leaves. Calyx-leaves
with a white membranous border. /Peta/s minute, often
wanting. Stamens, according to the accurate Mr. Don,
fometimes eight. Cap/ule of four ovate valves, not longer
than the calyx.

3. S. apetala. Downy Annual Pearl-wort. Linn. Mant.
2.559. Willd.n. 3. Ait. n.2. Fi. Brit. n. 2. Curt.
Lond. fafc. 5. t.14. Engl. Bot. t. 881.—Stems nearly
upright, hairy. Leaves linear, briltle-pointed. Petals
abigieta, Capfule twice the length of the calyx. — Frequent
in dry barren open places, in England, Germany, Italy,
&c. flowering in May and June. Root annual. Stems moflly
ere&t, or, if they fpread, never taking root, finely hairy.
The eaves are flender, often hairy, always more or lefs
fringed at the bafe, and tipped with a briltle. FYoqwers on
flender, often hairy, flalks. Petals frequently, but not
always, wanted; fometimes notched.

Petals four. Capfule

4. S. ereda, Upright Pearl-wort. Linn. Sp. Pl. 185.
Willd. n.4. Ait. n.3. Fl. Brit. n. 3. Curt. Lond.
fafc. 2. t.12. Engl. Bot. t. 609. Fl. Dan. t. 845. (Moen-

chia quaternella; Ehrh, Beitr. fafe. 2.177. Aliinella foliis
caryophylleis; Kaii Syn. 344. t.15. f.4.)—Stem ereét,
nearly fingle-flowered.. Leaves of the calyx acute. Cap-
fule cettiddeal toothed.—Tound in barren gravelly pa(tures
and fields, in England, France, and Germany, making a
pretty appearance among grafs, in the {pring, with its neat
glaucous herbage, and brilliant white blofloms ; after which
it turns of a tawny red, and {oon difappears. Root {mall,
fibrous, annual. Whole herb {mooth and glaucous. Stems
two or three inches high, leafy, quadrangular, ftraight ;
generally very few, and quite upright; fometimes more

numerous,

SAG

numerous, and divaricated ; each bearing one or two long-
ftalked upright flowers, of a pearly white. Calyx-leaves lan-
ceolate, with a fhining membranous edge. Petals about the
fame length, elliptic-lanceolate, undivided. Stamens and
fayles Short. Gap/ule about the length of the calyx, cylin-
drical, at firft of one piece, fplitting at the top into eight
or ten teeth, but the divilions are continued fubfequently quite
to the bottom, making fo many feparate valves, as in the
Linnzan fpecimen. Seeds rough. Sce obfervations on the
generic character.

From this genus, as it ftands in Willdenow, the firft and
the laft{peciesare tobe removed. The former, S. cerafloides,
Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 2. 343, was long ago referred to
Ceraflium, under the name of tetrandrum, in Curt. Lond.
fafc. 6. t. 31. and Sm. Fl. Brit. 498. The latter, S. virgi-
nica, Linn. Sp. Pl. 185, belongs to a totally different natural
order, the Gentiane of Juffieu, and is Centaurella autumnalis,
Purfh v. 1.100; a generic name of Michaux, not ad-
miffible into any claflical work, being a diminutive of Cen-
taurea.

SAGINAGA Lake, in Geography, a lake of Upper
Canada, 14 miles long from E. to W. and leis than 3 miles
wide.

SAGIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Gallia Cifal-
pina, E. of Forum Alieni.

SAGITTA, in Architeaure, the name fometimes ufed for
the key-piece of an-arch.

SaaitTa, in Aflronomy, the Arrow or Dart, a conftella-
tion of the northern hemifphere, near the Eagle. The ftars
in the conftellation Sagitta, in T'ycho’s catalogue, are five,
and as many in Ptolemy’s and Hevelius’s; in Mr. Flam-
fteed’s catalogue they are eighteen. See ConsTELLATION.

Sacirra, in Botany, fignities the top of any {mall twig,
cyon, or graft of a tree.

Sacitra, in Geometry, is a term which fome writers ufe
for the abfcifs of a curve.

SacirrA, in Trigonometry, &c. is the fame as the verfed
fine of any arc ; and is fo called by fome writers becaufe it
is like a dart, or arrow, ftanding on the chord of the are.

SAGITTAL, in Anatomy, a name given to one of the
futures of the head. See CRANIUM.

SAGITTARIA, in Botany, fo called from Sagitta, an
arrow, in allufion to the fhape of the leaves in the original
fpecies, and fome others; whence alfo the Englifh name,
Arrow-head.—Linn. Gen. 494. Schreb. 643. Willd. Sp.
Pl. v. 4. 408. Mart. Mill. Dig. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew.
v. 5.282. Sm. Fl. Brit. 1023. Purth v. 2. 395. Jufl. 46.
Lamarck Tlluftr. t. 776. Gaertn. t. 84.—Clafs and order,
Monoecia Polyandria. Nat. Ord. Tripetaloidee, Linn.
Sunci, Suff.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth of three ovate, concave,
TD leaves. Cor. Petals three, roundifh, obtufe, flat,
preading, thrice the fize of the calyx. -Stam. Filaments
numerous, twenty-four or more, awl-fhaped, crowded to-
gether ; anthers ereét, as tall as the calyx.

Female flowers fewer, beneath the male, Cai Perianth
asin the male. Cor. as in the male. Pi/f. Germens nu-
merous, fuperior, compreffed, gibbous externally, crowded
into a round head, each ending in a very fhort ftyle; ftig-
mas acute, permanent. Receptacle globofe, bearing the
capfules in the form of a round ball. Cap/ules numerous,
oblong, inflated, compreffed, gibbous, not buriting, of one
cell, encompafled with a longitudinal, broad, membranous
border, and pointed at each end. Seeds folitary, oblong.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx of three leaves. Petals three.
Stamens about twenty-four.

Female, Calyx of three leaves. Piftils nu-

Petals three.

SAG

merous. Capfules numerous, inflated, fingle-feeded, not

burfting.

Obf. The flowers are dioecious, in fome American fpecies.

1. S. fagittifolia. Common Arrow-head. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 1410. Willd. n. 1. Aiten.1. Fl. Brit. n.1. Engl.
Bot. t. 84. Purfhn. 1. Fl. Dan. t.172. Loureir. Co-
chinch. 570. (Sagitta major et minor; Ger. Em. 416.) —
Leaves arrow-{haped, with lanceolate, acute, {traight, {fpread-
ing lobes. Flower-{talk unbranched. Braéteas lanceolate,
acute.—Native of rivers, ponds, and ditches, in Europe,
Afia, and America. With us it flowers in July and Auguit,
and makes an elegant appearance. The roof is tuberous,
perennial, asin all the known fpecies. Herd {mooth, milky.
Leaves radical, on long ftalks, raifed above the water, entire,
ribbed, their lobes all {preading, but thofe at the bafe are
nearer to each other than to the central one, their length and
breadth are very various. Some of the lowetft leaves, im-
merfed in the water, are undivided, oblong, and obtufe.
Flower-flalk folitary, ere&, unbranched, the part above the
water bearing feveral three-flowered whorls, of white flowers,
whofe petals are violet-coloured at the bafe.

The {mall narrow-leaved variety only, according to Mr.
Purfh, is found in America.” The fame alfo occurs in
England. This fpecies, like fome other aquatic plants,
grows wild in very different climates, and in widely remote
parts of the globe. It is often affociated, in Chinefe paint-

ings and carvings, with the facred Bean of India, Cyamus; |

fee that article ; though we have not met with any particu-
lar mention of the Arrow-head, in the records of oriental
mythology. 7

2. S. latifolia. Broad-leaved Arrow-head. Willd. n. 2.
Purfh n. 2. (S. fagittifolia; Michaux Boreali-Amer. v. 2.
189.)—Leaves arrow-fhaped ; lobes ovate ; the middle one
rather acute; the reft taper-pointed, itraight. Flower-
{talk moftly unbranched. Braéteas roundifh, obtufe.—
Found in ponds and ditches, from Canada to Carolina,
flowering from June to Auguft. The /aves are much
larger, more ovate, and broader than in any variety of the
former, but lefs coriaceous. Purfh defcribes a variety with
large, abruptly-acute /eaves, a fomewhat branched flower-
Jfialk, and dioecious flowers.

3. S. obtufa. American blunt-leaved Arrow-head. Willd.
n. 3. Purth n. 3.—Leaves’ arrow-fhaped, ovate, obtufe,
rounded, with a {mall point ; lobes flightly fpreading, ob-
long, obliquely pointed. Flower-{talk unbranched. Flowers
dioecious. BraGteas ovate, acute.—In ditches and fhallow
ponds, from Pennfylvania to Virginia, flowering from June to
September. Leaves the fize of Calla palu/firis. Purfh. An
incomplete fpecimen of this was fent by Kalm to Linneus,
who confounded it with his own S. obtufifolia, a very differ-
ent and much larger {pecies. Mr. Purfh alone has remarked
that the flowers of the prefent are dioecious,

4. S. obtufifolia. Indian blunt-leaved Arrow-head. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 1410. Willd. n. gq. Ait.n. 2. (Sagittarie foliis
planta, glomerato fruétu monopyreno, coriandri fere 4h A
Pluk. Almag. 326. t. 220. f. 7. Culitimara ; Rheede Hort.
Malab. v. 11. 93. t. 45-)—Leaves arrow-fhaped, dilated,
abrupt ; fide-lobes very diltant, taper-pointed, longer than
the middle lobe. Flower-ftalk panicled. Capfules globu-
lar, reticulated.—Native of the Eaft Indies. The great fize
of this fpecies ; its fhort, blunt, broad leaves, with fingu-
larly ftraddling lobes ; and the branched, as well as whorled,
flower-flalk, ave abundantly fufficient charaGters. Its cap-
Jules are the fize of coriander-feeds, reticulated with promi-
nent veins, ‘The /eaves are roughifh, with feattered hairs,
beneath. Braéieas ovate, coriaceous, blunt, or but flightly
acute. .

4. S.

SAGITTARIA.

4. S. acuminata. Beak-leaved Arrow-head.—Leaves
arrow-fhaped, ovate, obtufe with a {mall point; fide-lobes
ovate, taper-pointed, longer than the middle lobe. Capfules
oblong, with dilated membranous wings.—Native of China
and Java. We have feen only two fpecimens, one of which,
preferved in the Linnzan herbarium, Linneus confounded
with the laft. Nothing however can be more diftin&. The
lobes of the /e2f, which is naked, not hairy, are longer, lefs
{preading, and end in very long flender points ; the middle
lobe is not abrupt, though bluntifh ; with a very confpi-
cuous linear beak, near half an inch long. Flower-ftalk un-
branched. BraGeas ovate, taper-pointed. Cap/ules totally
different, extremely numerous, colleGted into very denfe
heads, and each of a linear-oblong fhape, bordered at each
fide with a pale membranous wing, as broad as itfelf.

5. S. bafata. Halberd-leaved Arrow-head. Purfh n. 4.—
«¢ Leaves arrow-fhaped, oblong-lanceolate, gradually taper-
ing ; fide-lobes {preading, lanceolate, with very long taper
points. Flower-ftalk unbranched. Flowers dioecious.
BraGteas and calyx-leaves roundifh, obtufe.”—Native of
old ditches in Pennfylvania, flowering in July and Augutt.
Leaves the fize of S. /agittifolta; the lobes very {preading.
Purfh. :

a S. gracilis. Slender Arrow-head. Purfh n. 5
« Leaves arrow-fhaped, linear, bluntifh, three-ribbed ; fide-
lobes fpreading, linear, elongated, tapering to a fine point.
Stalk fimple, few-flowered. Flowers dioecious. Braéteas
fhort, nearly orbicular.’’—In bogs and ditches ; from Penn-
fylvania to Virginia, particularly on the mountains, flower-
ing in July and Auguit. Leaves very flender, about three
inches long from the infertion of their {talks Pur/h.

7. S. heterophylla. Various-leaved Arrow-head. Purfh
n, 6.—* Leaves partly undivided, linear or lanceolate, acute
at each end; partly arrow-fhaped, elliptical, acute ; obtufe
at the bafe, with linear, divaricated fide-lobes. Stalk fimple,
few-flowered. Flowers monoecious ; the female ones nearly
feffile. Bracteas broadly ovate, pointed:—In fmall ponds
and ditches, in Pennfylvania and New Jerfey, flowering from
a Auguit. Leaves about two inches and a half long.

“hi ies is eafily diltinguifhed by the female flowers bein
almott feflle. Purfb. ae Y # 4

8. S. natans. Floating Arrow-head. Michaux Boreali-
Amer. v. 2. 190. Willd. n. 5. Purfh n. 12.—* Leaves
floating, undivided, elliptic-lanceolate, obtufe, three-ribbed ;
tapering at the bafe; the lowermoft fomewhat heart-fhaped.
Stalk cle few-flowered ; the lower partial {talks elon-

?*__Tn the rivulets of Lower Carolina, flowering in July

aid Augult. The habit of the plant refembles Alifma na-
tans. Si about an inch and half long. Flowers {mall.

Michaux, Purfb.

g- 5. alpina. Alpine Siberian Arrow-head. Willd. n. 6.
(S. natans ; Pallas It. v. 3. 757.t. G.* f. 3.)—Leaves float-
ing, undivided, lanceolate ; fomewhat heart-fhaped at the
bafe. ‘Stalk fimple, few-flowered.—Found by Pallas in the
cold alpine lakes of Dauria, &c. about the more fhallow
parts, where the water is not more than fix feet deep. Root
fibrous. Leaves three-ribved, three or four inches long, and
rather more than half an inch wide; the length of their
footitalks various, according to the depth of the water.
Flower-flalks bearing, above the water, an umbcl, ufually
proliferous, of a few white flowers, the upper ones male.

10. S.lancifolia. Lance-leaved Arrow-head. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 1411. ild.n. 7. Ait. n. 3? Andr. Repof, t..333.
(Ranunculus aquaticus, plantaginis folio, flore albo, calyce
purpureos Plum. Ic. 106.t. 116. f. 1.) —Leaves undivided,
elliptical, tapering at each end, Stalk fomewhat branched.
ative of Jamaica. It flowered in the fummer of 1803,

in Mr. Vere’s ftove at Kenfington Gore. The aves are
about a foot long, and from three to five inches broad, with
a ftrong mid-rib, and feveral flender, parallel, lateral, longi-
tudinal ones fpringing from it. Flower-/lalk often fimple,
fometimes branched, bearing many three-Howered whorls of
large, white, very tender and delicate flowers. Cap/fules in-
numerable, clofely crowded, apparently oblong, or lanceo-
late, but we have merely feen them in an early ftate.

11. S. falcata. Falcate Arrow-head. Purfhn.7. (S.
lancifolia ; Michaux Boreali-Amer. v. 2. 189.)—‘ Leaves
broadly lanceolate, tapering at the bafe. Stalk fomewhat
branched. Capfules flat, faleate, beaked.’?—Native of ponds
in Carolina, flowering in July and Auguft. This, we pre-
fume, was what Mr. J. Frafer introduced at Kew in 1787,
and which is marked as flowering in the itove there, in June
and July. Mr. Purfh, who has firft diftinguifhed it {pecifi-
cally from the Linnzan Janeifolia, copies from Michaux the
{pecific character, where the /eeds (inadvertently put for cap-
Jules) are {aid to be flat; that is, prcbably, compreffed ;
and the flower-falk fomewhat branched. The latter cha-
raGer does not diftinguifh it from the foregoing ; of the
other we cannot judge; nor is any thing faid in Mr. Purth’s
work, to contrait the two plants in queition, with any cer-
tainty. If he had gathered them himfelf, we might have
depended on his obfervation and accuracy.

12. S.rigida. Rigid Arrow-head. Purfhn.8.—«¢ Leaves
narrowly lanceolate, rigid, very acutely pointed at each
end; keeled at the bafe. Stalk branched. Flowers mo-
noecious.””?—TIn {till and deep waters of Ofwego river, near
the great falls, New York, flowering in July and Auguft.
It grows where the water is more than feven feet in depth.
The footfalks are ftrong and itiff. Flowers very numerous.
Purfh.

13. S. fimplex. Simple Arrow-head. Purfh n. 9.—
«* Leaves linear-lanceolate, acute; tapering at the bafe-
Stalk fimple, many-flowered. Flowers dioecious. Brac.
teas and calyx-leaves rounded, obtufe.—Gathered by Mr.
Purfh, in fmall ponds in New Jerfey, flowering in July and
Auguft. Leaves about fix inches long, and half an inch
wide. Flowers from twelve to eighteen on each ftalk.
Purfh.

em S. graminea. Grafly Arrow-head. Michaux Boreali-
Amer. v. 2. 190. Willd. n. 8. Purfh n. 10-—* Leaves
linear, three-ribbed, very long. Stalk fimple, few-flowered.
Flowers monoecious. Bratteas oblong, obtufe.”’—Found
in Carolina, by Mr. Lyon, from whofe herbarium Mr.
Purth defcribed it; having, it feems, fome doubt refpeét-
ing the plant of Michaux, which was gathered in Canada,
and is defcribed with “ lanceolate-linear eaves, and very {mall
heads Le We have feen no f{pecimen of either; nor
had Willdenow any further information than the meagre
{tock afforded by Michaux.

15. S. acutifolia. Sharp-leaved Arrow-head,
Suppl. 419. Willd. n. 9. Furth n. 11.—Leaves awl-
fhaped, convex; fheathing at the bafe. Stalk fimple,
Braéteas ovate, taper-pointed.— Native of Surinam, being
one of the celebrated colleétion fent in fpirits to Linneus,
which he deferibed a fhort time before his deceafe. If Mr.
Purfh’s plant be the fame, (which we are led to doubt, only
by his omiffion of a reference to any author,) it grows alfo
in {mall rivulets and ditches, near Philadelphia, flowering
in July and Auguft. He deferibes it as a {mall fpecies,
whole /eaves have fometimes a dilated point, reprefenting an
ordinary leaf. The Linnaan {pecimen has awl-fhaped, ereét
leaves, a foot or more in length, convex at the back, acute
at the edges, gradually tapering into a blunt, flattith, but
not dilated, point. //ower-flalk rather flender, ere&, bears

2 ng

Linn.

SAG

ing many three-flowered, longifh-flalked whorls, each ac-
companied by three ovato-lanceolate, ribbed braéeas. Calyx-
leaves ovate-oblong. Pi/fils very numerous and flender.

16. S. mor Three-leaved Arrow-head. Linn. Sp. Pl.
1410. Willd. n. 10. (S. chinenfis, foliis ternis longiflimis ;
Petiv. Gazoph. 4. t. 19. f. 5.)—Leaves ternate.—Native
of China, where it is called, according to Petiver, Sa heo
chaw. This, if really a Sagittaria, is very remarkable for
having three equal, lanceolate, fpreading /eajlets. The
lowers feem not unlike our /agittifolia.

SaGITTARIA, in Geography, an ifland in the South Pa-
cific ocean, difcovered by Quiros in 1606, and fuppofed
to be the fame with Osaheite ; which fee.

SAGITTARIO, a mountain of Naples, in Calabria
Ultra; 10 miles N.W. of Bova.

SAGITTARIUM AvexrpHaRMAcuM, in the Materia
Medica, the name of a root cultivated with great care
in Jamaica, and fuppofed a remedy for the wounds of
poifonous arrows. The plant of which it is tke root is the
canna Indica radice alba (Sloane’s Hitt. i. p. 253.); but its vir-
tues have not yet brought it into ufe on this fide the water.

SAGITTARIUS, in Afronomy, the Archer, one of the
figns of the zodiac ; the ninth in order.

The ftars in the conftellation Sagittarius, in Ptolemy’s
catalogue, are thirty-one; in Tycho’s, fourteen ; in Heve-
lius’s, twenty-two; in the Britannic catalogue, fixty-nine.
See CONSTELLATION.

Sacitrarius, Gasparp, in Biography, a learned Ger-
man, and writer in hiftory and antiquities, was the fon of
a Lutheran minifter, and was born at Lunenburg in 1643.
He itudied at Lubeck and Altenburg, after which he vifited
feveral of the German univerfities, and travelled to Den-
mark. He took the degree of doétor of philofophy at
Jena, and in 1674 was made profeflor of hiftory in the
univerfity of Halle, and was honoured with the office of
hiftorian to the duke of Saxony. He paffed his life in
the duties of his office, and in writing, and died in 1694.
The mott valuable of his works, of which there are 60 or
70 diltin& publications, on theology, antiquities, criticifm,
hiftory, biography, and topography, are “ The Antiqui-
ties of the Kingdom of Thuringia: and “ A Hiftory of
the Marquiffes and EleGtors of Brandenburg.”

SAGITTATED Lear, in Botany. See Lear.

SAGMATOK, in Geography, a town of Eaft Green-
land. N. lat. 61° 18’. W. long. 45° 30’.

SAGNE, a town of the principality of Neufchatel,
fituated in a valley: this, it is faid, was the firft place in
which the manufaéture of clocks and watches was intro-
duced into Switzerland, and where 30,000 watches are
annually made ; fix miles W.N.W. of Neufchatel.

SAGNIKA, the name of a fe& of Hindoo pyro-
laters, whofe name feems derived from Agni, the god of
fire; otherwife called Pavaka; which fee. Sir Williem
Jones, {peaking of fome reform. among the ancient Per-
fians, in the eighth or ninth century before Chrift, fays,
that ‘ while they rejeéted the complex polytheifin of. their
predeceffors, they retained the laws of Mahabad, and a
{uperftitious veneration for the fun, the planets, and fire ;
thus refembling the Hindoo feéts called Sauras and Sag-
nikas ; the fecond of which is very numerous at Benares,
where many Agnihotras, or confecrated fires, are con-
tinually burning, and where the Sagnikas, when they enter
on their facerdotal office, kindle with two pieces of the
hard wood Sami, a fire, which they keep lighted through
their lives, for their nuptial ceremony, for the performance
of folemn facrifices, and the obfequies of departed anceftors,
and for their own funeral pile. This remarkable rite was

SAG

continued by Zeratufht, who reformed the old religion by
the addition of genii or angels, prefiding over months and
days; of new ceremonies in the veneration fhewn to fire ;
of a new work which he pretended to have received from
heaven ; and above all, by eitablifhing the a€tual adoration
of one Supreme Being.”” Difcourfe on the Perfians. Af.
Ref. vol. ii.

The Sauras, mentioned above, are a feét who adore the
fun, or its regent, Surya. (See Saura, and Surya.)
Agnihotra, means a facred hearth. Sami is a name or
word to ivhich a great deal of myfticifm is attached, as
noticed under that article. Of the facred triad of fires
mentioned in the above extraét, the nuptial, the ceremonial,
and the facrificial, due mention is made under the articles
Pavaxka and Srapna of this work. :

SAGO, a nutritious fubitance brought from the Eaft
Indies, of confiderable ufe in diet, as a nourifher and re-
{torative.

Sago isa fort of bread procured from a tree called /andan,
growing in the Moluccas. ‘his tree is a {pecies of the
palm, which grows naturally in Japan, and upon rocky

dry mountains in Malabar. And its production is an uni-’

verfal article of food among the inhabitants of Amboyna,
Ceram, Celebes, and the furrounding iflands E. of Celebes,
and alfo in Borneo. The tree propagates itfelf by offsets,
or fhoots, which for a long time appear only like bufhes
(about fifteen or fixteen feet in height), and which all pro-
ceed from the roots, or from the bottom of the trunk of a
full-grown tree. The ftem, when it begins to form itfelf
out of the bufh, fhoots up as ftraight as an arrow, to the
height of between 40 and 50 feet, without any lateral
branches, like the cocoa-nut trees, forming a handfome
crown at the top, which affords an agreeable fhade. A
grove of thefe trees, with their erected ftems, which, when
arrived at maturity, confift of nothing but a fpongy and
mealy fubftance, furrounded by a hard bark about half an
inch thick, and their beautiful leafy crowns, has a very
charming appearance, and forms a pleafant and cool retreat.
This white, {pongy, and mealy fubilance is the fago, which
ferves the natives in lieu of bread. It is faid that this tree
does not produce any fruit, till it has loft its ftrength, and
is about to die, when the branches likewife appear covered
with meal: it then produces at the top a bunch of {mall
fruit, like pigeons’ eggs, which are firlt green, and after-
wards yellow: the kernel is very aftringent. It delights in
wet morafly fituations, and will not grow except in low
grounds. It does not live above 30 years. A tree is chofen,
the pith of which has arrived at its full maturity, and this
is perceived by its beginning to be of a yellowifh-white caft
juit under the foliage. The {tem is then cut through as
clofe to the ground as poffible, in order to lofe the lefs of
its farinaceous contents. They likewife fometimes try it by
chopping a hole in the tree, out of which they take fome
of the pith, in order to examine whether it be fufficiently
ripe ; if not, they clofe the hole again, or elfe they imme-
diately fell the tree, becaufe if it be fuffered to remain too
long, and till it produces fruit, they know that the pith will
turn entirely into green filaments, and yield no fago. When
the tree is thus felled, it is cut through in the middle of its
length into two or more pieces, and the hard bark of each
piece is fplit afunder by the infertion of wedges; the fago
then appears uncovered, jut like the fpongy fubftance in
our elder-trees. They then make a certain initrument, re-
fembling an adze, out of one of the branches of the tree
they have felled, with which they loofen the fage all round
from the bark, and reduce it to the appearance of faw-

dutt. :
The

S'A G

The whole tree being thus fockeled out, the raw fago
is put by portions into a trough, like a canoe, and water is
poured upon it, and well mixed with the fago, by which
means the meal is feparated from the filaments.

- Thefe filaments, which might be denominated the bran
of the fago, are called e/a, and are made ufe of to feed
hogs, poultry, &c.

The water, thus impregnated with the fago-meal, hav-
ing ftood {till for fome time, the meal fubfides, by its own
weight, to the bettom; the water is then poured off, and
it is a fecond time purified in the fame manner: after this,
the wet meal is laid upon flat wicker-bafkets, to dry, and
it is then kneaded together, and formed into little cakes of
three inches long, two inches broad, and half an inch thick ;
finally, it is put into moulds of the fame fize and fhape,
and baked over the fire, till it is done enough, and be-
comes dry and hard.

The mould, or oven, for baking fago-bread is made of
earthen-ware ; it is generally nine inches {quare, and about
four deep, divided into two equal parts by a partition parallel
to its fides. Each of thofe parts is fubdivided into eight or
nine, about an inch broad, fo that the whole contains. two
rows of cells, about eight or nine inarow. The oven is
turned firft on one fide and afterwards on the other, upon
the fire, and the cakes are fufficiently baked in about ten
or twelve minutes. ;

The tafte of the fago-bread does not much vary from
that of the caffava, or manioc, of the Weft Indies; but it
appeared to Mr. Wilcocke to be more nutritive; it is not
unpleafant to eat, when it has been firft a little foaked,
and afterwards fried in butter ; yet it is very difficult of
digettion.

The fineft part of the meal is mixed with water, and
the pafte is rubbed into little round grains, like {mall thot,
and dried. This preparation is not difagreeable in foups,
in Jieu of Italian macaroni: the fago that is produced in
Borneo is efteemed the bett for this purpofe.

A preparation is likewife made of this fineft part of the
meal, which is called popeda, and has much refemblance to
the porridge of buckwheat-meal which is made in Holland,
but it is much more gelatinous. This is eat off with little
fticks, which being dipped into the popeda, take with them
a part of it which adheres to them; they are then dipped
in fith-broth, and, together with a little fifth, conftitute
the beft difh of the Amboynefe, and even of thofe who
are defcendants of Europeans.

Befides the farinaceous part for food, the fago-tree yields
other things of utility to the Indians.

The ftem or bark, after the meal has been poekeled out,
is made ufe of by the natives, to form little bridges over
rivulets, or little creeks.

What are called the branches, which are channelled on
the upper fide, and convex on the under, ferve alfo fome-
times for the fame purpofe; but the chief ufe which the
Amboynefe make of them is for the walls and roofs of
their houfes, and for packing-cafes, &c. This article is
called gabbe-gabba.

The leaves, laced together, form what is called atap, and
ferve inflead of tiles for covering of houfes, and to preferve
things from the rain: but roofs of atap mult be renewed
every fix or feven years.

he fago-tree has, like all the trees of the palm kind, a
cabbage, which is eaten by the natives, eet i it is not fo
good or wholefome as that of the ancebong, or proper
cabbage-palm. When a fago-tree has been felled, the e/a,
or refule, is frequently left in the woods, and the wild hogs
fatten upon it; a kind of mufhrooms, which are much

SAG

elteemed by the natives, grow upon the heaps of ela. The
fago-tree is even of benefit after it has been deprived of
its pith, and left to rot where it was felled; for when rotten,
a fort of very fat white worms, called /ago-qorms, with
brown heads, are found in it, which the Indians roait, and
think a great delicacy. A computation has been made by
Forreft of how many perfons may live on an acre planted
with faco-trees. A fago-tree he allows to take up 100
f{quare feet ; now the contents of an acre are 43,500 {quare
feet, which allows 435 trees to grow within that {pace ; but
fuppofing only 300, and that, one with another, they give
300 weight of flour, then three trees, or goo we'ght, would
maintain one man for a year, and an acre to be cut down
would maintain 100 men for the fame time ; uow, as fago-
trees are feven years a-growing, 100 divided by feven, will
allow fourteen men to be maintained for a year on the pro-
duce of one-feventh part of an acre, immediately, or on
the produce of a whole acre, progreflively cut, one-feventh
part at atime, allowing frefh trees to {prout up. By Dr.
Forfter’s computation, ten or twelve perfons live eight
months upon the ‘produce of an acre planted with bread-
fruit trees, at Otaheite.

The {mall grains are the fago of the fhops. This fub-
ftance, commonly recommended as a reftorative in phthifes
and emaciations, and for reftraining fluxes, appears to be a
light, moderately nutritious demulcent food; in which view
it 1s by fome direGted as a proper aliment for young children,
in preference to the more tenacious and lefs digettible pre-
parations of wheat-flour.

M. Parmentier has propofed to make fago out of po-
tatoes; in confequence of his idea that all fecule are ab-
folutely identical, and that this principle is one and the fame
in nature. For this purpofe he propofes to add a {poonful
of the fecula of potatoes gradually to a chopin, or half a
pint, of hot water or milk, to be kept ilirring over a gentle
fire for half an hour. Sugar may be added, with aromatics
or fpices, fuch as cinnamon, lemon-peel, faffron, orange-
flower water, rofe-water, &c. The fago of potatoes may
likewife be prepared wiih veal-broth, chicken-broth, or
common broth. The preparation may be varied in a thou-
poe ways, and it forms a very nourifhing and wholefome

ood.

SAGOCHLAMYS, among the Romans, a fort of
garment that partly refembled the fagum, and partly the
chlamys.

SAGONA, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Cor-
fica, now in ruins, but giving name to a bifhop, fuffragan
of Pifa; 5 miles S.W. of Vico.

SAGONEA, in Botany, a name of Aublet’s, altered
from the Caribbean appellation of the plant Sagoun-Jagou.
Juflieu has actually retained this curious name. Willdenow,
in Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1502, has adopted the genus under that of
Reicueria, to which article we refer the reader; as well
as to Hyproxera, of which laft genus the plant in queftion
may conflitute a fifth fpecies, thus:

5. H. palufris. (Sagonea palultris; Aubl. Guian. v. 1.
285. t. 111 Reichelia paluttris; Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.
1502.)—Leaves lanceolate, fmooth. Flowers with three
{tyles, axillary, fomewhat cluflered; their {lalks {carcely
longer than the footitalks.—Gathered by Aublet on the
ane of arivulet in the defarts of Guiana, flowering in
May. Root perennial. Stems feveral, herbaceous, without
{pines, ftraight, fimple, cylindrical, leafy, two or three
feet high. Leaves alternate, on fhort foot{talks, taper-
nahineds entire, about three inches long, and half an inch
wide. Flowers blue, two, three, or four together, in very
fhort axillary cluflers, Styles three, fomewhat combined at

I the

SAG

the bafe. Cap/ule of three cells, feparating irregularly all
round; yet ei fearcely think the Tia ae sa cavenhe
from Hydrolea.

SAGOR, in Geography, an ifland on the coaft of Bengal,
at the mouth of the Hoogly, about 18 miles in circum-
ference. N. lat. 21° 40/. E. long. 88° g!.

SAGORDEE, a town of Bengal; 35 miles N.N.E. of
Dacca.

SAGOUIN, in Zoology, the name of a very beautiful
{mall fpecies of monkey, defcribed by Clufius, and feeming
the fame with the cagui minor of Marcgrave, and the fimia
jacchus of Linnzus.

Clufius fays it is of the fize of a fquirrel, and has the
look of a lion about the head, and that it is a very tender
and delicate little animal, and impatient of the flighteft in-

jury:

SAGRA, in Geography, a mountain of Naples, in Ca-
labria Ultra; 12 miles N.N.E. of Oppido.

Sacra, Alaro, in Ancient Geography, ariver of Italy, in
the Locride. Strabo.

SAGRAB, in Geography. See ZAGRAB.

SAGRAL, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Sol-
lapour ; 32 miles N. of Sollapour.

SAGRALLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Tellingana ;

5 miles N.W. of indelavoy.

SAGRAMPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar;
21 miles S.W. of Bettiah. N. lat. 26° 27!. E. long. 35°.

SAGREDO, Giovanni, in Biography, a noble Ve-
netian, and a writer of hiftory. He was procurator of St.
Mark, and in the year 1675 was elected doge; but finding
the election not agreeable to the people, he voluntarily re-
figned his office. He was employed as ambaflador to va-
rious courts, and in 1691 was appointed proveditor-general
of the Levant feas. Sagredo publifhed at Venice, in 1677,
a hiftory of the Ottoman empire, under the title «« Memorie
Iftoriche de”? Monarchi Ottomani,’’ beginning with the year
1300, and coming down to 1644. It is written with con-
cifenefs, after the manner of Tacitus, is interfperfed with
political reflections, and bears the chara¢ter of impartiality
and accuracy. It has been tranflated into the French lan-

age, in 6 vols. 12mo. Sagredo wrote a continuation of

is work, relating chiefly to the war in Candia, which has
not been publifhed.

SAGREE, in Ichthyology. See Gareus Spina.

SAGRES, in Geography, a {trong fea-port town of Por-
tugal, fituated on a tongue of land at the S.W. extremity
of the province of Algarve; 17 miles W.S.W. of Lagos.
N. lat. 37°. W. long. 9°.

SAGRUJE, a town of the Greater Bucharia; 15 miles
N.E. of Samarcand.

SAGRUS, Sacro, in Ancient Geography, a river of
Italy, in Samnium, the fource of whicli was in the moun-
tains of the Marfi.

SAGU, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the govern-
ment of Abo; 14 miles S.E. of Abo.

SAGUA Istanns, a clutter of {mall iflands in the
Spanifh Main, near the coalt of America, about 15 miles
from the ifthmus of Darien. N. lat. 9° 18’. W. long.

7 4] ',

SAGUANA Bay, a bay in the N.E. corner of the gulf
of Mexico, on the coaft of Florida.

SAGUARIPA, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Hiaqui; 54 miles N.N.E. of Riochico.

SAGUENAY, a large river of Canada, which rifes
from the lake St. John, and purfuing an eafterly courfe,
above 1000 miles, difcharges itfelf through the weft bank
of the river St. Lawrence, at the town and harbour of Ta-

mn

SAG

douffac. At its mouth it is about three quarters of a mile
wide, and from 80 to go fathoms deep, and navigable for
the largeft veflels 25 leagues from its mouth. The harbour,
called Port Tadouffac, affords convenient anchorage for
25 fail of fhips of war, and is well fecured from all winds
and ftorms. Itis deep, of acircular form, and furrounded
at a diftance with very high rocks, except at the entrance.
A {mall ftream runs into it, fufficient to watera fleet. The
country in the vicinity abounds with marble. N. lat. 48° 4/.
W. long. 69° 40!.

Sacuunay, Little, a river of Labrador, which runs
fouthward, and difcharges itfelf into the St. Lawrence,
ealt of the Seven Ifles, and weft of Bafon river. N. lat.
50° 18'. W. long. 65°. :

SAGUENAY, a diftri& of Canada, bounded on the W.
and S.W. by the river of the fame name, on the N.E. by a
nation of Indians called “ Kilefhinoas,’? on the N.W. by
that of the Efquimaux, and on the S.E. by the river St.
Lawrence. This territory was found by the firft French
fettlers fo unpromifing, that they had little encouragement
to fix a permanent abode in Canada; but upon advancing
as high as Quebec, they perceived it to be more favourable.
At length it fell into the hands of the Englifh in 1759. It
abounds with various kinds of marble in fuch plenty, that it
is ufed in the conftruétion of the houfes even of private
perfons.

SAGUERE, a town of Africa, in Hoval; 40 miles
S.W. of Ender.

SAGULUM, among the Romans, a little or fhort
fagum. :

SAGUM, in Antiquity, a military garment worn by the
Greeks, Romans, and Gauls, in manner of a cloak or caf-
fock ; covering the fhoulders or back as low as the hips ;
where it was faftened to the cuirafs.

It was ufually made of coarfe wool, and {quare. They
had one for the winter, and another lighter for fummer. _

SAGUNTUS, or Sacuntum, Morviedro, in Ancient
Geography, a very ancient town of Hifpania Citerior, S.E.
of Edeta, three miles from the fea. By thofe who afcend
to fabulous times, the origin of this town is afcribed to Her-
cules. According to Strabo, it was founded by the Za-
cythians ; and it is faid that the Rutuli fent hither a colony
from the town of Ardea. At length it became one of the
moft confiderable towns in Spain. It acquired, fays Livy,
immenfe riches, partly from its commerce both by land and
fea, and partly from its juft laws and excellent police,
Saguntum was under the proteétion of the Romans, if not
numbered amongtt its allies; and by atreaty made between
thefe people and the Carthaginians, thefe latter were al-
lowed to carry their arms as far as the Iberus: this city was
excepted. In the year of Rome 528, Hannibal commenced
his hoftilities by the fiege of Saguntum ; and when the af-
failed could no longer defend themfelves, the principal in-
habitants precipitated themfelves, with their moft precious
effets, into a kind of funeral pile, prepared and fet on fire
for this purpofe ; upon which the furviving Saguntines were
maflacred in the moft cruel manner. The city, thus re-
duced to the moft deplorable {tate of diftrefs, remained under
the dominion of the Carthaginians; till in the year of Rome
538, Scipio, having humbled the power of Carthage in
Spain, in procefs of time recovered Saguntum, and made
it, as Pliny fays, anew city. By the Romans it was treated
with every kind of diftinétion ; but at fome period, not afcer-
tained by hiltorians, it was reduced to ruins. Its long re-
filtance to the power of Hannibal is recorded on many
medals, which bear the infcription of inviéta.’? Polybius
relates that near this city was a temple of Venus, EPs...

ngeus

S A

Cneus and Publius Scipio encamped in their march againtt
the Carthaginians. See Morviepro.

SAGUR, in Geography, a circar of Hindoottan, bounded
on the N. by Chanderee, on the E. by Gurrah, on the S.
by Gurry Mundella, and on the W. by Bilfah and Kitch-
wara. The chief towns are Sagur and Kimlaffa.

* Sacur, a town of Hindooftan, in the Malwa country,
and capital of a circar of the fame name, near the Bunnafs
river; 112 miles S. of Agra. N. lat. 23°45’. E. long.
=§8° id

; SAGUS, in Botany, a name adopted by Clufius, Rum-
phius, Gertner, and others, from the Malay Sagu, which
is common to various of the palm tribe.—Gertn. v. I. 27.
t. 10. f. 1. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 403. Ait. Hort. Kew.
v. 5.281. Lamarck Di&. v. 6. 392. Tlluftr. t. 771.—
Clafs and order, Moncecia Hexandria. Nat. Ord. Palme.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx of three leaves. Corolla none.
Filaments dilated.

Female, Calyx of three leaves ; two of which are cloven.
Corolla none. Style very fhort. Stigma fimple. Nut
clothed with fcales, imbricated backwards. Seed foli-

tary.
1. S. Rufia. Willd. n.1. “ Jacq. Fragm. 7. t. 4.

f.2. (Rufa; Bory It. v. 1. 178.’?) —Branches of the
flower-italk annulated.—Native of Madagafcar. A palm
fifty or fixty feet high, with pinnate leaves.

2. S. Rumphii. Willd. n.2. Ait. n. 1. (S. feu

alma farinaria; Rumph. Amboin. v. 1. 72. t. 17?)—
Branches of the flower-ftalk even and fmooth.—Native of
the Molucca ifles. Zeaves pinnate.

So much uncertainty attends the hiftory of thefe plants in
all botanical writers, that we muft content ourfelves with
the above mere references to them, till we can procure more
clear information. The genus is, no doubt, as Gertner
remarks, very nearly akin to CaLamus (fee that article) ;
and appears to be one of thofe palms which bear a fort of
Sago, though not the beft. See Saco.

AGWARA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Guzerat ; 20 miles S.S.E. of Dungerpour.

SAGWASSER, ariver of Bavaria, which runs into the
Tlz, near Gravenau.

SAGWIRE, a liquor drawn in the Eaft India iflands of
Amboyna, Ceram, &c. from a tree of the palm kind; of
the fame nature as the toddy, or palm-wine. ‘When it firft
iffues from the tree, it is clear, and looks like pure water.
Its tafte is fweet, but refrefhing. By degrees it becomes
acidulated, and at laft quite four, which, neverthelefs, may
be prevented by preparing it with a certain bitter wood, or
the roots of atree, called the “ foffot” tree, which occafion
a fermentation in the fagwire, and in about eight hours
make it fit for keeping. It is thus preferved good for a
long time. Although it lofes its pleafant tafte, and be-
comes thickifh, appearing like orgeade or almond-milk, it
is efteemed more wholefome, and lias an inebriating quality.
It is afterwards kept in bottles. ‘

The tree which yields this liquor has a faded appearance,
with many yellow dead leaves, which refemble thofe of the
fago-tree. One of thefe leaves, or rather branches, is cut
off, and the fagwire trickles out of it by drops, which are
received in a bamboo, hung under it for that purpofe ; and
when this ie full, the contents are drawn off by a tap at the
bottom. ‘This operation is called « tyffering.”” Stavo-
rinus’s Voyages, vol. ii. p. 350.

SAGY, in. Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Sadne and Loire; 4 miles S.E. of Louhans.

SAHAB, 2 town of Perfia, in the province of Chu-
fiftan, or Kufiftan; 60 miles S. of Sufter, or Shufter.

SAH

SAHADEVA, in Hindoo Romance, is one of the five
fons of Pandu, the heroes of the fine poem the Mahabarat.
This poem has been thought an allegorical conteft between
man’s virtues and vices; the former perfonified in the five
fons, or Pancha Pandu. To thefe five Pandus it is ufual
to attribute any ftupendous ftru€ture whofe origin is loft in
antiquity ; fuch as the excavations of Elephanta, Elora, &c.
Sahadeva is generally faid to be a perfonification of tem-
perance, being a twin brother of Chaitity. See farther
hereon, under our articles Kuru, MAHABARAT, Panpu,
and RAMAYANA.

SAHAGON, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon;
25 miles S.E. of Leon. -

SAHALAX, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Tavaftland ; 29 miles N. of Tavatthus.

SAHALEEL, a town of Tunis, which is fuppofed by
Dr. Shaw to be the ancient Rufpina; 6 miles S.E. of Sufa.
This village, fays Dr. Shaw (Trav. p. 108.), is fituated
at a mile’s diftance from the fea, and therefore bids fairer
to be the ancient Rufpina than Sufa; efpecially as the fea
before it not only forms itfelf into a bay, but has alfo a
communication with a {mall lake, which was probably the
port mentioned by Hirtius. As Sahaleel has no other wa-
ter than that which is drawn from wells, we may very well
account for the neceflity to which Cefar was reduced of
being fupplied from another place ; and this, from the many
difficulties which occurred to him in his way to it, occa-
fioned by Scipio’s army being poffeffed of all this country
to the northward, feems to have been the rivulet that runs
through the valley about 14 league from Sufa. Vid. Hirt.
Bell. Afric. § 19 and 22.

SAHAN, a mountainous traé& of Arabia, in the pro-
vince of Yemen, fituated between Hafchid-u-Bekil and
Hedsjas. This tract of country is of confiderable extent,
and produces abundance of excellent fruits, efpecially
grapes. Iron mines have been alfo difcovered in it, but,
for want of wood, have not been wrought ; and, on this
account, the iron of Yemen is both dear and bad. The in-
habitants of this country, efpecially the highlanders, who
have little intercourfe with {trangers, are faid to {peak the
beft Arabic, correfponding more entirely than that fpoken
any where elfe with the language of the Koran, although
they are almoft ftrangers to that book. The people effen-
tially differ in their manners from the Arabs in the cities of
Yemen. They feldom take more than one wife each.
Their women are not permitted to marry till they have com-
pleted their fifteenth year ; whereas in the dominions of the
Imam, girls are married at the age of nine or ten. They
live upon meat, honey, milk, and fome vegetables, of which
their country affords plenty. By this fimple mode of liv-
ing, they attain to a very advanced age, retaining the perfect
ufe of their fight to the laft. They are very hofpitable,
and yet rob with no lefs rapacity, when they meet with
braveliote’ not embodied in a caravan, than the Bedouins of
the defart. In this country are many independent lordfhips,
the principal of which is Saade ; which fee.

SAHAR, a town of Hindooftan, in Allahabad ; 7 miles
N.N.E. of Corah.—Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in Me-
wat; 18 miles N.W.°of Matura.—Alfo, a mountain of
Perfia, in Chorafan ; 20 miles S.S.E. of Mefghid.

Sanar. See Scuannur.

SAHARA, or Zanara, an extenfive country of
Africa, juftly ftyled Zahara ay AL or, the appellation
denotes, “The Defert,” {tretching from the fhores of the
Atlantic, with few interruptions, to the confines of Egypt,
a {pace of more than 45 degrees, or about 2500 geogra-
phical miles, by a breadth of 12 degrees, or 720 Reagra,

phica

SAHARA.

phical miles. it is not eafy to afcertain the boundaries of
this extenfive region; and differences of meafure muft un-
avoidably occur according to the various limits that are
affigned to it. Mr. Rennell’s map of North Africa will
furnifh the moft correé&t idea of its extent, as well as of the
other defarts that are adjacent to it. Accordingly it is
bounded by the Atlantic on the weit, by Biledulgerid, or the
country of Dates, on the north, by Tripoli, Soudah De-
fart,. Fezzan, Hiats, and Agadez, on the ealt, and by Ni-
gritia or Negroland, Kaffina or Cafhna, Tocrur, Houfla,
Beeroo, Ludamar, and the Foulahs, on the rivers Niger
and Senegal on the fouth. It may be thus faid, like the
ocean, to conneét the nations which it feems to feparate ;
for, in comparifon with the woods and morafles of America,
it furnifhes the merchant, by the aid of his camels, with an
eafy and convenient road.

A fandy heath of various levels, in fome places naked
and bare, but much more frequently covered with an odo-
riferous plant, which the Arabs cali the Shé, and which,
though far fuperior in fragrance, has at leaft a remote re-
femblance to the wild thyme of Europe, conftitutes the
general appearance of the Defart. The exceptions, how-
ever, are interefting and important ; for befides the diverfity
that arifes from the different fhrubs, which are often fcantily
intermixed with the Shé, and of which the thorny plant that
forms the harfh food of the camel appears to be the moft
common, an eflential variation is furnifhed by the com-
parative fertility of fome particular diftriéts, and by the
total barrennefs of others.

In fome portions of the general wildernefs, thoufands of
fheep, and goats, and cows, are feen to palture ; while in
others nothing is prefented to the eye but defolate hills of
fhifting fand.

To the laft of thefe the name of De/arts without Water is
emphatically given ; a name that conveys to an Arab ear the
fearful idea of an intenfe and fuffocating heat, of the total
abfence of vegetable life, and of the hazard of a dreadful
death. For though the movement of the fhifting fands is
not fo rapid as to endanger the fafety of the caravan, yet
as the fcorching heat of the fun-beams, confined and re-
Aeéted by the hills of fand, hourly diminifhes the ftore of
"water, and as the breadth of feveral of thofe defarts is that
of a ten days’ journey, the hazard of perifhing with thirit
is fometimes fatally experienced.

All means of afcertaining the rout by land-marks, the
ufual guides in other parts of the wildernefs, are here
deftroyed by the varying forms and fhifting pofition of the
hills; but from anxious obferyation and continued practice,
the camel-drivers acquire a fufficient knowledge of the bear-
ings of the fun and itars to direét them in their way.

Such are the expedients by which the difficulties of the
Defart are in general overcome.

Major Renneli defcribes Africa as compofed of three
diftinét parts or belts, one of which is the ‘* Great Defart,”’
or “Sahara,” and its members, confilting of the lefler
defarts of Bornou, Bilma, Barca, Sort, &c. (See AFrrica.)
This may be confidered as an “ocean of fand,”’ (‘a wild
expanfe of lifelefs fand and fky,’’ Thomfon,) prefenting a
furface equal in extent to about ‘ one-half of Europe,’? and
having its gulfs and bays; and alfo its iflands, fertile in
groves and paftures, and in many inltances containing a

reat population, fubjeét to order and regular government.
he great body, or weflern divilion of this ocean, com-
prized between Fezzan and the Atlantic, is no lefs than
§0 caravan journies acrofs, from north to fouth, or from
750 to 800 geographical miles, and double of that extent
m length ; being, without doubt, the largeft defart in the

world, This weftern divifion contains but a feanty portion
of iflands, or oafes, and thofe alfo of {mall extent ; but the
eaftern divifion has many, and fome of them very large.
Fezzan, Gadamis, Taboo, Ghanat, Agadez, Augela,
Berdoa, are among{t the principal ones ; befides which there
is a vaft number of fmallones. This, indeed, is the part of
Africa alluded to by Strabo, when he fays from Cneius
Pifo, that Africa may be compared to a leopard’s {kin.
Mr. Rennell conceives the reafon, why the oales are more
common here than in the weft divifion, to be, that the
ftratum of fand is fhallower from its furface to that of
the earth which it covers; in other words, that the water
contained in that earth is nearer to the furface ; as in molt of
the oafes, it {prings up fpontaneoufly. Water is found at
the depth of a few feet in Fezzan. Pliny makes the fame
obfervation concerning this quarter of Africa. But farther
to the N.W., on the edge of the Defart, and the country
of Wadreag in particular, Shaw informs us, that wells are
dug to an amazing depth, and water mixed with fand,
{prings up fuddenly, and fometimes fatally, to the work-
men. The do¢tor tells us, that the people call this abyfs
of fand and water “ the fea below ground.” Can any part
of the caufe be affigned to the prevalent eafterly winds,
which, by driving the finer particles of fand to leeward,
may have heaped it up to a higher level in the Sahara, than
elfewhere? The fprings have, without doubt, produced
the oafes themfelves, by enabling ufeful vegetables to flourifh,
and confequently population to be eltablifhed. That the
Defart has a dip towards the eaft, as well as the fouth, feems
to be proved by the courfe of the Niger. See Arrica,
and Oasis.

The Defart for the moft part abounds with falt. But we
hear of falt-mines only in the part contiguous to Nigritia,
from which falt is drawn for the ufe of thofe countries, as
well as of the Moorifh {tates adjoining ; no falt being found
in the Negro countries S. of the Niger. There are falt-
lakes alfo in the ealtern part of the Detart! This quality of
the African Defart was familiarly known to Herodotus.
(Melpom. c. 181, &c.) He knew alfo that there was abun-
dance of falt in the northern parts; but as the inhabitants in
that quarter can furnifh themfelves with falt of a better qua-
lity from the fea, the mines are not wrought.

The great ridge of mountains, and its:branches, are very
produtive in gold; but more particularly in the quarters
oppofite to Manding and Bambouk, on the weft, and Wan-
gara, on theeaft. Sec WANGARA. —

Some of the later geographers have diftingnifhed the
defarts into feven provinces, under which are comprehended
alfo the inferior divifions; and thefe are Zanaga, Zueniga,
Targa or Hayr, Lempta or Iguidi, Berdoa, Bornou, and
Gaoga. Thefe provinces are fuppofed to have been for-
merly inhabited by the Getuli and the Garamantes, the
former of whom were likewife in poffellion of Biledulgerid
or Numidia; and at prefent it contains a variety of wander-
ing nations, all proceeding from Arabs, Moors, or Portu-
guefe ; who took refuge there when driven from the empire
of Morocco. All thefe bear indifcriminately the name of
Nars, Moors, or Arabs. Their manners are a cOmpound
of virtues and vices; they are at once hofpitable and thieves.
Their religion, as well as that of their oppreflors, the Arabs,
is Mahometanifm, but fo much corrupted, that little of the
fundamental doérine can be difcovered among them. Ip
different provinces they {peak different dialects of the Ara-
befk or African language. ‘The chief commodities of thefe
countries are pas Feat cattle, horfes, dates, the fat
and feathers of oftrichs, and gum Senegal. <

Before the Arabian conqueft, about the middle of the

7th cen-

SAHARA.

ath century, all the inhabitants of Africa, whether they
were defcended from Numidians, Pheenicians, Carthagi-
nians, Romans, Vandals, or Goths, were comprehended
under the’general name of Mauri, or Moors. Ail thefe
nations were converted to the religion of Mahomet durmg
the Arabian empire under the caliphs.

Among the Numidians were certain tribes, who, pre-
ferring a paftoral life to a fixed place of refidence, retired
fouthward acrofs the Defart ; “‘ and by one of thofe tribes,
(fays Leo,) that of Zenhaga, were difcovered and con-
quered the Negro nations on the Niger.’’ By the Niger,
is here undoubtedly meant, the river of Senegal ; which, in
the Mandinga language, is called Bajing, or the Black
river.

To what extent thefe people are now fpread over the
African continent it is difficult to afcertain. There is reafon
to believe that their dominion ftretches from weit to eaft, in
a narrow line or belt, from the mouth of the Senegal (on
the northern fide of that river) to the confines of Abyflinia.

They are divided into petty tribes; the chief or king of
each, exercifing abfolute jurifdi€tion over his own horde,
without acknowledging any allegiance to a common {fove-
reign. In their ufual intercourfe with each other, all
diftinétions of rank feem however to be forgotten; the king
and his camel driver frequently eat out of the fame bowl,
and fleep in the fame bed. Such of the tribes as live con-
itantly in camps, purfue no fort of agriculture, but pur-
chafe of the Negroes corn and other neceffaries of life, and
even their clothing. Their chief medium of barter is rock-
falt, which they procure from the falt-pits of the Great
Defart.

The country affords fufficient herbage for black cattle,
fheep, and goats; and the Moors poffets an excellent breed
of horfes; but their ufual beafts of burthen are the camel
and the bullock. With the flaves which. they obtain in
their predatory excurfions againft the inland African nations,
their traders purchafe arms and gunpowder of the Europeans;
and their chief commerce of this kind, 1s with the French
on the Senegal river. Their only manufacture is a coarfe
hair-cloth, of which they make their tents. It is {pun from
the hair of goats, by the women; but of thefe, and other
particulars in their domeitic economy, it is only neceffary to
obferve that in their apparel, manners, and general habits
of life, they refemble the roving Arabs, of wiiom many ac-
counts haye already been given. Being removed from all
intercourfe with civilized nations, and having to boait an
advantage over the Negroes, by pofleffing, though in a very
limited degree, the knowledge of letters, they are at once
the vainelt and proudeft, and perhaps the moft bigotted,
ferocidus and intolerant, of all the nations on the earth;
combining in their charaéter the blind fuperftition of the
Negro, with the favage cruelty and treachery of the Arab.

The common boundary of the Moors and Negroes in
Africa forms a ftriking feature, as well in the moral, as the

olitical and phyGcal. geography of the continent. The

oors, defcendants of Arabs, intermixed with the various
colomits of Africa, from the earlieft to the lateft times,
overfpread the habitable parts of the Defart, and the oafes
within it ; and have pufhed their conquefts and eftablifhments
fouthward, prefling on the Negro aborigines, who have,
in feveral inltances, retired to the fouthward of the great
rivers; but in others, preferve their footing on the fide to-
wards the Defart, according to the ftrength or opennefs of
the fituation. It is probable, however, that the Negroes,
who are an agricultural people, never pofleffed any con-
fiderable portion of the Defart, which is fo much. better
fuited to the paftoral life of the Moors. It appears as if

Von. XXXI1.

matters had not undergone much change in thie refpeét,
fince the days of Herodotus ; who fixes the boundary of the
Libyans and Ethiopians, in other words, of the Moors and
Negroes, near the borders of the Niger; and he appa-
rently pointed to the quarter in which Kaflina and Ghana
are now fituated. (See Euterpe, c. 32, and Melpom.
c. 197.) The Negroes in the weftern quarter of the conti-
nent are of two diftine races, of which the leaft numerous
are named Foulahs, or Foolahs. Thefe, although they par-
take much of the Negro form and complexion, have neither
their jetty colour, thick:lips, nor crifped hair. They have
alfo a language diftiné& from the Mandinga, which prevails
inthis quarter. The original country of the Foulahs is faid
to bea traét of no great extent along the ealtern branch of
the Senegal river, fituated between Manding and Kaflon ;
Bambouk and Kaarta; and which bears the name of Foola-
doo, or the country of the Foulahs. But whether this be
really the cafe, or whether they might not have come from
the country within Serra Leona (called:alfo the Foulah
country), may be aqueftion ; of which, more in the fequel.
The Foulahs occupy, at leaft as fovereigns, feveral pro-
vinces or kingdoms, inter{perfed throughout the tra&, com-
prehended between the mountainous border of the country of
Serra Leona, on the welt, and that of Tombuétoo, on the
eaft ; as alfo, a large tract on the lower part of the Senegal
river ; and thefe provinces are infulated from each other in
avery remarkable manner. Their religion is Mahomedanifm,
but with a great mixture of Paganifm ; and with lefs intole-
rance than is practifed by the Moors.

The principal of the Foulah itates is that within Serra
Leona; and of which Teemboo is the capital. The next
in order appears to be that bordering on the fouth of the
Senegal river, and on the Jaloffs; this is preperly named
Siratik. Others of lefs note are Bondou, with Foota-Torra,
adjacent to it, lying between the rivers Gambia and Falemé ;
Foola-doo, and Brooko, along the upper part of the Se-
negal river ; Wailela, beyond the upper part of the Niger ;
and Maflina, lower down on the fame river, and joining to
Tombuétoo on the weft.

The Moors have not, in any inftance, eftablifhed them-
felves on the fouth of the great rivers. They have advanced
fartheft to the fouth in the weitern quarter of Africa ; fo
that the common boundary of the two races pailes, in refpe&
of the parallels on the globe, with a confiderable degree of
obliquity, to the north, in its way from the river Senegal
towards Nubia, and the Nile. Mr. Park arranges the
Moorith {tates which form the frontier towards Nigritia, to-
gether with the Negro ftates oppofed to them, on the fouth,
in the line of his progrefs, in the following order.

The {mall Moorifh ftate of Gedumah, fituated on the
north bank of the Senegal river, and the laft that touches on
it, (the Moors appearing to be matters of the northern bank
of the Senegal through the greateft part of its navigable
courfe ; the Foulahs the fouthern bank,) is oppofed to the
{mall Negro kingdom of Kajaaga, on the fouth. This
latter occupies the extremity of the navigable courfe of the
Senegal, terminated in this place by the cataraét of F’low.

From this point, the Negro and Foulah ftates occupy
both banks of the Senegal river, to its fource ; and beyond
that, both banks of the Niger (or Joliba) likewife, to the
lake Dibbie, fituated beyond the term of Mr. Park’s expe-
dition. ‘This {pace is divided, unequally, between Kaflon,
a hilly flrong country, but of {mall extent ; and which has
the Moors of Jaflnoo on the north; Kaarta, a confiderable
ftate, which has Ludamar for its oppofite (a country held
by Ali, a Moorifh prince, who is loaded with infamy, on the
fcore of mal-treatment of the only two Europeans, who aps

pear

SAH

pear to have entered his country, in later times); Bam-
bara, of {till more confideration, having the Moorifh king-
dom of Beeroo to the north; and Maffina, a Foulah itate,
bordering alfo on the fouth of Beeroo.

Here Mr. Park’s perfonal knowledge ends ; but he learnt
that Tombuétoo and Houffa, which fucceed in order to
Maffina, and occupy both fides of the Niger, are Moorifh
ftates, though with the greateit proportion of Negro fub-
jects; fo that the river may be confidered as the boundary of
the two races, in this quarter.

Of the countries between Houffa and Kaffina we are ig-
norant. The Defart feems to approach very near the river
(Niger) in that quarter, whence a Moorifh population may
be inferred. South of the river, we hear of Kaffaba, Gago,
and other Negro countries ; but without any diftin& notices
of pofition; and beyond thefe, Melli.

Kaffina and Bornou, two great empires on the north of
the river, appear to divide the largeft portion of the re-
maining {pace, to the borders of Nubia ; and extend a great
way to the north; this region being compofed of defart, and
habitable country, intermixed; but perhaps containing the
largeft proportion of the latter. In both thefe empires, the
fovereigns are Mahomedans, but the bulk of their fubjects
are {aid to adhere to their ancient worfhip ; that is to fay, the
lower orders are almoit univerfally Negroes.

From what has appeared, perhaps the boundary of Ni-
gritia, as it ref{peéts the Negro population, may be exprefled
enerally, and with a few exceptions, as follows; beginnin
an the weft, the extent upwards of the navigable 2
of the Senegal river, generally—thence, a line drawn to
Silla; from Silla to Tombuétoo, Houfla, and Beriffa, along
the river Niger; and thence through Afouda, Kanem, and

Kuku, to Dongola, on the Nile.

Leo enumerates 12 ftates, or kingdoms of Nigritia; but
amongtt thefe he includes Gualata, a tra& only 300 miles
S. of the river Nun; as alfo Cano (Ganat), adjacent to
Fezzan; and Nubia. Kaffina, Bornou, and Tombuétoo,
are included, of courfe.

The kingdom of the Foulahs before-mentioned, fituated
between the upper part of the Gambia river, and the coatt
of Serra Leona, andalong the Rio Grande, has alfo a Ma-
homedan fovereign, but the bulk of the people appear to
be of the ancient religion. It has been already faid, that
although they are a black people, they are lefs black than
the Negroes, generally, and have neither crifped hair, nor
thick lips; as alfo that they have a language diftin@ from
the Mandinga. From thefe circumttances, added to that
of fituation, they appear clearly to be the Leuczthiopes of
Ptolemy and Pliny. The former places them in the fituation
occupied by the Foulahs; that is, in the parallel of g de-
grees north; having, to the north, the mountains of Ryffa-
dius, which feparate the courfes of the Stachir and Nia
rivers (Gambia and Rio Grande), and which therefore
anfwer to the continuation of the great belt of high land,
in our geography ; in which there is, moreover, another
point of agreement, the Caphas of Ptolemy being the Caf-
faba of the map.

Ptolemy, by the name, evidently meant to defcribe a
people leis black than the generality of the Ethiopians ;
and hence it may be gathered, that this nation had been
traded with, and that fome notices refpe€ting it had been
communicated to him. It may alfo be remarked that the
navigation of Hanno terminated on this coaft; probably at
Sherbro’ river, or found. And as this wasalfo the term of
the knowledge of Ptolemy, it may be jultly fufpeéted that
this part of the coalt was defcribed from Carthaginian ma-
terials,

SAI

Thofe who have perufed the Journal of Mefirs. Watt and
Winterbottom, through the Foulah country, in 1794, and
recolleé&t how flattering a piture they give of the urbanity
and hofpitality of the Foulahs, will be gratified on finding
that this nation was known and diftinguifhed from the reit
of the Ethiopians, at a remote period of antiquity.

The contraft between the Moorifh and Negro charaéters,
is as great as that between the nature of their refpective
countries ; or between their form and complexion. The
Mvors appear to poflefs the vicesof the Arabs, without their
virtues ; and to avail themfelves of an intolerant religion, to
opprefs ftrangers; whilit the Negroes, and efpecially the
Mandingas, unable to comprehend a doétrine that fubflitutes
opinion or belief for the focial duties, are content to remain
in their humble ftate of ignorance. The hofpitality fhewn,
by thefe good people to Mr. Park, a deititute and forlorn
ftranger, raifes them very high in the fcale of humanity ;
and we know of no fitter title to confer on them, than that
of the Hindoos of Africa ; at the fame time by no means
intending to degrade the Mahomedans of India, by a com-
parifon with the African Moors.

SAHEC, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in Farfiftan ;
105 miles E. of Schiras, or Shirauz.

SAHIRA, in the Materia Medica, a name given by Avi-
cenna to the mi/y of Diofcorides andthe Greeks. See Mr-
LANTERIA and Misy.

SAHLAHDAN, in Geography, a town of the Birman
empire, on the Irawaddy, near Peeingghee; 25 miles N. of
Mayahoun, or Mayaoum.

SAHLITE, in Mineralogy, a mineral which derives its
name from Sahlbergh, in Sweden. Its colour is a pale
greenifh-grey ; it occurs both cryttallized and maffive. The
form of the cryftals is an eight-fided prifm, with dihedral
fummits refembling that of pyroxene, with which mineral it
is clafled by Haiiy. (See Pyroxene.) It differs from that
{pecies of pyroxene denominated augite in colour ; it
{cratches glafs, and is infufible. The conttituent parts, ac-
cording to Vauquelin, are

Silex - = . - - 53
Lime - - - - 20
Magnefia - - - - 19
Alumine - - - - 3

Oxyd of iron and manganefe - « 4

SAHLONE, in Gear aay: a town of Hindooftan, in

Oude; 15 miles N. of Manickpour.’ N. lat. 26° 2'. E. long.
81° 48!.

SAHOOR, atown of Hindooftan, in Douab ; 15 miles
N.W. of Pattiany.

SAHRA, atown of Bohemia; 12 miles N.N.W. of
Leitmeritz.—Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude; 15
miles S. of Lucknow.

SAHRUK, a town of Bengal 3; 6 miles W. of Toree.

SAHSJAH, a town of Pertia, in Chorafan; 180 miles
N.N.W. of Herat.

SAHTUM, atownof Bengal, 22 miles W. of Toree.

SAI, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Bambara.
This town is completely furrounded with two deep trenches,
at the diftance of 200 yards from the walls. The trenches
were dug, and the towers conitruéted, fome years ago, in
order to punifh the people of Sai, for an offence of the
dooty, or chief of the town. The town was obli to
furrender, the dooty was put to death, and the inhabitants
carried away, and fold as flaves; 26 miles S.W. of Sego.
N. lat. 14°. W. long. 3° 35/.

Sat, in Zoology, a name given to the capuchin monkey,
See Sim1a Capucina.

SAIANSA, in Geography, a town of Ruflia, in the go-

vernment

SAI

vernment of Kolivan, on the Enifei, near which is a cop-
per furnace; 92 miles S. of Abakanfk. N. lat. 52° 24’.
E. long. 91° 14/. ; ,

SAIANSKOI Mowntarns, mountains of Afia, which
form a boundary between Ruffia and Chinefe Tartary, coniti-
tating part of the grand range E. of the Altay mountains.

SAIBGUNGE, a town of Bengal; 32 miles W. of
Beyhar. N. lat. 26°15’. E. long. 88° 41’. 4

SAIC, one of the many names given by the ancients to
quickfilver. See Mercury.

SAICK, or Sarqve, a Turkith veffel, very proper for
the carriage of merchandizes.

It has fquare fails on the middle maft ; without either
mizen, top-gallant, or fhrouds; only a main-maft, with a
main-top-maft, both very high; with a bolt-fprit, and a
little mizen-matt.

The height of the main-maft makes the faicks vifible at a

t diftance: their make renders it impoflible for them to
go with a fide wind ; but when they have the wind before
them, nothing can outgo them. The generality of them
carry no guns. ;

SAID, in Geography, aname givento Upper Egypt, an-
ciently called Thebais ; which fee.

Saip. See THEBES.

SAIDE, Pachalic of, called alfo the ««pachalic of Acre,”
becaufe the pacha has of late years transferred his refidence to
Acre (which fee), one of the four pachalics or governments
into which fultan Selim I. diftributed Syria, the other three
being Damafcus, Aleppo, and Tripoli. The extent of this

overnment has varied at different times. Before fheick

aher, it included the country of the Drufes, (which fee, )
and the whole coaft, from Nahr-el-Kelb, as far as mount
Carmel. Daher, as he gained acceflion of power, infringed
on the territories of the pacha, and redeced him to the city
of Saide, from which he was at laft expelled: but after the
ruin of Daher, the government refumed its ancient limits.
Djezzar, who fucceeded Daher as Turkifh pacha, has an-
nexed to the pachalic the countries of Safad, Tabaria, and
Balbec, formerly tributary to Damafcus, and the territory
of Kaifaria (the ancient Cefarea), inhabited by the Arabs of
Saker. This pacha transferred his refidence to Acre, which
is now become the capital of the province, inftead of Saide,
the ancient capital. By thefe different augmentations, the

achalic of Acre at prefent includes all the country from the
Nahr-el-Kelb, to the fouth of Kaifaria, between the Medi-
terranean to the weft, and at Anti-Lebanon, and the upper
part of the courfe of the Jordan, to the eaft. It derives the
more importance from this extent, as it unites the valuable
advantages of fituation and foil. The plains of Acre, Ef-
drelon, Sour, Havula, and the Lower Bekaa, are juitly
boafted for their fertility. Corn, barley, maize, cotton,
and fefamum, produce, notwithftanding the imperfection of
the culture, twenty and twenty-five for one. The country
of Kaifaria poflefles a foreft of ealed) the only one in Syria.
Safad furnithes cottons, which, from their whitenefs, are
held in as high eftimation as thofe of Cyprus. The neigh-
bouring mountains of Sour produce as good tobacco as that
of Latakia, and in a part of them is made a perfume of
cloves, which is referved exclufively for the ufe of the fultan
and his women.

he country of the Drufes abounds in wines and filks :
io thort, from the fituation of the coalt, and the number of
its creeks, this pachalic neceflarily becomes the emporium of
Damafcus and all the interior parts of Syria.

The pacha enjoys all the privileges, and receives all the
emoluments of his office: he is defpotic governor, and far-
mer general. He remits to the Porte annually the fixed

SAI
fum of feven hundred and fifty purfes; but he, as well as
the pacha of Tripoli, is obliged to furnifh the djerde, or pro-
vifions, for the pilgrims of Mecca. His expences for this ar-
ticle are eftimated likewife at feven hundred and fifty purfes,
inrice, corn, barley, &c.

The time limited for his government is a year, but this is
frequently prolonged. His revenues are, the Miri ; the farms
of the tributaries, as the Drufes, the Motoualis, and fome
Arab tribes ; the numerous fees from fucceflions and extor-
tions ; and the produce of the cuftoms on the exports, im-
ports, and the conveyance of merchandize; which article
alone amounted to one thoufand purfes (above fifty thoufand
pounds), when Djezzar farmed all the harbours and creeks
in 1784. This pacha likewife, as is ufual with the Turkith
governors in Afia, cultivates lands on his own account, en-
ters into partnerfhip with merchants and manufacturers,
and lends out money for intereft to hufbandmen and traders.
The total from thefe various emoluments is eftimated at
between nine and ten millions of French money, (about
four hundred thoufand pounds.) If we compare with
this his tribute, which, with the fupply of the caravan,
amounts only to fifteen hundred purfes, or one milion
eight hundred and feventy-five thoufand livres, (feventy-
eight thoufand one hundred and twenty-five pounds,) we
mutt be aftonifhed that the Porte allows him fuch enormous
profits ; but this alfo is a part of the policy of the divan.
The tribute once fettled never varies ; only, if the pacha
becomes rich, he is {queezed by extraordinary demands. He
is often left to accumulate in peace ; but when he has once
amafled great wealth, fome expedient is always contrived to
bring to Conttantinople his coffers or his head. This pacha
maintains a greater number of foldiers, and in better condi-
tion, than any other pacha, and takes care to enrol none
but thofe of his own country ; that isto fay, Bofhnaks and
Arnauts: their number is about nine hundred horfemen.
Added to thefe, he has sine thoufand Mograbian infantry.
The gates of his frontier towns have regular guards, which
is ufual in the reit of Syria.

By fea, he has one frigate, two galiots, and a xebec,
which he has lately taken from the Maltefe. By thefe pre-
cautions, apparently intended to fecure him from foreign
enemies, he has put himfelf on his guard againft the ftrata-
gems of the divan. But his power was of no long du-
ration.

SarprE, a town of the fore-mentioned pachalic, and for-
merly the refidence of the pacha. This is the ruinous re-
mains of the ancient Sidon, the name of which {till fubfilts
in a {mall village, about half a league from Saide. Saide,
or Seidé, like all the Turkifh towns, is ill-built, dirty, and
full of ruins, Its length along the fea-fhore is about fix
hundred paces, and its breadth one hundred and fifty. On
the fouth fide, on a {mall eminence, is a fort built by Deg-
nizlas From hence we havea view of the fea, the city, and
the country: but a few cannon would eafily deftroy this
whole work, which is only a large tower of a fingle ttory,
already half inruins. Atthe other extremity of the town,
that ig, to the north-welt, is the caltle, which is built in the
fea itfelf, eighty paces from the main land, to which it is
joined by avin To the welt of this cattle is a fhoal fifteen
feet high above the fea, and about two hundred paces long.
The {pace between this fhoal and the cattle forms the road,
but veflals are not fafe there in bad weather. The fhoal,
which extends along the town, has a bafon inclofed by a
decayed pier. This was the ancient port, but it is fo
choaked up by fands, that boats only can enter its mouth,
near the caftle. Fakr-el-din, emir of the Drufes, who built
the caflle, deftroyed all thefe little ports, from Bairout to

K2 Acre,

SAI

Acre, by finking boats and ftones to prevent the Turkifh
fhips from entering them. The bafon of Saide, if it were
cleared out, might contain twenty or twenty-five {mall vel-
fels. On the fide of the fea, the town is abfolutely without
any wall; and that which inclofes it on the land fide is no
better than a prifon wall. The caitle, ftyled of St. Louis,
which from an adjacent height on the S. commands the city,
ftill remains. One gate, fronting to the N.E. is preferved ;
but the magnificent palace, built by Fakr-el-din,in the Italian
manner, is in ruins. The whole artillery does not exceed fix
cannon, and thefe are without carriages or gunners. The
garrifon {carcely amounts to one hundred men. ‘The water
they have comes from the river Aoula, through open canals,
from which it is fetched by the women. Thefe canals ferve
alfo to water the orchards of mulberry and lemon-trees.
This is a larger town than Acre ; its fituation is good, and
the air falubrious. Here are many Chriflians and fome
Jews ; and the number of inhabitants is eftimated by Volney
at about 5000. But by the earthquake in 1785, and the
plague which fucceeded it, the place was almoft depopulated.
A Ste teflellated pavement of variegated marble, repre-
fenting a horfe, feftoons, and tolerably perfeét in fome
parts Br ten feet in length, remains, clofe to the fea, on the
northern extremity of the city, which fhews that the fea
encroaches on the a. Many ancient granite columns are
wrought into the walls, and fome itand as pofts on the
bridge leading to the fort. Near the gate of the city
is a {mall fquare building, which contains the tombs of
fuch of the emirs of the Drufes as died when Saide was
in their poffeffion. The town is furrounded with gardens,
in which grow a number of mulberry trees; filk being
the chief commodity. The rent of houfes, and the mode
of living, are cheaper than at Acre, though the town is
larger, and the government more mild and regular: fo that
ftraagers are not liable to infult. The trade of this place
was ae confiderable, as it was the chief emporium of
Damafcus and the interior country. The French hada con-
ful here, and five or fix commercial houfes. They exported
filks, and particularly raw and fpun cottons, the manufac-
ture of which is the principal art of the inhabitants. N.
lat. 33° 25'. E. long. 38° 14/. Volney’s Travels, and
Browne’s Travels.

SAIDNAGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Lahore;
25 miles E. of Gujurat.

SAIENTZKA, a town of Pruffia, in Pomerelia; 18
miles N. of Culm.

SAIGA, in Zoology, a {pecies of antelope, the characters
of which are, that the horns are pale and almoit tranfparent,
diftant at the bafes, and bent in form of a lyre, having each
three curvatures; the nofe very cartilaginous, much arched,
thick, and feeming to be truncated at the end. This
is the Scythian antelope of feveral writers, the Tartarian
goat, the beardlefs ibex, the colus or the fuhac of other
writers. It inhabits Poland, Moldavia, the Carpathian
mountains, Caucafus, about the Cafpian and Euxine feas,
near lake Aral, in the Altaic chain, and generally from
the Danube to the Irtifch, not farther north than about
the ssth degree of latitude. The animals of this fpe-
cies dwell moftly in open defarts, abounding with falt
{prings, and feed much on faline, acrid, and aromatic vegeta-
bles. In autumn they colleét in large herds, and migrate
regularly into the fouthern defarts; in {pring they return
northwards, and feparate into fmaller divifions. They are
very fhy and timid, very {wift, but foon fatigued ; their
voice refembles the bleating of fheep ; their fenfe of {melling
is. quick, fo that the hunters are obliged to approach them
againft the wind ; and when feeding or refting, the herd is

2

SAI

guarded by fentinels ; in fummer their fight is weak. When
taken young they are eafily tamed, and are very docile; but
the old ones are fo obftinate, that when taken, they refufe
nourifhment. The faiga is about the fize of a fallow deer,
being about four feet long, having tix fore-teeth in each
jaw. The fur in fummer is very fhort, of a grey colour,
mixed with yellow, and darker on the legs below the knees ;
the fpace about the cheeks is whitifh; the forehead and
crown of the head hoary, and covered with long hairs; the
under fide of the neck and body white, the knees having
bufhes or tufts of hair. The tail four inches long, naked
below, covered above with upright hairs, and tufted at the
end: in winter, the fur becomes long, rough and hoary ;
the head is large, the horns eleven inches long, and ina
great part of their length furrounded with rings, but the
extremities fmooth. The female has no horns, and her fur is
fofter than that of the male; the rutting feafun is in No-
vember, when the males will fight boldly in defence of their
mates ; and before the middle of May, the females produce
mottly one atabirth. Thefe animals are hunted with guns,
dogs, and even eagles, for the fake of their horns and
{kins : the fleflis fcarcely eatable, till it becomes cold after
being drefled, owing to a rank or balfamic talte, acquired from
the nature of their food. Sometimes this animal is found
with three horns, and rarely with only one. The horns are
very various, but may be always diftinguifhed by their pale
colour and femi-tranfparency ; moft other antelopes having
black opaque horns.

SAIGAPULLA, in Geography, a town of Hindoo-
flan, in the circar of Cuddapa; 10 miles §.E. of Gandi-
cotta. :

SAIGATKA, atown of Ruffia, in the government of
Perm ; 32 miles S.W. of Ofa.

SAIGNE-LEGIER, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Upper Rhine, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri@ of Porentruy. The place contains 2032, and
the canton 12,191 inhabitants, on a territory of 2723 kilio-
metres, in 31 communes. “

SAIGNER, in Fortification, a French term, fignifying
to empty or drain.

Hence faigner la foffe is to empty or drain the water out
of the moat, by conyeyances under ground ; that it may be
pafled over the more eafily ; by laying hurdles of rufhes on
the mud remaining.

SAIGNES, in Geography, atown of France, in the de-
partment of the Cantal, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Mauriac ; 9 miles N.N.E. of it. The canton
has 9235 inhabitants, on a territory of 1924 kiliometres, in
12 communes.

SAIGNON, atownof France, in the department of the
Mouths of the Rhone, two miles E.S.E. of Apt; cele-
brated for its wine. F

SAI-ID, atown of Arabia, in the province of Yemen ;
8 miles E. of Beit-el-Fakih. ‘

SAIL, anaflemblage of feveral breadths of canvas fewed
together, and extended on or between the matts, to receive the
wind, and force the veflels through the water. See Sau-
Making. : ‘

Although the form of fails is extremely different, they are
either quadrilateral or triangular. In all quadrangular fails,
the upper edge is called the head; the fides or fkirts are
called leeches ; and the bottom or lower edge is termed the
foot. Ifthe head is parallel to the foot, the two lower
corners are denominated c/ues, and the upper corners earings.
Suchare the courfes, or lower fails, except the mizen-courfe,
the topfails, which are next in order above the courfes, and
the topgallant-fails, which are expanded above the opie

an

SAI

end the royals above them. Thefe are all {pread at the head
to their re{pective yards. The itudding-fails are extended by
yards and booms.. Quadrangular fails have their heads not
parallel to the foot, as the mizen-courfe, driver, and boom-
main-fails. The inner corner at the head is called the nock,
the outer the peek: the inner corner at the foot is termed the
tack, andthe outer the clue. The head is fpread by a gaff,
and the fore-leech is bent to the maft by hoops, or lacings.

Triangular fails are the ttayfails, and the jib; they are
extended upon the flays between the mafts with hanks.* The
upper corner is called the head, the foremoft corner the
tack, and the after corner theclue. When fpread to a yard
they are called latteen={ails, and if to a maft, fhoulder-of-
mutton fails ; in all which cafes the foremoft leech or edge is
attached to its refpective ftay, yard, or maft, throughout
its whole length.

All fails derive their name from the maft, yard, boom, or

ftay; upon which they are extended or bent : thus, the princi-
pal fail extended upon the main-mait, is called the main-
fail, or main-courfe, 1,. Plate IV. Rigging fig. 2. That
upon the main-topmait is termed the main-topfail, 2: that
upon the main-topgallant maft is named the main-topgallant
fail, 3: and the main-topgallant royal, 4, is fo called from
its being fpread athwart the head of the main-topgallant
maft: The fore-fail, or fore-courfe, 5, is fo denominated
from the fore-malt ; the fore-topfail, 6, from the fore-top-
maft; the fore-topgaliant fail, 7, from the fore-topgallant
maft; and the fore-topgallant royal, 8, from its being {pread
on the upper part of the fore-topgallant maft. The mizen-
courfe, 9, from the mizen-mait; the mizen-topfail; 10,
from the mizen-topmaft ; the mizen-topgallant fail, 11, from
the mizen-topgallant maft ; and the mizen-topgallant royal,
12, from its being fpread on the upper part of the mizen-
topgallant maft. The main-itayfail (fig. 1.) from the main-
ftayfail-ftay ; the main-topmatt-ftayfail, 2, from the main-
topmatt-preventer-ftay; the middle ftay fail, 3, from the middle
ftayfail-ftay ; and the main-topgallant-ftayfail, 4, from the
main-topgallant-itayfail-ftay. Thefe ftayfails are between the
main and*fore-mafts. The ttayfails before the fore-maft are,
the fore-ftayfail, 5, the fore-topmaft-itayfail, 6, and jib, 7.
Eaft India fhips have twojibs. The {tayfails between the
main and mizen-matts are, the mizen-ftayfail, 8, the mizen-
topmaft-ftayfail, 9, and fometimes a mizen-topgallant-ftay-
fail, 10, above the latter. The fails under the bowfprit are,
the fprit-fail, or courfe, 13, and that under the jib-boom the
fprit-topfail, 14. The driver or fpanker-fail, 11, (fig. 1-)
is hoifted abaft the mizen-mait. ‘The ftudding-fails, being
extended beyond the different yards of the main and fore-matts,
are likewife named accordiny to their ftations. Thofe to
the fore-maft are, the fore-lower-ftudding-fail, 15, (fig. 2.)
fore-topmalt-ftudding-fail, 16, fore-topgallant-ftudding-fail,
17. Thofe to the main-maft are, the lower main-ftudding-fail,
18, main-topmaft-ftudding-fail, 19, and main-topgallant-
ftudding-fail, 20. Thefe are the fails generally ufed to veflels
of three mafts.
» The fails of a veffel of two mafts are, in a fnow, fimilar
to thofe on the fore and main-matts of a thip, except the fail
called a tryfail, ufed inftead of a mizen-courfe, which it re-
fembles: it is extended towards the tern, and is faftened
by hoops round a {mall malt, called a tryfail-matt, fixed near
the aft-fide of the main-maft.

The fails of a brig with two mafts are alfo fimilar to thofe
on the main and fore-malls of a fhip, excepting the main-
fail, which is {et in the plane of her keel, and is extended
by a gaff at the head, and a boom on the foot ; the fore-Ieech
being faftened by hoops round the main-maft,

SAD

Veffels with one maft, as floops, cutters, fmacks, hoys,
&c. have a main-fail abaft the maft, as the brigs; before the
mait they have a fquare-fail, or crofs-jack, and above the
crofs-jack, a fmall fail called a fave-all-topfail; above that
a topfail, which, on account of the hollow at the foot to
clear the ftay, is called a {wallow-tailed-topfail, and above it
is the topgallant-fail. Some large floops have a royal above
the topgallant-fail, and ftudding-fails fet beyond the leeches
of the fquare-fail. Before the matt is a fore-fail, a jib, and
a flying-jib. Abaft the after-leech of the main-fail, in calm
weather, is hoifted a ring-tail-fail; over the head of the
main-fail a gaff-topfail ; and over the ftern, under the boom,
a water-fail.

There is an additional part added occafionally to the foot
of fome fails, called a bonnet : it is laced tothe foot of the
fore-fail, tryfail, and itorm main-fails, of fome veflels with
one matt, in moderate winds. It is made to correfpond
with the foot of the fail it is intended for, and has latchings
in the upper part, by which it faftens through holes, made for
that purpofe along the foot of the above fails.

Boats.—Some have a main-fail, fore-fail, and jib, as floops ;
others have lug-fails. Some have {prit-fails, others latteen or
fettee-fails, according to their various ufes, the fancy of their
owners, or the country to which they belong.

Sai is alfo a name applied to any veffel beheld at a dif-
tance under fail.

To fet fail, is to unfurl and expand the fails upon their
refpective yards and ftays, in order to begin the aétion of
failing, which is performed by means of the braces, fheets,
&e. See Rigging and Bending the Sails, under the article
RIGGING.

To make fail, is to fpread an additional quantity of fail, fo
as to increafe the fhip’s velocity.

To fhorten fail, is to reduce or take in part of the fails
with an intention to diminifh the fhip’s velocity.

To firike fail, isto lower it fuddenly. _ This is particularly
ufed in /aluting, or doing homage to a {uperior force, or to
one whom the law of nations acknowledges as fuperior in
certain feas. Thus, all foreign veflels ftrike to an Englith
fhip of war in the Britifh feas. See Sanure.

Sait-Making. By a& of parliament for encouraging the
ufe and confumption of the manufacture of Britifh fail-cloth,
every fhip or veffel which fhall be built in Great Britain,
and every fhip or veffel which fhall be built in any of his
majelty’s plantations in America, fhall, upon her firlt fetting
out to fea, have or be furnifhed with one full and complete
fuit of fails, made up of fail-cloth manufa€tured in Great
Britain ; and in cafe fuch fhip fhall not, on her firft fetting
out, be fo fitted out and furnifhed, that then, and for every
fuch neglect and default, the matter of fuch fhip fhall forfeit
the fum of fifty pounds.

Tt is likewife enaéted, that all fail-cloth made in Great
Britain fhall be manufaétured in the manner, and according
to the direétions hereafter mentioned, viz. every piece or
bolt of Britifh fail-cloth, that fhall be twenty-four inches in
breadth, and thirty-eight yards in length, fhall weigh accord-
ing to the number and weights here mentioned: wiz. N° 1,
44 pounds each bolt; N° 2, 413 N° 3, 38; N° 4, 353
N° 5; 323 N° 6,293 N° 7,245) /N° 8, 21; N° 9, 183
and N® 10, 15 pounds each bolt.

And in cafe any piece or bolt of either fuch refpective
numbers or forts of Britifh fail-cloth fhall be made of a dif-
ferent breadth or length than before-mentioned, fuch piece
or bolt of Britifh fail-cloth fhall be increafed or diminithed
in weight, in proportion to the difference in length or
breadth, and fhall be marked or {tamped with fuch number

as

SAIL-MAKING.

as fhall be agreeable to the weight ; and the warp or chain
of every piece or bolt of the firft fix numbers of fuch Britifh
fail-cloth, fhall be wholly wrought and made of double yarn,
and {hall contain in every piece or bolt of twenty-four inches
in breadth, at leaft 560 double threads of yarn ; and in every
piece of fuch fail-cloth, that fhall be thirty inches in breadth,
at leaft 700 double threads of yarn; and in every bolt of
fuch fail-cloth, that fhall be of any other breadths than as
aforefaid, a certain number or quantity of double threads of
yarn, in proportion to the number of double threads of yarn
expreffed to be contained in the breadth, as aforefaid; and
the warp and fkoot-yarn, which fhall be wrought in every
piece or bolt of the firft four numbers of fuch fail-cloth,
thall be made of long flax, without any mixture of fhort or bar
flax ; or of long flax, of Italian hemp, or Braak hemp; and
all the flax and hemp ufed in making the warp and fhoot-
yarn of fuch fail-cloth, of the aforefaid four firft numbers,
fhall be of a ftrong ftaple, frefh, found, and good in its
kind, and well dreffed, and the yarn well cleanfed, even
fpun, and well twifted ; and all the fhoot-yarn of each piece
of fail-cloth of the four firlt numbers, fhall be full as ftrong
as the warp-yarn, and clofe {truck with four fhoots of treble
threads at the diftance of every two feet, or thereabouts ;
and both the warp and fhoot-yarn fhall be as {trong as the
warp and fhoot-yarn that are ufually wrought in the fail-cloth
of thofe four firft numbers that are made for and ufed in his
majefty’s navy ; and no flax-yarn ufed in any Britifh fail-
cloth fhall be whitened with lime, on forfeiture of fixpence
per yard, for every yard that fhall be fo whitened, made,
fold, or worked up into new fails in Great Britain, any
way effentially different, lighter, or inferior in ftrength
and goodnefs to any of the aforefaid direCtions or reftric-
tions.

Every fail-maker, or other perfon who fhall make or work
up fail-cloth into fails or tarpawlins, fhall caufe this at, or
an abttract thereof, to be put up or affixed, there to conti-
nue, in fome public part of the loft, fhop, or workhoufe,
where his faid trade is carried on, or his workmen employed,
under the penalty of forty fhillings.

The feveral aéts relative to fail-cloth and fail-making are
the a& of the 7 & 8 W. III. c. to. § 14. 9 & 10 W. III.
e.41. g Geo. Il. c.37. 19 Geo. II.c. 27. 33 Geo. III.
€. 49.

The Firft Procefs in Sail-making

Is the cutting out the various fails cloth by cloth, the
width being governed by the length of the yard, gaff, boom,
or {tay, to which they bend ; the depth by the height of the
maft. The width and depth being given, find the number
of cloths the width requires, allowing for feams, flack-cloth
for fewing on the bolt-rope, and tabling on the leeches ;
and in the depth allow for tabling on the head and foot.
For fails cut {quare on the head and foot, with gores only
on the leeches, as fome topfails, &c. the cloths on the head,
between the leeches, are cut {quare to the depth; and the

ores on the leeches are found by dividing the depth of the
fail by the number of cloths gored, which gives the length
of each gore. The gore is fet down from a fquare with the
oppolite felvage, and, the canvas being cut diagonally, the
longett gored fide of one cloth makes the fhortett fide of the
next ; confequently, the firft gore being known, the reft are
cut by it.

For the length of gores correfponding to the depth on the
flvage, confult the following table, which fhews the length of
any gore by its depth, from one inch to fix feet in depth on
the felvage of canvas twenty-four inches wide.

Depth Depth
down the akc of down the
Selvage. cae Selvage.

Fu In. Fe. In. - In. | Fe.
oS ae 44 Ealoa:
Ost 2 2) 42 Greil:
Serie, Pitas OF 14 31-4
o 4 Bri ia Lo} 4%) 4b
os 2h ais 4
°o 6 2.6 4 7
Oy 7 24 aaa
o.n1S 2S 4 8 ;
Oy 99 “lished ee Te |e,
°o 10 2H4IO 4 10/5
o II 2 Er yee an
Ty A“o 3. °4O FF .wOMl oF
Bapred oe ea)
: ee Bin h2 5 H2heses
RT 3 3.43 5 SINS
: ; srt 5 41/5
SHES: lee i,
rey 6 3% 6 Se dO Neg
OE poy / 5) Hey 5° STDS
Tid Sime 5.648 We
kin De Bek 5 9|6
1Iaas 3 «10 5 10})6
DET ap Ler 5 1th 6
Zi Oo yr eae, 6 0f6

In the leeches of topfails cut hollow, the upper gores are
longer than the lower ones ; and in fails cut with a reach-
leech, the lower gores are longer than the upper ones. This
can only be regulated by the judgment of the fail-maker,
and care muft be taken that the whole of the gores do not
exceed the depth of the leech. :

Sails gored with a fweep on the head or foot, or on
both, have the depth of their gores marked on the felvage
from the fquare of the given depth on each cloth, and are
cut out a3 above ; the longeft felvage of one ferving to mea-
fure the fhorteft felvage of the next, beginning with the
firlt gored cloth next the middle in fome Bile, and the firit
cloth next the matt-leech in others.

For thofe gores that are irregular, and likewife the hollow
leeches of topfails, &c. no itrict rule can be given; but by
drawing on paper the oo fide of the fail, and delineati
the breadth of every cloth by a convenient feale of aaa

arts of an inch to a foot, or, what would be better, laying-
off the fall fize of the fail on the loft-floor, the length of
every gore may be found with precifion.

Tn the royal navy, mizen-topfails are cut with three-quar-
ters of a yard hollow in the foot; but, in the merchant
fervice, top and topgallant-fails are cut with mort or lefs
hollow in the foot. Flying jibs are cut with a roach-curve
on the itay, and a three-inch gore in each cloth, fhortening
from the tack to the clue.

Lower ftudding-fails are cut with fquare leeches, and
topmait and acpapellagt chet cSinghtiagidalll with goring
leeches.

For the cutting of all other fails, we refer to the particu.
lar defcription of each fail, which follows. .

Tablings of all fails are to be of a proportionable breadth
to the fize of the fail. Thofe for the heads of main and
fore-courfes to be from 4 to 6 inches wide ; for {prit-courfes
and mizens, drivers, and other boom-fails, 3 to 4 inches wide ;

for

a

§

SAIL-MAKING.

for top-fails, 3 to 4% inches; topgallant and {prit-topfails,
3 inches ; royal fails, 24 inches; jib and other ftay-fails,
3 to 44 inches, on the ftay or hoift ; and for ftudding-fails,
3 to 4 inches on the head. }

Tablings on the foot and leeches of main and fore-courfes
to be from 3 to § inches broad; fprit-courfe and topfails,
3 inches; topgallant and {prit-topfails, 25 inches ; royals,
2 inches ; fore-leeches of mizen, driver, and other boom-fails,
34 to 4 inches; after-leech, 3 inches; and on the foot, 2 to

inches.

: Tablings on the after-leech of jibs and other ftayfails to
be from 2 to 3 inches broad; and on the foot, 2 to 23 inches ;
on ftudding-fail-leeches, 14 to 24 inches ; and on the foot,
from 1 to z inches.

The length of reef and middle bands is governed by the
width of the fail at their refpedtive places: the leech-linings,
buntline-cloths, top-linings, maift-cloths, and corner-pieces,
are cut agreeable to the depth of the fail. Each cloth, and
every article when cut, fhould be properly marked with char-
coal, to prevent confufion or miftake.

Reef-bands.—Main and fore-courfes have two reef-bands ;
the upper one is one-fixth of the depth of the fail from the
head, and the lower band fhould be the fame diftance from the
upper one, the ends going four inches under the leech-linings.
The breadth one-third the breadth of the canvas.

Main and fore-topfails have four reef-bands, or three at
leait, from leech to leech, over the leech-linings ; the upper
one to be one-eighth of the depth of the fail from the head.
They are the fame diitance afunder in the royal navy,
but more inthe merchant fervice. Mizen-topfails of 50-gun
thips, and upwards, have three reefs ; the upper one is one-
eighth of the depth of the fail from the head, and the reefs
are the fame diitance afunder. Mizen-topfails of leffer fhips
have two reefs one-feventh the depth of the fail from the
shead, and the fame diftance afunder. The reef-bands have
each half a breadth of canvas. Main and main-top-{tud-
ding-fails have each one reef, at one-eighth of the depth of
the fail from the head.

The middle bund is made of one breadth of canvas of the
fame number as the top-linings, and is put on half way be-
tween the lower reef and the foot.

Linings. —Main and fore-courfes are lined on the leeches,
from clue to earing, with one cloth. Main, fore, and mizen-
topfails, have leech-linings made of one breadth of cloth, fo
cut as to be half acloth broad at the head, and a cloth
and a half broad at the foot; the cloth to be cut from
half its breadth at one end, fo as to taper to a point at the
other.

Mizens are lined with one breadth of cloth from the cluc
five yards up the leech ; they have alfo a nock-piece, and a
peek-piece, one cut out of the other, fo that each contains
one yard.

The matt-lining is of two cloths, and extends from the
foot of the fail to the lower reef, to receive the beat or chafe
of the matt.

The top-lining of top-fails is of canvas N°6 or 7. The
other linings of this and all other fails fhould be of the fame
quality as the fails to which they belong.

Lower ftayfails, fore-top and main-top-ftay fails, and flying
jibs, have clue-pieces two yards long.

‘ Square tack-ftayfaile have half a breadth of cloth at the
fore-part; with a clue-piece containing two yards, and a
peek-piece containing one yard.

Buntlina-Cloths.—Main and fore-courfes have four bunt-
line-cloths, and all topfails two buntline-cloths, from the foot
to the middle band, of one breadth of canvas.

Sails to have bonnets are cut out the whole depth of the

3

fail, bonnet included, allowing enough for the tablings
on the foot of the fail, and head and foot of the bonnet.
The bonnet is cut off after the fail is fewed together. Ifa
drabbler is required, it is allowed for in the cutting out the
fame, as in the bonnet.

The Second Procefs in Sail-making

Is the fewing of the various parts of a fail together; and,
firit, the

Seams. —Sails have a double flat feam, and fhould be fewed
with the beft Englifh-made twine of three threads, {pun 360
fathoms to the pound, and to have from 108 to 116 {titches
in every yard in length.

The twine for fewing main, fore, mizen, and {prit-courfes,
topfails, and ftayfails, in the royal navy, is waxed by hand
with genuine bees-wax, mixed with one-fixth part of clear
turpentine ; and for {mall fails, in a mixture made of bees-
wax 41b., hog’s-lard 5lb.. and clear turpentine 1lb. In
the merchant fervice, the twine is dipped in tar, foftened
with a proper proportion of oil.

The breadth of the feams of courfes, topfails, and other
fails in the royal navy, to be as follow ; wx. courfes and
topfails, for 50-gun fhips and upwards, 1, inch; thofe under
50 guns, 14 inch, at head and foot ; all other fails, one
inch at head and foot.

Inthe merchant fervice, feams are fometimes made broader
at the foot than at the head, being ftronger.

Broad feams are not allowed to be made on courfes in
the royal navy, but goring leeches are adopted in lieu of
them.

Driver boom-main-fails, and the fails of floops, generally
have the feams broader at the foot than at the head. ;

It is the erroneus practice of fome fail-makers not to few
the feams any farther than where the edge is creafed down
for the tabling ; but all fails fhould be fewed quite home to
the end, and, when finifhed, fhould be well rubbed down
with a rubber.

The feams of courfes and topfails are ftuck or ftitched up,
in the middle of the feams along the whole length, with
double feaming-twine ; and have from 68 to 72 ilitches ina
yard. In the,merchant fervice, it is common to ftick the
feams with two rows of ftitches when the fail is half worn,
as they will then lait till the fail is worn out.

Tablings of all fails to’ be fewed at the edge, with 68 to 72
ftitches ina yard.

Reef-bands are each in breadth one-third of the breadth of
the canvas for main and fore-courfes. ‘The reef-bands of
main and fore-topfails are each of half a breadth of canvas,
put on double; the firft fide is ftuck twice, and the laft
turned over, fo that the reef-holes may be worked upon the
double part of the band ; the ends go four inches under the
leech-linings, which are feamed over the reef-bands. The
reef-bands of topfails go over the linings from leech to leech,
and are ftuck with 68 to 72 ftitches ina yard. Reef-bands
fhould not be put on until the fail is fewed up, a contrary
practice being very erroneous.

Middle bands have one breadth of canvas, and are firft
folded and rubbed down, to make a creafe at one-third of the
breadth; then tabled on the felvage, and ftuck along the
creafe; then turned down, and tabled and ftuck through both
the double and fingle parts, with 68 to 72 {titches in a yard.
They are likewife tabled or fewed over the ends of the
buntline-cloths and top-linings.

It is the opinion of many, that middle bands fhould not be
put on until the fail is half worn.

Linings. —All linings are feamed on, and are ftuck, or
ftitched, in the middle, with 68 to 72 ftisches ina eg

op-

SAIL-MAKING.

Top-tinings and maft-cloths are put on the aftfide, and all
other linings on the forefide, of fails.

Holes.— Reef and head-holes are made by an inftrument,
called a pegging-awl, or a ftabber, and are fenced round by
ftitching the aig to a {mall grommet, made with log or
other line: when finifhed, they fhould be well ftretched or
rounded up by a pricker, or a marline-fpike.

Sails have two holes in each cloth, at the heads and reefs
of courfes, topfails, and other {quare fails ; one hole in every
yard in the ftay of flying jibs; and one in every three-

uarters of a yard in the ftays of {quare, tack, and other

fails.

Reef and head-holes of large fails have grommets of r2-
thread line, worked round with 18 to 21 ftitches; {maller
fails have grommets of g-thread line, with 16 to 18 ftitches,
or as many as fhall cover the line ; and {maller holes in pro-
portion. :

The holes for marling the clues of fails, and the top-brims
of topfails, have grommets of log-line, and fhould have from
g to 11 ftitches: 12 holes are worked in each cloth.

_ Main-courfes have marline-holes from the clue to the
lower bowline-cringle up the leech; and from the clue to
the firft buntline-cringle on the foot. Tore-courfes have
marline-holes one-eighth of the depth of the fail up the
leech, and from the clue to the firft buntline-cringle at the
foot. Main and fore-topfails have marline-holes three feet
each way from the clue, and at the top-brims. Spritfails,
mizen-topfails, lower ftayfails, maim and fore-top-ttayfails,
and jibs, have marline-holes two feet each way from the
clues. All other fails are fewed home to the clues.

Marline-holes of courfes are at three-fourths of the depth
of the tablings at the clues from the rope, and thofe of top-
fails are at half the depth of the tablings at the clues and
top-brim from the rope.

Bonnets have a head-tabling, to which a line that forms
the latchings is fewed in bights, which are about fix inches
afunder ; the leeches and foot are tabled, &c. fimilar to the
foot of the fail the bonnet is attached to.

The Third Procefsin Sail-making

Is fewing on the bolt-rope, &c.

Bolt-ropes, before fewed, fhould be ftoved in a ftove by
the heat of a fue, and not in a baker’s oven, or in a ftove-
tub; and tarred with the beft Stockholm tar; to be fewed
on with good Englifh-made twine of three threads, {pun
200 fathoms to the pound. The twine in the royal navy is
dipped in a compofition made with bees-wax, four pounds ;
hog’s-lard, five pounds; and clear turpentine, one pound ;
and in the merchant fervice, in tar foftened with oil.

Bolt-ropes of courfes, top-fails, and all other fails, fhould
be neatly fewed on through every cunt-line of the rope ;
and to avoid itretching, the rope mut be kept tightly
twilted while fewing on, and care taken that neither too
much nor too little flack is taken in: they are to be crofs-
{titched at the leeches every twelve inches in length, at
every feam, and in the middle of every cloth at the foot,
with three crofs-ltitches. Four crofs-{titches fhould be
taken at all beginnings and faltenings-off; the firft ftiteh
given twice, and the lait three times. Small fails have
two crofs-ftitches at every feam, and three at every faften-
ing-off.

The number of threads required in the royal navy for
fewing on the following fized bolt-ropes; viz. 6-inch, 10 or-
dinary and 2 extra; 52 and 54, toordinary ; 5} and 5-inch,
8 ordinary and 2 extra; 4% and 44, 8 ordinary; 4} and
4-inch, 6 ordinary and 2 extra; 3 and 34, 6 ordinary ;
3% and 3-inch, 4 ordinary and 2 extra; 2} and 24, 4 ordi-

nary ; 24 and 2-inch, 2 ordinary and 2 extra; 13, 14, 14,
and 1-inch, 2 threads ordinary.

Slack allowed in fewing on Bolt-ropes.—On main and fore-
courfes two inches flack-cloth fhould be allowed in the
head and foot, and one inch and a half on the leeches, in
every yard in length. « 7

Mizen-courfes have two inches flack in every yard in the
fore-leech, but none in the after-leech or foot.

Spritfail-courfes have no flack-cloth.

‘Topfails are allowed three inches flack in every cloth

in the foot, and one inch and a half in every yard in the.

recap and two inches in every cloth left open in the top-
rim. ;

Topgallant-fails have two inches flack in every cloth in
the foot, and one inch in every yard in the leech. :

Jibs have four inches flack in every yard on the ftay, one
inch in every cloth in the foot, and none on the leech.

Stayfails have three inches flack in every yard on the
{tay, one inch in every cloth in the foot, but none on the
leech. ‘*
Studding-fails have one inch and a half flack in every
yard in goring-leeches, but no flack on fquare-leéches, and
one inch in every cloth on the head and foot.

The clues and top-brims fhould be wormed while the
bolt-rope is fewing on the fail, and before both parts are
confined.

Clues.—Fourteen turns or twifts of the ftrands in the
length of the clue-rope are left at the lower corners of all
fails for the clues, which are wormed with fizeable {pun-
yarn, parcelled, ferved, marled, and feized. The clue-ropes
of main-courfes extend, and are marled, from the clue
the lower bowline-cringle up the leech, and to the fir
buntline-cringle on the foot; on fore-courfes one-eighth
of the depth of the fail up the leech, and to the firft
buntline-cringle on the foot; the clue-ropes of main and
fore-topfails extend three feet each way on the leech and
foot: and fpritfails, mizen-topfails, lower ftayfails, main
and fore-top-itayfails, and jibs, have the clue-rope two
feet each way from the clue.

Cringles.—Cringles fhould be made of the ftrands of new
bolt-rope, half an inch fmaller than the bolt-rope on the
fail.

Earing-cringles are made of an additional len (of
fourteen twilts or turns) of the leech-rope left at the head
of the fail, which, being turned back, forms the cringle,
by {plicing its end into the leech-rope and crofs-ftitching
the whole of the fplice ; the firft f{titch to be given twice,
and the lait ftitch three times.

Splices are made by opening the ends of two ropes, and
placing the ftrands between each other: openings bein
made in the untwifted part of the rope neareit the end with
a marline-{pike, the itrands are thruit through them; ard
the large ends are regularly tapered from the middle by cut-
ting away fome of the yarns every time they are thrutt
through. The {mall ftrands, as thofe of the foot or leech-
rope, are ftuck twice through the openings made in the
large rope; and the large ftrands are {tuck three times
through the leech or foot-rope. The middle ftrand of the
taper, being the longe‘t, is ftuck in laft, and once more
than the others. All fplices are crofs-{titched as far as they
run.

Reef and reef-tackle pendant-cringles are ftuck through
holes made in the tablings, and the lower ends aré put
through the bolt-rope once more than the upper ends, be-
ing more liable to be drawn out.

The openings of buntline and bowline-cringles are at the
diftance of four turns or twilts of the ftrands in the bolt-

rope

SAIL-MAKING.

rope afunder, and the ends are firft ftuck in an opening,
made with a marline-fpike, under two ftrands of the bolt-
rope ; then pafling over the next, they are ftuck under one
ftrand; and again pafling over another, they are finally
ftuck under the next. The ends of the buntline-cringles,
next the fervice of the clues of courfes, fhould be left long
enough to be worked under the fervice, to meet or reach
the ends of the clue-rope. See Plate I. fig. 26.

Rules for afcertaining the Quantity of Canvas contained in the
different Sails.

Canvas 24 inches wide is ufed for the royal navy, and
is certainly the ftrongeft. Various widths of canvas are
ufed in the merchant fervice, from 24 to 36 inches. The
following rules are adapted equally to all widths, although
the examples are calculated for canvas 24 inches wide.

Rule 1.—To find the quantity of canvas in main and fore-
courfes ; topfails ; topgallant-fails ; royals ; topmaft and topgallant-

fails.

Add the number of cloths in the head and foot, and
halve the produ&t, to make it fquare; then multiply by the
depth of the middle cloth; and add the quantity in the
linings, bands and pieces, and the quantity in the foot-

ores, when the foot is cut hollow.

To find the quantity in the foot-gores.

Add together the number of inches gored in each cloth
on one fide of the fail, and multiply the produé by half
the number of gored cloths, and divide by 36, to bring that
into yards.

Rule 2.—To find the quantity of canvas in a mizen-ceurfe.

Add the depth of the fore and after-leech together, and
halve the produ&t for a medium depth; then multiply the
medium depth by the number of cloths; and add to that
the additional canvas contained in the linings, bands, pieces,
and foot-gores.

To find the quantity in the foot-gores.

The number of cloths in the fail muft be multiplied by
the additional iength, that the fquare cloth in the middle
is more than thofe at the tack and clue; then, the gores
to the tack and clue being fubtra€ted, the remainder is
the quantity in inches, which divided by 36 gives the number
of yards. .

Rule 3-—To find the quantity of canvas contained in fprit-
Sail-courfes ; lower fudding-fails ; floop’s fquare fails, or crofs-
jack; and floop’s water-fails.

Vor. XXXI.

Multiply the number of cloths by the fhorteft depth,
add the quantity in the bands and pieces, and the quantity
in the foot-gores, when the foot is cut hollow; by Rule 1.

Rule 4.—To find the quantity of canvas contained in driver-
boom-fails ; brig’s main-fails ; cutter’s main-fails ; cutter’s iry-
fails ; Eikewwife floop’s and fmack’s.

«Add together the number of cloths in the head and foot,
and halve the produét to make it {quare; add together the
depth of the fore and after-leeches, and halve that {um for
a medium depth ; then multiply the number of fquare cloths
by the medium depth, and add the quantity in the pieces
and foot-gores.

To find the quantity in the foot-gores.

Add together the gores from the tack to the firft {quare
cloth in the foot, and multiply half the fum by the num-
ber of cloths in the foot ; then (if there are gores to the
clue) add together the gores from the clue to the firft
{quare cloth in the foot, and multiply half the fum
by the number of cloths gored to the clue; which fub-
tra&ted from the produét of the gores to the tack, gives
the anfwer.

Rule 5.—To jind the quantity of canvas contained in jibs ;
main and fore-flayfails ; fore-topmaft-ftay/ails ; Sloop’ s, fmack’s,
and boat’s fore-fails and latteen-fails.

Multiply half the number of cloths by the depth of the
leech, and add the quantity in the bands, pieces, and foot-
gores, if any.

To find the quantity in the foot-gores.

Multiply half the number of cloths in the foot by the
regular gore per cloth, and that produét multiplied by the
whole number of cloths in the foot gives the anfwer in
inches, which divide by 36, to bring into yards.

Rule 6.—To find the quantity of canvas contained in mizen-
Stayfails ; main-topmaft-fay fails ; mizen-topmaft-ftayfails ; middle
Srayfails ; main-topgallant-fay/ails ; gaff-topfails ; ringtail-[ails ;
JetteeSails ; and boat’s fpritfails.

Add the depth of the tack, bunt, or fore-leech, to the
depth of the after-leech, and halve them for a medium
depth: add the number of cloths in the head and foot
together, (when not equal,) and halve them, to reduce
them {quare ; then multiply the number of {quared cloths
by the medium depth, and add to that the additional can-

~ vas contained in the linings, bands, and pieces,

1, Defeription

SAIL-MAKING.

Defeription of each Sail.

Mars-coursE, 1. Plate IV. Rigging, fig. 2.

This fail is quadrilateral, fquare on the head. It bends at the head to the main-yard, and extends within eighteen
inches of the cleats on the yard-arms, and drops to clear the foot from the boat on the booms.

Tons

Numberofcloths fhead | N° | 46 | 48 | 47 | 40 | 40° | 39 | 38. |
inthe - -| foot | 48! | 50 | 49.| 42 | 42 | 41. }.40. | 33

Depth in yards- —- | | r6E | 16 | 13 | 132 138 | 135 |
| i ey oh iy 4

Yards in the fail 1768 | 533 | 5534) 540 | 5162
reef-bands zo | 17 | 17 | 162) 16 | k, 21 27
Peek-Piece.
lua
g3| 18

Clue-Piece.

middle band 30 ee:

—_ leech-linings | 3 5

buntline-cloths | 183 | 23 215
gores - | 144) 19%) 146

od ,

} | |
3653 | 339 |213%) 709

| 8303 7693 9403 | 8893) 630 | 6534 6364 | 6124

}

end rane
| Inches. |

j I

Bolt-rope afi a

the §- -\leeches | 6

N

Min

Pop [oral
~ Ss oO
Hob jonrie

Gores.—One cloth is gored on each /eech ; and the gore Clues are made with clue-rope two inches larger than
on the foot is of one inch per cloth, beginning at two cloths the foot-rope, for fhips of 50 guns and upwards; and one
within the neareft buntline-cringle, and increafing to the inch and a half larger for {hips under 50 guns; and thofe
elues. Sometimes, in merchant-fhips, two cloths are gored in merchant-fhips are in proportion.

on the leeches, and the gore on the foot is two inches per Marline-holes extend from the clue to the lower bowline-

cloth. cringle on the leech; and to the firft buntline-cringle at the
For tablings, reef-bands, middle bands, and buntline-cloths, foot.

confult the firft procefs in fail-making ; and fewing them Reef-cringles : one is made on the leeches at the end of

on, the fecond procefs ; likewife the /eams, reef, an head- each reef-band ;, three bowline-cringles are made at equal

hol. ; diftances between the lower reef-cringle and the clue ; and

In fewing on the bolt-rope, two inches of flack-cloth buntline-cringles are made on the foot-rope, one at the end ef
fhould be ket up in every cloth in the head and foot, and each buntline-cloth.
one inch and a half in every yard in the leeches. To find the quantity of canvas, refer to Rule 1.

Forr-

FoRE-COURSE, 5.

SAIL-MAKING.

Plate 1V. fig. 2.

This fail is quadrilateral, fquare on the head. It bends at the head to the fore-yard, and extends within eighteen
inches of the cleats on the yard-arms, and drops to clear the foot of the main-ttay.

Guns = =
Tons - -
Number of cloths [head -
inthe - Se ipoby, =
Depth in yards - chee
Yards in the fail = 3
reef-bands =
middle band -
leech-linings -
buntline-cloths
gores = 2
Totals -
heads -
Bolt-rope on the fot :
leeches -

Gores.—One cloth is gored on each /eech, and a gore is
made on the foot, to drop the clue five to fix inches ger cloth,
beginsing at two cloths within the neareft buntline-cringle,

and increafing to the clues.

IIo
Sort of
Canvas. 2165

N° | 42

I to 2 | 40
123
502%
|} rto2| 172
5 to 6,7) 245

1to2| 273
Ito2| 16
II

Ito2

Sometimes two cloths are

gored on each leech in merchant-fhips.

This fail only differs from the former in the buntline-
cringles having only two ; the upper bowline-cringle is made

This fail is quadrilateral, and made of canvas N° z, from
N° 4. The head is bent to the

MizEN-COURSE, 9.

the mizen-maft within fix or feven feet of the deck.

Guns
Tons

Number of cloths { head

in - | foot
Depth of the leech § fore
in yards - aft

Yards in the fail -
reef-band

——- clue-pieces
——- gores

Totals -
head
foot
Bolt-rope on the ¢ Jeech
after-leech

nock and peek-pieces

Plate IV. Siz 2.

36 guns and upwards; N° 3, to 24 guns; and to 16 guns
gaff, and extends within nine inches of the cleats.

>

; | |
98 | 80 | 74 | 50 | 44 | 38 | 36 | 24 | 18 | 16 | Brig.
|1970| 1900 | 1860 | 1200 1120! 1040| g20 | 600 425 | 360 |
——— a '
49 | 41 | 40 | 35° | 35-1 34 | 33 | 27°| 25° | 24 | 19
38. | 39 | 38 | 33. | 34 1 33°] 32 | 24 | 24 | 23 | 18
115 | 133! 13 riz | 1rd | 11 | 9 2 Qhimess a ae
f coe.) f ) 7 { t
14483 |540 |507 | 391 | 3963 | 3684| 3575 | 2384 | 2208 | 2053 | 138
16 | 17%|°17_| 13% | 133] 145| 133! 103] 1o$| 10 7
23 | 245| 242| 213| 213) 20 | 192) 153] 154, 149] 115
26 | 30 |.295| 24 | 245) 24 | 24 | 20 | 20 | 193| 164
153 184 175| 14% | 145 Age Th paz) |) a2 | rie} 7d
BOF {OAM ETO a Cid sori he ey 5 Geib SFE), SHY See) Leas
540 | 6409 | 6053/4705 4773/4463 4345 3038 | 284} 2665 | 184%
Lie ubgee Retour Pea 3
24 2 2 TH ad pork ak poak-p ard} | 15
al Oe 2 2c Sl = 7 ig Al We SW 25
El A Wh RN 3 A a gM pe

in the middle of the leech, and the lower one equally diftant
from the upper one and the clue.

Marliné-holes are made in the tabling, from the clue to
the neareft buntline-cringle on the foot, and one-eighth of
the depth of the fail up the leech.
contrary fide to the repin

To find the quantity of, canvas, refer to Rule r.

They are turned on the
n fixing the fail.

The fore-leech is attached to

110 | 98 80 74 50 | 44 38 36 24 18 16
2165 | 1970] 1900 | 1860 | 1200 | 1120 | 1040 | 920 | 6oo | 425 | 360

17 16 16 FO, | 12 13 13 13 10 9 9

| 18 17 17 17 14 14 14 14 II 10 10
104 gt 11 if 8 | rd | xr1t | r0$ 9 8 73

| 20h 194 21 21 164 18! 184 igh 155 | 143 134
2714 239% 264 | 264 | 167 | 202% | 199$.| 195% | 122% | 103% | 1003
lv Stluees.| Sai ares 3 3 Zh ast 2

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2a | ee 2

Beal Ses e cae) SUMS LS thy kt ange ha PhS? i icra Due eit ol.

10 y 93) 92] 6 YB dni 7 5 45) 4
292 | 258% | 284 | 284, | 1823 | 220 | 2364 | 2122 | 1364 | 1175 | 113%
Sere ee ne a a a ee RE i 8 ee

14 I 1% | 1h 1h 1} ye | rd 1} i I

3h | 3 | 3 ai af af af 2 if i

a | 4 Se 3 a4 | 29 | 24 | 2h | 2h | sg

eis | s | 3 |] 8] ak | of | ok | oe | od |
L 2 Gores.

SAIL-MAKING.

Gores. —The head is cut with a gore of 16 to 22 inches per
cloth, agreeable to the peek : the foot is gored one inch per
cloth, leaving two cloths fquare in the middle. One cloth
is gored on the maft-leech in the navy, and fometimes two
cloths in merchant-fhips.

For feams, tablings, and head-holes, confult the three pro-
ceffes in fail-making.

This fda rear Even Gone diches brow we cue

fifth of the depth of the mait-leech from the foot.

Recf-hanks are pieces of log-line fewed on to the reef-
band, at each feam on both fides of the fail. One end of
each hank is {pread open, and each {trand fecurely fewed ;
the other end of each hank is whipped: or they may be
fixed on thus: the line is thruft through the fail, and fecurely

SPRITSAIL-COURSE, 13.

fewed to it on one fide, by opening the ftrands a little, fo
as to lay them flat on the canvas.

Lining. —The after-leech is lined from the clue with one
breadth of canvas up the leech, and the nock and peck with
pieces fo cut from each other, that each contains one yard.

Marline-holes extend two feet each way from the clue.

Bolt-rope-clue, and fewing it on, cosfult the third procefs .
in fatl-making.

One cringle is made on each leech at the ends of the reef-
band; and one at the diltance of every three-quarters of a
yard on the matt-leech; or fometimes holes are worked
in the tabling of the maft-leech ; a cringle is alfo made five
yards from the clue on the after-leech for the throat-brails.

To find the quantity of canvas, refer to Rule 2.

Plate lV. fig. 2.

This fail is quadrilateral, fquare on the head, foot, and leeches, and made of canvas N° 2, from 50 guns and up-

wards; and N°3, to 18 guns; and all under of N° 4.
nine inches of the cleats on the yard-arms.

110 98

2165

1970

Number of cloths {head
inthe - - ) foot
Depthinyards - -

Yards in the fail - - 2464
reef-bands : 3 9

Totals 2554

head
Bolt-rope on the + foot

leeches

For feams, tablings, reef and head-holes, confult the two
firft proceffes of fail-making.

Two reef-bands, one-third of the breadth of a cloth, are
fewed on diagonally ; the ends on the leeches being 27
inches from the clues, and thofe at the head on the fecond
or third feam from the earings. Sometimes a reef-band is
fewed on from leech to leech, at one-fifth of the depth of
the fail from the head.

A water-hole, from four to fix inches diameter, is made

2464
9

2553

It is bent at the head to the fprit-fail-yard, extending within

2)
°

sol=tolenols

$lob opps
_-

PAE Dl

in the fecond cloth from each leech, near the foot, or op-
polite the reef-cringles.

Marline-holes extend two feet each way from the clues.

Bolt-rope and clues, and fewing them on, confult the third
procefs in fail-making.

A reef-cringle is made on the leeches at the end of each
reef-band, and two buntline-cringles are made on the foot-
rope, at one-third of the breadth of the foot from each clue.

To find the quantity of canvas, refer to Rule 3.

Maix-

SAIL-MAKING.,

MAIN-TOPSAIL, 2.

>
This fail is quadrilateral, {quare on the head and foot in

Plate IV. fig. 2.

the navy, and made of canvas N° 2, from 50 guns and

upwards; and N° 3, all under. It is bent at the head to the main-topfail-yard, and extends within eighteen inches
of the cleats on the yard-arms, and drops to the main-yard when the refpective yards are hoifted to the hounds.

98 |

110 80 74
21651970] 1900 | 1860
Number of cloths fhead -| 31 | 30 | 31 31
inthe - - | foot 49 | 48 | 48 48
Depth in yards - 21 | 20 | 20% } 202
Yards in the fail - 840 | 780 | 7993 | 7993
reef-bands 56) 53 54 54
————- middle band 27,\| 25 26 26
Jeech-linings 44} 423] 423 | 423
top-lining 75 | 74 70 70
buntline-cloths ce iy 12 12
Totals - 1054 | 9865 | 10045 | 10044 |
Inches.
head 24 | 22 | 25 24
Bolt-rope on the{ fot 5st | 5h | 55 Sz
, leeches 5 el al 3

Gores. —T he cloths on the leeches are gored fufficiently for
the foot to fpread the cleats on the arms of the main-yard.
In merchant-fhips the foot is gored from two to four inches
per cloth, one-third of the breadth of the foot from the clues.

For feams, tablings, reef and head-holes, refer to the firlt
procefs in fail-making.

Reef-bands.—This fail has moftly four reef-bands of N° 2
cloth, from 50 guns upwards ; N° 3 to 18; and N° 4 for 16

ns; put on ese centh of the fail afunder, the upper one
=, kept at that diftance from the head. In merchant-
fhips the reef-bands are moftly put on farther diftant from
each other.

Middle band is of N° 5 cloth, from 74 guns upwards;
N°6 to 18; and N° 7 for 16 guns; put on half-way be-
tween the lower reef-band and ie foot.

Leech-lining is of N° z cloth, from 50 guns upwards ;
N°3 to 18; and N°4 for 16 guns. (See firft procefs of
fail-making.) Merchant-fhips have leech-linings nine inches
broad at te head, and fifteen inches broad at the foot.

Top-lining of N° 6 cloth, from 18 guns upwards, and
N° 7 for 16 guns; covers one-fifth of the cloths on the
aft-fide of the foot in the middle of the fail. In merchant-
fhips the top-lining covers one-third of the cloths in the foot.

Pwo maft-cloths are put on in the middle of the fail, on
the aft-fide, between the middle band and lower reef-band.

Two buntline-cloths (the fame N° of cloth as the leech-
lining) are put on the fore-fide of the fail, and one each fide
of the top-lining ; their ends are carried up under the
middle band, which is tabled on them. In merchant-fhips
the buatline-cloths are half a yard fhorter than the top-
linings.

5S Wade tS 38 W260 |) 124 | 18 | 16 | Brig.) Cutt
1200] 1120| 1040] 920 | 600 |.425 | 360 | 200 | 180
26 26° ).25) | 24 bl 20 risy |e ys Oleh 23 -
40. | 40 | 40 | 38 | 32 29 | 28 | 192 | 27
162 | 162 | 164 | 165 | 132] 13 | Ye 3 | 133
536% | 5442 | 5365 5038 | 3578 3055|270 | 158%) 362
34 | 34 | 33 | 32.| 272] 27 | 25 | 93] 10
2ad| 22 | 22°} 212| 17h) 14d] 14 2+ | Gores
34g| 35 | 34 | 34 | 26 | 25 |°25 | 207) 6
553| 54,| 53] 53,] 373| 28 | 262] 15 | 14
ro | 10k) 93] 92] 83] 65{ 63] 1 |

692 | 700 | 688 | 6548 474% | 4065 | 367 | 217 | 392
2 2 2 BES RESIS pater! gee ees tes ee
Boe Sa Gil SE en ee ik i aa pa
44/43 | 44 | 32 | 3 | 22 | 29 | 25 | 2a

Bolt-rope.—Three inches of /luck-cleth are taken up in
fewing on the bolt-rope in every cloth on the head and foot ;
two inches are allowed for every cloth left open in the top-
brim ; and one inch and a half is taken up in every yard in
the leeches. The bolt-rope along the top-brim, and for
one cloth and a half on each fide beyond, is wormed, par-
celled, and ferved as the clues, and is marled to the fail; r
but fometimes the whole length of the foot-rope, from clue
to clue, is wormed, parcelled, &c. See third procefs in
fail-making.

Clues.—The clues are made of the foot-rope, which is
left fufficiently long for that purpofe, and fplice into the
leech-rope at the lower bowline-cringle. It is wormed,
parcelled, and ferved at the clues, and three feet each way
from them: it is marled on to the fail the extent of the
ferving on each fide of the clues, which are feized as thofe
of the main-courfe.

The marline-holes extend three feet each way from the
clues, and along the breadth of the top-lining at the top-
brim.

Cringles.—One reef-cringle is made on the leeches at the
end of each reef-band, and a reef-tackle-pendant-cringle be-
tween the lower reef and upper bowline-cringle; below
thefe are four bowline-cringles; the upper one is in the
middle of the leech, and the other three are equally dillant
from each other between the upper one and the clue. One
buntline-cringle is made in the middle of each buntline-cloth
at the foot. In merchant-fhips three bowline-cringles only
are made on the leeches.

To find the quantity of canvas contained in this fail, refer
to Rule 1.

Forr-

SAIL-MAKING.

Fore-ropsaiL, 6. Plate IV. fig. 2.

This fail is quadrilateral, {quare on the head and foot in the royal navy, and made of canvas, the fame as the main-
topfail. The head is bent to the fore-topfail-yard, extending at the head within 18 inches of the cleats on the yard-arms.

Guns - 110 | 98 80 74 44 | 38 |

Tons 2165 | 1970 | 1900 | 1860 | 1200 | 1120 | 1040 | 920 | 600 | 425
ee A

i | | |

Number of cloths fhead -| 27 26 28 22 22 16 |-15

inthe - -[ foot -| 43 41 42 34 33. | 28 | 25. | 24

Depth in yards = (fe 18 184 = | 145 | 145 | r2y | 112 10k
Yards in the fail - 3 | 647% 2765, 2403
reef-band 6 =| 23 | 22

middle band

leech-linings -
top-linings -
buntline-cloths

Totals -

Inches.
headi® =|
Bolt-rope on the jf =| 55
leeches - | 44

sb
Pooh lola

Gores, and every other particular, the fame as the main-topfail.

Mizen-TopsaiL, 10. Plate IV. fig. 2.

This fail is quadrilateral, cut fquare on the head, and made of canvas N° 4, from s0-gun fhips and upwards;
N° 5 to 18 guns 5 and of N° 6, thofe of 16 guns. It is bent at the head to the mizen-topfail-yard, and drops to
-yard, extending within twelve inches of the cleats on the yard-arms.

the crofs-jac

Number of cloths § head - | 21 205 | 21 21
inthe - - | foot -| 31 29 30 30 25% 253 25% | 25
Depth in yards - - -| 143 | 132 | 14} 14 ig | 11% | r1ge-| 11g

|
Yards in the fail - - - | 377 | 340 | 3634 | 357 | 233% 255% | 255% 236% | 155 r164 us
—_—_— reef-bands -{| 21 zox | 21 21 20% | 205 | 205] 18% 93} 84 | a
middle band -j| 163 | 16 16 16 152} 16 16 15 II of
leech-linings -| 315] 304 | 31} 31 274 | 28 28 26 21 184 18
top-lining -| 389) 375 | 38 38 | 33. | 34 | 34 | 32 | 182) 14 | 14
buntline-cloths 8% 84 t 8 63 q 7 7 43 44
gores a a 7 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 +

Totals - 497 | 457 | 481% | 475 | 341 | 365 | 365 | 339 | 225 | 175% | 172%

head -| a 4 u 1% 14 1} 3 rh 1} t
Bolt-rope on the foot = 34 33 34 34 3 3 3 3 23 2
leeches -| 24 24 24 25 24 24 28 | 24 24 1}

Gores,

SAIL-MAKING.

Gores.—The cloths on the leeches are gored fufficiently
for the foot to fpread to the cleats on the arms of the crofs-
jack-yard. The gore on the foot is three-quarters of a
yard deep, and begins at two cloths from the buntline-
cringle, on the fide next the clues. In merchant-fhips the
foot is fometimes {quare.

For feams, Fc. fee MAIN-TOPSAIL.

Reef-bands.—For 36-gun fhips and upwards, to have
three reef-bands of N° 4 canvas, at one-eighth of the

MAIN-TOPGALLANT-SAIL, 3.

depth of the fail afunder from the head; and 24-gun
fhips and under of the fame canvas the fail is made of,
and two reefs only one-feventh of the depth of the {fail
afunder. Merchant-fhips have feldom more than two reef-
‘ands.

Middle band, of N° 6 canvas, for 36-gun fhips and up-
wards ; and N°7 all under, put on as main-topfail. Mer-
chant-fhips have nore.

Leech-linings, &c. &c. fimilar to the main-topfail.

Plate 1V. fig. 2.

This fail is quadrilateral, and fquare on the head and foot, im the reyal navy, and made of canvas N° 6, from
50-gun fhips upwards ; and all fhips under, of N° 7.
fix inches of the cleats on the yard-arms.

The head is bent to the main-topgallant-yard, and extends within

16 | Brig. |Cutter.
Tons - - - 2165 | 1970 } 1900 | 1209 | 2120 1140 | 920 | 600 425 360 180
— 1 \——-'—- _——-—
Number of cloths fhead -j| 23 | 21 | 22 | 22 | 18 | Rte ST Gna er Goan ingen erate rroe
| anthe <- foot - | 31 BORD Bos 27h acter) 26. 52K WaT Ig m8) | 14
Depth in yards - Ie fae C3 = Us Co Sed mo WN 8 8%} 8£) 72] 621 65 | 6 5s
| Yards in the fail - = | 2832| 255 | 265 | 265 | 180 | r8rd] 1814] 159 | 1172} 104 | 90 | 70d |
Yards in the clue and) | > 1
earing-pieces ~~ t 3 3 = a Me | eS: 3 3 3 3 3 3 23
Totals - | 2865 | 258 | 268 | 268 183 | 18435] 1844) 162 | 1202] 107 | 93 | 73 |
a —_ —- _|—-, ——
Inches. | |
entre S | eae 1a. B 13 wy | 1%) re | ie | ey 2 I I
Bolt-rope on the foot -| 2% | 22 | 2% | 2% | 22 | 22 | 22 | 2% | 2 2} re] 1
leeches - | 22 | 22 23) 22 | 22 | 2b | 2% | 2k | 2 1 | 34 13
{ | {

Gores.—The cloths on the leeches are gored fufficiently
for the foot to fpread to the cleats on the arms of the main-
topfail-yard. A gore of two or three inches per cloth is
often made on the foot, in merchant-fhips, beginning at
one-third of the breadth of the foot from the clue.

For feams, tablings, bead-holes, fewing on the bolt-rope, and
clues, refer to the three procefles of fail-making.

FORE-TOPGALLANT-SAIL, 7.

The cloth at the clue is fo cut as to fall to the foot, and
form its own Jining ; and earing-pieces, of a quarter of a
yard, are put on each corner, at the head.

Three bow/ine-cringles are made on each leech, the upper
one in the middle, and the others equally afunder between
that and the clue.

To find the quantity of canvas, refer to Rule 1.

Plate WV. fig. 2.

This fail bends at the head to the fore-topgallant-yard, and is fo much like the former as only to need the following

dimenfions.

110 | 98 | 80

Tons - - - 2i65 1970 | 1g00
Number of cloths § head

inthe - foot
Depth in yards -
Yards inthe Gil = -

195;
Yards in the clue and :
earing-pieces - = 3

240 | 2024 195}

Totals - | 243 | 2054
Bolt-rope as the main-top-
gallant-fail.

1984 | 1984

Tl
17

I
1035
16

ra
r8 |

149% | 140} | 1403

Mizen-

SATL-MAKING. ‘

MIZEN-TOPGALLANT-SAIL, 11. Plate 1V. fig. 2.

This fail is quadrilateral, {quare on the head and foot, in the navy; made of canvas N° 7, from s5o0-gun fhips up-
wards, and all under of N° 8. The head bends to the mizen-topgallant-yard, extending within fix inches on the
cleats on the yard-arms.

Number of cloths {head
in the S foot

Depth in yards - =

Yards in the fail - 126 126

Yards in the clue and earing-
pieces - - - -

Totals

head
Bolt-rope on the |

leeches

Gores.—The leeches are gored fufficiently for the foot to Pieces, at the clues and earings, are each a quarter of a
fpread to the cleats on the arms of the mizen-topfail- yard in length.
yard. In merchant-fhips a {mall gore is fometimes made For the /eams, tablings, head-holes, clues, and bolt-rops,
on the foot, beginning at one-third of the breadth from confult the three proceffes of fail-making.
the clue. To find the quantity of canvas, refer to Rule 1.

MaIn-RoyaL, 4. Plate IV. fig. 2.

This fail is quadrilateral, f{quare on the head and foot, made of canvas N° 8. The head is bent to the main-
royal-yard, and extends within four inches of the cleats on the yard-arms. 2

a - C

1970 | 1900 | 1860

———{— | jj] ————— | —K KK ge ce mem —_—

16 15 14 14

‘
N
i
Nn

ws

| Tons - - -
Number of cloths | head

inthe - foot -| 23 22 25 21
Depth in yards - - 8 74 7
Yards in the fail = - - |156 |.1382 | 121k | 1213

| | | | LL |

Inches.
head -| 13% 1 1} 4
Bolt-rope on ted fo ol tar OL be 12 12
leeches - | 2 | 2 13 3

Gores.—The cloths on the leeches are gored fufficiently For feams, tablings, head-holes, and clues, confult the three

for the foot to {pread to the cleats on the main-topgallant- procefles in fail-making.
yard-arms. To find the quantity of canvas, refer to Rule 1.

Fors-

SAIL-MAKING.

ForE-ROYAL, 8. Plate IV. fig. 2.

This fail is bent at the head to the fore-royal-yard, and is fo much like the former, as only to need the following dimenfions.

pa - - - - | 110 98 80 74 50 | 44 38 36 24 | 18 16 | Brig.
ee - - - - | 2165 | 1970 | 1900 | 1860 | 1200 | 1120 | 1040} 920 | 600 | 425} 360| 200

13 12 12 | 12 10 fe) fe) Io | 8s
20 19 19 19 15 MC ymie Lye LY Reh 123
Ob] 6} 63

Number of cloths { head :
2
7 rade 5 5 =
115i | 1043 | 1043 | 1043 | 625 | 625 | 625 | 625 | 475 | 3631323] 37

in the - [ foot
*Depth in yards -
Yards in the fail =
Bolt-rope the fame fize as
the main-royal.

Mizsn-ROYAL, 12. Plate lV. fig. 2.

This fail is bent at the head to the mizen-royal-yard, and fo like the main-royal, as only to need the following dimenfions.

Guns - - - - - | I10 98 So 74 50 | 44 | 38 36 24

Tons - - - - - | 2165 | 1970 1900 | 1860 | 1200 | 1120 | 1040 | 920 | 600 | 425

Number of cloths § head =A rn II Il II 9 9 9 9 7
inthe - foot S435 15 15 15 13 13 13 13 II
Depth in yarde - - -| 52) 5h] sh] st} 42} a3] 48) 48] 38
Yardsinthefal - - -| 71d] 71d} 71d] 715 | 52% | 52% | 52%] 52 | 295

Inches.
head Pa I I I x I I I a
Bolt-rope on the ¢ foot -| 1 1; i2 13 a It 4 15 I
leeches 12 15 13 12 It Iz I

Marn-staysail, 1. Plate IV. fg. 1.

This fail is triangular, fquare on the foot in the royal navy, and made of canvas N° 1, from 50-gun fhips
upwards, N° 2 to 18 guns, and all under of N° 3. It is extended upon the main-{tayfail-ftay, and drops to clear the
foot of the boats upon the beams. This fail is feldom ufed in large veffels.

98 | 80 | 74 | 50 | 38 | 36

1970 | 1900 | 1860 1200 | 1120 | 1040 | 920 | 600 |

Number of cloths in the foot 31 32
Depth in yards - A Ve 5 14 16

Yards inthe fail - -| 240 | 217 | 256 | 159 | 156 | 1264)

Yards in the tack ss

peck-pieces . e

Yards in the clue-piece 2 2 2 |

| 2 2
|
|

——

Totals 244 260 | 260

Inches.

Vor. XXXI. M Gorts.—

SAIL-MAKING,

Gores. —A regular gore is made on the head, of from 17 to
19 inches fer cloth; the depth of the gore on each cloth in
the head, is found by dividing the depth of the leech by the
number of cloths. The cloth at the tack is fo cut as to
fall to the foot, and form its own /ining. The clue-piece ex-
tends two yards up the leech, and the peck-piece is one yard
in length.

For feams, tablings, holes, fewing on the bolt-rope, and elue,
confult the three procefles in fail-making.

Fore-sTAYSAIL, 5-

Iron thimbles ave fometimes ftuck at the tack and peek ;
butwhen none, the tack and peek are the fame as the clue.

A cringle is made on the leech for the brails, but is ufually
done by the feamen on board.

In merchant-fhips this fail is frequently cut with a bunt,
and a gore is fometimes made on the foot, with a fweep.
Tt alfo frequently has a reef-band at about four feet from
the foot, and fometimes a bonnet.

To find the quantity of canvas, refer to Rule 5.

Plate IV. fig. 1.

This fail is triangular, fquare on the foot, and made of canvas N° 1, from so-gun fhips upwards, N° 2 to 18

guns, and all under of N° 3.

98
- | 2165 | 1970 1860

Number of cloths in the foot | 23 22 22
Depth in yards e Serre 12 13+

Yards inthe fail - 149? 1452
Yards in the tack and

peek-pieces = ~
Yards in the clue-piece

Totals - | 1524
Bolt-rope as the main-ftay-
fail.

Gores. —A regular gore is made on the {tay or head, of from 21 to 23 inches per cloth.

is fo much like the former as to need no further defcription.

It is extended on the fore-ftay or fore-preventer-itay.

50
1200

18
II

The remainder of this fail

ForRE-TOPMAST-STAYSAIL, 6. Plate IV. fig. 1.

This fail is triangular, cut fquare on the foot, and made of canvas N° 5, from 50-gun fhips upwards, and all under

of N° 6. It is hoifted on the fore-topmatt-ttayfail-itay.

The leech is generally the fame depth as the fore-topfail.

In merchant-fhips, one cloth only is allowed in the foot for every yard in the depth of the leech.

110 98 80
2165 | 1970 | 1900

Number of cloths in the foot 22 21 21
Depth in yards - -| 19 18 18

Yards in the fail = - -| 209 | 189 | 189
Yards in the tack and

peek-pieces - -
Yards in the clue-piece 2 2 2

2 2 2

Totals aig | ix93 «|, 193 || 193

Inches.

h | 23
Bolt-rope jis r 3

on the after-leech

N

N
Sl blor ho
NNN
PlwhlwHio

N

Gores.—The ftay or head is gored 30 inches fer cloth.

For feams, tablings, &c. &c. refer to the main-ftayfail.

Jis,

ote

SAIL-MAKING.

Jiz, 7. Plate lV. fig. 1.

This fail is trian
hoifted on the jib-itay.

, made of canvas N° 6, from fhips of 50 guns and upwards, and all under of N° 7.
The leech is about twice the depth of the leech of the fore-ftayfail, and one cloth more is

Tt is

allowed for the breadth of the foot than the leech is yards in depth.

Guns

18

2 - - - | Ito | 98 74 O }ea4 | 38 | 36 | 24 16 | Brig. |Cutter.
Tons - - . . 2165 | 1970 | 1900} 1860] 1200] 1120] 1040| 920 | 600 | 425 | 360 | 200 | 180
Number of cloths in the foot | 27 | 26 | 26 | 26 | 23 | 22 | 22 | 21 | 19 | 17 | 16 12 22
Depth in yards a eee 2o | kel 25 | 26 | 22 for p 20 | 209) 4r8- |G. us 13 20
Yards in the fail - =] 350 || 325 | 325 | 325 | 253) |,231 | 231 | 210 | 171.) 136 k1z0 7 Shls230
Yardsin the goresonthe foot | 28 | 24] 24] 24] 17]' 13] 13] 12] 1d) 7 z| 8 66
Yards in the clue, peek, 3 6
and tack-pieces - - 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Totals - | 382 | 352 | 352 | 352 | 273 | 247 | 247 | 225 | 1855] 146 | 1293] 89 | 302
Inches Ree) Ries Pe areca . oe a

head or flay -| 3% | 32 | 33 | 32 | 3 22 | 22 | 22 | 23 | 2% | 2b | 23 6
4 after-leech ~ 12 13 12 12 15 ii i 11 it ri 12 ri 13
foot - =-jo | re 7 ee | re fd | ae re | re] 1g | 1S | oe it 14

Gores.—The head or ftay is cut with a {mall curve, or
roach. ‘The gores fhould be allowed full, and the curve
cut fair, after the fail is fewed together; which, it is fup-
pofed, makes it fit better, when bent. The foot has an
even gore of three inches fer cloth, decreafing from the tack
to the clue, which is governed by the ftive of the bow{prit.

For brigs, this fail has a curve on the foot, and fome-
times in merchant-fhips. The feams are generally one inch
broader at the foot than at the head, when cut with a curve
or roach-foot. ‘

F Bes Jeams, tablings, &c. &c. refer to the main-ftay-
al

Fryine Jin.

This fail is made of canvas N° 8, and fo fimilar to the former, as only to need the following dimenfions.

..| 110 | 98

- |2165

Number of cloths in the foot
Depth in yards

16
20 |

160
19
a7

Yards in the fail

Yards in the gores on the foot

Yards in the clue, peek,
and tack-pieces {

160
19

1424 |
174

~ | 182 | 163 182

Totals

44 | 38 | 36

1120| 1040] 920 | 600

m6 [age]
oY A oe)

It

14 II
77°| 493
12 9

13
15
974
15
3

974 |
15
3

975
15
3

1155/1155] 1152| 9

M 2 Miven

SAIL-MAKING.

MiIzeEN-sTAYSAIL,

8. Plate lV. fig. ¥.

This fail is quadrilateral, cut fquare on the foot, and made of canvas N° 2, from fhips of 50 guns and upwards;

N° 3, to 24-gun fhips; and all under, N° 4.

It is extended on the mizen-{tay, and has a bunt, or fore-leech, three-fifths

of the depth of the after-leech in the navy, and one-third or one-fourth of the depth of the @fter-leech in merchant-fhips.

The foot drops within fix or feven feet of the quarter-deck.

Guns me ere - -| 110 | 98 80 14 50 44 38 36 24 18 | 16
Tons - - - - | 2165 | 1970 | 1900 | 1860} 1200 | 1120 | 1040 | 920 | 600 | 425 | 360
Number of cloths { head =| 23 21 21 205 18 165] 16 16 14 13
inthe - foot - |. 25 23 23 224| 20 sf | 18 18 16 15
Depth in yards of f after-leech 14 13 13E,} 33S | LE 12f | 12 12 93 9
the - fore-leech 8i 8 93 | 95 7 7t 7 7 54 5
sel |.
Yardsinthe fail - - -{| 270 | 231 | 247% | 247% | 171 | 1703 1614 | 1615 | 112 873
Yards in the peek and clue-
pec Sue) te 3 3 3) Taha 3 3 3 3 8 3
Yards in the bunt-lining - 43 4 42 43 33 4 33 34 23 24
Totals -| 2775 | 238 | 2554 | 255 | 1775 | 1772 | 168 168 | 1175 | 93
oe ee eae eee
head ba SR Ws a FS ie? 5) (6 2 z
Bolt-rope on the + foot -| 34 3i 34 34 3 3 22 23 i
leeches) -{ 3% | 3% | 3% |] 3% |) 3 3 | 23 | 23 ;

Gores.—Two cloths are generally gored on the bunt, and
the head or ftay is gored from 10 to 12 inches per cloth.
If the depth of the bunt be fubtracted from the depth of
the leech ; the remainder, divided by the number of cloths
on the head, gives the depth of each gore on the ftay.

For feams and tablings, confult the firft procefs in fail-
making.

Linings, &c.—The bunt is lined with half a breadth of
cloth; the c/ue-piece is two yards wae and the peek-piece
one yard. In merchant-fhips the tack, peek, and nock-
pieces, are generally but three-quarters of a yard in length.

Cringles.— One or two are made on the after-leech for the
brails, and thimbles are ftuck in the middle of the fail, to
lead them through ; but this is ufually done by the feamen
on board.

Holes on the ftay, marline-holes at the clue, and /ewing
on the bolt-rope, as directed in the third procefs of fail-
making.

Thimbles are fometimes ftuck at the tack and peek; but
when thimbles are not ufed, the tack and peek are fre-
quently marled as the clue.

To find the quantity of canyas, refer to Rule 6.

Matn-

SAIL-MAKING.

MAIN-TOPMAST-STAYSAIL, 12. Plate lV. fg. 1.

This fail is quadrilateral, cut fquare on the foot, and made of canvas N° 5, from fhips of 50 guns and upwards;
and of N°6, all under. It hoifts on the main-topmatt-preventer-ftay. The leech is four or five yards deeper than the
main-topfail, and there are one or two cloths more in the foot than the leech is yards in depth. In large merchant-
fhips, the leech is four or five yards deeper than the main-topfail; but in fmaller fhips, only one or two cloths more
in the foot than the leech is yards in depth.

The bunt is two-fifths of the depth of the leech; but in merchant-thips, it is from two-fifths to one-half of the depth.

ee el a el ee

Number of cloths { head -
inthe - foot =
Depth in yards { after-leech
ofthe - fore-leech
Yards in the fail Z .
Yards in the peek and
clue-pieces = 3

Yards in the bunt-lining -

Totals - 2993

| | = | | —- , ——__ |

I I I I I I I I

= head or ftay -| 33 32 32 32 25 25 25 25 25

t zSpe 3 I i I I
ae foot = - -| 2 2 2 2 1} 1g 14 13 13
3 i i i 1

leeches - =H gr 2 2 2 13 13 13 13 14

Gores. —Two cloths are generally gored on the bunt, and vided by the number of cloths on the head, gives the depth
the head is gored 22 inches fer cloth. If the nock-feam be of each gore.
fubtraéted from the depth of the leech, the remainder, di- Seams, tablings, cringles, &c. &c. as the mizen-ttayfail.

MIzEN-TOPMAST-STAYSAIL, 9. Plate IV. fig. 1.

This fail is quadrilateral, cut fquare on the foot, and made of canvas N° 6, from 50 guns upwards; and N° 7,
all under. It has a bunt, or fore-leech, three-fevenths or one-third of the depth of the after-leech, and is hoifted
on the mizen-topmatft-ftay. The after-leech is one or two yards deeper than the mizen-topfail, and there are from two
to five cloths more in the foot than the leech is yards in depth.

2165 | 1970 | 1900

Number of cloths f head 20 19 19
inthe - -)} foot 21 20 20
Depth in yards of § after-leech 14%| 16
the - - } fore-leech 63) 7

Yards in the fail - - 3 2244

Yards in the peek and clue-
pieces - - i
Yards in the bunt-lining 4

Totals

| Inches.

head 24

Bolt-rope on the } foot |

leeches

Gores.—One cloth is generally gored on the bunt, and the head is gored 24 inches per cloth.
Seams, tablings, &c. &c. as the mizen-ftayfail.

Mippir

MivpLe SraysalL, 3.

SAIL-MAKING.

Plate IV. fig. 1.

This fail is quadrilateral, cut fquare on the foot, and made of canvas N° 6, from 50 guns and upwards; and
It has a {quare bunt, or fore-leech, five-twelfths of the depth of the after-leech, and is hoifted on the
middle {tayfail-ftay. The leech is from four to feven yards deeper than the main-topgallant-fail, and there are from fix
to eight cloths more in the foot than the after-leech is yards in depth. Sloops and brigs in the royal navy have only
from one to three cloths more in the foot than yards in the depth of the after-leech.
fometimes of the fame depth as the main-topgallant-fail, but generally one to three yards more ; and has from five to ten
cloths more in the foot than yards in the depth of the after-leech.

N° 7, all under.

Number of cloths

in the <

head
foot

2165

Depth in yards | bon or
leech 2

aa bunt or ect

Yards in the fail - -

Yards in the clue and peek-
pieces - - - 3

Yards in the bunt-lining 4

I
3123

Totals - | 319%

Inches.
head or ftay 35
Bolt-rope on the { foot - 13

rs
leeches - 12

Gores. The head is gored 13% inches per cloth.

1970

1900

74 5°

19 18
19 18
13 12

——

1860 | 1200 1120 | togo

a

am
bol tots |

ee tw
CS) fel) al) Leal
_— = th
wolral tole
se ND
bolo] nol

Seams, tablings, &c. &c. as the aboves

MAIN-TOPGALLANT-STAYSAIL, 4. Plate IV. jig. 1.

In merchant-fhips, the leech is

This fail is quadrilateral, cut fquare on the foot, and made of pandas N° 7, from 50 guns and upwards, and all under

of N°8.
gallant-ftayfail-flay.

three to fix cloths more in the foot than the leech is yards in depth.

more in the foot than the leech is yards in depth.

Guns - - - - | 110
Tons = « ~ | 2165
Number of cloths § head or ftay | 22
in the - foot - |) 22
; after-leech - | 165
Depth in yards fimt or fokes 2
of the i 7
eech -
Yards in the fail - J - | 2582
Yards in the clue and peek-
pieces - a =f) 3
Yards in the bunt-lining - 3h
Totals - | 265

1970

21
21

154
6

Gores. —The head is gored 24 inches per yard.

1900

21
21

155
63

237% |

It has a bunt from one-third to three-fevenths of the depth of the after-leech, and is hoifted on the main-top-
The after-leech is nearly of the fame depth as the leech of the middle ftayfail, and there are from |
In merchant-fhips there are from two to eight cloths

74 | 50 | 44 | 38 | 36
1860 | 1200 | 1120 | Fogo | g20
21 17 16 15 15 .
21 17 16 15 15
15k | 135 | 12d 12 12
| 42 | 43] 4 4
231 153 | 136 120 | 120
3 3 3 3 3
gk} 2k | ak] a | 2
237% | r58h | 141%] 125 | 125

Seams, tablings, &c. &c. as the mizen-{tayfail.

Driver-

. SAIL-MAKING.

DRIVER-BOOMSAIL, IT.

Plate IV. jig. 1. |

This fail is quadrilateral, made of canvas N° 6, and is occafionally hoifted to the gaff in light fair winds. The
fore-leech laces to the mizen-maft, and the inner part of the head to the gaff, and the outer part to a {mall yard.
The fore-leech is nearly the fame depth as the fore-leech of the mizen-courfe, and the after-leech is from two to four

yards deeper than the after-leech of the mizen-courfe.

- - - - | 2165

1970 | 1900

- head
Number of cloths in the { oe
Depth in yards of after-leech

the - fore-leech

26
33
24
II

224
284
224
10

25
31
I
225
10

Yards in the fail - = = 2
Yards in the clue-piece -

455

Yards in the tack, nock, and

peek-pieces : z 3
Yards in the gores - 56

Totals 519
Inches.
head 13

Bolt-rope on the{ foot 3

leeches - | 3

Gores.—The head, foot, and maft-leech are cut witha
roach or curve; and as no tric rule can be Jaid down, the
gores muft be judicioufly increafed or diminifhed, according
to the fweep required. The gore on the head is at the rate
of from nine to twelve inches per cloth ; and on the foot from
fix to nine inches per cloth. From four to fix cloths next the
elue are cut fquare; or the fifth cloth next the clue being
f{quare, the other four cloths are fhort-gored, one inch per
cloth to the clue. From four to fix cloths are gored on
the maft-leech ; and if the depth of the leech be divided by
the number of cloths in it, the quotient will be the regular
gore per cloth, which mutt be increafed on the middle cloths,

as to form the {weep required. ‘

Scams are fix inches broad for fix feet up the fail from
the foot ; and two inches broad for four feet dowa fromthe
head: the remainder is one inch broad. The feams are to

1860

50

1200 1120

NON OH
PIR PIE

decreafe gradually from one breadth to the other, but the
felvage is not cut.

Tablings and head-holes, fee fecond procefs in fail-making.

Clue-lining is five yards in length, and the tack, nock, and
peck-pieces are each one yard in length.

Slack-cloth.—T wo inches fhould be taken up with the rope
in every yard on the maft-leech, and one inch in every cloth
in the foot.

Tron thimbles ave generally fpliced in the rope at the tack,
nock, and peek, which are otherwife fitted asthe mizen-courfe.

Glue likewife is fometimes made with an iron thimble ; but
if not, it is made as defcribed in the third procefs of fail-
making.

Cringles for the lacing are made on the matt-leech, thirty
inches afunder.

To find the quantity of canvas, refer to Rule 4.

Lowrr

SAIL-MAKING. :

Lower Marn-stuppinc-saits, 18. Plate IV. fig. 2.

Thefe fails are quadrilateral, cut fquare on the head, foot, and leeches, and made of canvas N° 6, from 50 guns
upwards, and N° 7 all under. They are {pread beyond the leeches of the main-courfe, their heads being bent to their
re{pective yards.

Thefe fails are two or three yards deeper than the main-courfe. In large fhips, two cloths more, and in fmall fhips
one cloth lefs, are allowed for the breadth, than the number of yards in the depth. But in merchant-fhips, they are
only one yard deeper, or of the fame depth as the main-courfe ; and from two to feven cloths are allowed in the foot
more than the number of yards in the depth.

Guns

j
}

|

JS ie ene eae 1200| 1120] 1040] 920 | 600

Number of cloths in { head
the - - | foot
Depth in yards - -
Yards in the fail -
Yards in the reef-band
Yards in the clueand earing-

Neesyrnet) fk

pieces - - = 72
Totals -
head sit te [fae | te ieee
Bolt-rope on the< foot 2 i | 1 | 1} 13
3 3 3 1
leeches - 2 | is | 1 | 4g

For feams, tablings, reef and head-holes, confult the two firft proceffes in fail-making.

A. reef-band, fix inches wide, is put on-at one-eighth of the depth from the head, and a reef-cringle made at each
end of the reef-band.

Clues, earings, and fewing on bolt-rope, fee third procefs in fail-making.

To find the quantity of canvas, refer to Rule 3.

Lower Forer-stuppinG-saiL, 15. Plate 1V. fig. 2-

This fail is tike the former, except that it has no reef.

74 | 50 | 44 24 | 18

Ton. -- - 1900 | 1860 | 1200 | 1120 600 | 425

Number of cloths in f head 18 15 15 Ir | 10
the 2 - | foot 18 15 15 Ir | 10
Depth in yards = = I 15 13 13 II | 10

Yards in the fail = 121 | 100
Yards in the clue and ear-
ing-pieces - z

Totals
Bolt-rope the fame as main-
lower-{tudding-fail.

Marn-

SAIL-MAKING.

MAIN-TOPMAST-STUDDING-SAILS, 19. Plate IV. jig. 2-

Thefe fails are quadrilateral, and made of the fame canvas as the lower fludding-fails. They are {pread beyond the

leeches of the main-topfail.

The depth is one yard more than the main-topfail, and two cloths lefs are allowed for the breadth of the foot than
the number of yards in the depth of the leech.

Guns

Tons = s =

Number of cloths in {head
the = = foot

Depth in yards - “

Yards in the fail - =
Yards in the reef-band -

Totals. -

Bolt-rope the fame fize as the

main-lower-ftudding-fail.

Gores.—Four cloths are gored on the outer leech in the
royal navy, and from four to feven cloths in merchant-fhips ;
and a regular gore is made on the head and foot of four
inches per cloth, decreafing to the outer earing at the head,

- eae) 1979 1900] 1860
j aa

ey) GS] ASA e503) 15

-| 20 | 19 |-19 | 19

- | 22 | 21 | 213] 213

- |396 1357 3613| 3615

-| 23) 23) 23) 23

- | 3983 | 3593 3633] 3633

|
|
u

and increafing to the tack or outer clue at the foot.

For /eams, tablings, reef and head-holes, refer to the fe-

cond procefs of fail-making.

-| 110 98 | 8o 74 | 50

—!
| 1200] 1120
Li cal
122) 11
16 15
17% | 173

| I I
| 2415 22735
2

2435 | 2293

38 | 36
1040] 920
_—-——_—— -
IDG It
ESTES

ai

173 ij;
Aa I
2272] 2245
Ig Iz
2293 | 226

24 | 18 |

600

12 12
145 | 13

RSS. | 4323
T2| Ip

1462 | 1314

|

FoRE-TOPMAST-STUDDING-SAILS, 16. Plate IV. fig. 2.

| 8 8
DO eo)
123, | 10%

3 I

| 1183 942

| ¥a) 42

| 120} 96

Thefe fails are fo much like the former, reef-bands excepted, as only to need the following dimenfions.

Number of cloths in ( head
the - - j foot

Depth in yards . -

Yards in the fail ws s

Bolt-rope the fame fize as
the main-topmaft-ftud-
ding-fail.

Vor. XXXL.

15

74

1900

| 2165 | 1970

14
19 18
20 | 19
340 | 304

mh

14

18

183
296

1860

14
18 15
18}
296

1200

Il

3
153
204%

8
12

x5

Reef-band is put on the fame as the main-lower-ftudding-fail.
Reef-cringle, one is made on the leeches, at each end of the
reef-band, and a downhaw!-cringle is made on the outer leech,
about half the depth of the leech from the head.
Clue and fiwing on the bolt-rope, refer to the third procefe
in fail-making.
To find the quantity of canvas, refer to Rule 1.

MAIn-

SAIL-MAKING.

MAIN-TOPGALLANT-STUDDING-SAILS, 20. Plate IV. fig. 2.

Thefe fails are quadrilateral, and made of canvas N° 7, from s0-gun fhips upwards, and all under of N°8. They
are {pread beyond the leeches of the main-topgallant-fail, the heads being bent to their wefpeétive yards.

The depth is half a yard more than the main-topgallant-fail in large fhips : there are five cloths more allowed for the
breadth of the foot than the number of yards in the depth ; but in {mall fhips there are only three cloths more, or the
fame number of cloths in the breadth of the foot as yards in the depth of the leech.

the - - foot
Depth in yards - — -
Yards in the fail =

Number of cloths in f head

head -
Bolt-rope on the ¥ foot -

leeches

80 | 74 | 50

1900 | 1860 | 1200

Gores.—The outer leech is gored from two to four cloths, and a regular gore is made on the head and foot, from

three to five inches per cloth, decreafing to the outer earing at the head, aud increafing to the tack on the foot.

For /eams, tablings, and head-holes, confult the firft and fecond procefles in fail-making.
Clues and fewing on the bolt-rope, fee the third procefs in fail-making.
To find the quantity of canvas, refer to Rule 1.

ForRE-TOPGALLANT-STUDDING-SAIL, 17. Plate IV. fig. 2.

This fail is fo much like the former, that the dimenfions need only be added.

Number of cloths in { head
the = ~ foot

Depth in yards

Yards in the fail

Bolt-rope the fame fize
as the main-top-gallant-
ftudding-fail.

98

Number of Sails in a Suit for eight Months’ Service in the Royal Navy.

Two main-courfes.

Two main-topfails.

One main-topgallant-fail.
One main-royal.

Two fore-courfes.

Two fore-topfails.

Two fore-topgallant-fails.
One pico

One fpritfail-courfe.

One fpritfail-topfail.

One driver-boom-fail.
Two mizen-courfes.

Two mizen-topfaila.

One mizen-topgallant-fail.
One main-ftayfail.

Two fore-ftayfails.

One mizen-ftayfail.

Two main-topmatt-ftay fails. |

One middle-{tay fail. |

One main-topgallant-ftayfail.

One fore-topmatt-ftay fail.

One royal-ftayfail.

Two jibs.

One ‘tring sibs

One mizen-topmatt-{tayfail.

Two main-ftudding-fails.

Two main-topmatt-ftudding-fails.

Two main-topgallant-{tudding-fails.

Two fore-ftudding-fails.

Two fore-topmaft-ftudding-fails.

One fore-topgallant-ftudding-fail.

One {moke-fail. }
The

SAIL-MAKING.

te Quality of Canvas of which the different Sails are made in
The Qe. the Wcrchen Service.

Canvas of N° 1.
Main and fore-courfes, and main and fore-ftayfails, of Eaft
India fhips.
Canvas of N° 2.
Main and fore-courfes, and main and fore-ftayfails, of Weft
India fhips.
Canvas of N° 3.
Mizen-courfe, main and fore-topfails, f{prit-courfe, and
mizen-ftayfails, of Eaft India fhips.
; Canvas of N° 4.
Mizen-topfails of Eaft India fhips.
Canvas of N° 5.

Driver-boom-fails of large Eaft India fhips, main-topmatt-
ftayfails of Eaft India fhips, and mizen-topfails of Weft
India fhips.

Canvas of N° 6.

Driver-boom-fails of Eaft and Weft India fhips, fore-top-
maft-ftayfails of Eaft India thips, main-topmatt-ftayfails of
Wet India thips, fpritfail-topfails, and main and fore-top-
gallant-fails, of large India fhips.

Canvas of N° 7.

Main and fore-topgallant-fails, middle-ftayfails, flying-
jibs, lower fludding-fail, main-topmatt-ftudding-fails, main-
topgallant-itayfail, of Eaft and Weft India fhips, and fore
topmatt-ftayfail of Weit India fhips.

Canvas of N°8.

Mizen-topeallant-fails, and main-topgallant-ftudding-fails,
of Eaft aed Weit India fhips, mizen-topmaft-ftayfails and
royals of Eaft India fhips, and {mall flying-jibs of Eaft India
fhips, if any.

As there can be no fixed dimenfions of merchant-fhips’
fails, the fame number of cloths, or nearly fo, of fhips of the
fame tonnage in the royal navy may be taken, and about
feven-eighths of their depth.

Quantity and Quality of Canvas of a fingle Suit of Sails for Eaft and Weft India Ships of London Canvas,
thirty-eight Yards to the Bolt.

Eaft India fhips of 1200

700
Weft India fhipsof 500
400

A Table of the Quantity of Materials ufed in making a Suit of Sails for a Ship of each Rate for eight
Months’ Service inthe Royal Navy, and a fingle Suit of Sails for Eaft and Weft India Ships.

*staue?) PIO

Guns.

Royal Navy of 110 |
8

to 7
Eaft India thips 1200] 40 |135| 70! 22] 5 |
700| 390 |107! 60| 20] 4
Weft India thips -| 500/16 64) 34/13 / 3
F | 400) 12 | 6o) 30) g| 2}

Yards of {ewing

S | = wine.

rs pr ts | Bolt-rope.
2 Waxed. | Dipped.

zal. | Barr.| Cwe, | | Cwt. gr. Ib.
122| 39 | 65 | 54 | 42164! 21822! 32 2 24
116| 36/6 | 4f | 39554| 20631 | 28 3 26
121/ 36| 6 | 5 |41936/ 21018! 59 0 21
121/36 | 6 | 5 |41711| 20671! 28 3 2
90/ 21 | 34 | 3% | 31264) 14908! 16 3 21
88| 20! 3 | 3 /31923/ 14150! 14 3 2
86/18) 3 | 3 | 31173/13913|14 t 9
84] 18 | 3 | 22 | 30197 13650) 1g 3.9
63| 12 2 | 2. | 22475 | 10920) 9 2 27
50| 10 | 1% | 1f | 17836] 9083) B81 7
48/ 9 | 14} 14 [17240] 8575| 6 0 12
go} 6/3 |2 41623) 9 3 25
26 5 | 24 2 31395| 7 0 12
16) 4\2 if 22919/ 4 3 17
13| 3 | 14 | 14 20815] 3 0 25

Brig’s

SAIL-MAKING.

Brig’s Mainfail.—This fail is quadrilateral, and made of
canvas N° 5 or 6. The fore-leech is in depth from the
under part of the hounds of the main-mait to the boom,
and the depth of the after-leech is about one-third more than
the depth of the fore-leech. The head is bent to the gaff,
and {preads within nine inches of the cleats on the outer end,
the fore-leech to hoops encircling the matt ; and the foot is
fpread on the boom within eighteen inches of the fheave-
hole at the outer end.

Gores. —The head and matt-leech are gored witha roach.
The regular gore on the head is from four to five inches ae
cloth, and the roach or {weep fhould be cut after the {fail is
fewed together. ‘The foot is gored with a circular {weep,
at the rate of five or feven inches fer cloth, leaving four or
five {quare cloths at the clue; or at the rate of fourteen to
eighteen inches fer cloth for every cloth in the mait-leech,
which has five or fix gored cloths in it.

Seams are three inches broad for eight feet up the fail from
the foot, and two inches broad for eight feet down from the
head ; the remainder is one inch broad, the feams decreafing
gradually from one breadth to the other.

For tablings, head-holes, and holes on matt or fore-leech,
confult the firit and fecond procefles in fail-making.

Reef-bands.—This fail has three, fix inches broad, parallel
to the foot. The upper reef is nearly half way up the fore-
leech, and the other at equal diltances between that and the
foot.

Reef-hanks are generally fewed on the reef-band at each
feam, on both fides of the fail.

Linings.—The after-leech is lined with one breadth of
cloth from the clue to one yard above the upper reef-band ;
at the upper part half a yardof the lining is cut down, and
the inner part is doubled under, or cut off. The peek-piece
is one yard in length, ‘and the fore-leech is lined with half a
breadth of cloth ; or fometimes pieces one yard in length are
put on at the tack and nock, and fmall triangular pieces at
each hole.

In fewing on the bolt-rope, four inches of flack-cloth
fhould be taken up with the rope in every yard on the
matt-leech.

Large iron thimbles are {tuck in the cringles at the clue,
peck, nock, and tack; alfo in the enngles made on the leeches
at the ends of the reef-bands: a luff-cringle is made on the
matt-leech, equidiftant from the lower reef-band and the
foot, which alfo has a thimble.

To find the quantity of canvas, refer to Rule 4.

Cutter’s mainfail only differs from the former in the fol-
lowing particulars, viz. the canvas is of N° 1 or 2.

The head is generally wider, and the peeks lefs, for the
cuftoms, revenue, {muggling-cutters, and merchant fervice,
than thofe of the royalnavy. The former are better adapted
for velocity, the latter for handfome appearance.

Reef-bands.—TYo have four in number, eight inches broad,
and put on parallel to the foot; the upper reef is about
three-fevenths of the depth of the matft-leech from the foot,
and the others equally divided between that and the foot.

The feams are five inches broad for twelve feet up the fail
from the foot, and three inches broad for eight feet down
from the head; the remainder to be one inch and a half
broad.

Slack-cloth to be taken up in fewing on the bolt-rope is
four or five inches ip every yard in the depth of the matt-
leech.

Smack’s mainfailis fimilar to the above, and made of canvas
N° 1orz. The after-leech is about one-fifth deeper than
the maft-leech,

Gore: about ten cloths on the maft-leech. The head is

gored at the rate of four or five inches per cloth ; aud the
oot, with a curve, at the rate of twelve er fourteen inches
per cloth, for every cloth in the maft-leech, it having a fhort
gue to the clue on five or fix cloths, at the rate of three or
our inches per cloth. :

Linings. —The matt-leech is lined with a breadth of cloth
from the tack to the nock ; the after-leech the fame as the
brig, and the peek is lined with a cloth one yard and a half
in length.

Reef-bands the fame as the cutter ; and fometimes a

Balance-reef is put on acrofs the fail, from the nock to
the upper reef-cringle on the after-leech.

Bolt-rope on the matt-leech fhould be three inches ; and on
the head, foot, and after-leech, one inch and a half; and four
inches of flack-cloth fhould be taken up with the rope in
every yard on the matt-leech.

Sloop’s main/ail is like the {mack’s, but the after-leech is
only one-third deeper than the matt-leech.

Cutter’s Tryfail.—This fail is occafionally ufed, inftead of
the main-fail, in ftormy weather, and made of canvas N° 1
or2. In the head of this fail there are only two-fifths of
the number of cloths that are in the head of the main-fail :
the malt-leech is about three-fourths of the depth of the
maitt-leech of the main-fail, and the after-leech is one-fixth
deeper than the matt-leech.

Gores.—Eight or ten cloths are gored on the ma‘t-leech.
The foot is gored with a curve at the rate of five or feven
inches fer cloth from the tack, leaving two or three fquare
cloths at the clue.

Reef-bands.—This fail has three reef-bands, fix inches
wide, parallel with the foot, the upper one is three-eighths
the depth of the malt-leech from the foot, and the others
are at equal diftances between the foot and the upper one.

Strengthening-bands.—Three are put on, of half a breadth
of cloth, at equal diftances between the upper reef-band
and the head, which are feamed on and ftuck along the
middle. ,

Seams fhould be five inches broad for twelve feet up from
the foot, and three inches broad for eight feet down from the
head ; the remainder is one inch and a half broad, to decreafe
gradually from one breadth to the other.

Linings, tablings, reef-hanks, &c. &c. as the main-fail,

Veflels having one matt only, have fails peculiar to that
clafs, which we fhall briefly notice. Such are the

» Square Sail, or Cro/s- Jack.—T his fail is quadrilateral, made
of canvas N°6 or 7, cut {quare on the head and leeches ;
the head is bent to the crofs-jack yard, and extends within
fix inches of the cleats on the yard-arms. The depth of
the fail is about four-fifths of the depth of the fore-leech of
the main-fail.

Gores.—TVhe foot is gored one inch or more fer cloth, in-
creafing from the middle to each clue ; having two or three
{quare cloths left in the middle.

Seams, tablings, and head-holes, as other fails of the fame
fize.

Reef-bands.—It has two, four inches broad; the lower
one is at one-fixth of the depth of the fail from the foot, and
parallel thereto ; and the upper reef is at the fame diftance
from the head.

Reef-hanks are fewed on the reef-bands, as on the main-
fail.

Linings. —One yard of cloth is pa on at each clue,
half a yard at each earing, and half a yard again{t every
cringle on the leeches, 'Thefe linings are all put on the aft-
fide.

Cringle.—One is made at each end of the upper reef-band ;
and three bowline-cringles are made on each leech; the upper

I bowline-

SAIL-MAKING.

bowline-cringle is made on the middle of the leech, and the
_ others are equally diftant from that and the clue.

Clues are fometimes marled on; and, for this purpofe,
ten marline-holes are made each way from the clues.

Bolt-rope on the foot and leeches, fhould be one inch and
a half or two inches in circumference ; and on the head, one
inch, or one inch and a half.

Slack-cloth, when fewing on the bolt-rope, one inch fhould
be taken up in every cloth in the head and foot.

Top/ail is fimilar to other topfails made of canvas N° 6
or 7. The depth in the middle is one-third of the depth of
the crofs-jack.

Gores.—From one to two cloths are gored on the leeches,
and the foot is hollowed from one-third to half of the depth
of the fail in the middle (to clear the jib-{tay), or at the rate
of ten to twelve inches ger cloth from the middle to each clue,
the middle cloth being left {quare.

Reef-band of four inches broad is put on at one-third of
the depth of the middle cloth from the Lead.

Bowline, cringles, &c. &c. as the {quare fail.

Gaff-topfail.—T his fail is quadrilateral, and made of canvas
N° 8. ‘The fore-leech is four-fifths of the depth of the
mait-leech of the main-fail. This fail is bent to the topgal-
lant-maft, with a {mall yard on the head above the main-fail,
and is only ufed in light winds.

‘The foot has nearly the fame number of cloths as in the
head of the main-fail, and nearly three-fourths of the number
of cloths are gored on the mait-leech.

Gores at the foot are the fame asthe gores on the head
of the main-fail, that the foot may anfwer to the peek
of the maiu-fail, the head-gores being the fame.

Golt-rope on the mait-leech fhould be one inch and a half ;
and on the head and foot and after-leech, one inch.

Sa capa fail is quadrilateral, made of canvas
N° 8, cut {quare on the head and foot. The head is ex-
tended by haliards faftened to the earing-cringles, under the
hollow of the foot of the top-fail, its foot {preading the
crofs-jack yard between the clues of the topfail. It is feldom
ufed but in light winds.

Gores.—Two or three cloths are left f{quare on the head,
and the reft are gored for the leeches,

Bolt-rope round the fail is one inch in circumference.

Ringtail-fail.—This fail is quadrilateral, made of canvas
N°7 or 8. It is occafionally hoifted abaft the after-leech
of the main-fail, to which the fore-leech is made to anfwer.
The head is bent to a {mall yard at the outer end of the gaff ;
and the foot on the boom, which is prolonged by a piece
lafhed to the outer end. ‘The number of cloths in the foot is
three-eighths the number of cloths in the foot of the main-
fail ; and the head has three-eighths of the number of cloths
in the foot.

Gores.—The head has a regular gore, the fame as the main-
fail, and the foot is gored with a gore of one inch per cloth,
increafing to the ei
_ Balt-rope on the head, foot, and after-leech, fhould be one
inch in circumference ; and on the fore-leech one inch and
a half.

A fail of this kind, but more fquare, is fometimes {pread
in light winds, on a {mall maft, ercéted at the taffarel of
fome veflels ; the foot being fpread out on a boom that pro-
jeéts horizontally from the ftern.

Forefail,—This fail is triangular, made of canvas N° 1
or 25 and bends with hanks to the {tay next before the malt.
The depth of the leech is nearly the fame depth as the mait-
leech of the main-fail, and there are as many cloths in the
My will bring it clear of the matt.

ores.—'The depth of the hoilt, or fore-part, divided by

the number of gored cloths, gives the length of each gore.
The foot has a thort gore of one inch or more ger cloth, in-
creafing to the clue ; leaving one or two fquare cloths at the
tack.

Linings, &c.—The leech-cloth is left three-quarters of a
yard longer than the depth of the leech for the head-lining,
and the cloth at the tack is fo cut as to fall to the foot and
form its own lining ; it has one cloth at the clue, to run up
above the reef-bands, the fame as the main-fail.

Seams fhould be three or four inches broad at the foot,
decreafing to one inch at the hoift.

Reef-bands.—To have-two four inches wide, are generally
put on at one-eighth of the depth of the fail afunder, the
lower one being at that diltance from the foot. Sometimes
a bonnet is ufed inftead of the lower-reef.

Reef-hanks are generally fewed on, inftead of ufing reef-
points.

Bolt-rope ou the {tay to be two and a half or three inches
in circumference, and on the foot and leech one inch and a
half or two inches.

Slack-cloth.—Three or four inches of flack-cloth fhould
be taken up with the rope in every yard on the hoiit.

Head-fick.—TVhe hoilt-rope is put through the holes in
the head-ftick, then ferved with {pun-yarn, and {pliced into
the leech-rope. The middle of the head-ftick is then feized
to the head of the fail, and a thimble is feized in the bight
of the rope.

Thimbles are generally ituck in the cringles at the tack and
clue.

Jib.—This fail is triangular, made of canvas N° 2 to 6,
and is fometimes bent with hanks to a flay before the fore-
fail, or hoifts with haliards without a ftay. The number of
cloths in the foot is two-thirds the number in the foot of
the main-fail, or wide enough to fpread the bowfprit, and
the depth of the leech is about one yard for every cloth in
the foot.

Gores. —The foot is gored with a fweep, at the rate of
from four, five, to fix inches fer cloth, increafing to the clue,
leaving one {quare cloth at the tack ; fometimes the fourth
and fifth cloths from the tack are left fquare, and a fhort
gore from thence to the tack of one inch per cloth.

Linings. —T he leech-cloth is left three-quarters of a yard
longer than the depth of the leech, for the head-lining and
tabling ; the cloth at the tack is cut fo as to fall to the
foot and form its own lining; and the clue-piece is two
yards in length.

Seams on the foot fhould be three or four inches broad,
and fhould decreafe to one full inch on the hoitt.

Bolt-rope, if hoilted on a flay, the ti on the hoift fhould
be two inches and a half or three inches in circumference ;
but if not hoilted on a ftay, the rope on the hoilt fhould be
five inches. he rope on the foot and leeches fhould be two
inches and a half.

Slack-cloth.—Four or five inches of flack-cloth fhould be
taken up in every yard in the hoift, when roping, and the
rope on the hoilt put through the holes in the head-{tick, and
completed as the fore-fail. / ’

Obferve, the /econd jib is feven-eighths the fize of the fir
jib, aud the third jib is three-fourths the fize of the fir/ jib;
but they are both made like the /irf jib, as above.

Storm Jib. —'Vhis fail is triangular, and made of canvas
N° 1 or 2. It is two-thirds the fize of the firlt jib, and is
ufed in ftormy weather.

Gores. —The foot is gored at the rate of five or fix inches
per cloth, increafing to the clue.

Seams.—To be three or four inches broad at the foot,
and decreafed to one inch on the hoilt,

Lining.

se FE

Lining.—The clue is lined with a breadth of cloth one

and a half in length; a piece one yard long is put on

the peek, and the cloth at the tack is fo cut as to fall to the
foot, and form its own lining.

Strengthening-bands, of half a breadth of cloth, are put on
parallel to the foot, at one-third of the depth of the fail
afunder.

Bolt-rope on the hoilt fhould be five inches in circum-
ference, and on the foot and leech two inches and a half.

Slack-cloth.—Four inches of flack-cloth fhould be taken
up in every yard on the hoift when roping.

Flying Jib.—This fail is triangular, made of canvas N° 6,
and is two-thirds the fize of the fir/ jib. It is the foremoit
fail, and hoifts without a ftay.

Gores.—The foot is gored with a fweep, at the rate of
eight or nine inches per dots increafing to the clue.

The piece at the 8 is one yard and a half in length; that
at the peck is one yard; and the cloth at the tack is fo cut
as to fall to the foot.

Seams fhould be two inches and a half broad at the foot,
and decreafe to one inch at the hoiit.

Bolt-rope on the hoift fhould be three inches and. a half
in circumference ; on the foot two inches, and on the leech
one inch.

Slack-clsth.—Three inches of flack-clotli fhould be taken
up with the rope in every yard in the hoift.

Thimbles are fometimes {pliced in the tack and peek.

Boat Sails.

Settee-fail—This fail is quadrilateral, made of canvas
N°7 or 8. The head is bent to the latteen-yard, and ex-
tends within fix inches of the cleats at the arms.

Gores. —The cloth at the tack is cut goring to the
nock, and the bunt is the depth of the reef, Shick is one-
fifth of the depth of the leech. The depth of the leech is
five-fixths of the length ef the head. ‘The length of the
head, divided by the number of cloths in it, gives the length
ef each gore. The foot is cut with a curve, after the fail is
fewed together.

Head-holes and reef-hanks as other fails, with fmall cringles
made on the leech at the reef, nock, and peek.

Lug-fail.—This fail is quadrilateral, made of canvas
N°7 or 8. The head is bent to a yard, and extends within
four inches of the arm-cleats. The fore-leech is as deep*as
the length of the head, and the after-leech is nearly one-
half more in depth than the fore-leech.

Gores.—T wo or three cloths are gored on the fore-leech,
and an even gore of fix inches per cloth is made on the head.
The foot is gored with a curve ; the cloth at the clue being
cut with a three-inch fhort gore; the next cloth is fquare,
and the cloths from thence to the tack are gored at the rate
of fix or eight inches per cloth.

Reefs.—Two in number parallel to the foot ; the upper
reef is half way up the fore-leech, and the other is equally
diftant from that and the foot. Sometimes reef-bands, three
or four inches broad, are put on at the reefs ; but when thefe
are not ufed, holes are made one in every feam, for points or
hanks are fewed on inftead.

Holes. —Two {mall ones are made in each cloth in the
head.

Cringles are made on the leeches at each reef ; earing-
cringles are made at the nock and peek; and ten or twelve
ftrands in the length of the bolt-rope are feized at the tack
and clue.

Lattéeen-/ail.— This fail is triangular, made of canvas
N°7 or 8. The head is bent to the latteen-yard, extending
within fix inches of the cleats at the arms.

SAI

Gores.—The length of the head, divided by the number
of cloths, gives the length of the gore of each cloth. The
foot is cut fquare.

Two {mall holes are made in each cloth along the head,
through which it is laced on the yard.

Bolt-ropes for this and the two foregoing fails are alike ;
that is, one inch on the head, and one inch and a half on the
foot and leeches.

Obferve, if this fail is bent to the maft the head becomes
the fore-leech, and it is called a /houlder-of-mutton fail. But
if to the maft and a top-maft, which flides up and down, a
SJliding-gunter fail.

Spritfails. —Thefe fails are quadrilateral, made of canvas
N° 7 or 8. The fore-leeches are laced to their refpective
maf{ts ; and their heads are elevated and extended by a {prit,
or {mall yard, that croffes the fail diagonally from the lower
part of the maft to the peek.

The fore-leech is nearly the depth of the matt, fo as to
clear the gunwale a few inches.

Gores.—The main and fore fpritfails have one or two
cloths gored at the fore-leech. The heads of them have a
regular gore of twelve or fourteen inches fer cloth, and the
foot is cut fquare. The fore-leech and foot of a mizen-
{pritfail are cut {quare, but the head has a regular gore of
eleven inches per cloth.

Holes are made on the fore-leeches about one yard afunder
for lacing them to the mait, and the mizen three-quarters. of
a yard. Holes are alfo made at each feam acrofs the fail
of main and fore for a reef, at one-fifth the depth of the
after-leech from the foot for the points or reef-hanks, initead
of being fewed to the fail. :

Small bights are made at the tack, nock, peek, and clue.

Fore-fail and Jib.—Proportionally the fame as the laft
mentioned. ‘ ;

Sait-Loft, a room or fhed wherein fails are made.

Sait-Room, in Ship-Building, an apartment or place of
referve, built between decks, upon the lower deck or orlop,
to contain the {pare fails.

Sats alfo denote the vanes of wind-mills; or the arms
or flights, by which the wind has its effeé&t on them.

Thefe are either horizontal or perpendicular. See WinD-
MILL.

Sargs, in Falconry, denote the wings of a hawk.

SAILERSHAUSEN, in Geography, a town of the
duchy of Wurzburg; nine miles E.S.E. of Schweinfurt.

SAILING, in a general fenfe, denotes the movement
by which a veffel is wafted ries the furface of the water,
by the aétion of the wind upon her fails.

For the method of regulating this movement by the pro-
per adjuftment of the fails and rudder, fee Satine ina
more confined fenfé, infra.

Satine is alfo ufed for the art, or aét, of navigating ;
or of determining all the cafes of a fhip’s motion, by means
of fea-charts. Rnd as thefe charts are con{truéted either
on the fuppofition that the earth is a large extended flat
furface, whence we obtain thofe that are called plane charts;
er on the fuppofition that the earth is a a whence
we derive globular’ charts; failing may be diftinguifhed
into two general kinds, viz. plane, or plain, and globular
failing.

uranic, Plain, is that which is performed by means of
a plain chart; in which cafe, as is evident from the con-
itru@ion of the chart, the meridians are confidered as paral-
lel lines; the parallels of latitude are at right angles to the
meridians; the lengths of the degrees on the meridians,
equator, and parallels of latitude, are every where equal ;
and the degrees of longitude are reckoned on the pao

°
10

SAILING.

of latitude, as well as on the equator. We shall here fup-
pofe, that the terms cour/e, departure, diftance, rhumb-line, &c.
are underftood. And obferve, that if a fhip fails either due
north or fouth, fhe fails on a meridian, makes no departure,
and her diftance and difference of latitude are the fame:
and if’a fhip fails either due eaft or welt, the runs on a
parallel of latitude, makes no difference of latitude, and her
departure and diftance are the fame. See Ricur Sailing.

It is to be obferved farther, that the difference of lati-
tude and departure always make the legs of a right-angled
triangle, whofe hypothenufe is the diftance the fhip has
failed. See Prary Satling. :

It is obvious from the confideration of fuch a triangle,
that when the courfe is 45 degrees, or 4 points, the dif-
ference of latitude and departure are equal; when the
courfe is lefs than 45 degrees, the difference of latitude is
greater than the departure ; but when the courfe is pa
than 45 degrees, the departure is greater than the difference
of latitude.

In Plate 11. Navigation, fig. 5. let the circle FH FH
reprefent the horizon of the place A, whence the fhip fails;
AC the rhumb on which fhe fails, whether it be in the
N.E. or N.W. S.E. or S.W. quarters of the horizon;
and C the place at which fhe arrives: then HH repre-
fents the parallel of latitude from which fhe failed, and
CC the parallel of latitude at which fhe arrives: fo that
AD is the difference of latitude, DC the departure, A C

Given.

<A, “A'G;. | ‘ADD C;
#.e. courfe andj. e. diff. of lat.
diftanee. and departure.

< A, A D, A G D =
i. ¢. courfe and] 7. ¢. diftance
diff. of lat. jand departure.

Required.

A

<A, DG, |' ACAD
i. ¢. courfe and] i.e. aitance BE ‘ ae =
departure. and diff. of lat. e =
A D, A Cc; < A, D C;
i. e. diftance

i,¢. courfe and
land diff. of lat.

Cs
E:;

D::
Bo:

departure.

AC; DC,
t.¢. diftance |i.
and departure.

mb, DC, | << Aj AC;
t. ¢. diff. of lat.|7. ¢. courfe and|

7 OM
and departure.| — diftance. F

We thall now give fome examples of the application of
thefe canons to the folution of fingle courfes.

Cafe 1.—A fhip from the latitude 47° 30! N. has failed
&.W. by S. 98 miles, what latitude is the in, and what de-
parture has the made ?

By the traverfe table. —In the column of the courfe, viz.
i, againit the diftance g8, ftand 81.5 miles for the
iff. of lat. and 54.45 miles for the departure.

By conflruBtion.—Draw the meridian AD (fig. 6.) and
make the quadrant A mcp. Make the arc mc equal to
3 points, and through c kenw AB = 98 miles. Draw

: AD, i.e. fine courfe

the diftance failed, DAC the angle of the courfe, and
DCA the complement of the courfe. From this con-
ttruction it appears, that the difference of latitude, departure,
and diftance, form the fides of a right-angled triangle, whofe
angles are the courfe, its complement, and the right angle :
and, therefore, if of thefe four things, viz. the courfe,
diftance, difference of latitude, and departure, any two
ofthem be given, the reft may be found by plane trigo-
nometry.

For the ready working of any fingle courfe, there is a
table, called a fraver/e table, ufually annexed to treatifes
of navigation, which is fo contrived, that by finding in it
the given courfe, and a diftance not exceeding 100 miles,
the difference of latitude and departure are had by in-
fpeGion. And this table will ferve for greater diftances,
by taking their halves, thirds, fourths, &c. and doubling,
trebling, quadrupling, &c. the difference of latitude and
departure found to thofe parts of the diftance.

From the figure above referred to, in which AE, AF,
or AH, reprefents the radius of the tables, E B the fine
of the courfe, GF its tangent, and A G its fecant, AB
the fine of the complement of the courfe, HI its tan-
gent, and AT its fecant, we may deduce all the propor-
tions, or canons, as they are ufually called by mariners,
that can arife in plain failing ; becaufe the triangles A DC
and ABE, ADC and AFG, are evidently fimilar.
Thefe proportions are exhibited in the following table.

Solutions.

: AD, i.e. rad. : dift. :: cofine of courfe : diff. of lat.
: DC, ie. rad. : dift. :: fine of courfe : departure.

: AC, i.e. cof. courfe : diff. lat. :: rad. : diftance.
: DC, i.e. cof. courfe : diff. lat. :: fine courfe : departure.

: AC, i.e. fine courfe : departure :: rad. : diftance.

: departure :: cof. courfe : diff. lat.

.é diftance : rad. :: diff, lat. : cof. courfe.
.¢. rad. : diftance :: fine courfe : departure.

: EB, i. e. diftance : rad. :: departure : fine courfe.
: AD, i.e. rad. : diftance :: cof. courfe : diff. lat.

: FG, i.e. diff. lat. : departure :: rad. : tangert courfe.
: AC, i.e. fine courfe ; departure :: rad. : diftance.

BD parallel top A; and AD, the diff. of lat. meafures
about 814 miles, and B D, the departure, about 54.4 miles.

By computation.—For the diff. of lat. rad. : dilt. : cof,
courfe : diff. lat, i. ¢. 10.00000 : 1.99123 (log. of 98) ::
9.91985 (cof. 33° 45') : 1.01108, the log. of 81.48 miles,
for the departure : rad. ; dift. :: fin. courfe ; departure,
i. ¢. 10.00000 : 1.99123 :: 9.74474 (fine of 33° 45'):
1.73597, the log. of 54.45 miles.

By Gunter’s feale.—The extent from radius, or 8 points,
to 3 points, on the line of fine rhumbs, applied to the
line of numbers, will reach from 98, in either interval, to

S44

SAILING.

54-4. And the extent from 8 points to 5 points, among
the rhumbs, reaches from 98 to 81.5 on the line of
numbers.

Cafe 2.—A fhip has failed S.E. by S. from the lat.
47° 30! N. to the lat. 46° 8’! N. What diltance has fhe run,
and what departure has fhe made?

By the traverfe table—The diff. of lat. is equal to 47° 30
—46° 8! = 82'. Under the courfe or 3 points in the co-
lumn of lat. find the neareft number to 82, which is 82.3,
= the correfponding departure is 55, and the diftance 99

es.

By conflruétion.—Deferibe the quadrant A mc p (fig. 7-)5
make mc = 3 points, and produce Am, till A D becomes
= 82 miles; draw D B parallel to Ag, meeting the line

U

AB, drawn through, in B: and the dittance A B meafures”

about 99 miles, and the departure D B meafures about 55
miles.

By computation.—For the diftance : cof. courfe : diff. lat.
-se rad. : dift. i. ¢. 9.91985 (cof. 33° 45’) : 1.91381 (log.
of 82) :: 10.00000 : 1.99396; the log. of 98.62 miles. For
the departure : cof. courfe : diff. a :: fine courfe : de-
parture ; i. ¢. 9.91985 : 1-91381 :: 9-74474 : 1.73871, the
log. of 54.79 miles.

By Gunter’s feale—The extent from 5 points to 8 points,
in the line ef fine rhumbs, will reach on the line of num-
bers, from 82 to gg. And the extent from 5 points to 3,
on the fine rhumbs, will reach from 82 to 55 on the line of
numbers.

Cafe 3.—A hip from lat. 47° 30! N. failing N.W. by
W. finds the has made 82 miles of departure. What is her
diftance run, and what latitude is fhe now in?

By the traverfe table —The courfe being 5 points, over
that, in the column of departure, the neareft number to
82 is 82.3: and the correfponding diff. of lat. is 55 milea,
and the diftance is 99 miles.

By conflru@ion.—Defcribe the quadrantal arc Amcp
( fig- 8.) ; make mc = 5 points, and produce A g, till Ad
becomes = 82 miles; through 4 draw 6B parallel to Am,
meeting the line A B, drawr through c, in B; and through
B draw BD, parallel to 6A, meeting Am produced in
D: then the diftance A B meafures about 99 miles, and the
diff. of lat. AD meafures about 55 miles.

By computation.—For the diftance : fine of courfe : dep.
z: rad. : dift. i. ¢ 9.91985 (fine of 56°15’) : 1.91381
(log. of 82) :: 10.00000 : 1.99396 the log. of 98.62, the
diftance. For the diff. of lat. fine courfe : dep. :: cof.
courfe : diff. lat. i. ¢. 9.91985 : 1.91381 :: 9.74474 (cof.
56° 15') : 1.73870 the log. of 54.79 the diff. of lat.

By Gunter’s fcale—The extent from 5 points to 8 points,
on the line of fine rhumbs, will reach, on the line of num-
bers, from 82 to 99. And the extent from 5 points to
3 points, on the line of fine rhumbs, will reach from 82 to
55 on the line of numbers.

Cafe 4.—A fhip from lat. 47°20! N. fails between the
north and eaft g8 miles, and is arrived in lat. 48° 42! N.
What courfe did the fteer, and what departure has fhe
made ?

By the traverfe table—The diff, of lat. is 48° 42/—47°
20! = 82'. Againft the diftance 98 ftands the lat. 81.95,
the neareft to 82, and the correfponding departure is 53.73
miles, and the courfe is 33° 15’.

By confirudion.—Defcribe the quadrant A mc p (fig. 9-) 5
roduce Am, till AD becomes = 82; through D draw
)B parallel to A p, and with the diftance 98 interfeét
D B in B: the departure will be found to meafure 53 miles,

and the courfe D A B is meafured by the arc me oF about

33°

By compuiation.—For the courfe : dift. : rad. :: diff. lat.
: cof. courfe, £¢ 1.99123 (log. of 98) : 10.00000 ::
1.91381 (log. of 82) : 9.92258, the cofine of 33° 13).
For the departure : rad. : dift. :: fine courfe : departure,
#. €. 10-00000 : 1.99123 :: 9-73863 (fine of 33° 13'):
1.72986 log. of 53.69.

By Gunter’s feale.—The extent from 98 to 82, on the
line of numbers, will reach, on the line of fines, from go
to about 57°. And the extent from 90° to 33°) on the
line of fines, will reach, on the line of numbers, from 98
to about 53 miles. Thus it appears that the courfe is
N. 33° 15! E. or N.E. by N. nearly, and the departure is
53-69 miles to the ealtward.

Cafe 5.—From lat. 50° 13! N. a fhip, in failing between
the fouth and eaft 98 miles, makes her departure 82 miles.
What courfe did fhe keep, and what latitude is fhe ar-
rived at?

By the traverfe table—Againft the diftance 98 ftands
81.95, in the column departure, the neareft to $2, and
here the diff. of lat. is 53.73 miles, and the courfe is
56° 45"

By conftrudion.—Defcribe the quadrant A mc 10.)
produce Ap till A 6 = 82; ay through 4 i peak
lel to Am; from A, with the diftance 98, cut 5 Bin B;
through B-draw BD parallel to A 4, meeting A m pro-
duced in D: and the diff. lat. AD meafures about 53
miles, and the courfe D A B, meafured by the arc me, of
about 57°.

By computation. —For the courfe : dift. : rad. :: dep. : fine
courfe, #. €. 1.99123 : 10.00000 :: 1.91381 : 9.92258 fine
of 56° 47’. For the diff. lat. rad.*: dift. :: cof. courfe : dif.
lat. 7. ¢. 10.00000 : 1.99123 :: 9.73863 : 1.72986 the log.
of 53.69; fo that the lat. arrived at is 50° 13'!N.—54! =
49° 19' N.

By Gunter’s fcale.—The extent from 98 to 82, on the line
of numbers, will reach on the line of fines from go° to about
57°: and the extent from go° to 33°, on the line of fines,
will reach from 98 to about 53 miles on the line of numbers.
So that the courfe is S. 56° 47' E. or S. E. by E. nearly,
and the latitude arrived in is 49° 19! N.

Cafe 6.—A hip from lat. 48° 32! N. is arrived in lat.
49° 54! N. and her departure is 54 miles W. What courfe
did fhe fteer, and what the direét diftance run?

By the traverfe table—The diff. lat. = 49° 54’ — 48° 32!
= 82m. The numbers in the table neareit to 82 and 54
are 81.95 and 53.73; and the diftance anfwering to thefeis
98 miles, and the courfe is 33° 15’.

By conftrudion.—Defcribe the quadrant A mc p (fig. 1 r),
and produce A m, till AD = 82; through D draw D B,
parallel to A p,and = 54, and draw A B. Then the dittance
AB meafures about 98 miles, and the courfe D A B is mea-
fured by the arc me of about 33°.

By computation.—For the courfe : diff. lat. : dep. :: rad.:
tang. courfe, i.e. 1.91381 (log. of 82) : 1.73239 (log. of
54) :: 10.00000 : 9.81858 tang. of 33° 22’. For the dif-
tance : fine courfe : dep. :: rad. dift. i. ¢. 9.74036 {ine of
33° 22!) 1.73239 :: 10.00000 : 1.99203 the log. of 98.18
miles.

By Gunter’s fcale—The extent from 82 to 54, on the line
of numbers, will reach, on the line of tangents, from 45° to
about 33°. And the extent from about 33° to go®, on the
line of fines, will reach, on the line of numbers, from 54m.
to about g8m. The courfe is, therefore, N. 33° 22’ W. er
N. W. by N. nearly, and the diftance 98.18 miles.

For the method of conftru@ting or refolving compound
courfes, fee TRAVERSE.

Saitinc, OWique. In the preceding examples, the bear-
ing

‘

te a.

SATLING.

ing and diftances of places were determined by the folution
of right-angled triangles: but at fea there are many cafes
in which only oblique pofitions can be obferved ; and, there-
fore, it may not be improper to give a few examples of the
folution of fuch cafes.

Ex. 1.—Two fhips, A and B ( Plate II. Navigation, fig. 12.)
fail from two iflands, bearing the one from the other N.E.
and S.W. their diftance being 76 miles; A fails S. by E.
and B runs E. by S.; at lait they meet. How far has each
failed ?

Conftrudion.—With the chord of 60° defcribe a circle re-
prefenting the horizon of one of the places failed from ;
e. gr. of A, the northern ; draw the meridian N S, and, at
right angles to it, draw the parallel of latitude E W.
this circle lay off the S.W. rhumb So, the S. by E. rhumb
S¢, and the E, by S.,S m; through o draw A B equal to 76
miles; through B draw BC parallel to A m, meeting AC
drawn through p. Then A and B reprefent the places failed
from; AC and BC the diftances and courfes, when pro-
perly compared with the meridian, the fhips had failed when
they met at C: and thefe diftances may be meafured from
the feale A B was taken from.

Computation.—In the triangle A BC there are given one
fide A B, and all the angles, to find the other fides. Thus,
<A=5 points = 56° 15'; for So + Sp= 5 points;
< B=5 points = 56° 15! ; for BCisparallelto A m; and
<B=BAn=s5 points; and < C=CAm= 6 points
= 67° 30/.. Then by a well-known theorem in trigonome-
try, fine of C: A B:: fine of A: BC; i.e. fine of 67° 30):
76m. :: fine of 56°15’: 68.4m. And fince the angle'B =
the angle A, AC = BC; confequently A fails S. by E.
68.4 miles, and B fails E. by S. 68.4 miles. = *

Ex. 2.—At noon a headland bore N.W. by W. then
failing N.N.E. 5 miles an hour, we anchored at nine in the
evening, in a creek, 18 leagues diftant from the headland.
Required its diftance at noon, and bearing from the creek ?

Conftrudion.—Having defcribed the horizon, and drawn
the meridian and paral, in the meridian take any point A
(fe- 12.) for the fhip’s place at firft; draw the N.W. by

. and N.N.E. rhumbs, and parallel to them draw A B,
AC. Make AC = 45 miles = gh. x 5m. and from C
with 54m. (= 18 leag. x 3) cut A Bin B: then B is the
headland, and C the creek.

@omputation.—In the triangle A BC we have the fide
AC = 45m. the fideC B = 54m. and < A = 78° 45! =

points for N.W. by W. + 2 points for N.N.E. whence
BC 55.A:: AC : S, By é.0..54: 8.789 45! 22.45: 8.B =
54° 49'; and the angle C = 46° 26/; and in the fame man-
ner we fhall have A B = 39.9 miles ; confequently < oan
— <naw= < vaw= 21° 4, which taken from go®
leaves 68° 56’. Hence the headland’s diftance at noon is
39-9 miles, and its bearing from the creek is S. 68°56! W.
or W.S.W. 4 W. nearly.

Ex. merchant-fhip mecting with a fhip of war,
which had failed S.E. by E. 39 leagues from the latitude
of 45° 30’ N. informed them, that fhe had been plundered
the day before, in the fame latitude ; and had fince run 67
leagues on a direé& courfe, between the fouth and weit; and
that the pirates were cruifing about the place where they
robbed her. What courfe muft the man of war fteer to
come up with them ?

Suppofe A (fiz. 14.) the place the man of war failed from,
B the place where the merchant-man was robbed, C the place
where they met ; then the man of war mutt fail along C B
to meet the pirates, which courfe will be fhewn by cn drawn
parallel to CB. Here are two given fides, and an angle

Vor. XXXI.

In.

oppofed to one of them, to find the angle B oppolite to the
other fide AC. CB:S.< A:: AC: § 2B? fe.
67 leagues : S. 33° 45! :: 30 leagues : S. 18° 52’; confe-
quently the courfe the man of war muft fteer is N. q1° St E.
fornc B = C Be, andgo® — nc B= Nenu.

£x. 4.—Coming within fight of two headlands, bearing
north and fouth of each other; the fouthern one bore from
the fhip due eaft, and the other N.E. by E. and after failing
due eat 5 miles, the northern headland bore N.E. by N. LE.
Required the diftance of thofe headlands from one ano-
a a8 their diftance from the fhip at each time of fetting
them?

In the eaft and welt line take B A (fig. 15.) = 5 miles ;
draw the N.E. by E. and N.E. by N. 4 E. rhumbs Ba,
BD; through A draw AD parallel to Bz, meeting BD
inD; draw DC perpendicular to A B produced. Then
D andC are the headlands ; A, B, are the fhip’s places at
the times of fetting them ; and A B the diftance failed. The
angle A = CBn = 3 points; the angle DBC = 42
points; then A B D = 113 points, A D B = ti point, and
BDC = 33 points. In the triangle ABD, having the
fide A B and allthe angles given, find the fides A D, BD:
and in the right-angled triangle B C D, having the fide BD
and all the angles, it is eafy to find the fides BC, CD.
AD will be = 13.31 m. BD = 9.565 m. BC = 6.07m.
and © D = 7.395 m.

£x. 5.—Having caifl anchor, I obferved the bearings of a
tower, a mill, and a light-houfe, known to lie due eait and
weit of one another; the tower bore W.S.W. the mill S.W.
by S. £ W. and the light-houfe S. by W.5 W. The dif-
tance of the tower from the mill is 54 miles. How far
are each of thofe objeéts diftant from the place where I
anchored ? ;

Draw the given rhumbs Br, Bo, Bn, (fig. 16.) make
BA = 54 miles; produce o B till it meets AD, drawn
parallel to Br, in DC; draw DC parallel to Bn; then D
reprefents the fhip’s place, A the tower, B the mill, and C
the light-houfe. The angles are found and the triangles
folved, as in the lait example; and we fhall have DA =
g.021 m. D B = 4.466 m. and DC = 3.608 miles.

SAILING to windward. The doétrine of plane triangles
is farther applicable to this method of failing ; for the right
under{tanding of which, it will be neceflary to explain the
terms that occur in this part of navigation, though moft of
them may be met with in their proper places in this work.
See Arr, Beam, Larpoarp, STARBOARD, &c.

It may be obferved in general, that when the wind is di-
re&tly, or partly, againft the fhip’s direc courfe to the pe
whither fhe is bound, fhe reaches her port by a kind of zig-
zag, or z-like courfe ; which is made by failing with the
wind, firft on one fide of the fhip, and then on the other
fide.

The windward or weather-fide of a fhip is that fide on
which the wind blows, the other being called the leeward,
or lee-fide.

When a fhip fails the fame way the wind blows, fhe is
faid to {fail bafore the wind, and the wind is faid to be right
aft, or eer 5 and her courfe is then 16 points from
the wind. hen a fhip fails with the wind blowing direétly
acrofs her, fhe is faid to have the wind on the beam; and her
courfe is eight points from the wind. When the wind blows
obliquely actos the fhip, the wind is faid to be alaft the
beam, or afore the beam, according as her courfe is more or
lefs than eight points from the wind. When a fhip endeavours
to fail towards that point of the compafs from whence thie
wind blows, fhe is faid to fail on a wind, or to ply to wind-

O ward.

SAILING.

ward. A vellel failing as near as fhe can to the point from
whence the wind blows, is faid to be clofe-hauled; moft
fhips will lie within about fix points of the wind ; but floops,
and fome other veflels, will lie much nearer. When a fhip
fails on a wind, the windward tacks are always hauled for-
wards, and the leeward fheets aft: The ftarboard tacks are
aboard when the ftarboard fide is to windward, and the lar-
board to leeward ; and the larboard tacks are aboard when
the larboard fide is to windward, and the ftarboard to
leeward. In order to know how near the wind a fhip will
lie, obferve the courfe fhe goes on each tack, when fhe is
clofe-hauled ; then half the number of points between
the two courfes will fhew how near the wind that fhip
will lie.

The mof common cafes in turning to windward may be
conftruéted by the following precepts. Having drawn the
meridian and parallel of latitude (or eaft and weft line) in a
circle reprefenting the horizon of the place, mark in the
circumference the place of the wind; draw the rhumb pafl-
ing through the place bound to, and lay thereon the diftance
of that place from the centre. On each fide of the wind,
lay off in the circumference the points or degrees, fhewing
how near the wind the fhip can lie; and draw thefe rhumbs :
the firft courfe will be on one of thefe rhumbs according to
the tack the fhip leads with ; draw a line through the place
bound to, parallel to the other rhumb, and meeting the
firft ; and this will fhew the courfe and di{tance on the other
tack.

Ex. 1.—The wind at north, and I am bound to a port
25 miles direétly to windward, being on my ftarboard tacks,
and can lie within fix points of the wind. What muft be
my courfe and diftance on each of two tacks to reach my

ort ?

: The conftruétion being made as dire&ted, N (fg. 17.) is
the place of the wind, A the port bound to, and B the
place where the fhip is fuppofed to be, when the port is
25 miles to windward of her. As the fhip leads with
her ftarboard tacks, i. e. has the wind blowing on her ftar-
board fide, fhe muft firft fail along the line BC drawn
parallel to the rhumb An, which is fix points from the
wind ; and where the other rhumb A 9, fix points alfo from
the wind, being produced from A towards C, meets with
BC in the point C, is the place where fhe muft tack about
to reach her port within fix points of the wind on her lar-
board tacks. Since BC is parallel to An, the < B=
< NAn= fix points; and BA C = N A 0 = fix points ;
hence < C = four points; and as < B = BAC, the fide
BC = CA;; confequently, as one fide A B, and all the
angles are given, we fhall have fine of C: AB :: fine of
BAC: BC, i.e. fite of 45° : 25 m. :: fine of 67° 30’:
32.66. Hence it appears that the fhip mult fail on her itar-
board tacks W.N.W. 32.66 miles, and her larboard tacks
E.N.E. 32.66 miles.

Ex. 2.—A privateer lying by with the wind at N.N.E.
fees a floop on her ftarboard tacks, that had juft doubled a
point 18 miles to the W. by N. the floop run for her port
within fix points of the wind; the privateer gave chace at
the rate of cight knots an hour, and in four hours came up
withher. Required the floop’s rate of failing, and alfo the
courfes of both veflels?

Draw BA ( fig. 18.) to the E. by S. and equal to 18
miles; on A with 32m. = 8 x 4, cut the rhumb BC,
drawn fix points from the wind, at zw; then the privateer is
firft at A, fees the Moop at B, gives chace along the line
AC, and takes the floop at C; and Bo, drawn parallel to
AC, fhews the privateer’s courfe from the north. Here are

known two fides, A B, A C, and the angle A B C = thirtees
points. Hence we may eafily obtain the other parts of the
triangle ; and find that the floop fails N.W. at the rate of

B
3.86 m. per hour = BS, and that the privateer’s courfe is

N. 63° 12! W.

Ex. 3.—A hip that can lie within fix points of the wind,
fees a headland 21 milesto the N.E. which fhe is to weather,
in order to reach an ifland nine miles to windward of it, the
wind being at eaft. What courfe and how far mult fhe go
oneach tack, leading with the ftarboard ? ;

Draw BA (fg. 19.) = 21m. tothe S.W. BC = om.
to the E.; join AC; draw AD and CD each fix points
from the wind; then A is the fhip’s place, B the headland,
C the ifland, A D the run on the flarboard tacks, and DC
thaton the larboard. Inthetriangle A BC, we have B A,
BC, and the angle ABC = eee points ; and can hence
find the other angles,and AC. Theninthe triangle A CD,
the fide AC, and all the angles are known (becaufe < D
= four points, DCA = DCB + BCA, and CAD
= BAD + BAC), and we may find AD, DC. On
the ftarboard the fhip runs 30.19 miles on the N.N.E.
rhumb, and on the larboard 23.12 miles on the S.S.E.
rhumb.

SartinG, Current, for an account of, fee CunRENT.

SaitinG, Globular, is the method of eftimating either the

difference of latitude, difference of longitude, departure,
courfe, or diflance, from any two of them being known,
upon principles deduced from the figure of the earth; and
in this confifts the application and ufe of Mercator’s chart.
See the principles of this method explained and demonftrated
under MeribionaL Parts.

Globular failing, in the extenfive fenfe here applied to
the term, comprehends parallel failing, middle latitude fail-
ing, and Mercator’s failing ; to which we may alfo add cir-
cular failing. Of each of thefe we fhall here give a brief
account, with examples of their ufe.

SarinG, Parallel, is the art of finding what diftance a
fhip fhould run due eaft or weit, in failing from the meridian
of one place to that of another place, in any parallel of
latitude ; the method of performing which is by failing to
the parallel of latitude the place is in, keeping a’ good ac-
count, fo as to be certain whether the place is then to the
eaftward or weltward; and alfo, if poffible, to know the
longitude arrived at ; and then to run due weft or eatt, till
the fhip comes near the longitude of the given place ; where
fhe is then fure to make the port required.

The computations, in parallel ap depend on the fol-
lowing rule: as radius, R, to the cofine o the latitude of
any parallel, S, fo are the miles of longitude between any
two meridians, L, to the diftance of thofe meridians in that
parallel, D. For the demonttration of this rule, fee Mr-
RIDIONAL Parts.

From the preceding proportion is eafily deduced the fol-
lowing rule ; as the cofine of one latitude, S, is to the cofine
of another latitude, s, fo is a given meridional diftance in
the firft parallel, D, to the correfponding meridional dif-
tance in the fecond parallel, d. Hence arife the following
proportions.

idl @ 82)
onmor
Rary

DiduSis
By which all the cafes that can happen in this kind of failing
are

SAILING.

re readily refolved by the logarithms, and alfo by the fol- then the quotient, annexed as minutes to the degrees of the
San ee itd vila diffeectee of longitude of next greater meridional diitance, will give the degrees and

one degree, or fixty nautical miles of the equator, by the
firft rule.

Miles: j Bat: | Miles. Miles.
59- I I.4 29.09
pees: Hi a par 62 28.17
59-92 33 | 50-32 63 27-24
59-85 34 | 49-74 64 | 26.30
59-77 | 35 | 4915 25-36
59-67 36
59-56 37
59-42 38
59-26 39
59-09 40

' See tables exhibiting the meafure of degrees on the earth,
ae a {phere and [pheroid, under Decree.

As afpecimen of the manner of ufing this table; let the
meridional diftance correfponding to any number of degrees
and minutes be required; take the difference of the meri-
dional diftances to the given degrees, and thofe which are
next ter; multiply fis difference by the given minutes,
and divide by 60; then the quotient fubtracted from the
miles againft the given degrees in the table, will leave the
meridional diftance required.

£. g. How many miles anfwer to a degree of longitude in

the latitude of 48° 26/?
Lat. 48° 40.15 miles, ) The difference is 0.79, which mul-
Lat. 49° 39.36 miles. f tiplied by 26 gives 20.55; and this
divided by Go gives 0.34; which taken from 40.15 leaves
39-81, the miles required.

Again, if it were required to find the correfponding de-
grees and minutes toa given meridional diltance, imtermediate
to thofe in the table ; fubtraét the given meridional diftance
from the next greater, found in the table ; multiply the re-
mainder by 60; divide the produét by the difference of the
sseridional diftances next greater and lef than the given one ;

minutes fought.
_£. g. In what latitude do 46.08 miles anfwer to one de-
gree of longitude?
; From 46.63, the miles correfponding to 39°,
Take 46.08, the given miles.

The difference 0.55, multiplied by 60, gives 33; and
this divided by 0.67, the difference between 39° and 40°,
gives 49'; and, therefore, 39° 49! is the latitude fought.

We thall here fubjoin an example to each of the above
proportions or canons.

Cafe 1.—A {hip in the lat. of 32° N. fails thence due
ea{t till her difference of longitude is 384 miles. Required
the diftance fhe has run?

By conftruétion.—From any point P (fg. 20.) with the
fine of 90°, taken from the fcale of natural fines, defcribe
the are EQ; draw the chord E Q equal to 384 miles taken
from a feale of equal parts; and draw the radii PE, PQ.
From the fame point P, with a radius equal to the fine of
58° (the complement of the lat.) taken from the natural
fines, defcribe the are A B; and draw the chord A B, whofe
meafure is the diftance fought. In this figure P reprefents
the north pole; the arc EQ the equator; the arc AB a
parallel of latitude; the chord EQ is the difference of
longitude ; the chord A B is the meridional diftance fought ;
A 1s the place failed from; B the place arrived at; and the
radii PE, PQ, exprefs the meridians of the places fo
failed from and come to.

By computation.—R:S::L:D, i.e. 10.00000 : 9.92842
(cof. of 32°) :: 2.58433 : 2.51275 the log. of 325.6 the
miles of diftance run.

By the table-—Find the miles anfwering to the given
Jatitude; multiply them by the given difference of lon-
gitude; the quotient, divided by 60, will give the meri-
dional diftance fought. To 32 degrees anfwer 50.88 miles,
then 50.88 x 384 = 19537-92, which, divided by 60,
gives 325.632, the meridional diitance fought.

Cafe 2.—A fhip from the lat. 53° 36! N. long. 10° 18! E.
fails due weft 236 miles. Required her prefent longitude ?

By confiru@ion.—From the point P (fig. 20.) with the
fine of go°, and the cofine of 53° 36', defcribe the arcs
EQ; CD; draw the chord CD = 236; through C and
D draw the radii PE, PQ; then the chord EQ, being
drawn, will be the difference of longitude.

By computation.—S:R::D:L; or PC: PE::CD;
EQ; i. & 9.90574 (cof. of 53° 36') : 10,00000 :: 2.372914
(log. of 236 m. the meridional diftance) : 2.59955 (the
log. of 397-7) the difference of longitude; which, divided
by 60, gives 6° 38! W. and this fubtracted from 10° 18! E.
gives the longitude required = 3° go! E.

By the table. —Find the meridional diltance to a degree of
longitude in lat. 53° 36', and make ita divifor to the pro-
dua of the given meridional diltance by 60; and the quo-
tient will be the difference of longitude fought. Thus, the
difference of the meridional diftances to 53° and 54° is 0.85 ;
which multiplied by 36’, and divided by 60’, gives 0.51;
this taken from 36.11, the meridional diltance to 53°, leaves
35-6 for the meridional diftance to 53° 36’; then ae
= 397-7, the difference of longitude fought.

Cafe 3.—In what latitude do 384 miles of meridional dif-
tance an{wer to 500 miles of difference of longitude ?

By conflrudion.—From the point P (fig. 21.) with the
fine of go”, defcribe the are EQ; draw the chord EQ =
goo, and draw the radii PE, PQ; make EC = 384,

O02 draw

SAILING.

draw CB parallel to EP; then the arc A B, being de-
{cribed with the radius P B,:is the parallel of latitude
fought. ;

By computation. —L:D::R:S, o EQ: AB: PE:
P A, i. ¢. 2.69897 : 2.58433 (log. of 384): 10.00000:
9.88536, the cofine of 39° 49', in which lat. 384 miles
of meridional diftance an{wers to 500 miles of longitude.

By the table. —The given meridional diftance 384, bein;
multiplied by 60, and the produét divided by the given diff.
of long. 500, gives 46.08, the merid. dift. to one degree of
longitude in the latitude fought: and the latitude will be
found to be 39° 49!.

Cafe 4.—From two ports in the lat. 32° zo! N. diftant
256 miles, two fhips fail dire@tly north. How far are they
diftant from one another, when they come to the latitude
44° 30! N.? «

By confiruaion.—From the point P (fig. 22.) with radii
equal to the cofines of 32° 20! and 44° 30’, defcribe the arcs
AB, DE; draw the chord A B = 256, and draw P A,
PB; then will the chord D E be the diftance fought.

By computation. —S:s::D:id, or PA:PD:: AB:
DE, i.e. 9.92683 (cof. 32° 20!) : 9.85324 (cof. 44° 30!) 3:
2.40824 (logpof 256) : 2.33465 the log. of 216.1, the
diftance fought.

By the table.—The meridional diftances, correfponding to
32° 20! and 44° 30', are 50.7 and 42.8 ; then the given me-
ridional diftance 256 x 42.8 = 1095.68, which divided by
50.7 gives 216.1, the meridional diftance fought.

Cafe 5.—If two thips in the lat. 44° 30! N. diltaat from
one another 216 miles, fliould both fail hence dire@ly fouth,
until their diftance is 256 miles: what latitude are they
come to?

By conftruaion.—From P ( fig. 23.) with aradius of the
cofine of 44° 30!, defcribe the arc D E, draw the chord
DE = 216; and through D and E draw PA, PB;
produce D Etill DF = 256; through F draw FB pa-
rallel to PA, meeting P B in B; then an arc deferibed
from P through B and A will be the parallel of latitude
come to.

By computation. —D : d::S:s, or DE: AB::PD:
PA, i. ec. 2.33445 (log. of 216): 2.40824 (log. of 256) ::
9.85324 (col. 44° 30') : 9.92702, the cofine of 32° 17', the
latitude fought.

By the table.—To lat. 44° 30! find the merid. dift. 42.8 ;

42.8 x 256
216

correfponding to 32° 17/, the latitude fought.

Satine, middle latitude, is a method of folving the feveral
cafes of globular failing, by the principles of plain and pa-
rallel failing jointly ; and it is founded on the fuppofition, that
the departure is reckoned as a meridional diltance in that
latitude, which is a middle parallel between the latitude
failed from, and the latitude come to. This method is not
qnite accurate ; becaufe the arithmetical mean of the cofines
of two diftant latitudes is not the cofine of the arithmetical
mean of thofe latitudes; nor is the departure between two
places on an oblique rhumb, equal to the diftance between
their meridians in amean latitude ; yet when the parallels of
thofe places are near the equator, or not far diftant from one
another, in any latitude, the error is inconfiderable. The
computations, in this method, depend on the following
rules.

1. Add the latitude failed from to the latitude arrived at,
and take half the fum for the middle latitude.

2, As the cofine of the middle latitude, C, is to the ra-
dius, R, fo is the departure, D, to the difference of lon-

then

= 50.72, which will be the merid. dift.

itude, L.
e
3. As the cofine of the middle latitude, C, is to the tan-
gent of the courfe, T, fo is the difference of latitude, P, to
the difference of longitude, L: for, fromrule 2, we obtain
rad. x dep. = cof. mid. lat. x diff. long.; and from cafe 6.
of plane failing, rad. x dep. = diff. lat. x tang. courfe:
therefore, by equality and proportion, we fhall have the
rule. Hence arife the following proportions or canons.
DT Pes

Cy Ree Dink
} P: Ls: Cer

Saminc, Mercator’s, is the art of refolving the feverat
cafes of globular failing, by plain trigonometry, with the
affiltance of a table of meridional parts, or of logarithmic
tee The computations are performed by the following
rules.

1. Asthe merid. diff. of iat. M, is to the diff. of long. L,
fo is the radius, R, to the tangent of the courfe, T: whence
we have alfo, R: T::M:L, and T:R:: L:M.

2. As the proper diff. of lat. P, is to the departure, D,
fo is the merid. diff. of lat. M, to the diff. of long. L:
whence we have allo, M: L:: P: D.

3. As the difference of the logarithmic tangents of
4 co-latitudes, G, is to the tangent of 51° 38’ o! N. fois a
given diff. of long. L, to the tangent of the courfe, T:
whence we have alfo, N:G:: T: L, and T: L:: N: G.

The manner of working with the meridional parts and
Save tangents will appear from the two following
cafes.

1. Let the latitudes of two places be given, and the
meridional difference of latitude between them be required.
By the meridional parts, when they are on the fame fide of
the equator, fay tHe difference ; when on different fides,
the fum of the meridional parts anfwering to each lati-
tude, will give the meridional difference of latitude re-
quired. ‘

By logarithmic tangents, when they are on the fame fide
of the equator, fay the difference of the logarithmic tan-
gents; when on different fides, the fum of the logarithmic
co-tangents, abating the index, of the half co-latitudes,
divided by 12.63, will give the meridional difference of lati-
tude required.

2. Let the latitude of one place, and the meridional dif-

See Parallel Satine, and Meripionan

, ference of latitude between that and another place, be given ;

and the latitude of the other place be required.

The {um of the meridional parts of the given latitude,
and the given meridional difference of latitude, when they
have like names, or their difference, when they have unlike
names, found in the table of meridional parts, will give the la-
titude fought. Or, multiply the given meridional difference
of latitude by 12.63; and in the former cafe fubtraét, but
in the latter cafe add, the product of the logarithmic tangent
of the given half co-latitude, the degrees correfponding to
the tangent of the remainder, or of the fum being doublh ,
will give the co-latitude required.

The following example will ferve to illuftrate the appli-
cation and ufe, both of middle latitude and Merecator’s
failing, «

Ex,—What is the courfe and diftance from Cape Clear,
in Ireland, lat. 51° 18! N. long. 9° 50! W. to the ifland of
St. Mary, one of the Azores, lat. 37° 0! N. and long.
22° 56' W.?

By middle latitude failing. —In this example the diff. of lat.
= 14° 18! = 858 min. and diff. of long. 13° 6’ = 786 min.
fum of the latitudes 88° 18’; middle lat. = 44° o'; and
co-mid, lat. 45° 51!

By

|
.

SAILING.

By conflrudion.—Draw the meridian A D (jig. 24.) 5 de-
{cribe the quadrant A m p with the fine of go®, and the arc
E F with the cofine of the middle latitude ; make the chord
mB equal to 786, the difference of longitude; draw A B,
cutting the arc E Fin F, and draw the chord EF ; make
AD = 858, the difference of latitude ; draw D C paraliel
to Ap and equal to EF; and draw AC, which is the
diftance, and the angle D A C is the courfe. :

By computation. —For the courfe; P:L::C : LSAT
2.93349 (log. of diff. lat. 858) : 2.89542 (log. of diff. long.
786) =: 9.85583 (cof. of mid. lat. 44° 9!) : 9.81776 the tan-
gent of 33°109', thecourfe. For the diftance; fin. < C:
AD: R:AC, ice. 9.92202 (cof. of 33° 19') : 2.93349
2: 10.00000 : 3.01147 the log. of 1027 the diftance.

By the traverfe table. —W ith the co-mid. lat. found among
the degrees, and the diff. of long. or fome part thereof (if
too large) taken among the diflances, find the departure, or
fome part of it, in its column: obferving to multiply this
departure by the fame number the diff. of long. was divided
by. Then, with the diff. of lat. and dep. together, or their
like parts, find the courfe among the degrees, and the dif-
tance in its column.

Let the diff. long. 786 be broken into parts, viz. into
100 taken 7 times, and into 86; and as the co-mid. lat. is
45°51' = 45°, proceedthus. The departures to 100 in
the columns of 45° and 46° are 70.7 and 71.9; the diff. is
1.25 § part of it ig 1.0; which added to 70.7, makes 71.7
for the dep. to 100; and for 700 it will be 501.9. Alfo
the departures to 86 in the columns of 45° and 46° are 60.8
and 61.9; § of their diff. is 0.9; and this with 60.8 makes
61.7 the departure to 86; and the whole departure =

63.6.
i ee take .', of the diff. of lat. 858, and of the dep.
564, viz 42.9 and 28.2; thefe will be found together under
33° 15! for the courfe ; and between 51 and 52 dift. Sup-
pofe 514; which taken*20 times gives 1030 for the
diflance.

By Mercator’ failing.

Lat. Cape Clear, 51° 18’) Mer.parts 3597,diff. lat. 858 m.
Lat. St. Mary’s, 37° i 2393, diff. long. 786 m.
Merid. diff. lat. 1204

By conflrudion.—Draw the meridian A B (fig. 25.) and
deferibe the quadrant A mp; make AD ~ 858, the proper
diff. lat. and A B = 1204, the meridional diff. lat.; draw
DC, BE parallelto Ap; make B E = 786 the diff. long.
and draw AE. Then A is the place of Cape Clear, C
that of St. Mary’s, A C is the diftance, C D the departure,
and the angle DA Cisthecourfe.

Seay by meridional parts.—FYor the courfe; M: L
2: R:T,i. ¢. 3.08063 (log. of 1204) : 2.89542 (log. of 786)
33 10.00000: 9.81479, the tangent of 33°8', the courfe.
For the diftance ; fineof C: AD::R: AC, ive. 9+92293
(cof. courfe) : 2.93349 (log. of 858) :: 10.00000 : 3.01056
the log. of 1024, the diftance.

Computation by Logarithmic tangents.

Cape Clear’s lat. 51° 18'. Co-lat. 38° 42'. 4 Co-lat. 19° 21'.
St.Mary’s lat. 37° o!. Co-lat. 53° of 4 Co-lat. 26 30'.
Log, tang. of 4 Co-lat. 26° 30! = 9.69774
Tp rn es 19° 21' = 9.54552
D 15§22.2=G.

For the courfe; G:N::L:T, ive 318240 (log. of
1522) : 10,10151 (log. tang. of 51° 39 9!) :: 2.8. 542 (log.
of 786) : 9.81452 tang. of 43° 7/, the courfe. The diftance
will be the fame as in the former computation ; for the dif-
ference of near a minute in the courfe would not happen in
working by tables containing more places.

By the traverfe table-—Seek the merid. diff. lat. and diff.
long. together, like diff. lat. and departure, and the courfe is
given among the degrees. Then with the courfe and proper
diff. lat. find the diftance. Thus, taking », of 1204 and
786, viz. 60.2 and 39.3, they will be found together under
33° 15! for the courfe. And taking 5, of the diff. lat. 858,
viz. 42.9, and the courfe 34° 15!, we fhall have about 514
for the diftance, which taken 20 times gives 1030 the
diftance. :

JAILING, circular, or great circle, is the art of finding what
places a fhip muft go through, and what courfes to fteer, fo
that her track fhall be in the are of a great circle, or nearly
fo, pafling through the place failed from and that bound to.
This method of failing has been propofed, becaufe the
fhorteft diftance between two places on the {phere is an arc
of a great circle intercepted between them, and not the
fpiral or rhumb paffing through them, unlefs that rhumb
coincides with a great circle, which can only be on the me-
ridian or on the equator. As the folutions of the cafes in
Mercator’s failing are performed by plane triangles, in this
method of failing they are refolved by the means of {pheric
triangles. A great variety of cafes might be here propofed,
but thofe that are the moit ufeful and moft commonly recur
pertain to the following problem.

Problem 1.—Given the latitudes and longitudes of two
places on the earth, required their neareft diftance on the fur-
face, together with the angles of pofition from either place
to the other. This problem comprehends fix cafes.

Ca/e t.—When the two places lie under the fame meridian;
their difference of latitude will give their diftance, and the
pofition of one from the other will be direétly north and
fouth.

Cafe 2.—When the two places lie under the equator ; their
diftance is equal to their difference of longitude, and the
angle of pofition is a right angle, or the courfe from one to
the other is due eaft or weit.

Cafe 3.— When both places are in the fame parallel of lati-
tude. £. ¢. What is the leaft diftance between St. Mary’s,
in lat. 37° o! N. long. 22° 56! W. and Cape Henry, lat. 37°,
and long. 76° 23! W.?

Let PE SQ (jig. 26.) reprefent the meridian of St.
Mary’s, E Q the equator, P'S the axis, P the north pole,
and $ the fouth pole; and from P to A lay off. the comple-
ment of the latitude of St. Mary’s. From Q to C on the
equator, lay off the difference of longitude between the two
places; and through P, C, S, defcribe the circle PCS,
which will be the meridian of Cape Henry, on which, from
Pto B, lay its co-latitude, by deltribing the are A a, about
the pole P, at the diftance of the co-latitude. Through the
points A, B, D, defcribe a great circle ABD. Then A
reprefents St, Mary’s, B Cape Henry, PA and PB their
co-latitudes, the angle A P B, meafured by the are QC,
their difference of longitude; the arc A B their nearett
diftance ; the angle P 4 B the angle of pofition from A to
B; andthe angle P BA that of pofition from Bto A. As
the places have the fame latitude, PA = PB, and PAB
= PBA;; andif the are P I be defcribed, making the angle
A PI = 26° 433! = half the difference of longitude =
IP B, PI will be perpendicular to A B, and bifeé it,
And in the triangle AIP, right-angled at I, we fhall have
the hypothenufe A P = 53°, and A PI = 26° 43}!, whence
we can find the leg A I = half the diltance fought, and. the
a PATS eRe angle of pofition.

“or the diftance ; rad. : fin. hyp. P A:: fine of APT:
fine of AT, i, ¢ 10.00600 : 9.90235 (cof. of 37°) ::
9.65292 (fine of 26° 4 #) : 9.55527 fine of 21° 3/, half
the diltance, which doubled gives 42° 6', the whole diltance

AB;

SAILING.

AB; and this reduced to nautical miles, is 2526, which is
35 miles iefs than 2561, the diftance given by parallel
failing. :

Forthe angle of pofition ; rad. : cof. P A:: tang. A PT:
cotang. Ay, i.e. 10.00000: 977946 (cof. of co-lat. or fin.
lat-37°) 23 9.76199 (tang. 26° 434').: 9.48145 co-tang. of
73° 9’, the angle of pofition. Confequently, to fail trom
A to B, or from B to A, the fhip mutt firit fteer N. 73° 9! W.
or E. and then gradually increafe her courfe till fhe comes to
I, where it will be due W. or E.; and from thence the
courfe is to be gradually diminifhed again till {he comes to
the other port, where it will be 73° g!, the fame as the fet
outwith. How thefe courfes are to be altered will be fhewn
in Prob. II.

Cafe 4.—When one place has latitude, and the other is
under the equator: ¢ gr. what is the neareit diftance be-
tween the ifland of St. Thomas in lat. o° o’, and long.
wo’ E. and port St. Julian, in lat. 48° 51'S. and long.
65°. 10! W.?

Let A (fg. 27-) reprefent St. Thomas, A C the meafure
of the angle A SC = 66° 10! = diff. of long. about the
fouth pole S, at the diftance of St. Julian’s co-lat. defcribe
the arc aa, interfecting S C P, the meridian of St. Julian
in B, and through A, B, E, defcribe a great circle; and
A B is the diftance fought ; and the angles of pofition are at
A and B.

For the diftance ; in the triangle A C B,-rad. : cof. of
either leg A C :: cof. of the other C B: cof. hyp. A B,
i. €. 10.00000 : 9.60646 (cof. of 66° 10!) :: 9.81825 (cof.
of 48° 51! = diff. of lat.) : 9.42471, the cof. of 74° 35/,
the diftance required ; which is 4475 miles, lefs by 57 miles
than the diftance found by Mercator’s failing.

For the angle of pofition at A ; rad. : fin. A C :: cotang.
CB : cotang. A, i. ¢. 10.00000 : 9.96129 (fin. 66° 10')
2:.9-94146 (cotang. 48°51’) : 9.90275, cotang. of 51° 22!,
the angle at A.

For the angle at B; rad.: fin. CB :: cotang. AC:
cotang. B, i. ¢. 10.00000 : 9.87679 (fin. 48° 51') :: 9.64517
(cotang. 66° 10') : 9.52196, cotang. of 71° 36', the an-
gle at B. Hence it appears, that a fhip failing from the
ifland of St. Thomas, muft firft fhape her courfe S.
51° 22! W. and then by conftantly altering her courfe towards
the weit, fo as to arrive at port St. Julian, on a courfe
S. 71° 36’ W. the will have failed the fhorteft diftance be-
tween thofe places.

Cafe 5.—When the latitudes of the given places are both
north, or both fouth: e. gr. what is the neareft diftance be-
tween the Lizard and the ifland of Bermudas, and alfo what
are the angles of pofition at each place?

Lat. Lizard

49° 57' N. and long.
Lat. Bermudas

5° 14! W.
32° 25' N. and long.

66° 38! W.

Diff. long. 61° 24!

Make PA ( fig. 28.) = §7° 35', the co-lat. of Bermu-
das; Pa= 40° 3', the co-lat. of the Lizard; and with
the tangent of P adefcribe the arc aa. With the fecant of
61° 24! arcs, defcribed from P and S, give the centre of the
circle P C S, the meridian of the Lizard, and its interfection
with a a gives B, the place of the Lizard: the intercepted
arc A B of the great circle defcribed through A, B, and D,
is the diftance fought, and the angles PA B, P BA, are the
pofitions fought.

For the ilban-+ in the'triangle A P B, rad. : cof. AP B
:: tang. P A : to tang. of a fourth arc M, i.¢. 10.00000;
9-68006 (cof. 61° 24') :; 10.19721 (tang. 57° 35') : 9.877275

tang. of 37° 1! = M, which, taken from the co-lat. of the
Lizard, = 40° 3', leaves a fifth arc 3° 2! = N ; then cof.M
: cof. N. :: cof. of fide firft ufed, PA : cof. required
A B, i.e. 9.90225 (dof. 37° 1') : 9.99939 (cof. 3° 2!
21 9.72922 (cof, co-lat. or fin. lat. 32° 25’) : 9.8263
cof. 47° 54!, the required diftance.

For the angle P B A ; as this angle is oppofite to the fide
ufed in the firft proportion, tert oh the fourth and fifth
arcs here ufed are the fame as above; fin. N : fin. M::
tang. APB: tang. PBA, i.e. 8.72359 (fin. 3°2'):
9-77963 (fin. of 37° 1') :: 10.26343 (tang. of 61° 24!) :
1.31947, tang. of 87° 15‘= PBA.

For the angle PA B; fm. PA: fin. PBA:: fin. BP :
fin. P A B, i. e. 9.92643 (fin. 57° 35’) ¢ 9.99950 (fin. 87°
15') :: 9.80852 (fin. 43° 3) : 9.88159, lin. of 49° 35!=
PAB

Hence, the fhorteft diftance between the Lizard and Ber-
mudas is 47° 54! = 2874 fea-miles, lefs by 178 miles than
the diftance found by Mercator’s failing. And a fhip muft
fail from the Lizard S. 87° 15! W. and gradually leflen the
courfe fo as to ‘arrive at Bermudas on the rhumb bearing S.
49° 35' W.; whereas the dire& courfe from one to the o her,
as found by Mercator’s failing, is S. 69° 2! W.

Cafe 6.—When one of the given places has north latitude,
and the other fouth latitude ; ¢. gr. what is the neareft diftance
from the ifland of St. Helena to the ifland of Bermudas ;
and alfo what are the angles of pofition at each place ?

Bermudas, lat. 32° 25! N. and long. 66° 38’ W.
St. Helena, lat. 16° o! S. and long, 6° 15! W.

Diff. long. 60° 23!

Make Q A (fig. 29.) = 16°, the lat. of St. Helena ;
with the tang. of P a = 57°35’, the co-lat. of Bermudas,
defcribe the are a a about P ; arcs defcribed from P, S, with
the fecant of 60° 23’, will give the centre of the circle
PCS, the meridian of Bermudas, and its interfeétion B
with aa, is the place of Bermudas.. Defcribe a great cir
cle through A, B, D, and the intercepted arc, A B, is the
diftance fought, and the angles P A B, A B S, are the po-
fitions required.

For the diftance A B; inthe triangle A B P, rad. : cof.
P:: tang. PB : tang. of fourth are M, i. ¢. 10.00000 :
9:69590 (cof. 60° 23') :: 10.19721 (tang. 57° 35’) :9.89111,
tang. of 37° 54’; which taken from 106° = St. Helena’s
N. polar diftance, leaves a fifth are = 68° 6' = N. ‘Then
cof. M’: ‘cof. N%:' cof. PB : cof, AB; £. ¢. 9.89712
(cof. 37° 54!) : 9457169 (cof. 68° 6') :: 9.72922 (fin. 57°
35') : 9.40379, cof. of 75° 19/, the diftance fought. ?

For the angle of pofition P A B; fin. N : fine M::
tang. P: tang. Ay, é. e. 9.96747 (fin. 68° 6!) : 9.78837 (fim.
37° 54/) :: 0.24530 (tang. 60° 23') : 10,06620, tang, of
49° 20' = the angle P A B.

For the angle ABP; rad. : cof. P :; tang. P A : tang.
M, i.e. 10.00000 : 9.69590 (cof. 60° 23!) 2: Lopaaee
(tang. 106°) : 10.23640, tang. of 59° 53'; but this fourth
are muft be like P A, or obtufe, and, therefore, the fup-
plement of 59° 53/, or 120° 7’, is the fourth are M3; and
the difference between this and P B is 62° 32! for N, or the
fifth arc. And fin. N: fin. M :: tang. P ; tang. A BP,
i. e. 9.94806 (fin. 62° 32') : 9.93702 (fin. 120° 7!) ::
10.245 30 (tang. 60° 23!) : 10.23426, tang. of 59° 45'; there-
fore, as the angle A BP ought to be obtufe, it is the
fapplement of 59°45’ = 120° 15’. A fhip, in order to
fail from St. Helena to Bermudas on the arc of a great cir-
cle, mult firft fhape her courfe N. 49° 20! W. and bee 4

5 defle

= —o

SAILING.

Gefe& from the north, fo as to arrive at Bermudas on a
courfe N. 59° 45! W. after having run 75° 19’, or 4519 fea-
miles. The courfe by Mercator’s failing is N. 50° 5! W.
and the diftance 4527 miles. Whence it appears, that when
the places are one in N. lat. and the other in S. lat. there is
but a {mall difference between the refults found by Mercator’s
and great circle failing ; for near the equator the rhumb-lines
do not’ much differ from great circles.

From the folutions of the preceding cafes it appears, that
to fail on the arc of a great circle, the fhip muft continually
alter her courfe ; but as this is a difficulty too great to be ad-
mitted into the praétice of navigation, it has been thought
fufficiently exaét to effe& this bufinefs by a kind of approxi-
mation, that is, by a method which nearly approaches to the
failing on a t circle: upon this principle, that in {mall
arcs, the difference between the arc and its chord or tangent
is fo fmall, that they may be taken for one another in any
nautical operations : and, accordingly, it is fuppofed, that
the great circles on the earth are made up of fhort right lines,
each of which is a fegment of a rhumb-line.

On this fuppofition the folution of the following problem
is deduced.

Prob. {1.—Having the latitudes and longitudes of the
places failed from and bound to, given ; to find the fucceflive
latitudes on the arc of a great circle in thofe places where
the alteration in longitude fhall be a given quantity ; to-
gether with the courfes and diftances between thofe places.

1. Find the angle of pofition at each place, and their
diftance by one of the preceding cafes. 2. Find the greatett
latitude the great circle runs through, i. ¢. find the perpen-
dicular from the pole to that circle ; and alfo find the feveral
angles at the pole, made by the given alterations of longi-
tude between this perpendicular and the fucceflive meridians
come to. 3. With this perpendicular and the polar angles,
feverally find as many correfponding latitudes, by faying, as
rad. : tang. greatelft lat. :: cof. et eclee angle : tang. 1ft
lat. and :: cof. 2d polar angle : tang. of 2d lat. &c.
4. Having the feveral latitudes paffed through, and the dif-
ference of longitude between each, find, by Mercator’s
failing, the courfes and diftances between thofe latitudes.
And thefe are the feveral courfes and diitances the fhip muft
run, to keep nearly on the arc of a great circle. The
fmaller the alterations in longitude are taken, the nearer will
this method approach the truth; but it is fufficient to com-
pees to every five degrees of difference of lengitude, the

ength of an arc of five degrees, differing from its chord or
ay only by 0.0002.

8 an example of this method of folution; a fhip, being
bound from the ifland of St. Mary to Cape Henry, pro-
pofes to fail as near the arc of a great circle as fhe can by
altering her courfe at every five degrees difference of lon-
gitude. Required the latitude at cach time of altering the

Succeff,
Langs.

Polar Angles. ete

22° 56! 37° 00
27°56 38 05
32-56 38 56
37 56 39 33
42 56 39. 57
49 394

The column of diltances being fummed u
8261.9, which being doubled gives 2523.8 mi

) amounts to
es for the dif-

courfe, and alfo the courfes and diftances between thofe fe-
veral latitudes ?

Let the figure be defcribed, and the computation made,
as in Cafe 3. of Prob. I.; the diftance BA (fiz. 30.) is
found to be 42° 6’, and the < A or < B = 73° oj, the angle
of pofition. The triangle A P B being ifofceles, the per-
pendicular P I falls in the middle of A B ; and the latitudes,
courfes, and diftances being known in running the half BI,
thofe in the half I A will alfo be known. Let the poiats
a, 4, c, d, &c. be the places come to on each alteration of
five degrees longitude; then will the arcs P a, P 4, Pc,
P d, &c. be the re{peétive co-latitudes of thofe places, and
they are the hypothenufes of the right-angled fpheric trian-
gles PIa, P14, Plc, PI d,&c.. Inthe triangle PIB,
given P B = 53°, PBI = 73°9!, to find PI, rad. : fin.
PB:: fin. B: tin. PI, i. ¢. 10.00000 : 9.90235 (fin. of 53°)
z: 9.98094 (fin. 73°9') : 9.88329 fine of 49°51! = PI.

ee ea ee Ee o gall
ow PB= ~~ = 26943331 Pa = 21 433'; 1Pé

= 16° 432; TP c= 11° 43";

I Pd = 6° 432: and
thefe are the feveral polar angles.

21° 433 16° 433 11° 432 6° 43%!

Then rad. - -| 10.00000] 10.00000! 10.00000

10.00000 }

°

To co-tang. PI

‘
= 49°51! 9.92612 an bs | 9-92612| 9.92612
As cofine polar } 68 9 |
angle iy 9-90000} . 9-9 hog 9-99084| 9.99700
To tang. lat. 9-90735| 9-91696| 9.92312

{eee Tool
Which are 38° 56! 39° 33'1 39° 57!

The degrees and minutes fet over each column are the
polar angles ufed in that proportion, and the correfponding
latitudes itand at bottom.

Hence it appears the fhip mutt firft fail from the lat.
37° O'N. to lat. 38°5' N.; thence to lat. 38° 56’ N.; thence to
lat. 39° 33! N. ; thence to lat. 39°57! N. ; thence to lat. 40° o!
N. which is the greateft latitude fhe muft go to; and from
thence fhe mutt proceed through the latitudes 39° 57',
39° 33', 38° 56', 38° 5/, and fo to 37° o!, the parallel the fet
out from, and in which fhe is to find Cape Henry. Now
between thefe feveral latitudes, with the re{pective differences
of longitude, find, by Mercator’s failing, the courfes and
diftances. If the refult of the feveral operations, in the

quettions of great circle failing, be entered in fuch a table as
the following, it will be found convenient to the operator.

Meri.

] ;
Merid 4
| L ngs, Lats Varts. D. Lat Courfe. | Diftance
' —— —_— oe
| 300 | -65 2392.6 82.0 | 74-43 246.6
300 51 2474.6 65.2 77.44 24.0.0
300 37 2639.8 47.8 80.57 235.2
| 300 24 2587.6 31.2 $4.04 | 232.2
| 40355 12 2618.8 15.7.| 87.46 | 3079
| 203445

tance between St. Mary and Cape Henry ; differing from
the diflance found in a great circle (Cafe 3. Prot. I.) by

2.3

SAILING.

2.3 fea-miles. And the courfes the fhip mult fteer are,
firit, N. 74° 43' W. then N. 77° 44! W. &c. on the courfes
in the table, and to run the diitances 246.6, &c. miles corre-
fponding to them.

The track of a fhip, when dire€ted nearly in the arc of a
great cirele, may be delineated on the Mercator’s chart, by
marking on it, by the help of the latitudes and longitudes, the
fucceffive places where the fhip is to alter her courfe ; then
thofe places or points ge joined by right lines will thew
the path along which the fhip is to fail under the propofed
cireumftances. See, on the fubject of thefe articles, Robert-
fon’s Elements of Navigation, vol. ii. paflim.

SAILING, in a more conjined fenfe, is the art of conduding
a veffel from place to place, by the working or handling of
her fails and rudder : though what is done by means of this
latter, is more properly called fleering.

To bring failing to certain rules, M. Renau computes the
force of the water, again{t the fhip’s tudder, ftem, and fide ;
and that of the wiud againft her fails. In order to this, he,
1. Confiders all fluid bodies, as the air, water, &c. as com-
pofed of little particles, which when they aé&t upon, or move
again{t, any furface, do all move parallel to one another, or
{trike againft the furface after the fame manner. 2. That
the motion of any body, with regard to the furface on which
it is to ftrike, muft be either perpendicular, parallel, or
oblique. In the firft cafe, the body ftrikes with all its force,
which will be greater or lefs, according as the body moves
{wifter or flower. In the fecond cafe, the line of motion a5
(Plate 11. Navigation, fig. 31.) will not affe& the furface
at all, becaufe it is no way oppofed to it; nor can the
moving body {trike upon it, or touch it. In the third, if the
line of motion, A D, be oblique to the furface, D C, fo that
the angle of the incidence be A D C, then the motion of the
body in the line A D may be refolved into two directions,
viz. into AE, or BD, and into AB. But the direction
or line of motion, A E, being parallel to the furface, DC,
cannot affeé it at all: fo that the whole motion of the body,
A, in that oblique manner of ftriking on the furface, will be
expounded by the perpendicular line A B. Andif D A be
made the radius of a circle, whofe centre is at D, BA will
be the fine of the angle of incidence A DC.

Hence it is deduced, that the force of a particle of air, or
water, as A, ftriking againft the furface, DC, which may
reprefent, either a fail, or the rudder of a fhip, in the oblique
dire&tion, A D, will be to the perpendicular force thereof, as
B Aisto DA; that is, as the fine of the angle of incidence
is to the radius.

And fince what is thus true of one particle, fingly con-
fidered, will be true of all the particles of any fluid body
colleétively ; it will follow, that the force of the air or water,
ftriking perpendicularly upon a fail or rudder, to the force of
the fame, in any oblique impingency, will be as the fquare of
the radius to the {quare of the fine of the angle of incidence :
and confequently, that all oblique forces of the wind againtt
the fails, or of the water againit the rudder, will be to one
another, as the fquares of the fines of the angles of inci-
dence.

If the different degrees of velocities be confidered, it will
be found, that the forces will then be as the {quares of the
velocities of the moving air or water: that is, a wind that
blows thrice as ftrong, or moves thrice as fwift, as another,
will have nine times the force upon the fail. And it being
alfo indifferent, whether you confider the motion of a folid
in a fluid, whofe particles are at reft ; or of thofe particles
moving all parallel againft a folid that is at reft; the reci-
procal impreffions being always the fame; if a folid be
moved with different velocities in the fame fluid matter (as

fuppofe water), the different refiftances which it will receive
from that water, will be in the fame proportion as the {quares
of the velocities of that body. — r

Let HM (fg. 32.) reprefent a thip, C D the pofition of
the fail, and A B the courfe of the wand blowing towards
B. Draw BG perpendicular to the fail, and G K per-
pendicular to the line of the keel produced, HM K. By
what is faid above, the fail CD will be driven by the wind
AB, according to the dire€tion of the line BG: So that
if fhe could divide the water every way with the fame fa-
cility, as fhe doth with her head, the fhip would go direétly
to the point G, along the line BG. And if H K repre-
fents her direé& courfe, fhe fhould have got forward the
length B K, and fideways fhe would have gone the quantity
KG. But as her length is much greater than her breadth,
fo fhe will divide the water, to make her way in it with more
difficulty with her fide than with her head or ftern ; on which
account, fhe fhall not run fideways fo far as K G, but will
fall fhort of it in proportion to the faid difficulty of dividing
the water with her fide ; that is, if the refiftaace fhe finds in
her pafling through the water fideways, be to that of pafling
lengthways, fuppofe as ten to one, then will not the fhip
fideways above a tenth part of the line G K. Wherefore, if
GK be found to GL in the ratio of the refiftance of the
fide to that of the ftern, and the line BL be drawn; the
fhip will go to the point L, along the line B L, in the fame
time as it would have gone to G, if it could have divided
the water every way equally. This part, K L, is called the
drift, or lee-way of a fhip, and the angle K B L is her de-
grees of lee-way ; as the angle A B K exprefles how near
the wind fhe lies.

After this, the author proceeds to demonftrate, that the
belt pofition or fituation of a fhip, fo as fhe may make the
leaft lee-way, but go windward as much as poffible, is this :
that, let the fail have what fituation it will, the fhip be al-
ways in a line bife@ting the complement of the wind’s angle
of incidence upon the fail ; that is, fuppofing the fail in t
pofition B C ( fig. 33-), the wind blowing from A to B, and,
confequently, the angle of the wind’s incidence on the {ail
A BC, and its complement C B E; then muft the fhip be
put in the pofition B K, or move in the line B K, bifeGting
the angle CBE.

He fhews farther, that the angle which the fail ought to
make with the wind, i. e. the angle A BC ought to be
but 24°; that being the moft a es ae fituation to
go to windward the moft that is poffible. And in order
to bring this to bear ia practice, he direéts to put marks to
the fheets, braces, and bowlines of the Iower fails, to know-
when they are in their beft fituation ; and then, even in the
night, when the marks of a brace, or of a fheet, fhall come
to the cleat, one may be pretty well affured that the fail
trims well. :

To this might be added many curious things from Bo-
relli de Vi Percuffionis, concerning the different direGtions
given to a veffel from the rudder, when me with a wind,
or floating without fails in a current: in the former cafe, the
head of the fhip always coming to the rudder, and in the
latter, always flying off from it.

We fhall here fubjoin fome obfervations on the moft
advantageous angle of the fails with the keel and the
wind, in order to obtain the greateft rate of failing on an
oblique courfe. In mot fhips the fails make with the keel
anangle, AD R, (Plate 1V. Navigation, fig. 1.) of about
40° (more or lefs), when clofe-hauled. But this angle, it is
{aid, is not the molt favourable for running with the greateft
velocity in getting to windward; but it fhould be much
more oblique, fo that in large fhips, the angle ADR

Wy fhould

SAILING.

fheuld be reduced to 30°. Of all the angles AD R, BDR,
and HDR, which the fail A Z can make with the keel in
the fame courfe D R, it is obvious, that one muft be more
advantageous than the reft, in order to produce the greateft
velocity poffible in the moft oblique courfe. This angle can-
not, in practice, be rendered more acute than 30°; but it will
ferve to determine the moft favourable angle of incidence
ADV ofthe wind upon the fail, and that which is the moit
advantageous for running with the greateft rapidity on all
oblique courfes between clofe-hauled and wind abaft. In
order to eftablifh the principle which ferves to demonitrate
its utility, it fhould be recollected, that different impulfions
of fluids on furfaces are refpe¢tively as the fquares of the fines
of incidence: confequently, if we wifh to judge whether it
be advantageous to render the angle of incidence ADS, or
ADYV, ofthe wind upon the fail A Z more or lefs acute,
it is neceflary to examine, if the fquare of the fine of incidence
AF, or the total impulfion D E, increafes more or lefs than
the fquares of the fines of incidence BC and HI, or than their
correfpondent impulfions DG and D K, in proportion to
the diminution or increafe of the fines of the angle of ob-
liquity of the fail with the keel AT, BY, and HL: for,
if the fquare of the fine of incidence HI, or the impulfion
D K, does not proportionally increafe fo much as the fine of
obliquity A T is diminifhed in becoming equal to L H, it is
evident that the pofition of the fail A D is more favourable
than when it is fituated in the dire@ien DH: and if the
{quare of the fine of incidence BC, or its correfpondent
impulfion DG, diminifhes more in proportion than the
fine A T augments, in becoming equal to the other fine of
obliquity B Y, in the other pofition of the fail; it is an
evident proof that its fituation A D is ftill more favourable
than if it were in the pofition BD, and that there is even
no better fituation than A D, whether the angle of inci-
dence A D V be increafed or diminifhed.

To prove it, we fhall confider the abfolute impulfions
DK, DE, and DG, as correfponding with the fines of
incidence H I, A F, and BC, and proportional to the fquares
of thefe fines; then, on thefe diagonal lines, if we de-
{cribe the re&tangles X N and M O in order to refolve thofe
total impulfions D E and DG, it will appear evident that
the dire& effort D X, in the dire&tion of the keel, is the

ateft poffible, when the tangent A S of the angle of inci-
> as is double the tangent A R of the angle of obliquity
of the fail with the keel; for if the angle of incidence be
opened 10°, by placing the fail in the fituation H D, it will
appear that, though the total impulfion D K is augmented
in the ratio of the {quare of the new fine of incidence H I
to the firft A F, the partial effort D M, in the direétion of
the keel, will be nearly one-tenth lefs in this fituation of
the fail H D, than inthe firlt AD. The direé& impulfions
DM, proceeding from the total ones D K and DG, are
equal, becaufe thefe laft have augmented or diminifhed in the
fame ratio as the fines H L and BY have leffened or in-
creafed in proportion to the fquare of the fine of incidence
AF, and to the fine of obliquity AT. Thefe dire& par-
tial impulfions DM and D X are in a compounded ratio of
the fines of obliquity HL, AT, BY, equal to thofe
of the angles D KM, DEX, DGM, and of the total
impulfions D K, DE, and DG;; for, if the total impul-
fion augment by a movement of the fail, the fine of obliquity
dincioithes fo that from the total impulfions can at any time
be deduced the direét ones for every poflible angle oF inci-
dence. We might very well verify by calculation this de-
monttration, which proves that the tangent .A S of the angle
of incidence muft always be double the tangent A R of the
angle formed between the {ail and the keel, agreeably to the

Vor. XXXII.

fituation of the fail A Z ; fince if any other pofition be given
to it with refpe& to the wind V, whether it be in the direc-
tion H D, 10” more open than A Z, or like BD, 10° more
oblique, a refult, as D M, in the direétion of the keel, will
ever be found lefs than D X. ‘

We may here obferve, that as the vanes always indicate the
apparent direction of the wind, on all the courfes the fhip can
fail, the angle which the wind makes with the courfe, or the
keel, cannot fail being eafily known if there is no lee-way ;
let that angle with the fails be parted into two others, fo that
the angle of obliquity of the fails with the courfe may have
its tangent equal to half the tangent of the apparent angle of
incidence of the wind upon the fails. On this foundation,
it will be eafy to form a table which will always thew both
the apparent angle of incidence, and that of the obliquity of
the fail with the keel, or with the courfe. This table will
ferve for all oblique courfes, provided the after-fails cover
thofe forward only ina trifling degree ; for, fhould they be-
calm them much, they muft, for other confiderations, be
braced up a little more to the windward ; but always leave
the apparent angle of incidence of the wind upon the fail
more open than that between the fail and the keel, or the
courfe.

When it is defired to gain to windward as much as pof-
fible, without abfolutely withing to fail with the greateft
velocity, let the direftion of the coaft under the lee be fup-
pofed to make with the abfolute direction of the wind (which
mutt as nearly as poffible be known) an angle of go° ; or, in
the fea phrafe, blowing dead on fhore ; -let the angle ACE,
(fig. 2.) formed by the fail and the keel, be known to be
30°, let the lee-way be alfo known to be 10°, the angle
ECI between the fail and the courfe will confequently
be 40°, which you muft take from the total angle VCL
go°; then there will remain 50°, the half of which, 2 oats
to be taken for the abfolute angle of incidence V C E, and
for itsequal IC L; fothat the thip A B will go 55° from
the wind when fhe is clofe-hauled, and willconfequently recede
as much as poflible from the point D on the coatt, the direc-
tion of which makes an angle of go° with the abfolute di-
rection of the wind V K.

But, if the fituation CL, (fiz. 3.) of the point D, from
which you wifh to move, make an obtufe angle VC L with
the politive direction of the wind VM; then the tangent
of the apparent angle of incidence VCE muft be made
double the angle of obliquity ECI, which the fail makes
with the courfe, at the fame time that the angle I C L of the
courfe and the coaft fhall be made equal to the angle V CE,
formed by the real dire&tion of the wind V K, and of the
fail F E : fo that two confiderations muft at once be attended
to. For example, the angle A C E, formed by the fail and
the keel, is 30° ; then, according to the firft principle, it will
be neceflary that the apparent angle of incidence VCE
fhould be 49° 6'; and if the difference between the apparent
and real direction of the wind be 10°, there will be 59° 6! for
the angle which the fail E F makes with the real Mire@ion
of the wind V M: fo that the angle L CI of the courfe, and
the objeét ftood from, muft be Pound alfo to be 59°6!, and
the total angle LC V will then be 148° 12!, adhering to the
two ak. of failing with the greateft velocity, and of
getting to windward of the point D as much as poffible, at
the fame time; while the angle LC V, formed by the ap-
parent direétion of the wind, and that of the coaft from which
the thip moves, will be only 138°12!. ‘The yawing and the
different velocities of the fhip render the angle formed by the
two direétionsof the wind, (the real and the apparent, ) more
or lefs open. If the fhip has more yelocity at the fame time,
or if the courfe approaches a to the direCtion of the wind,

t

SAILING.

it will appear by the vanes that the wind draws forward, and
the angle of the two directions of the wind will increafe,
If the fhip fall off, and yet ftill preferve the fame velocity,
or if her velocity decreafe without altering her courfe, the
wind will feem by the vanes to draw aft, and the angle of the
two dire€tions will be diminifhed ; fo that whenever the fhi
fhall have velocity, or run obliquely to the wind, there wi
always be a difference between its real and its apparent di-
rection. In fhort, if the fhip run exaétly before the wind,
or haye no motion at all, there will then be no other but the
real direction of the wind fhewn by the vanes: but happen
how it will, in oblique courfes this is however certain, that
the fails are always {truck by the abfolute direétion of the
wind ; becaufe their pofition being once fixed by the braces
and bowlines, it can no more change, but continues as fteady
as the real direétion of the wind ; for they are the vanes only,
which, being moveable, fix themfelves in a middle direétion
between the abfolute tendency of the wind and the courfe of
the fhip ; whence we may eafily conclude, as we did before,
that the apparent direétion of the wind fhewn by the vanes,
is a medium between the refpeétive velocities of the fhip and
of the wind; fince that dire€tion neceffarily partakes more
of the greater velocity than of the lefs: fo that if the fhip
run E, with the wind at S. having the fourth part of the
velocity of the wind, the vanes will fhew S.S.E. 4° 30! S.
for the apparent direCtion of the wind.

Theorem of M. Bouguer.—The velocity and real direCtion
of the wind is CM (fg. 3.); fuppofe the fhip A B, of
which E F is the fail fituated at pleafure, to draw the courfe
CI, while the particles of air run in the direGtion C M: if,
from the point I, be drawn I K, parallel to the fail E F, till
it cuts the direétion of the wind V K, in the point K, there
will be given the three points C, I, K, through which draw
the circumference of a circle CI L K, and that circum-
ference will fhew the extent of the forces ating on the fhip,
at the fame time, in following the courfe C I, provided her
fail be always trimmed in the fame manner with refpe& to
her keel.

Demonflration.—The apparent or relative velocity of the
wind is reprefented by I M ( fg. 3.) in the courfe CT; and
as I K is parallel to the fail E F, the angle MI K is equal
to the apparent angle of incidence WC E. But to be more
explicit : the wind ftrikes the fail with its apparent or rela-
tive velocity IM, (and not with its abfolute velocity, be-
caufe of the motion of the fhip,) and with an angle of inci-
dence MIK=VCE: fo that, if the fhip runs clofe-
hauled or perpendicular to the direét wind VC, IM will
become in both cafes ftronger than the abfolute velocity ;
becaufe the fhip will either approach to the fource of the
wind, or not recede from it. But the impulfe on the fail is
proportional to the fquare of the velocity I M, multiplied by
the fquare of the fine of the angle of incidence M I K, equal
to the angle V C E, and the proportion M K: fine KI M::
MI: fine MK I, which gives us the triangle KIM,
fhews that MK x fine MKI = MI x fine KIM;
fquarmg the two produéts, ‘and fubftituting the fine of
the angle V KI in the room of the fine of the angle
M KI, which is equal to it, fince they are the fupplements
of each other, we fhall then have this other equation: fine
VKI* x MK’= fine K I M? MI’; whence it follows,
that inftead.of exprefling the actual impulfe of the wind upon
the fail by the {quare of [ M, multiplied by the {quare of the
fine of the angle K I M, it may be expreffed by the fquare of
M K, AA by the {quare of the fine of the angle V K I,
or of its equal VC E, formed by the abfolute direétion of the
wind V M, and the fail E F. ‘

Ye mult not forget to be very attentive to this ; vis. that

the impulfe of the wind upon the fails is in equilibrium with
the effort of the water on the bows, or that they are exa@ly
equal and contrary when the fhip is come to an uniformity of
motion, as here we fuppofe her to be. _Befides, the impulfe
of the water on the bows is proportional or equal to the
{quare of the velocity of failing C 1, fo that the fquare of the
velocity of failing C I, is equal to the a¢tual impulfion of the
wind upon the fail expreffed by the fquare of K M, multiplied
by the fquare of the fine of the angle VCE; and if S be
fuppofed equal to the fine of VC E, or of V K1, we thall
always find CI? =S*x KM* The firft term in this
equation reprefents the impulfe of the water on the bows,
and the fecond expreffes the effort of the wind upon the fails ;
and if the fquare roots of the one and of the other be taken,
it will be found CI= S x KM;; that is to fay, that the
very velocity of failing C I, will be continually equal or pro-
portional to the product of K M by the fine S of the angle
VCEorCKI. The proportion between thefe quantities
depends on the denfity o the two fluids, and on the magni-
tude of the furfaces ftruck :; but it will be the fame in all the
different courfes.

The different velocities of failing C I, have a conftant and
given proportion to the produéts S x C K and CI x fine
CIK; for the triangle C I K gives S: CI :: fine CIK:
C K, which forms this equation, S x C K = fine CI K x
CI; and all the angles C, I, K, are conftant and known,
fince they are equal, being alternate to that which the fail
makes with the courfe. But, as the velocity CI bears a
continual and conftant proportion to the produé Sx KM,
and as it bears alfo a conftant proportion to S x C K, it
follows that S x KM:S x CK:: KM: KC; fo that
the point K always divides C M in the fame proportion : the
point K is then invariable when the fail, as well as the lee-
way, are both the fame; but, in admitting thofe two hy-
pothefes, which never can deviate from the truth but in re-
ipeét to the lee-way, which is always variable in the fame
fhip, according to the different circumftances of wind, fea,
velocity, fail, and courfe, it ought then to be concluded that
all the points, I, &c. will be Husted on the circumference
of a circle; for, without that, the angles CI K, equal to
thofe which are formed by the courfe and the fail, and which
are f{upportéd on the fame chord C K, would not be equal.

Corsllary.— Adinitting, therefore, (fig. 3.) that the ve-
locities are continually proportional to the fines (whatever
they be) of the angle VC E, which the fail es withthe
abfolute direétion of the wind, provided the fail be always
trimmed in the fame manner with refpeét to the keel, and
that, in the triangle C I K, the fide C K and the angle CIK
are conftant, and the velocities of failing CI are propor-
tional to the fine of the angle C K I equal to the angle of
incidence V C E; it follows, that, all the other conditions
being the fame, the more the fine of the angle V C E is aug-
mented, the greater will the rate of failing be ; fo that, if
you want to carry it to the greatett rapidity, you have only
to make a right angle of the angle VCE formed by the
abfolute or real direétion of the wind with the fail; then the
velocity C I will no Jonger be a fimple chord in the circle
C KI, but a diameter. his holds good for all the thips
which have but one fail fet ; but, whenever they fhall have
feveral, the greateit velocity will be when the apparent angle
of incidence of the wind upon the fail makes a right angle
with the courfe ; becaufe then the fails will eafily make with
the apparent wind an angle, of which the tangent will be
double that of the angle they make with the courfe, without
their becalming one another ; while, at the fame time, the
fhip will receive all the abfolute impulfe of the wind, becaufe
fhe doesnot reeede from it, and it is the time whea the a

urface

SAILING.

furface of fail is expofed to its impulfe. The fame ad-
vantage of the greateft velocity will itill be had, when the
apparent direGtion of the wind makes an angle of 100° with
the courfe ; and in this fituation, the velocity will, in fome
degree, be increafed. Ina word, whenever the after-fails do
not becalm thofe forward, the fhip’s rapidity may always be
increafed, by trimming the fails as there direGted, but when
the fails take the wind from one another, an increafe of ve-
locity can no longer be pretended to.

We are now going to demonftrate the exactnefs of the
rule given before. When it is required to get off fhore, or
recede from a given right line with all poflible expedition,
or to keep abfolutely as clofe to the wind as the fhip will lie ;
CM (fg-3-) is the abfolute direction of the wind; the
circle C K LI marks all the points at which the fhip can
arrive with the fame fail, the fame difpofition, without alter-
ation of lee-way, and at the fame time ; and C L is the right
line from which fhe is to move. Knowing the angle that
line makes with the abfolute dire&tion of the wind V M, itis
evident that the point I of the circumference, where the
courfe ought to end, is in the middle of the are CIL, of
which C L is the chord: and all the points from one part to
the other of CI, where the fhip can come to at the fame
time, are lefs diftant from C L, fince D I, perpendicular to
C K, divides it into two equal parts, and is the longett of all
the perpendiculars which can be drawn from the cireumfe-
rence CI L: but the point I cannot be taken without ren-
dering the angle L C I equal to the angle C K I, which itfelf
is equal to the angle VC E.

- Bouguer has given the following table of the fituation
of the fails for running with the greateit velocity.

Angles of apparent In-
cidence of the Wind
on the Sails.

Angles of the apparent
Direétion of the
Wind and Courfe.

Angles of the Sails
with the Keel.

°
go

°o
180
176
174
172
168
164
161
157
153
149
145
141
137

N. B. The foregoing table can be of no great fervice,
except in the eight laft circumftances under the line a, & ; be-
caufe, in all the cafes mentioned above that line, the fails will
cover one another too much.

Obfervations.—When a fatt-failing fhip (fuch as will, on a
direét courfe, or right before it, take a third or a fourth part
of the velocity of the. wind) comes to run with the fame
quantity, or more fail, on a perpendicular to the apparent di-
retion of the wind, then fhe acquires a greater rapidity of
failing with ref{peé to the velocity of the wind; the angle
made by the two direétions, the apparent and the abfolute,
is at that time very confiderable ; it may be from 18° to
22° 30'; and if the fhip hauls quite clofe by the wind, the
angle will itill be nearly the fame; for, her velocity dimi-
nifhes: but, as it is in failing by the wind that it is moft
eflential to know the greatnefs of the angle between the two
direétions of the wind, let the angle between the directions of
the fhip’s head on the different tacks be obferved, without
paying any regard to the lee-way, but juft to the exa& point
on which the fhip ftands, before and after going about, when
ftriétly by the wind, neither too much to leeward nor to
windward ; and when you have determined that angle, from
two or three obfervations, halve it, and then you will
have the angle formed by the keel and the abfolute direc-
tion of the wind; by which you will know the quantity
fhe will come to upon the different tacks, and will never be
deceived with refpect to the lying on after having gone
about ; a miftake pretty commonly made by thofe who pay
attention only to the apparent direétion of the wind, which
always makes with the real one an angle more or lefs open
in a compound ratio of the greateft velocity with the great-
eft obliquity of the courfe of the fhip, with refpe& to the
direGtion and the abfolute velocity of the wind; things
which vary in all fhips, becaufe they have not all the fame
advantage of failing with the fame rapidity in fimilar cir-
cumttances.

In order to illuftrate, by examples, the various modes of
failing, as they depend on the different degrees and fituations
of the wind, with regard to the courfe of the veflel, the
plan of a number of fhips proceeding on various courfes is
reprefented in Plate II. Navigation, fig. 34, which exhibits
the 32 points of the compafs, of which C is the centre ; the
direction of the wind, which is northerly, being exprefled
by the arrow.

It has been obferved, in the article Crosr-HAULED, that
a fhip in that fituation will {ail nearly within fix points of
the wind. hus, the fhips B and y are clofe-hauled, the
former being on the larboard tack, fteering E.N.E., and the
Jatter on the flarboard tack, failing W.N.W., with their
yards, a, 6, braced obliquely, as fuitable to that manner of
failing. The line of battle, on the larboard tack, would
accordingly be exprefled by C B, and on the ftarboard by

When a fhip is neither clofe-hauled, nor f{teering afore the
wind, fhe isin general faid to be failing large. The relation
of the wind to fer courfe is precifely determined by the num-
ber of points between the latter and the courfe clofe-hauled.
Thus the thips c and w have the wind one point large, the
former iteering E. by N. and the latter W. by N. The
‘ai remain almott in the fame pofition asin B and y; the

owlines and fheets of the fails being only a little flackened.

The fhips d and u have the wind two points large, the one
fleering E. and the other W. In this manner of failing,
however, the wind is more particularly faid to be upon the
beam, perpendiculaire du vent, a8 being at right angles with
the keel, and coinciding with the pofition of the fhip’s
beams. ‘The yards are now more acrofs the fhip, and the

P 2 bowlines

ee

Dbowlines are caft off, and the fheets more relaxed; fo that
the effort of the wind being applied nearer to the line of the
fhip’s courfe, her velocity is greatly augmented.

In e and ¢ the fhips have the wind three points large, or
one point abaft the beam, the courfe of the Crites being E.
by S. and that of the latter W. by S. The fheets are {till
more flowing ; the angle which the yards make with the keel
farther diminifhed ; and the courfe accelerated in propor-
tion.

The fhips f and s, the firft of which fteers E.S.E. and
the fecond W.S.W. have the wind four points large, or two
points abaft the beam. In g and r the wind is five points
large, or three points abaft the beam, the former failing
S.E. by E. and the latter S.W. by W. In both thefe
fituations the fheets are ftill farther flackened, and the yards
laid yet more athwart the fhip’s length, in proportion as the
wind approaches the quarter.

The fhips 4 and gq, fteering S.E. and S.W., have the
wind fix points large, or more properly on the quarter ;
which is confidered as the moft favourable manner of failing,
becaufe all the fails co-operate to increafe the fhip’s velocity ;
whereas, when the wind is right aft, as in the fhip m, it is
evident that the wind, in its paflage to the foremoft fails,
will be intercepted by thofe which are farther aft. When
the wind is on the quarter, the fore-tack is brought to the
cat-head ; and the main-tack being cat off, the weather-clue
of the main-fail is hoifted up to the yard, in order to let the
wind pafs freely to the fore-fail ; and the yards are difpofed
fo as to make an angle of about two points, or nearly 22°,
with the keel.

The fhips i and p, of which the former fails S.E. by S.
and the latter S.W. by S. are faid to have the wind three
points on the larboard or ftarboard quarter ; and thofe ex-
prefled by 4 and o, two points; as fteering S.S.E. and
S.S.W., in both which pofitions the yards make nearly an
angle of 16°, or about a point and a half, with the fhip’s
ength.

When the wind is one point on the quarter, as in the fhips
Jand n, whofe courfes are S. by E. and S. by W., the fituation
of the yards and fails is very little different from the lalt-
mentioned ; the angle which they make with the keel being
fomewhat lefs than a point, and the ftay-fails being rendered
of very little fervice. The hip m fails right afore the wind,
or with the wind right aft. In this pofition the yards are
laid at right angles with the fhip’s length; the ftay-fails,
being entirely ufelefs, are hauled down; and the main-fail is
drawn up in the brails, that the fore-fail may operate; a
meafure which confiderably facilitates the {teerage, or effort
of the helm. As the wind is then intercepted, by the main-
top-fail and main-top-gallant-fail, in its paflage to the fore-
top-fail and fore-top-gallant-fail, thefe latter are by confe-
quence entirely becalmed, and might therefore be furled, to
prevent their being fretted by flapping againft the maft, but
that their effort contributes greatly to prevent the fhip from
broaching-to, when fhe deviates from her courfe to the right
or left of them.

Thus all the different methods of failing may be divided
into four, viz. clofe-hauled, large, quartering, and afore
the wind; all which relate to the direction of the wind to the
fhip’s courfe, and the arrangement of the fails. See Drirr
and Lereway.

Saitine, Order of, denotes the general difpofition of a
fleet of fhips, when proceeding on a voyage or expedition,
See Freer and Naval Tactics.

Satine Cove, in Geography, a bay on the S. coalt of
Newfoundland ; fix miles N. of cape Pine.

SAILLAGOUSE, a town of France, in the depart-

SAI

ment of the Eaftern Pyrenées, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftrict of Prades. The town contains 326, and the
canton 6618 inhabitants, ona territory of 4772 kiliometres,
in 24 communes.

SAILLANS, a town of France, in the department of
the Dréme, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of
Dié; nine miles S.W. of Dié. The place contains 1490,
and the canton 4448 inhabitasts, on a territory of 230 kilio-
metres, in 14 communes.

SAILLY, a town of France, in the department of the
Upper Marne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of
Wally. The place contains 259, and the canton 5891 inha-
bitants, ona territory of 2524 kiliometres, in 24 communes.
—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Mo-
felle ; 12 miles S.E. of Metz.

Sattiy Jur Lys, a town of France, in the department
of the Straits of Calais ; eight miles N.E. of Bethune.

SAILLyY /e Sec, a town of France, in the department of
the Somme; fix miles N.N.W. of Abbeville.

SAILOOR, a town of Hindooftan; 18 miles E. of
Coimbetore.

SAILOR, a perfon trained in the exercife of fixing the
machinery of a fhip, and managing her, either at fea, or in
aroadorharbour. See Mariner.

Saixor’s Horn, in Geography, a cape of Denmark, on
the W. coaft of Jutland. _N. lat. 55°32’. E. long. 8° 3%

SAIL-YARD. See Yarp.

SAIM, in Farming, a term provincially applied to the
fatty fubitance from which hog’s-lard is made. It is pro-
ae the unrendered fat which is taken out of fattened
logs.

SAIMA, in Crngeaphys a confiderable lake, partly in the
Swedifh government of Savolax, and partly in the Ruffian
government of Viborg ; 200 miles in length, and full of
mountainous iflands. The river Vokfa forms a communi-
cation between it and lake Ladoga. N. lat. 46° 15! to 46°
col. Be ee 27° 14! to 28° 4a4!.

SAIN, a {mall ifland near the coaft of France, oppofite
to the S. point of Breft harbour.

SAINCTES, Craupe pe, in Biography, a learned
French prelate, was born in the province of Perche, in the
year 1525. Atthe age of 15 he was admitted a canon-
regular in the abbey of St. Cheron, near Chartres, where
his love of {tudy recommended him to the patronage of the
cardiaal de Lorrain, who placed him in the college of Navarre
at Paris. In this feminary he went through feveral courfes
of ftudy with confiderable applaufe, and very much diitin-
guifhed himfelf as adifputant. Having entered into prieft’s
orders, and taken his degree of doétor of divinity, he was
prefented to the benefice of Belleville-le-Comte, in the dio-
cefe of Chartres, and in 1561 he was made principal of the
college of Boifly at Paris. He was now, by the recom-
mendation of his patron, employed by queen Catharine de
Medici, as a champion for the Catholic caufe, in the famous
conference of Poifly. He acquitted himfelf fo well on this
occafion, that he was feleéted by king Charles IX. to be
one of the twelve doctors who were fent to attend the coun-
cil of Trent. The fervices which he rendered the Catholic
caufe again{t the Proteftants, were confidered as fo very
meritorious, that in 1575 king Henry III. made hii bifhop
of Evreux. His zeal againtt the heretics was equalled by
the fury with which he fupported the intereils of the /eague,
whofe forces he introduced into his epifcopal city. Being
afterwards taken prifoner by the troops of Henry IV. his
papers were examined, and among them was found an argu-
ment to juftify the aflaflination of Henry IIT., for which he
was tried and capitally condemned ; but the fentence of death

9 was

SAT

was commuted for perpetual imprifonment. He died in the
caftle of Crevecceur, in 1591, at about the age of 66 years.
He was author of many works, but the moft confiderable
was a treatife, written in the Latin language, “On the Eu-
charift ;’’ and an edition of a curious colle&ion, entitled
« Liturgiz five Miffe San@orum Patrum; Jacobi Apoftoli,
et fratris Domini, Bafilii magni, Johannis Chryfoftomi.”” A
lift of all the works of this author may be found in Dupin.

SAINFOIN, in Botany, &c. See SAInTFOIN.

SAINS, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Aifne, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trict of Vervins; feven miles W. of Vervins. The place
contains 1800, and the canton 11,217 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 1874 kiliometres, in 21 communes.—Alfo, a town
of France, in the department of the Somme, and chief place
of a canton, in the diftri& of Amiens. The place contains
606, and the canton 10,448 inhabitants, on a territory of
185 kiliometres, in 21 communes.

SAINT, a river of North Wales, which runs into the
Menai, at Carnarvon.

Saint, or Biolai, acape of Ruffia, in the Frozen ocean.
N. lat. 74° 15'. E. long. 132° r4/.

Saint, a town on the N.W. coait of Borneo.
aoe long. 111° 50’.

St. 4bb’s Head. See Axs’s-Head.

St. Adrian. See Aprraxn.—Alfo, a town-of France,
in the department of the Lys; three miles N.E. of Bruges.
—Sr. Adrian. See Srerra d’ Adriana.—Sr. Egidius, or
Sr. Gilling, a town of Salzburg, on the Aber See ; 14 miles
E.S.E. of Salzburg.—Sr. Afrique. See Arrique.—Sr.
Agata, a town of Italy, in the department of the Lower
Po; nine miles S.W. of Ceuto.—Alfo, a town of Naples,
in Calabria Citra; 17 miles N.W. of Bifignano.—Alfo, a
town of Naples, in Calabria Ultra; fix miles S.E. of
Reggio.—St. Agata di Gothi, a town of Naples, in Prin-
cipato Ultra; the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Benevento,
containing eight parifh churches, one abbey, and three mo-
nafteries ; 15 miles W.S.W. of Benevento.—Sr. Agathona,
a {mall ifland of Ruffia, in the North Pacific ocean. N. lat.
63°55’. E. long. 189° 14'.—Sr. Agnan, a town of France,
in the department of the Dordogne; 15 miles E.N.E. of
Perigueux.—Sr. Agnes. See AGNes.—St. Agnola, a town
of the duchy of Urbino; five miles S.W. of Pefaro.—Sr.
~ re a town of Naples, in Principato Citra; 21 miles

- of Policaftro.—Alfo, a town of New Navarre; 35 miles
5. of Cafa Grande.—Sr. Agrévé, a town of France, inthe
department of the Ardéche, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri€t of Tournon; 18 miles W. of Tournon. The
place contains 2537, and the canton 7552 inhabitants, on a
territory of 205 kiliometres, in eight communes.—Sr. Agu/-
ting, a imall ifland near the coaft of Brafil. S. lat. 8° 30!
—Sr. Aignan, a town of France, in the department of the
Lower Charente, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri&t
of Marennes. ‘he place contains 845, and the canton 6039
inhabitants, on a territory of 205 kiliometres,in 11 communes.
—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the
Loir and Cher, and chief place of a canton, in the diltri&
of Blois; 19 miles S. of Blois. The place contains 2494,
and the canton 10,673 inhabitants, on a territory of 325
kiliometres, in 15 communes. N. lat. 48° 15/. E. long.
1° 27'.—Sr. Aignan-/ur-Roé, atown of France, in the de-
partment of Mayenne, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri&t of Chateau-Gonthier. The place contains 500,
and the canton 7544 inhabitants, on a territory of 230
kiliometres, in 12 communes. —Sr. Alban, a town of France,
in the artment of the Lozere, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diftrié of Marvejols ; 44 miles E. of St. Chely.

N. lat.

SAT

The place contains 3158, and the canton 4590 inhabitants,
on a territory of 150 kiliometres, in 3 communes.—Alfo,
a town of France, in the department of the Gard, witha
mineral {pring ; 3 miles S. of St. Alais.—Alfo, a town of
France, in the department of Mont Blanc; 6 miles W. of
Chambery.—Sr. Albans. See St. ALBANs.—St. Albrecht,
a town of Pruffia, in the province of Samland; 6 miles N.
of Pillau.—Alfo, a town ef Pomerelia; 5 miles S. of
Dantzick.—Sr. Alphonfo. See St. ALPHONSO.—Sr. Al-
vere, a town of France, in the department of the Dor-
dogne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Ber-
gerac; 15 miles S. of Perigueux. The place contains 1805,
and the canton 7164 inhabitants, on a territory of 1424
kiliometres, in 9 communes.—Srt. Amand. See AMAND.—
Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Cher,
and principal place of a diftri&t ; 21 miles S. of Bourges.
N. lat. 46° 43/. E. long. 2° 35’. See Amanp.—Alfo,
a town of France, in the department of the Nievre, and
chief place of a canton, in the diftri&@ of Cofne; g miles
N.E. of Cofne. The place contains 1430, and the canton
6456 inhabitants, on a territory of 195 kiliometres, in
7 communes.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department
of the Lozere, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri&
of Mende; g miles N. of Mende. The place contains
3382, and the canton 7637 inhabitants, on a territory of
280 kiliometres, in 10 communes.—Alfo, a town of France,
in the department of the Loire and Cher, and chief place
of acanton, in the diltri€& of Venddme; 14 miles N.W.
of Blois. The place contains 435, and the canton 5678
inhabitants, on a territory of 1974 kiliometres, in 14 com-
munes.—Sr. Amand de Boueux, a town of France, in the
department of the Charente, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftrict of Angouléme; 9 miles N. of Angouléme.
The place contains 1408, and the canton 10,404 inhabitants,
on a territory of 190 kiliometres, in 17 communes.—Alfo,
a town of France, in the department of the Puy de Dome ;
z miles N.W. of Ambert.—Alfo, a town in the fame de-
partment ; 7 miles S. of Clermont.—Alfo, a town in the
department of the Marne; 6 miles N. of Vitry le Frangais.
—Sr. Amand de Valboret, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Tarn; 13 miles S.E. of Caftres.—Sr.
Amans, atown of France, in the department of the Tarn,
and chief place of a canton, in the diftri€t of Caftres; 13
miles $.E. of Caftres. The place contains 2014, and the
canton 6959 inhabitants, on a territory of 1824 kiliometres,
in 6 communes.—St. Amans des Copts, a town of France,
in the department of the Aveiron, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftri& of Efpalion; 21 miles N. of Rhodez
or Rodes. The place contains 746, and the canton 6160
inhabitants, on a territory of 195 kiliometres, in 13 com-
munes.—St. Amant-Roche-Savine,.a town of France, in
the department of the Puy de Déme, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftriét of Ambert. The place contains
1874, and the canton 6189 inhabitants, on a territory of
824 kiliometres, in 5 communes.—Sr. Amant-Tallende, a
town in the fame department, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftrié& of Clermont. The place contains 1712, and
the canton 10,290 inhabitants, on a territory of 1674 kilio-
metres, in 8 communes.—StT. Amarin, a town of France,
in the department of the Upper Rhine, and chief place of
a canton, in the diltri&t of Befort; 15 miles N. of Befort.
The place contains 1398, and the canton 9822 inhabitants,
on a territory of 2174 kiliometres, in 16 communes.—SrT.
Amaro, a river of Brafil, which runs into the Atlantic,
S. lat. 24°.—Alfo, a river of Brafil, which runs into the
Atlantic, S. lat. 16° 55'-—Alfo, a town of Brafil, on a
river of the fame name; 50 iniles S. of Porto Sa

—Sr.

SAI

—Sr. Ambrogio, a town of France, in the department of
the Po; two miles N. of Avigliano.—Alfo, a town of
Italy, in the Veronefe; fix miles N.N.W. of Verona.—
Sr: Ambroix, atown of France, in the department of the
Gard, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of Alais ;
nine miles N.N.E. of Alais. The place contains 2250,
and the canton 10,440 inhabitants, on a territory of 2725
kiliometres, in 15 communes. —St. Ambro/e, a {mall ifland
in the Pacific ocean, near the coaft of Chili, being one
of the group called St. Felix.—Sr. Amour, a town of
France, in the department of the Jura, and chief place of
acanton, in the diftri@& of Lons-le-Saulnier ; 16 miles S. of
it. The place contains 2700, and the canton 8498 inhabit-
ants, on a territory of 105 kiliometres, in 21 communes.
—St. Anaflafia, an ifland in the Atlantic, near the E.
coait of Eaft Florida, 18 miles long, and from one to three
wide. N. lat. 29° 48! W. long. 82° 36!.—Sr. Anatoglia,
a town of Naples, in Abruzzo Ultra; 13 miles S.S.W.
of Aquila.—Sr. Andero. See Santanner.—St. André,
a town of France, in the department of the Lower
Alps, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri€& of Caf-
tellane; fix miles N. of Caftellane. The place contains
581, and the canton 2845 inhabitants, on aterritory of 4574
kiliometres, in 10 communes.—Alfo, a town of France, in
the department of the Eure, and chief place of acanton, in
the diftri& of Evreux ; 9 miles S.S.E. of Evreux. The place
contains 680, and the canton 13,032 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 265 kiliometres, in 42 communes.—Alfo, a town of
the duchy of Carinthia, on the river Lavant, the fee of a
bifhop ; 20 miles E.N.E. of Clagenfurt. N. lat. 46° 47!.
E. long. 14° 32'.—Alfo, a town of Auttria, four miles
W. of Clofter Neuburg.—Alfo, a fmall ifland in the
Adriatic; 16 miles W. of Liffa.—Alfo, a {mall ifland,
furrounded with rocks, in the Spanifh Main. WN, lat.
12° 30’. W. long. 80° 55'.—Alfo, a town in the northern
part of the ifland of Palma, well fituated, handfome though
fmall.—Alfo, a town of Mexico, in the province of Chiapa.
—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of Mont
Blanc, on the Sier; fix miles S.E. of Seiffel—Alfo, a
town in the fame department, on the Arch, near mount
Cenis; 38 miles E.S.E. of Chambery.—Sts André de
Culfac, a town of France, in the department of the Gironde,
and chief place of a canton, in the diftri€&t of Bourdeaux ;
13 miles N. of Bourdeaux. ‘The place contains 2579, and
the canton 7761 inhabitants, on a territory of 105 kilio-
metres, in 11 communes.—St. André de la Marche, a town
of France, inthe department of the Maine and Loire; fix
miles N.W. of Chollet.—Sr. André en Royans, a town of
France, in the department of the Ifere; fuur miles S. of
St. Marcellin. —Sr. André de Rozans, a town of France,
in the department of the Higher Alps; nine miles W.S.W.
of Serres.—St. André de Sangonis, a town of France, in
the department of the Herault; four-miles E.N.E. of
Clermont.—Sv. André de Valbergue, atown of France, in
the department of the Gard; 12 miles N. of Le Vigan.
—Sr. Andrea, a town of the ifland of Sardinia; 13 miles
E. of Cagliari.—Alfo, a {mall ifland in the gulf of Venice,
near the coaft of Iftria. N. lat. 45° 8. E. long. 13° 43).
See St. ANpREw.—Alfo, a town of Naples, in the pro-
vince of Otranto; three miles W. of Tarento.—Sr. n-
dreas, a town of the duchy of Carinthia; three miles S.
of Ebernftein. See St. ANpDReEw.—Alfo, atown of France,
in the department of the Dordogne; 12 miles N. of Bour-
deaux.—Sr. Andreas Berg, a town of Weltphalia, in the
Hartz Foreft, on a mountain near the Oder, in which there
are a {melting-houfe for filver, and a manufa€ture of powder-
blue; 10 miles §.S.E. of Goflar.—Sr. Andreia, a {mall

SAI

ifland in the North Pacific ocean. N. lat. 62° glia eles
long. 188° 14!.—Sr. Andres, a town of the ifland of Cuba;
55 miles N. of St. Jago.—Alfo, atown of New Navarre;
32 miles W. of Cafa Grande.—Alfo, a town of South
America, in the audience of Quito; eight miles N. of St.
Joachim de Omaguas.—Sr. Andrew, a river of Guinea,
which runs inte the Atlantic, N. lat. 4° 55’. W. long.
6° 20'.—Alfo, a town of Hungary, on an ifland of the
fame name, in the Danube; 10 miles N. of Buda.—Alfo, °
a town in America.» See St, ANpREW.—St. Andrew's bay,
cape, ifland, point, river, found. See St. ANDREw.—StT.
Andrew's iflands, two {mall iflands in the North Pacific
ocean, firft difcovered in 1710; afterwards by Capt. Car-
teret in 1767; dangerous to navigators, and lying N. and
S. about half a league apart. S. lat. 5° 28’. E. long.
131° 18..—Sr. Andrew’s, a river of Welt Florida, whi
runs into a bay of the Atlantic, to which it gives 2
See St. ANDREW’s.—St. Andrew's, a town and univerfity
in Scotland. See S¢ ANDREW’s.—St. Angel, a town of
France, in the department cf the Corréeze; three miles
from Uffel.—Sr. Angelo, a town of Auttria, in the county
of Goritz ; 12 miles S.E. of Goritz.—Alfo, a town of
Naples, in Lavora; nine miles S.E. of Naples.—Alfo, a
town of Naples, in Principato Citra; 60 miles N, of Poli-
caftro.—Alfo, a town of Naples, in Abruzzo Ultra; 10
miles E.S.E. of Teramo.—Alfo, atown of Naples, in Bari;
8 miles S.S.E. of Bittetto.—Alfo, a town of Naples, in
Bafilicata; 10 miles N.N.E. of Lauria. —Alfo, a town of
Naples, in Calabria Citra; eight miles W.S.W. of Cariati
Vecchia. —Alfo, a town of Italy, in the Lodefan ; fix miles
S.S.W. of Lodi.—Alfo, a town of Naples, in Calabria

Citra; three miles N.E. of Scalea.—Alfo, a mountain of ©

Carniola; four miles N. of Duino.—Sr. Angelo di Lombardi,
a town of Naples, in Principato Citra, once the fee of a
bifhop; fix miles N.W. of Conza.—Sr. Angelo di Vado,
a town of Italy, in the duchy of Urbino, the fee of a
bifhop, fuffragan of Urbino; 12 miles S.W. of Urbino.
N. lat. 43° 43’. E. long. 12° 28'.—Sr. Angelon, a town
of Naples, in Bafilicata ; 13 miles S.S.W. of Matera.—Sr.
Ann, atown of the ifland of Cuba; 36 miles E. of Havanna.
—Alfo, a town of the ifland of Guadaloupe, on the S.
coaft. N. lat. 16° 21/. W. long. 61° 27!.—Srt. Ann, or
Annimpig lake, a lake of Canada. N. lat. 49° 30’. W.
long. 88° 15!.—Sr. Ann, a town of Canada, on the right
bank of the river St. Lawrence. N. lat. 46° 36’. W. long.
72° 2'.—Alfo, a river of Canada, which runs into the St.
Lawrence, N. lat. 46° 38'. W. lou 72° 4'.—Alfo, a
town of Canada, on the left bank of the St. Lawrence.
N. lat. 47°2'. W. long. 70° 53'.—Sr. Ann, bay, cape,
fort, harbour, lake, point, town. See St. ANN.—Sr. Anna,
a town of the duchy of Holitein; 3 miles N.E. of Lunden.
—Alfo, a river of Brafil, which runs into the Atlantic,
S. lat. 2° 20, W. long. 45° 10'.—Alfo, a river of Brafil,
which runs into the Atlantic, S. lat. 22° 10..—Alfo, a
river of Mexico, which runs into the gulf of Mexico, N.
lat. 18° 15’. W. long. 94° 50’.—Alfo, a town of New
Mexico, in the province of Mayo; 110 miles E.N.E. of
Santa Cruz.—Alfo, a town of Italy, in the department of
the Rubicon; 6 miles S.W. of Ravenna.—Alfo, a {mall
iffand in the Atlantic, near the coait frica, S.E. of
St. Thomas.—Alfo, a fmall ifland in the Atlantic, near the
coalt of Brafil; 20 miles N.E. of Maranhao.—Alfo, a
town of Brafil, in the government of Ilheos; 20 miles
S.W. of St. Jorge.—Allo, a town of South America, in
the government of Buenos Ayres; 205 miles E. of Cor-
rientes.—S1. Anna-ter-Muyden, a town of Flanders ; 2 miles
W. of Sluys.—Sr. dnnaperg, a town of Auttria; “a

miles

-

|
.
|
.
|

SAI

miles S. of St. Polten.—Sr. Ann’s Bay, kc. See St. ANN’s.
—Sr. Ann’s Head, a cape on the S.E. coaft of the
Ifle of Man; 5 miles N.E. of Longnefs Point.—Sr.
Ann’s Iflands, three {mali iflands in the bay of St.
Luis de Maranhao.—Sr. Ann’s Point, a cape on the S.
coaft of Cornwall.» N..lat. 50° 8!. W. long. ‘4° 52'.—Sr.
Anne, a town of the ifland of Marigalante. N. lat. 15° 54’.
W. long. 60° 58!.—Sr. Anne’s River, a river of Canada,
which runs into the St. Lawrence, 30 miles above Quebec.
—Sr. Anne’s bay, cape, foreland, gulf, harbour, ifland. See
St. Anxe’s.—St. Antheme, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Puy de Dome, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftri@ of Ambert; 7 miles E. of Ambert. The
place contains 3007, and the canton 6284 inhabitants, on a
territory of 135 kiliometres, in five communes.—Sr. An-
thony. See St. ANTHONY.—Sr. Antioco, anciently Exo/is,
an ifland about two miles from the S.W. coaft of Sardinia,
14 miles long and from two to four wide. N. lat. 39° 6'. E.
long. 8° 34'.—Sr. Antoine, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Ifere; 4 miles W.N.W. from St. Marcellin.—
St. Antonin, a town of France, in the department of the
Aveiron, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of
Villefranche ; 21 miles N.W. of Alby. The place con-
tains 5396 and the canton 12,857 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 210 kilometres, in 21 communes.—Sr. Antonio.
See St. ANTHONY.—St. Antonio, a town of Iftria; 3 miles
S.E. of Capo d’Iitrian—Alfo, a cape on the N. coaft
of the ifland of Rhodes; 8 miles N.W. of Rhodes.—
Alfo, a town in the ifland of Cuba; 25 miles S.W. of the
Havanna.—Alfo, a town of Peru, in the diocefe of La
Paz; 25 miles W. of Chucuito.—Alfo, a town of New
Granada; 40 miles N. of Pamplona.—Alfo, a river of Bra-
fil, which-runs into the Atlantic, S. lat. 15° 25'.—Alfo, a
town of Paraguay ; 330 miles E. of Affumption.—Alfo,
a town of South America, in the province of Cordova; 70
miles N. of Cordova.—Alfo, a town of South America, in
the province of Tucuman; 18 miles N. of St. Jago del
Eftero.— Alfo, a town of South America, in the province
of Carthagena; 40 miles S. of Tolu.—Alfo, a town of
Brafil, on a river of the fame name, near the coatt of the
Atlantic; 50 miles N. of Porto Seguro.—Alfo, a river of
Mexico, which runs into the Spanifh Main, N. lat. 9° 33.
W. long. 82° 48’. For other towns, &c. of this name,
fee St. Anvonio.—St. Antonio de Amaguajes, a town of
South America, in Popayan; 100 miles E.S.E. of Palto.—
St. Antonio de Senecu, a town of New Mexico; 150 miles
S. of Santa Fé.—Sr. Antonio de Uruba, a town of Brafil,
in the government of Ilheos, on the river Francifco; 200
miles Ww. of St. Salvador.—Sv. Antonio in der Heyde, atown
of France, in the department of the Roer; 14 miles N.W.
of Dufleldorf.—S+. Antonio de Laredo, a f{ea-port town of
Spain, in Bifeay, near a mountain of the fame name; 12
miles W. of Laredo.—Sr. Antonio de Cabo. See ANTONIO.
—Sr. Antonio rat or Tonnicflein, a town of France, in
the department of the Rhine and Mofelle; 4 miles N.W.
of Andernach.—Sr. Arcangelo, a town of Naples, in Bafili-
cata; 14 miles W. of Turfi.—Sv. Arnould, a town of
France, in the department of the Seine and Oife ; 27 miles
5.5.W. of Paris. —St. Arfiero, a town of Naples, in Prin-
cipato Citra; 16 miles N.N.W. of Policaftro.—Sr. Afaph.
See St. Avarny, inferting in that article Bagot for Shipley.—
St. Aflier, a town of France, in the department of the
Dordogne; 9 miles S.W. of Perigueux.—Sr. Aubin, a
town of Jerfey, fituated on a bay of its name (fee Aupin),
with a fafe harbour, defended by a caftle ; 3 miles W. of
St. Helier. See Junsey.—St. Aubin, a town of France,
in the department of the A veiron, and chief place of a
I

SAI

canton, in the diftriét of Villefranche. The place contains
2935, and the canton 10,827 inhabitants, on a territory of
1go kiliometres, in 16 communes. —Alfo, a town of France,
in the department of the Jura; 7 miles S.W. of Dole.—
Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Meufe ;
to miles E.S.E. of Bar-le-Duc.—Sr. Aubin @’ Arquenay,
a town of France, in the department of the Calvados ; 4
miles N.N.E. of Caen.—Svr. Aubin d’ Aubignz, a town of
France, in the department of the Ille and Vilaine, and chief
place of a canton, in the diftri€ of Rennes; 9 miles N. of
Rennes: The place contains 106, and the canton 1254.76
inhabitants, on a territory of 235 kiliometres, in 14 com-
munes.—St. dubin du Cormier, a town of France, in the
department of the Ile and Vilaine, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftriét of Fougeres; 9 miles S.W. of it.
The place contains 1102, and the canton 8832 inhabitants,
on a territory of 185 kiliometres, in 10 communes.—Sr.
Aubin de Luigné, a town of France, in the department of
the Maine and Loire; g miles S.W. of Angers.—Sr.
Aubin de Terre Gate, a town of France, in the department of
the Channel ; g miles S. of Avranches.— Sr. Aubin des Ponts
de Cés, a town of France, in the department of the Maine
and Loire; 3 miles S. of Angers.—Sr. dvé, a town of
France, in the department of the Morbihan; 2 miles N. of
Vannes.—Sr. Augel, a town of France, in the department
of the Correze ; 5 miles S.S.W. of Uffel.—Sr. Auguflin, a
town of the ifland of Cuba; 30 miles S.E. of Havanna.—
Alfo, a town of Canada, on the river St. Lawrence; 10
miles S.W. of Quebec.—Alfo, a mountain on the W. coatt
of North America, at the entrance of Cook’s river.—Sr.
Augufline. See St. AuGustine.—For Bay and Cape, fee the
fame.—Sr. Avit, a town of France, in the department of
the Gers; 5 miles N. of Leftoure.—Sr. Aulaye, a town
of France, in the department of the Dordogne, and
chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of Riberac,
9 miles S.W. of it. The place contains 1064, and the
canton 8914 inhabitants, on a territory of 3024 kiliome-
tres, in 14 communes.—Sr. Avold, a town of France, in
the department of the Mofelle, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftriét of Sarraguimines; 9 miles E. of Metz. The
place contains 3340, and the canton 11,211 inhabitants, on
a territory of 180 kiliometres, in 26 communes. N. lat.
48°.9'. KE. long. 6° 48'.—Sr. Auflin, a lake of America,
in the ftate of-Vermont ; 30 miles N. of Bennington.—Sr.
Aufile. See Austin.—Sr. Ay, a town of France, in the
department of the Loiret, on the Loire; 6 miles S.W. of
Orleans.

Sr. Babel, a town of France, in the department of the
Puy de Dome; 13 miles E. of Brioude.—Sr. Baldrin’s
Cradle, a cape of Scotland, on the N.E. coalt of the county
of Haddington; 3 miles N.W. of Dunbar.—Sv. Barbara,
a river of Africa, which runssinto the Atlantic, N. lat. 4°

o!. E. long. 5° 52'.—Alfo, a fea-port, on the E. coatt
of the ifland of Curagao.—Alfo, a town of the ifland of

Sardinia; 14 miles 5.S.W. of Cagliari.—Alfo, a town of

the duchy of Stiria; 4 miles N.N.W. of Pettau.—Sr. Bar-
bara, bay, canal, channel, ifland, and town of. See St. Bar-
BARA.—Sv. Barbe, a town of France, in the department
of the Volges; 18 miles N.E. of Epinal.—Alfo, a chan-
nel in the Straits of Magellan, on the fide of Terra del
Fuego. S. lat. 53° 55’. W. long. 72°.—Sv. Barbe, or
Purling, a {mall ifland in the Eatt Indian fea, N. lat. 0° 2!.
E. long. 1079 36'.—Sr. Barbe, peed and town af. See
3

St. Banse.—St. Barnabas. See BAnNABAS and BARNABE.
—Sr. Barthelemy, a town of France, in the department of
the Lot and Garonne; 8 miles N. of Tonneins.—S7r. Bar-

tholome, a town of Bavaria, near the Konigfee ; 7 miles
5.5.W.

SAI

S.S.W. of Berchtefgaden.—St. Bartholomeo, a town of
Mexico, in the province of Chiapa, peopled chiefly with
Indians.—Alfo, a town of Naples, in Otranto; 19 miles
E.S.E. of Matera.—Alfo, a town of Naples, in Capita-
nata; 6 miles S. of Volturara—Alfo, a town of South
America, in the audience of Quito, on the river Napo; 5
miles N.W. of St. Jofef de Hualés.—Sr. Bartholomeo de
Xongopani, a town of New Mexico.—Sr. Bartholomew. See
St. BARTHOLOMEW.—Alfo, a river of Africa, which runs
into the Atlantic, N. lat. 4° 40’. E. long. 6°.—Sr. Barto-
lomeo, a town of Granada, on the Madalena; 100 miles N.
of Mariquita.—Alfo, a town of New Navarre; 20 miles
W. of Cafa Grande.—Sr. Ba/ile. See St. Basire.—Sr.
Batello. See St. Batretto.—Sr. Baume. See St. BAUME.
—Sr. Bauzely, a town of France, in the department of the
Aveiron, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of
Milhau ; 6 miles N.W. of it. The place contains 823, and
the canton 5850 inhabitants, on a territory of 2424 kilio-
metres, in 12 communes.—Sv. Bazeille, a town of France,
in the department of the Lot and Garonne; 1 mile N.W.
of Marmande.—Sr. Bauzille de Putois, a town of France,
in the department of the Herault; 18 miles N. of Mont-
pellier.—Sr. Beat, a town of France, in the department of
the Upper Garonne, on the river Garonne ; the houfes of
which are built of marble, no other ftone being found in
that neighbourhood; 32 miles S.E. of Tarbes.—Alfo,
Mountains of. See St. Beat.—Srt. Bees-head. See St.
Bres-Head.—Sr. Bel. See St. Bet.—Sr. Bellino. See
St. Bettiso.—Sv. Benedetto. See St. BenepETTO.—ST.
Benedi&. See St. Benepict.—Sr. Benin d’ Azy, a town
of France, in the department of the Nievre, and chief place
of a canton, in the diftri&t of Nevers. The place contains
1583, and the canton 10,565 inhabitants, on a territory of
350 kiliometres, in 21 communes.—St. Benito. See St.
Benito.—Srt. Benoifl. See St. Benoist.—St. Bernard.
See St. BeRNARD.—St. Bernardino, a {mall ifland among
the Philippines, near the coaft of Lugon. N. lat. 12° 54’.
E. long. 124° 14!—Sr. Bernardo. See St. BErNARDO.—
Alfo, a {mall ifland in the lake of Nicaragua; 12 miles
N.W. of St. Sebaftian.—Alfo, a clufter of {mall iflands in
the Spanifh Main. | N. lat. 9° 36’. W. long. 75° 46'.—Sr.
Berthevin. See St. BERTHEVIN.—Sv. Bertel, a town of Swe-
den, inthe government of Abo; 30 miles E. of Abo. —Srt.
Bertrand de Comminges. See St. BERTRAND, &c.—St. Biagio.
See St. Bracio.—Sr. Biafi. See St. Brast.—Srt. Blain,
a town of France, in the department of the Upper Marne,
and chief place of a canton, in the diftri of Chaumont ;
15 miles N.E. of Chaumont. The,place contains 486, and
the canton 5021 inhabitants, on a territory of 205 kilio-
metres, in 15 communes.—Sr. Blaife. See St. BLatsE.—
St. Blancat. See St. BLANcAT.—SrT. Blas. See St. Bias.
—Sr. Blafe. See St. Buase.—Srt. Bonifacio, a town of
Italy, in the Veronefe; 15 miles E. of Verona.—Sr. Bonnet.
See St. Bonnet.—Sr. Borja, a town of South America,
in the province of Moxes; 100 miles N.W. of Trinidada.
—Sr. Boy. See St. Boy.—Sr. Brances. See St. BRances.
—Sr. Branchier. See St. BRANcHIER.—St. Brelade’s Bay.
See St. Brecape’s.—Srt. Briac. See St. Briac.—Sr.
Brice. See St. Brice.—Sr. Bride’s Bay. See St. Brive’s,
&c.—Sr. Brieuc. See St. Brizuc.—St. Briffon. See St.
Brisson.—St. Buenventura, a town of Peru, in the dio-
cefe of Lima; 35 miles E. of Nafca.—Sr. Buono, a town
of Naples, in Abruzzo Citra; 15 miles N.E. of Civita
Borella.

Sr. Calais. See St. Carats.—Sr. Calogero, and Calo-
guro. See St. CALOGERO, &c.—St. Canciano, or St. Rofien,
a town of Carniola; 1o miles N.E. of Tricite.—Sr. Canice,

SAM

or Lrifotown, in the county of Kilkenny, Ireland, adjacent
to the city of Kilkenny on the N.N.W.,, and fo united with
it as to appear one town. It has, however, peculiar privi-
oi pi by er amongtt which, before the Union, was that
of being reprefented by two members in the Irifh parliament,
At this place is one of the ancient round towers, and in it
ftand the cathedral and bifhop’s palace. See KitKenny,
—Sr. Caradeo, a town of France, in the department of the
North Coats; 4 miles W. of Loudeac.—Sr. Carlos. See
St. CarLos.—Alfo, a fettlement and miffion of Spanifh
monks in New Albion, for the purpofe of converting the
Indians ; 3 miles S.S.E. of Monterey.—Sr. Carlos Jj >
a clufter of iflands in the Pacific ocean, near the weft coaft
of America; the moft confiderable being about two leagues
in circumference. N. lat. 54° 48’. W. long. 134°.—Sr.
Cafimiro, a town of New Mexico, in New Navarre; 225
miles W. of Cafa Grande.—Sr. Caffano. See Cassano.—

St. C4 ino, a town of Italy, in the Trevifan; 7 miles E. of —

Ceneda.—Sr. Caf? Bay, a bay of che Englifh Channel, on
the weft coaft of France, fo named from a village, 10 miles
W. of St. Maloes. N. lat. 48° 34’. W. long. 2° 10',—
Sr. Cataldo, a town of Naples, in the province of Otranto,
on the coait; 8 miles E. of Lecce.—Sr. Catalina, a town
of Mexico, in the province of Xalifco ; 12 miles N. of Com-
pottella.—Alfo, a town of New Mexico, in New Nayarre ;
30 miles S.W. of Cafa Grande.—AlIfo, an ifland in the
Pacific ocean, about 40 miles in circumference, and 16 miles
from the coaft of New Albion. N. lat. 33° 25!. E. long,
241° 54'.—Alfo, a {mall ifland in the Pacific ocean, between
Chiloe and the coaft of Chili. S. lat. 46°.—Alfo, a town
of Mexico, in New Bifcay ; 140 miles S.S.W. of Parral.—
Alfo, a {mall ifland in the Caribbean fea. N. Jat. 13° 20%
W. long. 81°.—Alfo, a town of South America, in the
province of Cordova; 36 miles N. of Cordova.—Sr. Gata-
rina, a town of Naples, in Calabria Ultra; 15 miles S. of
Squillace.x—Sr. Catharina, a town of the duchy of Ca-
rinthia; 6 miles W. of Tarvis.—Srt. Catherina, an ifland
in the gulf of Venice, near the coaft of Iftria. N. lat. 45°
g'. E. long. 13°44'.—Alfo, a town of Naples, in Calabria
Citra; 12 miles E. of Cofenza.—Alfo, a town of the ifland
of Malta; 4 miles S. of Malta.—Alfo, an ifland in the Medi-
terranean, about five miles in circumference, near the ifland
of Rhodes. N. lat. 36° 5’. E. long. 27° 33'.—Sr. Catha-
rina de Torre, a town of Portugal, in Algarve; 5 miles N.
of Tavira.—Sr. Catherine. See St. CATHERINE.—Alfo,
a {mall ifland near the fouth coaft of Wales, fouth of Tenby.
—Alfo, a {mall ifland near the fouth coait of Hifpaniola.
N. lat. 18° 13/. W. long. 70° 19’—Alfo, an ifland in the
Atlantic, near the coaft of Georgia, 16 miles in circum-
ference. N. lat. 31° 32/. W. long. 81° 22'.—Sr. Cathe-
rine’s Bay. See St. CATHERINE.—Sv. Catherine de Fierbois,
a town of France, in the department of the Indre and Loire,
celebrated for its plums; 13 miles S. of Tours.—Sr. Cathe-
rine’s Fork, ariver of Weit Florida, which runs into the
Miflifippi, N. lat. 31° 36'.. W. long. 91° 28.—Sr. Cathe-
rine’s Point, acape on the fouth coatt of the Ifle of Wight.
N. lat. 50° 35’. W. long. 1° 19'.—Sr. Catherine’s Sound.
See St. CATHERINE.—ST. Cayetano, a town of Brafil, on
the Rio Negro; 130 miles W. of Fort Rio Negro
Cecilia, a river of Eat Florida, which runs into the At-
lantic, N. lat. 29° 53'. W. long. 81° 38’—Sr. Ceré. See
St. Cert.—Srt. Cernin. See St. Cernix.—St. Ce/ario.
See St. Cesanio.—Sr. Chamand, a town of France, in the
department of the Cantal; 9 miles N. of Aurillac.—Sr.
Chamant, a town of France, in the department of the Cor-
reze; g miles S.S.E, of Tulle.—St. Chamas, a town of
France, in the department of the Mouths of the Rhone,

celebrated

—SrT. -

S A‘l

celebrated for its olives; 18 miles W..of Aix.—Sr. Cha-
mond. See St. CHAMoND.—St. Chaptes, a town of France,
in the department of the Gard, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftri@ of Uzés; 7 miles S.W. of Uzés. The-place
contains 474, and the canton 7260 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 210 kiliometres, in 17 communes.—St. Charles.
_ See St Cuartes.—Sr. Chartier. See St. CHARTIER.—
St. Chef. See St. Coer.—Sr. Chely. See St. CHELY.—
Sr. Chinian. See St. Cotntan.—Sv. Chirico, a town of
Naples, in Bafilicata; 1o miles S.E. of Acerenza.—Sr.
Cbriflina, a town of Naples, in Calabria Ultra; 2 miles S.
of Oppido.—Svt. Chriflina, a town of Spain, in Galicia;
6 miles from Lugo.—Sr. Chriflina.. See St. CHRISTIANIA.
—St. Chriffefle, atown of Auttria; 9 miles S. of Tullo.—
St. Chriflogoro, 2 town of Naples, in Capitanata; 11 miles
W. of Manfredonia.—Sr. Chriffophe, a town of France, in
the department of the Indre, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftri& of Iffoudun. The place contains 460, and
the canton 7984 inhabitants, on a territory of 2574 kilio-
metres, in 12 communes.—Alfo, a town of France, in the
department of the Indre and Loire, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftri@ of Tours; 15 miles N.N.W. of
Tours. The place contains 1950, and the canton 12,114
inhabitants, on a territory of 327% kiliometres, in 13 com-
munes.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the
Saone and Loire; 5 miles N. of Marcigny.—Alfo, a town
of France, in the department of the Ifere ; 6 miles S.W. of
Grenoble.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of
the Mayne and Loire ; 16 miles N. of Chollet.—Sr. Chri/-
topher. See St. Curisropuer.—Sr. Chriflopher de Mont-
ferrand, a town of France, in the department of the Dor-
dogne ; 7 miles S.W. of Belvez.—Sr. Chrifloval, a town
of Chili; 30 miles E. of La Conception. S. lat. 36° 4o!.
W. long. 72° 46'.—Alfo, an ifland in the Pacifie ocean,
about 110 leagues in circumference, difcovered by Mendana
in 1575. S. lat. 6° 50'. FE. long. 152° 30'.—Alfo, a town
of South America, in the province of Cordova; 22 miles
N.W. of Cordova.—Alfo, a town of New Mexico; 10 miles
S.*of Santa Fé.—Alfo, a‘town of New Mexico, on the
Bravo; 60 miles E. of Sumas.— Alfo, a town of Mexico,
in the province of Vera Paz; 20 miles S.S.W. of Vera Paz.
—Alfo, a town of South America, in Grenada; 60 miles
N. of Pamplona. N. lat. 7° 4!. W. long. 71° 10!.—Sr.
ot wir ted Lampengui, a mountain of Chili, abounding in
Id, filver, iron, lead, copper, and tin; fituated near
Dobaitobo,—-Sr. Chrifloval de Laguna. See Lacuna.—
Str. Chrifloval Bay. See St. Cunitsrovar.— Sr. Chrif-
towan, a river of Africa, which runs into the Indian fea,
S. lat. 32° 20'.—Sr. Chriflovao, a town of Brafil, in the
government of St. Salvador, near the coalt ; 20 miles N. of
Sergiy S. lat. 11° 30'.—Alfo, a town of Brafil; 10
miles N.W. of Rio Janeiro.—Sr. Ciers, a town of France,
in the department of the Gironde ; 12 miles N. of Bourg.—
Sr. Cire, atown of France, in the department of the Rhone
and Loire; 3 miles N. of Lyons.—Sr. Cirg, a lake of
France, in the department of the Lot ; 9 miles E. of Ca-
hors.—Sr. Clair. See St. CLain.—Sr. Claire fur Epte, a
town of France, in the department of the Eure, on the river
Epte; 7 miles S.W. of Gifors.—Sr. Claire, a {mall ifland
in the Indian fea, near the eaft coaft of Madagafcar. S. lat.
24° 54'. E. long 47° 10.—Sr. Clar. Sce St. Crar.—
81. Clare, or Clere, a town or rather village in South Wales,
in the county of Carmarthen, on the Tave. Here was for-
merly a caftle, and an alien priory of Cluniacs, which was
fupprefled by Henry VI., and given to All-Souls college
in Oxford. In 1215 the town was taken by Llewelyn ap
Jorwath, and the caltle levelled with the ground. In 1256
Vor. XXXI.

DaAeT

it was taken by Llewelyn ap Gryffyth; ro miles W. of
Carmarthen.—Sr. Claude. See St. CLacpe.—Sr. Clement,
a town of France, in the department of the Higher Alps ;
7 miles N. of Embrun.—Alfo, a town of France, in the
department of the Yonne; 2 miles N. of Sens.—Alfo, a
town of the duchy of Holftein 5" 5 miles S. of Weflingburen.
—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Cor-
reze; 6 miles N.W. of Tulle.—Alfo, a {mall ifland in the
Englifh Channel, near the coaft of Cornwall; 2 miles S. of
Penzance. N. lat. 50° 6'. W. long. 5° 35'.—Sr. Clement
de la Place, a town of France, in the department of the
Mayne and Loire; 7 miles N.W. of Angers.—Sr. Cke-
ment’s Point, acape on the fouth coaft of Cornwall, on the
weit fide of Mount’s bay. _N. lat. 50° 6’. W. long. 5° 23!.
—Sr. Clemente, a town of Spain, in New Cattile; 18 miles
S.-W. of Alarcon.—Alo, an ifland in the Pacific ocean,
about 25 miles in circumference, and 40 from the coalt of
New Albion. N. lat. 33°.. E. long. 241° 56'.—Sr. Cloud,
a town of France, in the department of the Charente; 18
miles N.N.E. of Angoulefme.—Alfo, a town of France,
in the department of the Seine and Oife, where the kings of
France had a palace, fituated on an eminence near the Seine ;
before the’ revolution the fee of a bifhop, and a duchy
united to the archbifhopric of Paris; 15 miles W. of Paris.
—Sr. Coloma, a town of Spain, in Catalonia; 12 miles
E.S.E. of Cervera.—Sr. Colombe, a town of France, in the
department of the Aude; 13 miles S.W. of Limoux.—
Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Eure;
to miles N.E. of Evreux.—Sr. Columb. See St. Cotums.
—Sr. Columbano, a town of Italy; 8 miles S. of Lodi.—
St. Combado, or St. Comba di Dao, a town of Portugal, in
Beira; 15 miles S.W. of Vifeu.—Sr. Combe, a town of
France, in the department of the Rhine and Loire, on the
eaft fide of the Rhone, oppofite to Vienne.—Sr. Come, a
town of France, in the department of the Aveiron ; 15 miles
N.E. of Rhodez.—Sr. Conftant, a town of France, in the
department of the Cantal; 18 miles S.W. of Aurillac.—
Sr. Conflantin, a town of Naples, in Bafilicata; 14 miles

‘S. of Turfi.—Sr. Co/mo, an ifland in the gulf of Venice,

near the coaft of Friuli. N. lat. 45°46’. E. long. 13°25).
—Alfo, atown of South America, in Paraguay ; 190 miles
E. of Corrientes.—Sr. Cofmo de Vair, a town of France,
in the department of the Sarthe; 6 miles S.S.E. of Ma-
mers.—Sr. Coulombo, a town of France, in the department
of the Tle and Vilaine’; 4 miles N.E. of St. Malo.—Sr.
Croce, a town of the Ligurian republic; 2 miles S.W. of
Spezza.— Alfo, a town of Auftria; 10 miles E. of Goritz.
—Alfo, a town of Italy ; 7 miles S.E. of Belluno.—Alfo,
a town of Italy; 10 miles N. of Bergamo.—Alfo, a town
of Sicily, in the valley of Noto; 14 miles N.W. of Modica.
—Alfo, a river of Sicily, which runs into the fea on the
fouth coalt, N. lat. 36° 45’. E. long. 13° 34!.—Sr. Croix.
See St, Crorx.—Alfo, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Upper Rhine; 3 miles $.S.E. of Colmar.—
Alfo, a river of Patagonia, which runs into the Atlantic,
S. lat. 50° 25'.—Alfo, a river of America, in the diftri&
of Main, which runs into the Atlantic, N. lat. 45° 10’.
W. long. 67° 5’.—Alfo, a river of Canada, which runs into
the river St. Maurice, 33 miles above Quebec.—Alfo, a
river of North America, which runs into the Miffifippi,
N. lat. 44° 32'. W. long. 93° 15'.—Alfo, a town of Ca-
nada, on the St. Lawrence; 18 miles S.W. of Quebec. —
Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Arriege ;
g miles N. of St. Girons.—Sr. Croix de la Hayme, atown
of France, in the department of the Channel; 6 miles W.
of Cherburg.—Sr. Croix, or St. Croce, a mountain of the
ifland of Cyprus, which forms a part of the ancient Olym-

1) pus;

sAl

pus; 18 miles N. of Larnica.—Sr. -Crot, a town of Hun-
gary; 71 miles S, of Vienna.—Sr. Cyprian, a town of
Spain, in Galicia, on the north coaft ; 20 miles N. of Mon-
donedo. 'N. lat. 43° 42'. W. long. 7° 18'.—Alfo, a town
of Chili, on the coaft of the Pacific ocean; 160 miles S. of
Valdivia. S. lat. 42° 7!. -W. long. 74°.—Sr. Cyprien, a
town of France, in the department of the Dordogne, and
chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Sarlat ;_7 miles W.
of Sarlat. The place contains 1746, and the canton 9385
inhabitants, on a territory of 180 kiliometres, in 15 com-
munes.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the
Aveiron ; 13 miles N. of Rhodez.—Sr. Cyr, a village near
Verfailles, in which was the celebrated abbey founded by
Madame Maintenon, who was an abbeis till her death, for
the inftru@tiion of the daughters of nobility, who had grown
old; or who had died in the fervice of the king.—Alfo, a
town of France, in the department of the Indre and Loire ;
2 miles N.W. of Tours.—Sr. Cyr de Bailleul, a town of
France, in the department of the Channel; 8 miles S.E. of
Mortain.

«St. Dalmatio del Piano, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Maritime Alps; 15 miles W. of Tenda.—Sr.
Dalmatio Salvatico, a town of France, in the department of
the Maritime Alps; 30 miles N.N.W. of Nice.—Sr. Da-
miano. See St. Dam1axo—Alfo, a town in the depart-
ment of the Sefia; 14 miles N.W. of Vercelli.—Svr. Daniel,
atown of Italy, in Friuli; 12 miles W.N.W. of Udina.—
St. Darigo, a town of Italy, in Friuli; 16 miles W. of
Udina.—Sr. David’s. See St. Davin’s.—St. David's
Bay, a bay of the ifland of Dominica, on the eatt coatt.
N, lat. 17° 33’. W. long. 61° 18!.—Sr, David's Cove, a
harbour on the north coait of an ifland in the ftraits of Ma-
gellan; 5 miles E. of Butler’s bay.—St. David’s Head, a
cape on the weft coaft of South Wales; 3 miles N.W. of
St. David’s. N. lat. 52°. W. long. 5° 17/.—Alfo, a cape
of the ifland Dominica, at the eaft extremity of St. David’s
bay.—Alfo, a cape on the north coatt of an ifland in the
itraits of Magellan ; 4 miles E. of Butler’s bay.—Svr. Denis.
See St. Denis and St. Dexys.—Sr. Defire, a town of
France, in the department of the Allier; 12 miles N.W. of
Montlugon.—Sr. Didier. See St. Divier.—Sr. Die. See
St. Dié.—Sr. Diego, a fea-port on the weft coaft of North
America, to which belong a Spanith fettlement and mif-
fion, with a prefidio; where, in 1793, captain Vancouver
found a Spanifh lieutenant of cavalry as commandant. The
port affords excellent anchorage, and accommodation for a
great number of veflels ; but wood and water are not con-
veniently obtained. This prefidio is the leaft of the Spanifh
fettlements ; it is fituated on high ground, in a dreary and
uncultivated country, and irregularly built; and fupplies
of the neceflary means of fubfiltence are obtained with diff-
culty, and from a great diftance. N. lat. 32° 42!. E. long.
243° 7'- See New Apion, Carirornia, and Monre-
ra¥.—St. Diego, a town of New Mexico, on the Bravo;
13 miles N. W. of Santa Fé. —Alfo, a town of New Mexico ;
go miles S.E. of Santa Fée.—Sr. Diego de Pitquin, a town
of New Navarre; 170 miles $.S.W. of Cafa Grande.—
Sr. Diego de Guamas, a town of South America, in the
province of Popayan; 120 miles S.E. of Popayan. N.
lat. o° 50’. W. long. 75° 12!.—Sr. Dimitri, a {mall ifland
nthe gulf of Engia.—Sr. Diomida, a {mall ifland of Ruffia,
a the Frozen ocean. N. lat. 78° go'. E. long. 135°? 14!.
—A\lfo, a {mall ifland in the North Pacifie ocean. N. lat.
63° 15’. E. long. 190° 14'.—Srr. Diony/io, a river of South
America, which runs into*the Atlantic, S. lat. 48° 20!.—
Alfo, a town of Italy, in the department of the Montagna ;
& miles N.W. of Lecco.—Sr. Dizier. See St. Dizrer.—

SA I

Sr. Domingo. See St. Domixco and Hispanio.a.—Ailo,
a river of Africa, which runs into the Atlantic, 6 miles E.
of Calabar.—Alfo, a town of South America, in the go-
vernment of Caraccas, and province of Venezuela; 15 miles
N.N.W. of Varinas.—Alfo, a town of South America, in
the audience of Quito; 40 miles W.5.W of Quito.—Alfo,
a town of New Mexico, on the Bravo; 30 miles, from
Santa Fé.—Alfo, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Nicaragua; 45 miles S. of Nicoya.—Alfo, a Spanith
fettlement and miffion of Dominican monks, in New Al-
bion, near the coalt of the Pacific ocean. N. lat. 30°. E.
long. 244° 51'.—St. Domingo, or Cacheo, a river of Africa,
which runs into the Atlantic, N. lat, 12° 8’. W. long. 16°
20!.—Sr. Domingo de Xacoma, a town of New Mexico; 30
miles N.N.E. of Santa Fé.—Sr. Domingo Soriano, a town of
South America, in Buenos Ayres, at the union of the Rio
Negro and Uraguay; 80 miles N. of Buenos Ayres. S.
lat. 33° 18'.—Sr. Dominique de Senaco, a town of Mexico,
in the province of Vera Paz.—St. Domino, one of the
Tremiti iflands, in the Adriatic, about 12 miles from the coaft
of Naples; four miles inlength. N. lat. 42°8'. E. long.
15° 25'.—Sr. Donaci, a town of Naples, in the province of
Otranto; 10 miles S.S.W. of Brindifi.—Sr. Donat. See
St. Donat.—Srt. Donato, a town of Naples, in Layora;
9 miles E.S.E. of Sura.

St. Edmund’s Point, a cape of England, on the N. coait
of Suffolk, inthe German fea. N. lat. 52°58’. E. long.
o° 28'.—Sr. Egreve, a town of France, in the department
of the Ifere; fix miles S.W. of Grenoble.—St. Eliay a
town of Naples, in Capitanata; 13 miles N.W. of Voltu-
rara.—StT. Elias. See St. Evtas.—Alfo, a mountain in
the S. part of the ifland of Negropont. N. lat. 38° 3/.
E. long. 24° 30'.—Alfo, a mountain of Greece, in the S.
part of Livadia, near the gulf of Engia ; four miles. N.W.
of cape Colonai.—Alfo, a town in the N. pact of the ifland
of Scio; 14 miles N.N.W. of Scio.—Alfo, a mountain on
the ifland of Milo; feven miles W. of Milo.—Alfo, a town
of Brafil, in the. government of Goyas; 140 miles N. of
Villaboa.—Sr. Elizabeth, a town of Croatia; four miles
E.S.E. of Varafdin.—Sr. .£ipidio, a town of the mar-
quifate of Ancona ; fix miles N. of Fermo.—Sr. millon,
a town of France, in the department of the Gironde; four
miles S.E. of Libourne.—Sr. Emmeran. See St. EMMeE-
RAN.—Srt. Enimte. See St. ENimiz.—St. Erama, atown
of Naples, in the province of Bari; eight miles §.S.E. of
Bittetto.—Sr. Lrango, a town of Naples, in Bari; 15 miles
E. of Gravina.—Sr. Era/mo, a {mall ifland in the gulf of
Venice, defended by a fort; four miles N.E. of Venice.—
Sr. Erat, a town of the Helvetian Republic, in the canton
of Lucerne; two miles W. of Surfee.—Sr. Ermacher, a
town of the duchy of Carinthia; nine miles S. of Saxen-
burg.—Sr. £/pain. See St. Espain.—Sr. E/prit. See
St. Esprit.—Sr. E/prit Bay, a large bay of the Indianedea,
on the E. coaft of Africa, N. of cape Unhafa, which forms
its fouthern boundary.—Sr. E/prit J/lands, a clutter of {mall
iflands in the Eaft Indian fea. N.lat.o° 31’. E, long. 107°
21.—Sr. Eflaniflao, a town of S. America, in the audience
of Quito; 50 miles N.W. of S. Jofef de Huales. — Sr.
moi a town of France, in the department of the Gi-
ronde ; nine miles S.E. of Lefparre.—Sr. Bflevan, a town
of California ; 75 miles N.W. of Loreto.—Sr. A/levan de
Acoma, a town of New Mexico, go miles S.S. W. of
Santa Fé.—Sr. Eflevan de Gormaz, a town of Spain, in
Old Caftile, on the Duero; fix miles S.E. of Borgo
d’Ofina.—Sr. Eflevan del Roy, a town of Chili; 30 miles
N.E. of La Conception. S. lat. 36° 45'. W. longs 73° 3.
—St. Eflivao de Cacheve, a town of Portugal, in Al-

garve 5

SAI

garve; 11 miles N. of Loule.—Sr. Etienne. See Si.
Errenne.—St. Etifeby, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Higher Alps; nine miles N. of Gap.—Sr.
Eufemia. See St. Evremra.—Sr. Eufra. See Eurra.
—Sr. Eutalie, a town of France, in the department of the
Aveiron; to miles E. of St. Afrique.—Sr. Evrou, a town
of France, in the department of the Orne ; nine miles N.W.
of L’Aigle.—Sr. Euftatia. See St. Eustatia.—Sr. Exu-
pery- See St. Exurery.

St. Fabian, a town on the W. coaft of the ifland of
Lugon. N. lat. 16°24! E. long. 120° 4o!.—Sr. Fa-
mille, a, a town of Canada, on the leftebank of the St.
Lawrence. N. lat. 46° 40! W. long. 71° 45!.—Sr. Far-
geau. See St. Farcrau.— Sr. Fauffino. See St. Faus-
Trxo.—Sr. Fele. See St. Fete.—Sr. Felice. See St. Fr-
rice. — St. Felicien. See St. FEticren. — St. Felicita.
See St. Fericira.—Sr. Felipe. See St. Ferire. —Sr.
Felix. See St. Fexix.—Sr. Felix de Bourdeille, a town
of France, in the department of the Dordogne; nine
miles §.S.W. of Nontron.—Sv. Felizes de Gallego, a town
of Spain, in the province of Leon; eight miles N.N.W.
of Ciudad Rodrigo.—Sr. Ferino. See St. FErtno.—St.
Feriole, 2 town of France, in the department of the Cor-
reze; fix miles N.E. of Brive. — St. Ferme, a town of
France, in the department of the Gironde; nine miles N.E.
of La Realle.—Sr. Fernando. See St. FeErNando.—Sr.
Ferra Cavallo, a town of Naples, in the province of Bari;
fix miles N. of Bari.—Svr. Fiacre, atown of France, in the
department of the Seine and Marne; four miles S.E. of
Meaux.—Sr. Fiaderagg, a {mall ifland on the W. fide of
the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 63° 52'. E. long. 20° 39).
—5r. Filippo, a toven of Naples, in Calabria Ultra; 10
miles N. of Nicotera.—Sr. Finian’s Bay, a harbour on the
weft coalt of Ireland, lying between Puffin ifland to the
north, and Bolus head to the fouth; having the Skelig iflands
about a league to the weft. It has, for the moft part, a
tempettuous rolling fea, and affording no fhelter, is by no
means a proper place for fhips to liein. The adjoining part
of the county of Kerry is hilly, wild, and uncultivated.
A neighbouring lake, Lough Curraan, retains fome veltiges
in one of its iflands of the refpeét paid to St. Finian in this
country.—Sr. Fiore, a town of Etruria; eight miles N. of
Soana. —Sr. Fiorenza, a fea-port town of the ifland of Cor-
fica, on a bay which forms the harbour, defended by wallsand a
itrong tower. In the vicinity are marfhes, which render the air
infalubrious; near it is a filver mine; fix miles W. of
Baftia. N. lat. 42° 35’. E. long. 9° 37'.—Sr. Firmin.
See St. Finain.—Srt. Flaviano. See St. Fraviano.—
St. Florent. See St. Fronent.—St- Florentin. See St.
Frorentix.—Sv. Florian, a town of Auttria, with a col-
legiate foundation of Auguftine canons ; five miles W.S.W.
of Ens.—Sr. Flovier, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Indre and Loire; nine miles N.E. of Preuilly.
St. Flour. See St. Frour.—Sr. Fort, a town of Trance,
in the department of the Lower Charente ; nine miles S.S.W.
of Pons.—Sr. Fortunade la Roche, a town of France, in
the department of the Correze; nine miles S. of Tulle.—
Sa. Fortunat, a town of France, in the department of the
Ardéche ; feven miles N.N.E. of Privas.—Sr. Foy. See
&. Fov.—Alfo, a town of Canada, on the left bank of
the St. Lawrence; five miles 5.W. of Quebec.—Sr. Poy
de Peyrollieres, a town of France, in the Upper Garonne ;
15 miles S.W. of Touloule.—Sr. FPradello, a river of Sicily,
which runs into the fea, on the N. coaft, N. lat. 38° 14'.
E. long. 14° 47'.—Srt. Fraimbault, a town of France, in
the department of the Mayenne; 12 miles N. of Mayenne.
—Sr. Frau, a town of France, in the Upper Garonne ;

SAJ

15 miles N. of St. Gaudens.—St. Frambourg, a town of
France, in the department of Paris; three miles $.S.E. of
Paris.—St. Framondo, a town of Naples, in Principato
Ultra; fix miles N. of Benevento.—Sv. Francis, a river of
Africa, which runs into the Atlantic, S. lat. 12° s0!.—
Alfo, a lake of Canada, on the river St. Lawrence, between
Kingfton and Montreal.—Alfo, a river of Canada, which
runs into St. Peter’s lake, 30 miles N.E. of Montreal.—
Alfo, a river of Louifiana, which runs into the Miffifippi,
near Kappas.—Alfo, a river of Labrador, which runs into
the North Atlantic ocean, N. lat. 52° 44’. W. long. 55°
20'!.—Sr. Francifco. See St. Francitsco.—Alfo, a town
of New Navarre; 24 miles W. of Cafa Grande.—Alfo, a
town of Eaft Florida; 56 miles E.S.E. of St. Mark.—
Alfo, a river of Chili, which runs into the Pacific ocean,
S. lat. 52°.—Alfo, a river of Patagonia, which runs into
the Atlantic, S. lat. 51° 58’. Alfo, a fea-port on the W.
coaft of North America, witha citadel, garrifoned by Spa-
niards, achurch, and a houfe for the commandant ; near it
is a miflion of Francifean friars for the converfion of the
Indians. N. lat. 37° 48. E. long. 237° 52!. See New
Axsion.—Sr. Francijco Bay, a bay of the Indian fea, on
the coaft of Africa. S. lat. 32° 25'—Sr. Francifco del
Salto, 2 town of Chili, 50 miles N.E. of La Conception.
S. lat. 36° 20’. W. long. 72° 50!.—Sr. Francifco de Borja,
a town of S. America, and capital of the jurifdi@ion of
Maynas, on the river Maragnon; 270 miles S.S.E. of
Quito. N. lat. 4° 28. W. long. 78° 30!—Sr. Fran-
cifco de la Sierra, 2 town of Mexicc, in Veragua; 10 miles
N.E. of St. Yago.—Sr. Francois, a lake of Lower
Canada, in the river St. Lawrence, 25 miles in length, and
five in breadth. N. lat. 46°9'. W. long. 74° 20'.—Alfo,
a river of Brafil, which runs into the Atlantic, S. lat. 11°.
W. long. 36° 15'-—Alfo, a town of S. America, in the
province of Venezuela.—Allfo, a town of the ifland of Gua-
daloupe, on the S. coaft. N. lat. 16° 23’. W. long. 63°
32'.—Sr. Francois le beau Lieu, a town of France, in the
department of the Jemappe; two miles E. of Chaftelet.—
St. Front, a town of France, in the department of the
Lot and Garonne; nine miles E.N.E. of Montflanquin.—
Sr. Fulgent, a town of France, in the department of the
Vendée, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriét of Mon-
taigu, nine miles S.S.E. of Montaigu. The place contains
1i60, and the canton 7888 inhabitants, on a territory of
295 kiliometres, in eight communes.

Sr. Gabriel. See St. Gasrien.—Srt. Gaetano. See St.
Garano.—St. Gal. See St. Garten. — St. Gallan.
See Gattan.—Sr. Gallo, a town of Italy, in the depart-
ment of the Mela; 1o miles N.N.E. of Brefcia.—Sr. Gal-
mier, a town of France, in the department of the Rhone
and Loire, in which is a medicinal {pring of a vinous tafte ;
12 miles E. of Montbrifon.—Sr. Gafle. See St. Gaste.
—Sr. Gaudens. See St. Gaupens.—St. Gavino. See
St. Gavino. — Sr. Gaultier. See St. GAULTIER. — SPs
Gemini. See St. Gemini.—Sv. Geminiano. See St. Gemr-
NIANO.—St. Gemme le Robert, a town of France, in the
department of the Mayenne; two miles N. of Evron.—
St. Genefio, atown of the marqurfate of Ancona; three
miles $.S.E. of Toleutino.—Sr. Genef Dambierre, a town
of France, in the department of the Vienne; feven miles

W. of Chatellerault. —Sxr. Genefl de Malifaut. See St.
Genest. — St. Genevieve. See St. Gunevirve.— St.
Gengou le Royal. See St. Gexcov.—St. Genies. See Sr.

Gentes.—Sr. Genis.. See St. Genis.—Sv. Genito. See
St. Gayiro.—Sr. Geoir, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Ifere; and chief place of a canton, in the
diflri& of La Tour du Pin; 18 miles N.W. of Grenoble,

QO2 The

SAI

The place contains 3440, and the canton 12,463 inhabitants,
on a territory of 1774 kiliometres, in 14 communes.—SrT.
Georg. See St. Gzora.——Sr. George. See St. Grorce.
—Sr. Georges. See St. Gronces.—Sr. Georgenfeld. See
St. GEORGENFELD.—Sr. Gerand le Puy, atown of France,
in the department of the Allier; 21 miles S. of Moulins.—
St. Germain. See St. Germain.—St. Germainmont. See
Ss GERMAINMONT.—Sr. Germano. See St. GERMANO.—
St. Germer. See St. Germer.—Sr. Geronimo. See St.
Geronimo.—Sr. Gervais. See St. Gervais.—Srt. Gery.
See St. Gery.—- Sr. Giacomo. See St. Giacomo. — ST.
Giancazzo. See St. Grancazzo.—Sr. Gildas. See St.
Gitpas.—Sr. Gilgen. See St. Gincen.—Srt. Gillis. See
St. Griis.—Sr. Gille, &c. See St. GILLE, &c.—St. Gil-

les, &c. See St. Gries, &c.—Sr. Gillian. See St. Git-
LiaN.—Srt. Gineto. See St. Grxeto.—St. Gingo. See
Gixco.—St. Gio. See St. Gio.—Sr. Giorgio. See St.

GiorGi0.—St. Giovanni. See St. GiovANNI-—Sv. Girons.
See St. Girons.—Sr. Giulia. See St. Grutra.—Sr. Giu-
liano. See St. Grurtano.—St. Goar. See St. Goar.—
Sr. Gobin. See St. Gorin. — St. Gondon, a town of
France, in the department of the Loiret; four miles W. of
Gien.—Sr. Gonfaluo. See St. Gonsatvo.—Sr. Gonzago.
See 5S. Gonzaco. —Sr. Gothard. See St. GoTHARD.
—Sr. Gowen’s Head, a cape on the S. coaft of Wales, in
the county of Pembroke, on the N. fide of the Briftol
Channel. N. lat. 51° 33’. W. long. 5°.—Sr. Gravé, a
town of France, in the department of the Morbihan ; three
miles N.E. of Rochefort.—Sr. Gregorio. See St. Gre-
Gor10.—Sr. Guillaume, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Ifere ; 15 miles §. of Grenoble. — St. Gulielmo,
atown of the Valteline ; four miles N.W. of Chiavenna. -

Sr. Haron-le-Chatel, a town of France, in the department
of the Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of
Roanne ; feven miles W. of Roanne. The place contains
750, and the canton 11,197 inhabitants, on a territory of
2174 kiliometres, in 11 communes.—Sr. Heand, a town of
France, in the department of the Loire, and chief place of
acanton, in the diftri@ of St. Etienne; four miles N. of St.
Etienne. ‘The place contains 2667, and the canton 8635 in-
habitants, on a territory of 125 kiliometres, in 10 communes.
—St. Helena. See HeveNa.—Sr. Helens. See St. HELENS.
—Sr. Helia, a town of Iitria; five miles N.N.W. of Mon-
falcone.—Sr. Helier. See Hitary.—Sr. Henry, atown of
Canada, on the river St. Lawrence. N, lat. 46° 45. W.
long. 71° 10'.—Sr. Hermine, atown of France, in the depart-
ment of the Vendée; fix miles'N.E.of Lugon. See Hermine.
—Sr. Hermogenes. See St. Hermocenes. — St. Hernin,
atown of France, in the department of the Finifterre ; four
miles §.W. of Carhaix!—Sr. Hilaire, atown of France, in
the department of the Aude, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri& of Limoux ; fix miles N.E. of Limoux. The
place contains 836, and the canton 4497 inhabitants, on a
territory of 1974 kiliometres, in 14 commimes.—Alfo, a
town of France, in the Lower Charente, and chief place of
a canton, in the diftrict of Jean d’Angely. The place con-
tains 1223, and the canton 7720 inhabitants, on a territory
of 1474 kiliometres, in'12 communes.-—Alfo, a town’ of
France, in the Allier; 18 miles N.E. of Montlucon.—
Alfo, atown of France, in the department of Paris; feven
miles S.E. of Paris. —Alfo, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Channel, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri& of Mortain; fix milee S.W. of Mortain. The
place contains 1957, arid the canton 13,280 inhabitants, on
a territory of 155 kiliometres, in 12 communes.—Allfo, a
town of France, inthe department of the Vendée, and chief
place of acanton, in the diftri& of Fontenay-le-Comte, fix

Lai

SAI

miles from it. The place contains 1878, and the canton
9453 inhabitants, on a territory of 2174 kiliometres, in 14
communes.—St. Hubert. See St. Hupert. —Sr. Hyppo-
lite, atown of France, in the department of the Aveiron ;
24 miles N. of Rhodez.—Alfo, a town of France, and
principal place of a diftri@t, inthe department of the Doubs ;
24 miles S.W. of Porentruy. The place contains soso,
and the canton 10,592 inhabitants, on a territory of 1874
kiliometres, in 2g communes. N. lat. 47° 19/._ E. long.
6° 53'.—Alfo, a town of France, and principal place of a
diftriG&, in the department of the Gard; 24 miles W.N.W.
of Nifmes. N.+lat. 43° 58!.
town of France, in the department of the Upper Rhine,
five miles N. of Colmar. : A

St. Ja. See St. Ja.—Sr.. Jacob. See St. Jacop.—
St. Jacobini, a town of Naples, in Capitanata; three miles
S.W. of Termola.—Sr. Jacques, a town of France, in the
department of the North Coafts; five miles S.E. of Pon-

trieu.—Sr. Jacques fur Darnetal, a town of France, in the
department of the Lower Seine ; four miles E. of Rouen.—.

St. Jago. See St. Jaco.—Sr. Jaire, a town of France,
in the department of the Leman; 15 miles S.E. of Geneva.
—Sr. Jalle, 2 town of France, in the department of the
Drome; fix miles E. of Nions.—-Sr. James. See St.
James.—Sr. Janni. See St. Jannt.—Sr. Jaques. See St.
JAques.—Sv. /bars, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Arriege; 27 miles N.N.W. of Tarafcon.—
Sr. Jean. See St. JEAN.—Alfo, a town of France, in the
department of Mont Tonnerre, on the E. fide of the Sarre,
oppofite to Saarbruck.—Sr. Jean d’Arvet, a town of
France, in the department of Mont Blanc; 4 miles E. of
Chambery.—Sr. Jean d’ Avela, a town of France, in the
department of the Ifere ; 21 miles N.N.W. of Grenoble.
—Sr. Jean dela Blaquiere, atown of France, inthe depart-
ment of the Herault ; 4 miles E. of Lodeve.—Sr. Jean de
Breuil, atown.of France, in the department of the Aveiron ;
12 miles E.S.E of Milhau.—Sr. Jean de Cardonnet, a town
of France, in the department of the Lower Seine ; 6 miles
N.W. of Ronen.—St. Jean de Chazorne, atown of France,
in the department of the Lozere; 5 miles N. of Villefort.
—Sr. Jean de Coux, atown of France, in the department of
Mont Blanc; 6 miles S.W. of Chambery.—Srt. Jean la
Fouillouze, a town of France, in the department of the
Lozere; 8 miles S.W. of Langogne.—St. Jean la Motte,
a town of France, in the department of the Sarthe; 6miles
N.E. of La Fléche.—Sr. Jean de Sauves, a town of France,

in the department of the Vienne; 4 miles N.E. of Mirabeau.

—Sr. Jean de Vignes, atown of France, in the department of
the Saone and Loire ; 2 miles N. of Chalons fur Saone.—
Sr. Jerom’s Channel, &c. See St. Jerom’s, &c.—St. Jero-
nimo, &c. See St. Jeronimo. — St. Zgnace, a town of Canada,
on the right bank of the St. Lawrence. N. lat. 47° 1. W.
long. 70° 20/.—- St. Zgnatio, atown of S. America, in Tucu-
man; 32 tiles S. of St. Miguel. — Alfo, a town of New Na-
varre; 140 miles S. of Cafa Grande.—Alfo, a town of S.
America, in Granada ; 90 miles E. of 'Tanja.—Alfo, a town
of S. America, in the province of Paraguay; 40 miles S.E.
of Affumption.-- Alfo, a town of S. America, in the pro-
vince of Moxes; 36 miles N.W. of Trinidad.—Alfo, a
town of Mexico, in the province of New Bifcay ; 96 miles
S.W. of Parral.—Srr. Zpnatio de Pevas,atown of 3. America,
in the audience of Quito, on the river Amazons ; 90 miles
N.E. of St. Joachim de Omaguas.—Sr. Jgnatio d’ Agand,
a town in the ifland of Guam, defended by two forts, con-
taining a garrifon of 100 men.—Sr. /Idefon/o, aroyal palace
of the kings of Spain, in Old Caltile, fituated in a moun-
tainous country, and built by Philip V. in imitation of Ver-

failles ;

E. long. 3° 56!.—Alfo, a

«

SAI
failles; 6miles S. of Segovia.—Sr. Jidefonfo, a town of

Mexico, in the province of Guaxaca; 60 miles N.E. of
Guaxaca. N, lat. 17°28’. W. long. 97° 40!.—Sr. Ilde-
fonfo’s Iflands, a clutter of iflands, or rocks, on the S. coait
of Terradel Fuego. S. lat. 55°53’. W.long. 73° 46'—
Sr. Jie, a town of European Turkey, in Moldavia; 10
miles S.W. of Suczava.—Sr. //pize, a town of France, in
the department of the Upper Loire, onthe Allier; 5 miles
S of Brioude.—Sr. Jmmier, a town of Switzerland, in the
diftri& of Brienne; 20 miles W. of Soleure.—Sr. Jnes, a
town of New Mexico, in the province of Mayo; 110 miles
E. of Santa Cruz.—Svt. Joachim. See St. JoacHim.—Sr.
Joachimfperg, atown of Auitria; 28 miles S. of St. Polten,
Sr. Joao. See St. Joae.—Sr. Job. See St. Jon.—Sr.
Johan. See St. JonaAn.—Sr. Johanns. See St. JOHANNS.
—Sr. John. See St. Joun.—Sr. John’s Point, or Cape, a
eape of Ireland, in the county of Donegal, on the north
coaft of the bay of Donegal, and forming the S.E. point
of the harbour of Killybegs and M‘Swines bay, N,. lat.
54° 34'. W. long. 8°18'.—Alfo, a cape on the E. coatt
of Ireland, forming the eaft point of Dundrum bay, in the
county of Down. N. lat. 54° 15’. W. long. 5° 33'.—Sr.
Johnftown See St. Jounstown.—Sz@. Joire. See St. Jor.
—Sr. Jooftland.. See St. Joostranp.—St. Jorge. See
St. Jonce.—Sr. Jorgen. See St. Jongen.—St Jorio della
Molinora, a town of Naples, in Principato Ultra; 16 miles
N.E. of Benevento.—Sr. Jofef. See St. Joser —Sr.
Jofeph. See St. JoserH.—Sr. Joffe, a town of France, in
the department of the Straits of Calais; 4 miles S.S.W of
Montreuil.—Sr. Jouan. See St. Jouan del’ Ifle.—Sv. Joze.
See St. Joze.—Sr. Label. See St. Isapex.—Sr. L/abella.
See St. Isapetta.—Sr. Jfidoro. See St. Isworo.—Sr.
Lfad. See St. Istap.—Sr. Juan. See St. Juan.—Sr.
Juery, a town of France, in the department of the Tarn ;
3 miles N.E. of Alby.—Sr. Jves. See St. Ives.—Sr.
Julia da Grafcapou, atown of France, in the department of
the Upper Garonne; 60 miles W.N W. of Revel.—Sr.
Julien. See St. JuLten—Alfo, a town of France, in the
department of Mont Blanc, onthe Arc; 4 miles S. of St.
Jean de Maurienne.—Sr_ Julien de Civry, atown of France,
in the department of the Saone and Loire ; 4 miles S. of Cha-
rolles.—Sr. Julien le Faucon, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Calvados ; 18 miles E:‘S.E. of Caen.—Sr.
Julien fur Garonne, a town ot France, in the department of
the Upper Garonne; 3 miles S W. of Rieux.—Sv. Julien
en, Quint, a town of. France, in the department of the
Drome; 6 miles N.W. of Dié.—Sv. Junien. See St.
Junien.—Srt. Juft. See St Just —Alfo, a town of Frange,
in the department of the Oife;, 9 miles S.S.E. of Breteuil.
—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Lower
Charente ; 3 miles S.S.E. of Marennes.—Sr. Jufl la Pendu,
a town of France, in the department of the Rhone and
Loire ; 12 miles S W. of Roanne.—Sr. Juflin. See St.
Justixn.—S¢v.-Juvin, a town of France, in the department
of the Ardennes; 3 miles E. of Grandpré.—Sr. Jzere,
atown of France, in the department of the Aveiron; 6
miles N.W. of St. Afrique.

St. Kilda. See §t Kitpa.—Sr. Kinofa. See St.
Kiwosa.—Sr. Kirling, atown of Aultria; 4 miles W. of
Cloiter Neuburg.—St. Kifi. Sve St. Kissi.—Sr. Krefla.

St. Kreera. «

Sr. Laboucr, a town of France, inthe department of the
Landes; 18 miles S. of Mont de Marlan.—Sr. Lambert du
Latiay,atown of France, in the department of the Maine and
Loire; zomiles N.N.W. of Vihiers.—Sv. Lambert du Levies,
atown of France, in, the department of the Maine and
Loire, on the N. fide of the Loire; 2 miles N. of Saumur.

S All

—St. Lambrecht, a town of Stiria ; 5 miles E. of Muhrau.
—Sr. Lamprecht, a town of Carinthia; 4 miles N. of
Lavamund.—Sr. Laud, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Maine and Loire; 3 miles S. of Angers.—Sr.
Laurence. See St. LaurENce.—Alfo, a county of New
York, America, in the N.W. corner of the ftate, on the
S.E. bank of St. Laurence river, interfected by a confider-
able number of rivers. It is divided into the townfhips of
Maflena, Madrid, Lifbon, and Ofwegatchai, in which lait
are the river and lake of the fame name. See St. Lau-
RENCE.—Sv. Laurens. See St. Laurens.—Sr. Laurent.
See S¢. Laurent.—S1. Lauthain, a town of France, in the
department of the Jura; 3 miles W.S.W. of Poligny.
—Szr. Lazaro, Archipelago of, a name given firft to the
Philippine iflands by Magellan, becaufe he difcovered them
on the day dedicated by the Romifh church to that faint.
—Sr. Lazaro, an ifland adjoining to the city of Venice,
deitined in 1782 for poor perfons afflicted with the leprofy.
In 1617 it was ceded to the Armenian monks of the holy
abbot Anthony. The Armenians have here a beautiful
church ard a convent, containing a colleétion of books
and MSS.—Alfo, a town of New Mexico; 50 miles S.
of Santa Fé.—Sr. Leger, atown of France, in the depart-
ment of the Seine and Oife; 15 miles N.W. of Dourdan.
—Sr. Leger-/ous-Beuvran, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Saone and Loire, and chief place of a canton,
in the diitrit of Autun. The place contains 990, and
the canton 5474 inhabitants, on a territory of 2174 kilio-
metres, in 12 communes.—Sr. Leger de Monbrillais, a
town of France, in the department of the Vienne; 6 miles
N.W. of Loudun.—Sr. Leger de Peyre, atown of France,
inthe department of the Lozere; 3 miles N. of Marvejols.
—orT. Lenhart, a town of Auftria; to miles E. of Frey-
ftatt.—Sr. Leo, a town of the duchy of Urbino, the fee
of a bifhop, fuffragan of Urbino; 12 miles N.N.W. of Ur-
bino. N. lat. 43° 55!. E. long. 12°.20!.—Alfo, a moun-
tain of Naples, in Lavora; 7 miles N.E. of Capua.—Sr.
Leonard, a town of France, in the department of the
Upper Vienne, and chief place of a canton, in the diltri@
of Limoges; 10 miles E. of Limoges, The place con-
tains 4815, and the canton 11,526 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 2974 kiliometres, in 12 communes. N. lat. 45° 50’.
E. long. 6° 34!.—Alfo, a town of Auttria; 6 miles N.E.
of Bavarian Waidhoven.—Alfo, a town of Franee, in the
department of the Vofges; 4 miles E. of St. Diey.—Sr.
Leonard des Bois, a town of France, in the department of
the Mayenne; 9 miles S.W. of Alengon.—Srt. Leonard de
Rache, «town of France, in the department of the North;
4 niles N.E. of Douay.—Sr. Leonardo, a town of Spain,
in Old Cattile; 11 miles N. of Ofma.—Alfo, a town of
Naples, in’ Capitanata; 5 miles N.E. of Afcoli.—Alfo,
a town of Italy, in Friuli; 13 miles S. of Belrade.—Sr.
Leone, a town of Sicily, inthe valley of Mazara; fix miles
S.E. of Girgenti.—Sr. Leonhard, a town of Carinthia,
on the river Lavant ; 104 miles W.S.W. of Vienna., N.
lat. 46° 53/.. E. long. 14° 27!.—Sr. Leonhardt, a town
of Auftria; 10 miles S.W. of St. Polten.—Sv. Leons, a
town of France, in the department of the Aveiron; 18
miles E.S.E. of Rhodez.—Sr. Leonzo, a town of Naples,
in Calabria Ultra; 17 miles N.N.E. of Gierace.—Sv. Leu,
a town of France, in the department of the Oife, on the
Oife; 18 miles S.E. of Beauvais. —Sr. Leven’s Point, a
cape on the 8.W. coaft of England, near the Land’y End.
N. lat. 50% 4! W. long. 5° 41.—Sx. Lewis, a river of
Canada, which runs into lake Superior, in Welt bay.—
Allo, a river of Labrador, which runs into the North
Atlantic ocean, N. lat. 52° 30/. W..long. 55° 40!.—Sr.

Licandro,

S A‘l

Licandro, a town of Naples, in the province of Capitanata ;
7 miles E. of Lefina.—Alfo, a town of Naples, in Bari;
5 miles E.S.E. of Bittetto.—Sr. Liehault, or Etiffac, a
town of France, in the department of the Aube; 9 miles
W. of Troyes.—Sr. Livrade, a town of France, in the
department of the Lot and Garonne, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftri& of Villeneuve d’Agen; 12 miles N.
of Agen. The place contains 2439, and the canton 5356
inhabitants, on a territory of g24 kiliometres, in 7 com-
munes.—Sr. Lizier, a town of France, and feat of a tri-
bunal, in the department of the Arriege: before the revo-
lution the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Auch; 2 miles N.
of St. Girons. N. lat. 43°. E. long. 1° 13'W—Sr. Lo.
See St. Lo.—Sr. Lomer, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Orne; 18 miles N.E. of Alencon.—Sr. Lorentz,
a town of Auftria; 4 miles N.N.W. of Glaggnitz.—Sr.
Lorentzen. See St. Lorentzen.—Sr. Lorenzo. See St.
Lorenzo.—Sr. Loforga. See St. Losonca.—St. Lotiero.
See St. Lotrero.—Sr. Loubes. See St. Louses.—St.
Loubouex. See St. Lounovex.—Srt. Louis. See St. Louis.
—Srt. Loup. See St. Lour.—Sr. Lubin des Joncherets,
a town of France, in the department of the Eure and
Loire; 8 miles W. of Dreux.— Sr. Lucar. See St.
Lucar, &c.—Sr. Lucas. See St. Lucas.—Sr. Luce.
See St. Luce.—Sr. Lucia. See St. Lucta.—Sr. Lucien-
Jfreig, a very narrow pafs from the country of the Gri-
fons into Germany, where all mercantile goods pay a toll
to the Grifons ; defended by a fort; 3 miles N. of Meyen-
feld.—St. Lucido. See St. Lucino.—Sr. Lucio. See St.
Lucto.—Srt. Luis. See St. Luts.—Sr. Lupicien, a town
of France, in the department of the Jura; 3 miles W.
of St. Claude.—Sr. Lus. See St. Lus.—Sr. Lys. See
St. Lys.

St. Macaire. See StwMacatre.—Srt. Macarius. See
St. Macarius.—St. Madalena. See St. MADALENA.—
Sr. Magnes, atown of the duchy of Bremen, on the river
Wumne ; 8 miles N.W. of Bremen.—Sr. Maixent. See St.
Marxeyt.—St. Makfima. See St. Maxsima.—Srt. Mab.
See St. Mato. —St. Mamet. See St. Mamet. — Sr.
Mande. See St. Manvé.—Sr. Mango, atown of Naples,
in Bari, 3 miles E. of Minorbino.—Svr. Marc, a town of
France, in the department of the Ille and Vilaine; 9 miles
W. of Fougeres.—Sr. Marcel. See St. Marcet.—Sr.
Mareellin. See St. Marceitin.—St. Marcello. See St.
Marcetto.—Sr. Marco. See St. Marco.—Sr. Marcouf.
See St. Marcour.—Srt. Mard. See St Marv.—Sr.
Marga. See St. Marca.—Sr. Margaret. See St. Mar-
GARET.—St. Margretten, a town of the duchy of Stiria ;
5 miles E. of Marburg.—Sr. Marguerite. See Mar-
GUERITE.—St. Maria. See St. Marta.—St. Maria-
kirchen, a town of Auttria, 4 miles S.W. of Efferding.—
St. Marie. See St. Marte.—Srt. Maries. See St. Ma-
n1ES.—St. Marin, a town of France, in the department of
the Upper Rhine; 4 miles $.S.W. of Delmont.—Sr. Ma-
rinella, a town of Italy, in the Patrimonio, on the coalt ;
4miles §.E. of Civita Vecchia—Sr. Marinha. See Ma-
RINHA.—St. Marino. See Manrtno.—Srt. Mark. See
St. Marx.—St. Mars, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Indre and Loire; 9 miles W. of Tours.—Sr.
Mars de Loquenay, atownof France, in the department of
the Sarthe ; 12 miles S.E. of Le Mans.—Sr. Mars d’ Outille,
a town of France, in the department of the Sarthe ; g miles
S.E. of Le Mans. —Sr. Martha. See Marrua and
Marta.—Sr. Martial. See Manrtiat.—Srt. Martiano.
See Martisano.—Sr. Martin. See St. Mantin.—Alfo,
a town of France, in the department of the Straits of
Calais; 1 mile E. of Boulogne.—Alfo, a town of Spain,

4

SAI
in Afturia; 44 miles W. of Oviedo.—Alfo, a village of
Italy, celebrated for its medicinal baths; 3 miles: N. of
Bormio.—St. Martin d’ Ablois, a town of France, in the
department of the Marne; 4 miles S.W. of Epernay.—
St. Martin de Belleville, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of Mont Blanc; 5 miles S. of Monitier.—Sr.
Martin en Breffé, a town of France, in the department of
the Sadne and Loire; 7 miles E.N.E. of Chalons fur
Saéne.—Srt. Martinho. See Martixnuo.—Sr. Martino.
See Martino.—St. Martinfberg. See MARTINSBERG.—
St. Martinfdyck. See Martinspycx.—St. Marton. See
Marton.—St. Martory. See Martory.—St. Mary.
See St. Mary.—St. Marzano. See Marzano.—Sr.
Matcus. See Matcus.—St. Mateo. See Mateo.—Srt.
Matheo. See Matruro.—Sr. Mathieu. See Marinev.
—Srt. Mathurin, a town of France, in the department of the
Mayne and Loire; 9 miles S.E. of Angers.—Sr. Matias.
See Matras.—Srt. Pfatica. See Matica.—St. Mattheia.

See Marrueia.—Srt. Mattheius, a town of Carinthia ;~

4 miles S. of Villach.—Sr. Matthew. See Matrurw.—
St. Matthias. See Marrutas.—Sr. Maur. See Maur.
—Srt. Maure. See Maure.—Sr. Maurice. See Maurice.
—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of Mont Blanc;
24 miles W. of Aolta.—Sr. Maurice de Cazevielle, a town of
France, in the department of the Gard ; 9 miles W. of Uzes.
—Sr. Maurice fur Fefford, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Loiret; 5 miles W. of Montargis.—Sr. Maurice
en Trieves, a town of France, in the department of the
Ifere; 24 miles S. of Grenoble.—Sr. Maurin, a town of
France, in the department of the Lot and Garonne; 6 miles
N. of Valence.—Sr. Mauritio. See Mavritio.—Srt.
Mauro. See Mavuro.—Sr. Mawes. See Mawes.—Sr.
Maximin. See Maximin.—Alfo, a town of France, in
the department of the Sarre ; 2 miles N. of Treves.—AHo,
a town of France, in the department of the Ifere ; 18 miles
N.N.E. of Grenoble.—St. Medar, a town of France, in
the department of the Dordogne; 12 miles S.E. of Muci-
dan.—Sr. Medard. See Meparv.—Sv. Medard de Gurfon,
a town of France, in the department of the Dordogne; 14
miles W. of Bergerac.—St. Meen. See Meen.—Sr.
Meloir, a town of France, in the department of the North
Coatts ; 7 miles W. of Dinan,—Sr. Menas. See Menas.
—Sr. Menehould. See Menenoutp.—Srt. Menoux. See
Menovux.—St. Mere Eglife, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Channel, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri@ of Valognes; 7 miles N. of Carentan. The
place contains 1425, and the canton 11,843 inhabitants, on
a «territory of 2274 kiliometres, in 27 communes.—Sr.
Mefme, a town of France, in the department of Mont
Blanc ; 5 miles N. of Beaufort.—Sr. Me/min, a town of
France, in the department of the Loiret, on the Loire ;
3 miles W.S.W. of Orleans.—Sr. Mewias, a river of
Africa, which runs into the Atlantic, S. lat. 1° r0’——Sr.
Michael. See St. Micuart.—S8r. Michaila. See Micwata.
—Sr. Michel. See Micuet.—Allo, a town of Stiria;
3 miles S.W. of Leoben.—Sr. Michel en Greve, a town of
France, in the department of the North Coatts; 4 miles
S.W. of Lannion.—Sr. Michel en P Herm, a town of
France, in the department of the Vendée; 7 miles S$.S.W.
of Lugon.—Srt. Miguel. See Micuet.—Sr. Mihiel. See
Miniret.—Sr. Miklos. Sce Miktos.—Svr. Millan, a town
of Spain, in Old Cattile; 5 miles S. of Calzada.—Sr.
Miniato. See Mintato.—Sr. Mont, a town of France,
in the department of the Gers; g miles S.W. of Nogaro.
—Sr. More, a town of France, in the department oF the
Yonne; 15 miles S.S.E. of Auxerre.—Sr. Morel, a town
of France, in the department of the Ardennes ; 4 miles S. of

Vouziers,

—

en

SA

Vouziers—St. Moritz, or Sr. Morizzo, a town of the
Grifons, in Upper Engadina, containing a famous mineral
fpring, the waters of whick are the moft falubrious in
Switzerland, and reckoned to furpafs even thofe of Pyr-
mont, in Germany; 25 miles N.N.E. of Chiavenna.—Sr.
Morten, atown of Stiria, 6 miles E. of Landf{fperg.—Alfo,
a town of Auttria; 8 miles N.W. of Ottenfhein.

Sr. Nazaire, a town of France, in the department of
the Drome; 7 miles E. of Romans.—Alfo, a town of
France, in the department of the Lower Loire, and chief
place of a canton, in the diftri& of Savenay; 12 miles
W.S.W. of Savenay. The place contains 3216, and the
canton 8419 inhabitants, on a territory of 1673 kiliometres,
in 3 communes.—Alfo, a town of ‘France, in the depart-
ment of the Var; 3 miles W. of Toulon.—Sr. Neomaye,
a town of [ranee, in the department of the Two Sevres ;
9 miles N.E. of Niort.—Sr. Neots. See St. Neors.—Sr.
Nicandro, a town of Naples, in Capitanata; 6 miles E. of
Lefina.—Alfo, a town of Naples, in Bari; 6 miles S.E.
of Bittetto.—Sr. Nicholas, one of the Cape Verd iflands,
of a triangular form, and about 30 leagues in circumference.
The central part is mountainous, and the coafts are
barren. The inhabitants are black, or copper-coloured
Chriftians, under the direGtion of a Portuguefe prieft:
their number is about 6coo. N. Jat. 16° 28’. W. long.
24° 15'.—Alfo,.an ifland, containing about three acres, at
the mouth of Plymouth harbour, with a caftle that
commands the entrance; 2 miles S.W. of Plymouth.
—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of Mont
Blanc; 24 miles S.W. of Flumet.—Alfo, a river of
America, that runs into lake Michigan, N. lat. 43° 35/.
W. long. 85° 35'.—Alfo, a town of Pruffia, in Barten-
land; 24 miles S. of Raftenburg.—Alfo, a river of
Africa, which runs into the Atlantic, S. lat. 13° sol.
—Alfo, a river of Africa, which runs into the Atlantic,
N. lat. 4° 40!. E.long. 5° 35'.—Sr. Nicholas Harbour lies
on the coaft of Canada, on the N. fide of the river St. Law-
rence, 15 miles W. of Cape Montpelles.—Sr. Nicholas
Bay, a bay onthe N.W. coalt of the ifland of Bali. S. lat.
8°r'. E. long. 114°35'. See St. Nicnoras.—Sr. Nicola,
atown of Stiria; 5 miles S.E. of Marburg.—Alfo, a town
of Naples, in Capitanata; rq miles E.N.E. of Lefina.—
Alfo, a town of Naples, in Otranto; 11 miles S. of Oria.
—Sr. Nicolai Kirkiai, a town of Fatt Greenland. N. lat.
60° 45'. W. long. 44° 20'.—Sr. Nicolas, a town of Para-

nay ; 230 miles S.E. of Aflumption.—Alfo, a town of
Mexisoy in New Bifcay ; 130 miles N.W..of Durango. —
Alfo, atown of Spain, in the province of Seville ; 20 miles
N. of Carmona.— Alfo, a town of the ifland of Cherfo; 30
miles N.W. of Cherfo.—Alfo, a town of France, in the
department of the Meurthe, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftriét of Nancy ; 7 miles S.E. of Nancy. The place
contains 2700, and the canton 14,456 inhabitants, ona ter-
ritory of 2424 kiliometres, in 25 communes.—Alfo, a
town of France, in the department of the Scheldt ; 12 miles
S.W. of Antwerp.—Alfo, a town of Switzerland, in the
canton of Berne; 12 miles N.N.E. of Berne.—Alfo, a
town on the N.W. coatt of the ifland of Hifpaniola, fituated
on a bay, formed by Cape St. Nicholas, which affords an
excellent and fafe harbour; taken pofleflion of by the Eng-
lith in 1793. N. lat. 19° 50/. W. long. 72°25'.W—Alfo, a
town v4 France, in the department of the North Coatts ;
# miles N.E. of Rofhrenen.—Srt. Nicolas de la Grave, a
town of France, in the department of the Upper Garonne ;
21 miles N.N.W. of Grenade.—Sr. Nicolas de Redon, a
town of France, in the department of the Lower Loire, and
chief place of a canton, in the diftri€t of Savenay ; 7 miles

SAI

S. of Redon. The place contains 1026, and the canton
7093 inhabitants, ona territory of 270 kiliometres, in four
communes.—St. Nicolas de la Taille, a town of France, in
the department of the Lower Seine; 13 miles E. of Har-
fleur.—Sr. Nicolo, a mountain of Naples, in Abruzzo;
9 miles S.S.W. of Lanciano.—Alfo, a town of Sicily, in
the valley of Noto; 18 miles S.W. of Noto.—Alfo, a town
of Naples, in Calabria Ultra; 8 miles N.W. of Nicotera.—
Sr. Nicolo, or Tremiti, one of the iflands called Tremiti,
about 12 miles from the coaft of Naples; about eight miles
in circumference, and containing a few hamlets, a convent
of Benediftines, anda caftle. N. lat. 42°8!. E. long. 15°
29'.—Alfo, a {mall ifland in the Mediterranean, 3 miles
N.E. of Lindo, in the ifland of Rhodes.—Alfo, a fea-port
town on the N.W. coaft of the ifland of Santorin, the fee
of a Greek bifhop, with a caitle. N. lat. 36° 32.—Alfo,
a town of Sicily, in the valley of Noto; 14 miles W. of
Modica.—Alfo, a fea-port on the S. coait of the ifland of
Tinos. N. lat. 37° 32'. E. long. 25° 8'W—Alfo, a {mall
ifland in the Grecian Archipelago, near the coaft of Natolia.
N. lat. 37° 20’. E. long. 27° 18'.—Sr. Nicolo della Machia,
a town of Naples, in the province of Bafilicata; 11 miles
W. of Motera.—Svr. Nicolo di Ludo, a fort in the ifland of
Malamocco, with {mall barracks for a garrifon.—Sr.
Ninians. See St. NINIANS.

Sr. Olalla, a town of Spain, in New Caftile ; 18 miles
N.W. of Toledo.—S*. Oluf, a town of Sweden, in the pro-
vince of Skonen; 13 miles S. of Chriftianftadt.—Sr. Omer,
a town of France, in the department of the Straits of Calais,
and principal place of a diftriێt; fituated on the Ar, and
{trongly fortified ; before the revolution the fee of a bifhop,
and containing feveral religious houfes; 19 poits N. of
Paris. The north part contains 10,599, and its canton
14,504 inhabitants, on a territory of 874 kiliometres, in
Ii communes. The fouth part contains g510, and its
canton 13,543 inhabitants, ona territory of 524 kiliometres,
in 7 communes. N. lat. 30° 45’. E. long. 9° 10'’.—Sr.
Orfe, a town of France, in the department of the Dor-
dogne; g miles S. of Exideuil.—Sr. Ofth. See Osttu.—
Sr. Ofwald. See Oswatp.—Sr. Ouen, a town of France,
in the department of the Indre and Loire; 4 miles N. of
Amboife.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of
Paris; 4 miles N. of Paris. —Sr. Ouen des Oyes, a town of
France, in the department of the Mayenne; 6 miles N.W.
of Laval.—Sr. Oqwen’s Bay. Sce St. OwEn’s Bay.—Sv.
Oyen, a town of France, in the department of the Dora;
9 miles N. of Aofta. y

St. Pablo. See Pasro.—Alfo, a town of Peru, in the
bifhopric of Truxillo, and jurifdiétion of Caxamarca; 36
miles E. of Caxamarca.—Alfo, a town of South America,
in the audience of Quito, and jurifdiction of Atabalo, feated
on a lake of the fame name; 40 miles E. of Quito.—Alfo,
a river of aft Florida, which runs into the St. John, N.
lat. 30° 34’. W. long. 81° 50'.—Sr. Pal en Chalen¢on, a
town of France, in the department of the Upper Loire ;
9 miles N.W. of Monittrol.—Sr. Palais. See Pavats.—
St. Pasl. See Paoto.—Sr. Pantaleo. See. PANvTAcro.
—Sr. Papoul. See Pavout.—Sr. Pardoux. See Panr-
poux.—Sr. Pargoire. _ See Pancoint.—Sr. Pater, a
town of Trance, in the department of the Sarthe ; 3 miles
S. of Alencon.—Sv. Paterne, atown of France, in the de-
partment of the Morbihan ; 6 miles S.W. of Vannes,—Sr.
Paternian, «town of Upper Carinthia; 8 miles W. of Vil-
lach.—Sv. Patrick. See Parnick.—S*r. Patrick's Bridge,
a chain of rocks on the S. coatt of Ireland, extending about
three ‘miles in a curve from the little Saltee northwards to
the main-land of the county of Wexford, near sie

118

SAI

This ridge, which is narrow, and always under water, is
compofed of large ftones, like paving-ftones. The depth
on it at low water is from feven to ten feet; but it is faid,
that it was formerly paffable at fuch times.—St, Patrick’s
Purgatory, a {mall ifland in Lough Derg, Treland. See
Dero, Lough.—Sr. Pau. See Pau.—Sr. Paul. See St.
Paut.—Sr. Paul en Jaref, 2 town of France, in the de-
partment of the Rhone and Loire; 18 miles S.S.W. of
Lyons.—Sr. Paul de Jarrat, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Arriege; 4 miles N.N.E. of Tarafcon.—
Sr. Paul les Romans, a town of France, in the department
of the Drdme; 4 miles N.E. of Romans.—Sr. Paula. See
St. Pauta.—Sr. Paulien. See Pautien.—St. Pau-
zanne, a town of France, in the department of the Lower
Loire; 12 miles S.W. of Nantes.—Sr. Payo. See Payo.
—Sr. Pé, a town of France, in the department of the Up-
per Pyrenées; 7 miles N. of Argellez.—Sr. Pecaque. See
Pecaque.—Sr. Pedro. See St. Pepro.—Sr. Pelagta.
See Peracia.—Srt. Pellegrino, a fea-port town of the
ifland of Corfica, the greateft part of which is in ruins; 21
miles S.E. of Baftia. N. lat. 42° 23'. E. long. 9° 33'—
St. Peray. See Peray.—Sr. Pére en Retz. See St.
Ptre.—Svr. Pereux, a town of France, in the department

of the Rhone and Loire; 3 miles E. of Roanne.—Sr. Peter.

See St. Perer.—Sr. Peterburg. See PrTERsBURG.—
Alfo, a town of Upper Bavaria; 37 miles S.E. of Munich,
—Sr. Peterfthal. See PererstHat.—St. Philbert de grand
Lieu, a town of France, in the department of the Lower
Loire; 12 miles S. of Nantes.—Sr. Philip, a town of
Mexico, in the province of Mechoacan.—Srt. Philip’s [fland,
an ifland in the South Atlantic ocean. S. lat. 12° 22!. E.
long. 13° 25'.—Sr. Philip’s Bay, a bay on the E. coatt of
Cochinchina. N. lat. 12° 27/. E. long. rog° 8/.—Sr.
Ebaitge d’ Afturia d’Oruro, a town of Peru, in the jurifdic-
tion of Oruro.—Sr. Philippo d’ Argyrone, a town of Sicily,
in the valley of Noto; 27 miles W. of Catania.—Sr. Piedro,
a town of Iftria; 6 miles S.S.W. of Capo d’I{tria.—Sr.
Pierre. See St. Pirrre.—Alfo, a town of France, in the
department of the Straits of Calais; 3 miles S.E. of Calais.
—Alfo, a town of France, inthe department of the Tarn;
6 miles N.W. of La Caune.—Alfo, a town of the Valais ;
14 miles S. of Martigny.—Alfo, a {mall ifland in the Indian
fea. S. lat. 9° 8’. E. long. 55° 15'.—Alfo, a {mall ifland
in the Eaft Indian fea, near the W. coaft of Borneo. N.
lat. 1° 54!. E. long. 109° 9'.—Alfo, an ifland in the South
Atlantic ocean, difcovered by M. Guyot, a Frenchman,
who commanded a Spanifh veflel in 1756. This ifland has
fince been feen by captain Cook, and called «* Georgia.’?—
Alfo, a river of North America, which rifes far to the
N.W., and, after a S.E. courfe, joins the Miffifippi about
N. lat. 44° 40’. It is at its mouth in the Miffifippi about
100 yards broad. About 50 miles from its mouth are
fome rapids. It is fuggelted by captain Carver, that,
though the rivers St. Pierre and the Miffouri enter the
Miflifippi 1200 miles from each other, they take their rife
within one mile of each other. The northern branch of
St. Pierre flows from a number of lakes, near the Shinin

mountains; and here alfo the river Bourbon, which dil-
charges itfelf into Hudfon’s bay, has its fource. The river
St. Pierre, traverfing the country of the Naudoweffies,
pafles through a delightful country, abounding with the
neceflaries of life, and capable of cultivation, fo as to afford
its luxuries. Wild rice grows in abundance, and the trees
are loaded with fruit, fuch as plums, grapes, and apples.
The meadows are covered with hops, and many forts of
vegetables, whilft the foil produces many ial roots,
angelica, f{pikenard, and ground-nuts.x—Alfo, a lake of

SAI

Canada, being a large expanfion of the river St. Lawrence.
N. lat. 45° 8!. W. long. 72° 40!.— Alfo, a fmall ifland, near
the coait of Newfoundland, chiefly ufed for curing and

drying fifh ; ufually ceded to France in peace, and in time

of war taken by the Britifh forces. N. lat. 46° 30’. W.
long 56° 37'.—Alfo, afea-port town of the ifland of Mar.
tinico, in a bay on the W. coaft. N. lat. 14° 43. W.
long. 61° 10!.—- Sv. Pierre de Beuf, a town of France, in
the department of the Rhone and Loire; 12 miles W. of
St. Etienne.—Sr. Pierre de Chemin, a town of France, in
the department of the Vendée; 3 miles N.N.E. of Cha-
taigneraye.—Sr. Pierre du Chignac, a town of France, in
the department of the Dordogne; 8 miles S.E. of Peri-
gueux.—Srt. Pierre d’Eflripiers, atown of France, in the
department of the Lozere ; 7 miles N.W. of Meyrveis.—
Sr. Pierre a Oifeau, the largett of the clufter, called the
«¢ Seven Iflands,’’ near the coait of France.—Sr. Pierre-
mont, a town of France, in the department of the Ar-
dennes ; 9 miles N. of Grandpré.—Svr. Pierres les Melifey,
a town of T'rance, in the department of the Upper Saéne ;
5 miles N.N.E. of Lure.—Sr. Pierreville. See Pierre-
VILLE.—St. Pietra. See Pretra.—Sr. Pietro, a town
of the ifland of Corfica; 10 miles S.W. of Baftia.—Alfo, a
town of Corfica; 6 miles S.W. of Oletta.—Alfo, an ifland,
anciently ‘* Hieracium,”’ in the Mediterranean; 7 miles
from the S. coaft of Sardinia; 13 miles long and 3 broad.
N. lat. 39° 15’. E. long. 8° 24!.—Alfo, a town of
Italy, in the department of the Upper Po ; 14 miles E.
of Cremona.—Alfo, a town of Italy, in the Feltrin;
7 miles N. of FeltriimAlfo, a town of Italy, in Friuli;
12 miles N.W. of Gemona.—Alfo, a fmall ifland in the
gulf of Venice. N. lat. 44° 39/. E. long. 14° 48!.—
Sr. Pietro en Bogno, a town of Etruria; 38 miles E. of
Florence.—Sr. Pietro Galatina, a town of Naples, in the
province of Otranto; 6 miles E. of Nardo.—Sr. Pietro in
Maon, atown of Italy, inthe Poletine de Rovigo; 7 miles
from Rovigo.—Sr. Placido, a town of Sicily, in the valley
of Demona; 6 miles S. of Meffina.—Sr. Planchard, atown
of France, in the department of the Upper Garonne;
g miles N.W. of St. Gaudens.—Sr, Pois. See St. Pors.—
Sr. Pol. See Pot.—Sr. Polgue, a town of France, in the
department of the Rhone and Loire; g miles S.S.W. of
Roanne.—Sr. Polten, or St. Hypolite, a town of Auftria,
on the river Trafen, originating with a convent of Au-
guftines, founded there in the eighth century ; 26 miles W.
of Vienna.—Sr. Pons. See St. Pons.—Sr. Porquier; 2
town of France, in the department of the Upper Garonne ;
4 miles S.E. of Caftel Sarazin.—Sr. Pourgain, a town of
France, in the department of the Allier ; 13 miles N. of
Gannat.—Sr. Prafeda, a town of Campagna di Roma; 12
miles'N.E. of Rome.—Sv. Pref, a town of France, in the
department of the Eure and Loire ; 6 miles N. of Chartres.
—Sr. Prez, or Str. Prex, a town of Switzerland, in the
canton of Berne, on the N. coaft of the lake of Geneva;
8 miles S.W. of Laufanne.—Sv. Prie/, a town of France,
in the department of the Ifere ; 6 miles S.E. of Lyons.—
Sr. Priman, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 1o miles N.W.
of Windifch Gratz.—St. Primus, a town of Stiria; 12
miles S.W. of Windifch Gratz.-—Sr. Privat, a town of
France, in the department of the Upper Loire; 9 miles
S.W. of Puy en Velay.—Sr. Prix, a town of France, in
the department of the Seine and Oife; 10 miles N. of Paris.
—Alfo, atown of France, in the department of the Yonne ;
4 miles S.S.E. of Auxerre.—Sr. Prix fous Beuvray, a town
of France, in the department of the Sadne and Loire ;
g miles W. of Autun.—Sr. Puy, a town of France, in
the department of the Gers; 6 miles S.S.E. of Te,
oT.

SAI

Sr. Quentin, atown of Frarce, and principal place of a
diftri&t, in the department of the Aifne, on an eminence
near the Somme; 63 poits N.N.E. of Paris. The place
contains 10,458, and the canton 14,357 inhabitants, on a
territory of 135 kiliometres, in 14 communes. N, lat.
49° 51’. E. long. 3° 43'.—Alfo, a town of France, in the
department of the Ifere, and chief place of a canton, in

the diitriG of St. Marcellin; 12 miles N.E. of St. Mar-—

cellin. The place contains 1291, and the canton 3490 in-
habitants, on a territory of go kiliometres, in 5 communes.
—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Gard ;
3 miles N. of Uzes.—Sr. Quirico, a town of Etruria ;
§ miles W.S.W. of Monte Pulciano.

St. Rafael. See Raragn.—St. Rambert, a town of
France, inthe department of the Ain, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftrict of Belley ; 27 miles N.E. of Lyons.
The place contains 2596, and the canton 7998 inhabitants,
on aterritory of 1124 kiliometres, in 11 communes. N . lat.
45°57’. E. long: 5° 31'—-Alfo, a town of France, in the

ent of the Loire, and chief place of a canton, in

the diftri@ of Montbrifon; tomiles S.E. of it. The place
contains 2355, and the canton 11,881 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 195 kiliometres, in 13 communes.—Sr. Raphael, a
diftriG and bay of A frica, in the kingdom of Quiloa, fo called
by the Portuguefe from the lofs of a veffel belonging to Vafco
de Gama, on the coalt; 35 miles S. of Monbaca.—Sr.
Raymondo, a town of Brafil, onthe Urubui; 60 miles N.E.
of Fort Rio Negro.—Sr. Regis. See Recis.—Alfo, a
town of South America, in the kingdom of Grenada, on
the Meta; 60 miles E.N.E. of St. Juande los Llanos.—
Alfo, an ifland in the river St. Lawrence, containing near
tooo acres. N. lat. 45°3'. W. long. 74° 45'.—Sr. Re-
golo, a town of Etruria; g miles E. of Leghorn:—Sr.
Remedio, a town of Tyrol; 13 miles S.W. of Bolzano.—
Sr. Remi, a town of France, in the department of the
Doria, near the Great St. Bernard; g miles N. of Aotta.—
St. Remo, afea-port town of Genoa, fituated in a pleafant
valley, and having a good harbour in the Mediterranean.
Its vicinity produces lemons, pomegranates, and other
fruits, with numerous olive-trees that yield excellent oil;
6 miles E.N.E. of Vintimiglia. N. lat. 43° 47’. E. long.
7° 46'—Sr. Remy, a town of France, and feat of a tri-
bunal, in the department of the Mouths of the Rhone, and
chief place of a canton, in the diftriG& of Tarafcon ; 7 miles
E. of Tarafcon. The place contains 5055, and the canton
10,355 inhabitants, on a territory of 165 kiliometres, in
6communes. N. lat. 43° 47’. E. long. 4° 55'—Alfo, a
town of France, in the department of the Puy de Dome,
and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Thiers ;
3 miles N.E. of Thiers. The place contains 2683, and the
canton 9422 inhabitants, on a territory of 170 kiliorgetres,
in 4communes.—Sr. Remy en Bouzemont, atown of France,
in the artment of the Marne, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diftriét of Vitry fur Marne, fix miles S. of it.
The place contains 533, and the canton 8118 inhabitants,
on a territory of 297} kiliometres, in 34 communes. —Sr.
Renan, a town of France, in the department of the Finif-
terre, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriét of Brett ;
6 miles N.W. of Brett The place contains 890, and the
canton 12,776 inhabitants, on a territory of 2174 kilio-
metres, in 10 communes.—Sr. Reverein, atown of France,
in the department of the Nievre; 7 miles S.W. of Cor-
bigny.—5r. Reyne, a town of France, in the department
the Cote d’Or; 7 miles N.E. of Semur en Auxois.—
Sr. Ricquier, a town of France, in the department of the
Somme; 6 miles N.E. of Abbeville. —S71. Rita, a town of
South America, in the province of Carthagena; 70° miles

Vor. XXXI.

SAI

S.E. of Carthagena.—Sr. Robert, a town of France, in the
department of the Correze; 12 miles N.W. of Brive.—
Sr. Roch, a town of Canada, on the St, Lawrence river ;
56 miles N.E. of Quebec.—Sr. Romain. See St. ROMAIN.
—St. Romano. See Romano.—Sr. Romaon. See Ro-
MAON.— St. Rome du Tarn. See St. Rome, &c. — Sr.
Ronans, one of the {maller Shetland iflands, near the W.
coait of Shetland. N. lat. 59° 56’. W. long. 1° 35/.—
Sr. Rofa, atown of Hifpaniola, on the S. fide of St. Do-
mingo, asd dependent upon it.—Alfo, a town of New
Grenada; 30 miles S.W. of Santa Fé de Bogota.—Alfo,
an ifland in the gulf of Mexico, near the S. coaft of Weft
Florida. N. lat. 30? 26!.. W. long. 86° 50. —Sr. Rofa
Bay, a bay in the gulf of Mexico, on the S. coaft of Weft
Florida. N. lat. 30° 33'. W. long. 86° 5! to 86° 32'.—
Sr. Rofa de Oas, a town of South America, in the audience
of Quito, on the Napo; 40 miles $.E. of Archidona.—
St. Rofe, a town of Canada, in the ifland of Jefus; 12
miles N.W. of Montreal.—Sr. Ruprecht, a town of the
duchy of Stiria; 9 miles E.N.E. of Gratz.—Alfo, a town
of Stiria; 4 miles N. of Pettau.

St. Saba, a village of Paleftine, in which is a celebrated
monaitery, founded in the sth century; 18 miles S.E. of
Jerufalem.—Sr. Saba de Milafevo, a town ef European
Turkey, in the province of Servia; 2 5 miles W.N.W. of
Jenibafar.—Sr. Sacrament, a town of South America, in
the government of Buenos Ayres, on the left bank of the
river La Plata, fettled by the Portuguefe ; taken by the
Spaniards in 1777, and ceded to them by treaty ; nearly op-
pofite to Buenos Ayres, and go miles W. of Montevideo.
—St. Sadurni, a town of Spain, in Catalonia; 13 miles
W.N.W. of Barcelona.—Sr. Saéns, a town of France, in
the department of the Lower Seine, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftri€ of Neufchatel; 7 miles S.W. of it.
The place contains 2520, and the canton 9650 inhabitants,
on a territory of 1674 kiliometres, in 19 communes.—Sr.
Salvador. See Satvapvor.—Alfo, a town of France, in
the department of the Maritime Alps, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftri& of Nice. The place contains 229, and
the canten 1836 inhabitants, on a territory of 3425 kilio-
metres, in § communes.—Sr. Salvatore, a town of France,
in the department of the Po; 6 miles N.W. of Alexandria.
—Alfo, a town of Naples, in Calabria Citra; 21 miles E.
of Cofenza.—Svr. Salvo, a town of Naples, in Abruzzo
Citra; 16 miles S.E. of Civita Borella.—Sr. Samfon, a
town of France, inthe department of the Eure; 6 miles N.
of Pont Audemer.—Alfo, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Maine and Loire ; 3 miles N.E. of Angers.
—Sr. Samuela, a {mall ifland in the North Pacific ocean.
N. lat. 62° 35! E. long. 190° 34'.—Sr. 2h ighip a town
of Switzerland, in the canton of Berne, on the N. coaft of
the lake of Geneva; 3 miles W. of Vevai.—Sr. Satur,/a
town of France, in the department of the Cher; 2 miles
N.E. of Sancerre.x—Sr. Saturnin, a town of France, in
the department of the Puy de Déme; 6 miles S. of Cler-
mont.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the
Mouths of the Rhone; 5 miles N. of Apt. —Sr. Sa-
turnin de Lenne, a town of France, in the department
of the Aveiron; 6 miles N. of Severac la Chateau.—
St. Savilla, a town of the ftate of Georgia ;, 64 miles S.
of Savannah.—Svr. Savin, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Gironde ; 9 miles W. of Blaye.—Alfo, a town
of France, in the department of the Vienne, and chief place of
a canton, in the diftri€t of Mont-Morillon ; 7 miles N. of it.
The place contains 848, and the canton 10,543 inhabitants,
on aterritory of 312] lliometres, in 11 communes.—Alfo,
a town of France, inthe department of the Upper Pyrenées ;

3 miler

SAcl

3 miles S. of Argellez.—Sr. Savinien, a town of France, in
the department of the Lower Charente, and chief place of
a canton, in the diftri& of Jean d’Angely ; 7 miles S.W.
of it. The place contains 2878, and the canton 8975 in-
habitants, on a territory of 1574 kiliometres, in 14 com-
munes.—Srt. Saulge, a town of France, in the department
of the Nievre, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@
of Nevers ; 16 miles E.N.E. of Nevers. The place con-
tains 1700, and the canton go81 inh:-bitants, on a territory
of 295 kiliometres, in 11 communes.—Svr. Sau/lieu, a town
of France, in the department of the Somme; 7 miles S. of
Amiens.—Sr. Sauvant, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Vienne; 18 miles S.W. of Poitiers.x—Syr. Sau-
vere, a town of France, in the department of the Allier; 12
miles N.W. of Montlugon.—Sr. Sauveur, a town of France,
in the department of the Yonne, and chief place of a canton,
in the diitri@ of Auxerre; 18 miles S.W. of it. ' The
place contains 1023, and the canton 9$51 inhabitants, on a
territory of 2674 kiliometres, in 11 communes.—Alfo, a
town of France, in the department of the Rhone and Loire ;
10 miles S.E. of St. Etienne.—Sr. Sauveur de Lendelin, a
town of France, in the department of the Channel, and
chief place of a canton, in the diftri&t of Coutances ; 4 miles
N. of it. The place contains 2000, and the canton 11,938
inhabitants, on a territory of 120 kiliometres, in 11 com-
munes.—Sr. Sauveur fur Douves, a town of France, in the
department of the Channel, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftriét of Valognes; 7 miles S.S.W. of it. The place
contains 2051, and the canton 12,720 inhabitants, on a ter-
ritory of 165 kiliometres, in 18 communes.—Sr. Sauvy,
a town of France, in the department of the Gers ; 10 miles
E. of Auch.—Sr. Scamegne, a town of Naples, in Layora,
12 miles N.N.E. of Capud.—Svr. Sebaflian. Sce Srpas-
TIAN.—S1. Seba/fliad, a town of Brafil, in the government
of Para; 60 miles W. of Pauxis.—Alfo, a river of Brafil,
which runs into the Atlantic, N. lat. 23° 4o’.—Sv. Sebaf-
tien, a. town of France, in the Lower Loire, on the S. fide
ofthe Loire; 3 miles S.E. of Nantes.—Sr. Secondo, a town
of Piedmont, in the province of the Four Valles; 2 miles
$.W. of Pincrolo.—Alfo, a town of the duchy-of Parma ;
10 miles N.N.W. of Parma.—Svr. Segal, a town of France,
in the department of the Finifterre ; 3 miles N.E. of Cha-
teaulin.—Sr. Seine, a town of France, in the department of
the Céte d’Or, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrid
of Dijon; 12 miles N.W. of Dijon. The place contains
753, and the canton 6304 inhabitants, on a territory of 365
kiliometres, in 17 communes.—Sr,. Serf, or Sv. Servolo,
an ancient village and ifland of Carniola, fituated on a
mountain, the environs of which are celebrated for excellent
wine; 6 miles E. of ‘T’riefte.—Sr. Sernin, a town of
France, in the department of the Aveiron, and chief place
of a canton, in the diltri&t of St. Afrique ; 13 miles W.S.W.
of it. The place contains 1014, and the canton 12,189
inhabitants, on a territory of 325 kiliometres, in 22 com-
munes.—5Sv. Servan, a town of France, in the department
of the Ille and Vilaine ; 2 miles S. of St. Malo.—Sr. Sever,
a town of France, and principal place of a diftri&, in. the
department of the Landes; g miles $.S.W. of Mont-de-
Marfan. ‘The place contains 5844, and the canton 15,928
inhabitants, on a territory of 250 kiliometres, in 1g com-
munes.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the
Calvados, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of
Vire ; 6 miles W. of Vire.—The place contains 1527, and
the canton 14,103 inhabitants, on a territory of 1924 kilio-
metres, in 21 communes.—Alfo, a town of France, in the
department of the Indre, and chief place of a canton, in the

diftri& of La Chatre. The place contains 516, and the

S-Al

canton 5322 inhabitants, on a territory of 2272 kiliometres,
in 11 cominunes ; 6 miles S.S.E. of La Chatre.—Sr. Sever
de Ruffan, a town of France, in the department of the
Upper Pyrenées ; 10 miles N.N.E. of ‘Tarbe.—Sr. Seve-
rina, a town of Naples, in Calabria Ultra, the fee of an
archbifhop, founded by the patriarch of Conttantinople ;
containing eight churches and two convents; 18 miles E.
of Cofenza. N. lat. 39° 6'. E. long. 14° 4.7'.—Sr. Seve-
rino, a town of Naples, in Principato Citra; 5 miles N. of
Salerno.—Alfo, a town of Naples, in Principate Citra; 10
miles S.W. of Policaftro.—Alfo, a town of the marquifate
of Ancona, on the Potenza, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan
of Fermo, containing two churches, and ten convents; 30
miles 5.S.W. of Ancona. N, lat. 43° 10'.. E. long. 13°
18'..—Sr. Seviero, or Severio, a town of Naples, in Capi-
tinata, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Benevento ; 26 miles
W.S.W. of Manfredonia. NN. lat. 41° 44'.. E. long. 15°
34'.—Sr. Sidroine, a town of France, in the department of
the Yonne; 3 miles S.E. of Joigny.—Sr.’ Sigi/mund, a
town of the Tyrol; 16 miles S.W. of Infpruck.—Allfo, a
town of Stiria; 11 miles N. of Pruck.—Svr. Sigmund, a
town of the Tyrol, onthe Inn ; 16 miles N.E. of Landeck,
—Sr. Silvaine, a town of France, in the Calvados; 9 miles
N. of Falaife.—Sr. Simon, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Aifne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri&
of St. Quintin; 7 miles S.S.W. of it. The place contains
315, and the canton 10,039 inhabitants, on a territory of
147% kiliometres, in 25 communes.—Alfo, a town of Iftria ;
6 miles S.W. of Capo d’Ii{tria.—Alfo, an ifland in the
Atlantic, near the coalt of Georgia, about 12 leagues in
extent. N. lat. 31° 15! W. long. 81° 36..—Alfo, a
town of New Navarre; 105 miles W. of Cafa Grande.—
Sr. Sinico, a town of Naples, in Bafilicata; 9 miles E. of
Acerenza.—Srt. Sixt, a town of Auttria; 4 miles S. of
Engelbartzel.—Sr. Soffa, a town cf Naples, in Bafilicata ;
6 miles S.E. of Muro.—Alfo, a town of the duchy of
Spoleto; 22 miles W.N.W. of Urbino.—Sr. Solicito, a
town of Naples, in the county of Molife; 6 miles N. of
Molife.—Sr. Sorlin, a town of France, in the department
of the Ain, near the Rhone ; 4 miles S.S.W. of St. Ram-
bert.—Al{o, a town of France, in the department of the
Sadne and Loire ; 4 miles N.W. of Macon.—Svr. Soto, a
town of Naples, in Calabria Ultra ; 10 miles S. of Squillace.
—Sr. Stefano, a town of France, in the department of
the Tanaro; 12 miles E. of Alba.—Alfo, a town of the
Ligurian republic; 18 miles N.W. of Bruguetto.—Alio,
a town of Naples, in Calabria Ultra; 15 miles S. of
Squillace.—Alfo, a fmall ifland near the S. coatt of Sar-
dinia. N. lat. 39° 13. E. long. 9° 42'—Sr. Stefano di
Belbo, a town of France, in the department of the Tanaro ;
15 miles S.S.E. of Attii—Sr. Stephan, a town of the duchy
of Stiria; 7 miles S.S.W. of Leoben.—Alfo, a town of
the duchy of Carinthia; 14 miles S.E. of Saxenburg.—
Sr. Stephano, an uninhabited ifland in the Mediterranean,
which turnifhes fome brufh-wood to the inhabitants of Ven-
totiena, to whom it is near.—Alfo, a town of France, in
the Maritime Alps; 7 miles N.N.W. of Boglio.—Alfo,
a town of the Tyrol; 11 miles N.N.E. of Trent.—Alfo,
a town of Naples, in Abruzzo Ultra ; -7 miles E. of Aquila,
—Sr. Stephano delle Corgnole, a town of Naples, in the pro-
vince of Bari; 5 miles S.S.E. of Monopoli.—Sr. S¢ m
a town of South Carolina ; 35 miles N. of Charleftown.—
Sr. Sulpice, a town of Canada, on the river St, Lawrence ;
18 miles N.N.E. of Montreal.—Alfo, a town of France,
in the department of the Nievre; g miles E.N.E. of
Nevers. —Sr. Sulpice les Feuilles, a town of France, in’ the
department of the Upper Vienne, and chief place of a can-

tony

Sp Ada

ton, in the diftri&t of Bellac; 13 miles E.N.E. of Dorat.
The place contains 1237, and the canton go86 inha-
bitants, on a territory of 2673 kiliometres, in 10 com-
munes.—St. Sulpice les Champs, a town of France, in the
department of the Creufe, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftri@ of Aubuffon. The plaee contains 1057,
and the canto:- 7622 inhabitants, on a territory of 6474
kiliometres, in 12 communes.—St. Sulpice de Lezat, a
town of France, in the Upper Garonne; 18 miles S.
of Touloufe.—Sr. Sulpice de la Pointe, a town of France,
in the department of the Tarn; 15 miles N.N.E. of
Touloufe.—Sr. Sufanna, a town of Naples, in the pro-
vince of Otranto; 7 miles E. of Oria.—Alfo, an ifland,
called alfo « Sir William Draper’s Ifland,”’ in the Mergui
Archipelago, near the coaft of Siam, about 20 miles in
circumference. N. lat. 10° 32!—Sr. Sufanne, a town of
France, and feat of a tribunal, in the department of the
Mayenne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict
of Laval; 16 miles E. of Laval. The place contains
1487, and the canton 9290 inhabitants, on a territory of
197% kiliometres, in 10 communes. N. lat. 48° 6’. W.
long. 0° 16'.—Sr. Symphorien, a town of France, in the
department of the Aveiron; 6 miles S.E. of Mur de
Barres.—Alfo, a townof France, in the department of the
Gironde ; 12 miles W. of Bazas.—Alfo, a town of France,
in the department of the Saone and Loire ; 4 miles N.N.E.
of Charolles.—Sr. Symphorien le Chatelet, a town of France,
in the department of the Rhone and Loire ; 13 miles S.W.
of Lyons.—Sr. Symphorien en Lay, a town of France, in the
department of the Rhone and Loire; 6 miles S.E. of
Roanne.—St. Symphorien d’Ozon, a town of France, in the
department of the Ifere; 6 miles N. of Vienne.

Sr. Tadeo, a town of New Navarre; 120 miles W. of
Cafa Grande.—Sr. Teodoro, a {mall ifland near the N.
coaft of Candy; 8 miles N.W. of Canea.—Svr. Tere/a, a
town of New Granada, at the conflux of the Metz and
Oroonoko ; 300 miles E. of Santa Fé de. Bogota.—
Alfo, a town of New Mexico, in the province of Cinalea ;

5 miles N.E. of Cinaloa.—Sr. Thegonec, a town of France,
in the department of the Finifterre ; 6 miles S.W. of Mor-
laix.—Sr. Theodofia, a {mall ifland in the North Pacific
ocean. N. lat. 62° 20!. E. long. 192°.—Sr. Theoffry, a
town of France, in the department of the Ifere ; 12 miles
S. of Grenoble.—Sr. Thiervy, a town of France, in the
department of the Marne; 4 miles N.W. of Rheims.—
Sr. Thomas. See St. Tuomas.—Sr. Thome, a town of
France, in the department .of the Ardeche; 6 miles W. of
Viviers.—Alfo, a town of Paraguay; 300 miles E. of
Affumption.—A Ifo, a town of Hifpaniola ; go miles N.W.
of St. Domingo. N. lat. 19° 10’, W. long. 72° 11/.—
Sr. Thomé de Guiana, a town of Guiana, on the left bank
of the Oroonoko, belonging to the Portuguefe. N. lat.
8° 8. W. long. 62° 16'.—Sr. Tita, a {mall ifland in the
North Pacific ocean, N. lat. 63° 51'. E. long. 190° 14/.—
Sv. Tomas, a town of New Mexico, in the province of Mayo ;
150 miles N.E. of Santa Cruz.—St. Tomas de Aquino, ‘a
town of New Navarre; 230 miles W. of Cafa Grande.—
Sx. Tomas de Caflile, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Vera Paz, at the mouth of the river Guanacos, where it opens
into the Golfo Dolce ; 50 miles E. of Vera Paz. N. lat.
ee W. long. go” 26',—Alfo, a {mall ifland in the

acilic ocean, near the coalt of Mexico. N. lat. 20° 10/.—
Alfo, a Spanifh fettlement and miflion in New Albion, near
the coaft of the Pacific ocean, formed in the year 1778.
N. lat. 31° 2'. E. long. 244° 13.—Sr. Trevier de Courtes,
a town of France, in the department of the Ain, and chief

S A TL

place of a canton, in the diltri€t of Bourg; 6 miles E.N.E.
of Pont-de-Vaux. The place contains 1867, and the canton
11,318 inhabitants, on a territory of 225 kiliometres, in 13
communes. N. lat. 46° 28/. E. long. 5° 10'.—Sr. Tre-
vier du Mograns, a town of France, in the department of
the Ain, and chief place of a canton, in the diftria of
Trevoux ; 18 miles N. of Lyons. The place contains
925, and the canton 7764 inhabitants, on a territory of
2824 kiliometres, in 21 communes.—Sr. Tron, a town of
France, in the department of the Lower Meufe, and
chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Haflelt, lately
belonging to the bifhopric of Liege, fituated on the fron-
tiers of Brabant. Its ancient name was “ Sarcine,’’ or
«< Sarcinium ;’’ but its prefent appellation was derived from
that of an abbey, built here about the year 657 by St.
Trudon, or St. Tron, a rich lord of the country; 14
miles N.W. of Liege. The place contains 5801, and the
canton 12,612 inhabitants, on a territory of 210 kilio-
metres, in 30 communes. N. lat. 50° 4o!. E. long. 5°
16°.—Sr. Trone, a town of France, in the department of
Mont Blanc; 3 miles E.N.E. of Monitier.—Sr. Tropez,
a fea-port town of France, in the department of the Var,
and chief place of a canton, in the diftri€t of Draguignan,
fituated in a bay of the Mediterranean, about 10 miles in
length, to which it gives name, defended by a citadel; 9
miles S. of Frejus. The place contains 3156, and the
canton 4929 inhabitants, on a territory of 2125 kiliometres,
in 5 communes.—Sr. Tulle, a town of France, in the de-

partment of the Lower Alps; to miles S. of Forcalquier.
Sr. Vaa/fl, a town of France, in the department of the
Channel, with a {mall harbour and falt-works ; 9 miles N.E.
of Valognes.—Sr. Valentino, a town of Naples, in Abruzzo
Citra; 12 miles N. of Sulmona.—Sr. Valery, a {ea-port
town of France, inthe department of the Somme, and chief
place of a canton, in the diftri€t of Abbeville, on the
Somme. It has confiderable trade, but no harbour ; g miles
N.W. of Abbeville. The place has 3328, and the canton
11,943 inhabitants, on a territory of 180 kiliometres, in 13
communes. N. lat. 50°37!. E. long. 1° 16'..—Sr. Valery
en Caux,atown of France, in the department of the Lower
Seine, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of Yvetot ;
11 miles $.W. of Dieppe. The place contains 5017, and
the canton 14,384 inhabitants, on a territory of 145 kilio-
metres, in 29 communes. William I. is faid to have failed
from hence when he made his defcent in England. N. lat.
49° 52'. E. long. 0° 47!.—Sr. Vallier, a town of France,
in the department of the Drome, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diftri€&t of Valence, 12 miles N. of it. The
place contains 1736, and the canton 9804 inhabitants, on a
territory of 1874 kiliometres, in 16 communes.—Alfo, a
town of France, in the department of the Var, and chief
place of a canton, in the diftriét of Grafle ; 4 miles N.W.
of Grafle. The place contains 518, and the canton 3715
inhabitants, on a territory of 1874 kiliometres, in 5 come
munes.—St. Vandrille, a town ob France, in the depart-
ment of the Lower Seine ; 3 miles E. of Caudebec.—Sr.
Varent, atown of France, in the department of the Two
Sevres, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of
Thouars ; 5 miles S. of Thouars. The place contains 1150,
and the canton 3709 inhabitants, on a territory of 180 kilio-
metres, ing communes. —Sr. Vaury, atown of France, in the
department of the Creufe, and chief place of a canton, in the
diltriét of Gueret ; 6 miles N.W. of Gueret. The place
contains 2247, and the canton 9465 inhabitants, on a territory
of 2024 kiliometres, ing communes. —St. Veit. See Vuit.
—Sr. Veith, a town of Stiria; 3 miles N. of Gratz.—Sr.
R 2 Venant,

S Al

Penant, a town of France, in the department of the Straits
of Calais, on the Lys; 6 miles N.N.W. of Bethune.—Sr.
Venstico, one of the Sapienza iflands. N. lat. 36° 5o!. E.
long. 21° 51'.—Sr. Vettore, a town of Naples, in the pro-
vince of Bari; 3 miles S. of Andria.—Sr. Vicente, a town
of Brafil, on the S. fide of the ifland of Santos. S. lat.
24° 4!.—Sr. Vicente Gutayayta, a town of Peru, in the dio-
cefe of La Plata; 40 miles N.E. of Lipes.—Sr. Vicenzo,
a town of Iftria; 9 miles N. of Rovigno.—Sr. Vidor, a
town of the county of Montfort ; 2 miles S.S.E. of Mont-
fort.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the
Lower Seine; 15 miles S. of Dieppe.—Sr. Vidurien, a
town of France, in the department of the Upper Vienne ;
19 miles N.W. of Limoges.—Sr. Vigilio, a town of Italy,
inthe department of the Mela; 4 miles N.N.W. of Brefcia.
—Sr. Vincent. See Vixcent.—Sv. Vinnemer, a town of
France, in the department of the Yonne, and chief place of
a canton, in the diftri@ of Tonnerre. The place contains
824, and the canton 9798 inhabitants, on a territory of
3024 kiliometres, in 18 communes.—Sr. Vio, a town of
Italy, m the Veronefe; 3 miles W.N.W. of Verona.—
St. Vit, a town of France, in the department of the
Doubs; 9 miles S.W. of Befancon.—Alfo, a town
of France, in the department of the Forefts, near
the fource of the river Uren; 25 miles S. of Aix la
Chapelle. N. lat. 50° 18’. E. long. 6° 12!.—Sr. Vith,
a town of France, in the department of the Ourte, and
chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of Malmedy. The
place contains 644, and the canton 8430 inhabitants, on
a territory of 340 kiliometres, in 8 communes.—Sr. Vito, a
town of Naples, in the province of Otranto; 6 miles S.E.
of Oftunii—Alfo, a town of Naples, in Bari; 6 miles
N.N.W.. of Converfano.—Alfo, a town of Sicily, in the
valley of Mazara; 13 miles N.E. of Trapani.—Alfo, a
town of Italy, in the Trevifan ; 13 miles W. of Cereda.—
St. Vitoriano, a town of Spain, in Aragon; 5 miles N.E.
of Ainfa.—Sr. Vivien, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Gironde, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Lefparre ; g miles N.N.W. of it. The place
contains 660, and the canton 4914 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 3774 kiliometres, in g communes.—Sr. Ulrich, a
town of the duchy of Carinthia; 4 miles S. of Ebernitein.
—Affo, a town of Stiria; 10 miles W.S.W. of Marburg.
—Alfo, a town of Auitria; 4 miles W. of Aigen.—Alfo,
a town of Auitria; 8 miles S.S.E. of Aigen.—Sr. Urain,
atownof France, in the department of the Nievre ; 7 miles
N.E. of Cofne.—Sr. Urdain, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Upper Marne; 3 miles S.E. of Joinville.
—Sr. Urcize, atown of France, in the department of the
Cantal ; 21 miles S. of St. Flour.—Sr. Urfitz, St. Urfanne,
or Sonderfitz, a town of France, in the department of the
Upper Rhine, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of
Porentruy ; 5 miles S. of it. The place contains 666, and
the canton 2772 inhabitants, oma territory of 115 kiliome-
tres, in 11 communes. N. lat. 47°25'. E. long. 7° 6'.—
Sr. Urfula, a town of Stiria; 8 miles W.S.W. of Mar-
burg.—Sr. U/uge, town of France, in the department of
the Saone and Loire ; 3 miles N. of Louhans.

Sr. Wendel, atown of France, in the department of the
Sarre, and chief place of a canton, in the dillri& of Sarre-
bruck ; 16 miles N.W. of Deux-Ponts. The place contains
1313, and the canton 5337 inhabitants, in 28 communes.—Sr.
Willibaldfourg, a town and citadel of Bavaria, in the bifhopric
of Aichitatt, formerly the refidence of the bifhops, near Aich-
ftatt.—Sr. Wolfgang, atown of Aultria; 3 miles S.S.W.
of Aigen.—Alfo, a town of Auftria ; one mile N. of Kirch-

SAT

ichlag.—Alfo, a town of Auftria, in a lake called ‘the
** Abernfee,”” or St. Wolfgang’s lake ; 54 miles S.S.W. of.
Lintz.—Alfo, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of
Zug; 4miles W. of Zug.

St. Xavier, a river of Canada, which runs into the
Pickoouagamis, N. lat. 48° 53’. W. long. 73° 50’.—Alfo,
an ifland of Canada, at the conflux of the St. Xavier and
Pickoouagamis.—Alfo, a town of South America, in the
province of Moxes; 180 miles N. of Santa Cruz de la
Sierra la Nueva.—Alfo, a town of South America, in the
audience of Quito ; 30 miles §.E. of S. Jofef de Huales.
—Alfo, a town of Mexico, in‘ the province of New Bif-
cay; 70 miles W. of Parral—Alfo, a town of South
America, in the province of Chiquitos; 110 miles N.E.
of Santa Cruz.—Alfo, a town of New Navarre; 45 miles
S.S.W. of Cafa Grande.—Sr. Xavier de Macaguana, a
town of South America, in the kingdom of Granada ; 100
miles E. of Tunis. ;

Sr. Yacinto, a town of Brafil, in the TTapajos ; 40 miles
S. of Pauxis.—Sr. Yago, or St. Jago, a town of N. Ame-
rica, in California; 120 miles W. of Loreto. See S¢.
JAco.—Sr. Yreix, or Yriuix, a town of France, and prin-
cipal place of a diftriét, in the department of the Upper
Vienne, on the lle; 19 milesS. of Limoges. N. lat. 45°
30’. E. long. 1° 17/.

Sr. Zacharie, a town of France, in the department of
the Var; 9 miles S.W. of St. Maximin.—Sr. Zeno, a town
of Italy, inthe Trevifan ; 10 miles E.S.E. of Cifmone.—
Sr. Zibio, a town of Italy, in the Paduan; 11 miles S.E.
of Padua.

Saint Davin,in Biography, the tutelary faint of Wales,
and firit bifhop of the fee of St. David’s, in Pembrokefhire.
The hiitory of this prelate is involved in great obicurity,
and very much intermixed with monkith legends, in which we
can repofe no confidence. He is ftated to have been of
princely extraétion, and to have been the fon, as fome fay,
and according to others the grandfon, of Sandde ab Cedig
ab Ceredig ab Cunedda, a prince of Ceredigion, or Car-
digan, by Non, the daughter of Gynyr of Caer Gawch,
in Pembrokefhire. Some fay the lady’s name was Melaria,
and that fhe was one of. the daughters of Brychan, a prince
or regulus of Brecknockthire, from whom that county de-
rived its name, and whofe reign is dated from A.D, 400 to
450. However this be, all authors agree, that fhe was a
nun, and that fhe became a mother by the forcible violation
of her chaitity. The year of his birth is not pofitively
afcertained ; Creffy places it in the year 462; but the au-
thor of his life, in a diflertation on the fubjeét contained in
the « Ata San&torum,” fixes it in the year 445 ¢ but others
affign a later date. Having commenced his education, and
courfe of literary fame at old Menapia, and determining to
devote himfelf to a religious life, he removed to the Ifle of
Wight, in order to avail himfelf of the inftrution of Pau-
linus, who fuperintended a public fchool for the admiffion
of perfons defigned for the clerical office. After profecutin
his ftudies for fome years in this place with great ardour an
fuccefs, he returned to his native country, and fixed his
refidence in a retired fituation, called “ Vallis Rofina,”’ the

Valley of Roles, where he founded a monattic inftitution, ;

which acquired, from the {tri€& difcipline with which it was
conducted, and the dittinguithed fan&tity of its members, a
celebrity that rendered it in procefs of time an archiepifcopal
metropolis. Of this in{titution we have in the “ A@ta Sane.
torum” the following defcription. The members of it,
who laboured daily for the benefit of the monattery, “ never
converfed together by talking but when necellity required ;
an

Pte ere,

SAI

and each performed the labour afligned him, accompanied
with prayers or holy meditations on divine things ; and
having finifhed their country work, they returned to their
monaitery, where they fpent the remainder of the day till the
evening in reading or writing. In the evening, at the found-
ing of a bell, they all left their employment, and repaired to
the church, where they continued till the itars appeared, and
then they went to their refection, eating fparingly, and not
tofatiety. “Their food was bread, with roots or herbs fea-
foned with falt, and they quenched their thirft with a mix-
‘ture of water and milk. Supper being ended, they conti-
nued about three hours in watchings, prayers, and genu-
flexions. As long as they were in the church, none were al-
lowed to flumber, or {neeze, or eje¢t-fpittle. After this they
went to reft, and at cock-crowing they rofe, and remained at
prayer till day appeared. All their inward fenfations and
thoughts were difclofed to their fuperior, and from him they
demanded permiffion in all things, even when urged by the
neceflary calls of nature.”’ Their clothing confilted of the
fkins of beatts.

When a fynod was convened at Llandewi Brefi in Cardi-
ganfhire, A.D. 519, according to Ubher, for reftraining
the Pelagian herefy, David, in compliance with earneit in-
treaties, repaired to it, and preached with fuch ardour and
efficacy againft the obnoxious doGtrines, that he was unani-
moufly appointed archbifhop of Caerleon, in the room of Du-
bricius, whofe age and infirmities rendered it neceflary for
him to refign. He acquiefced in the appointment, as it is
faid, on the condition of removing the fee to Menevia.
Another fynod was in procefs of time convoked by David,
at which the aéts and decrees of the fynod of Brefi were con-
firmed, and fome new aéts pafled for the regulation of the
doérine and difcipline of the churches. ‘Thi’ convocation
is called the Synod of Victory. St. David committed the
decrees of thele two fynods to writing, and depofited them
in the archives of his own cathedral; and thefe, having ob-
tained the approbation of the court of Rome, were received
for many ages as an authoritative dircétory in all ecclefiaftical
matters. Thefe ancient documents were at a fubfequent pe-
riod deitroyed by the barbarian invaders, who repeatedly
pillaged the church, and configned to the fire what they
found it ufelefs to remove. The time of St. David’s death,
and his age at-his deceafe, are no lefs uncertain than the pe-
riod of his birth. Giraldus and John of Tinemouth ftate
that he died in the year 609, at the advanced age of 147 years.
Pits places his death in 544, afligning to him the fame in-
eredible age. The author of his life in the “ A€ta Sanc-
torum,”’ a with this ftatement as to the time of his
death, but makes him only 97 years old, fuggetting that this
difference of dates may be owing to their having been ori-
ginally written LKX X XVII. or CKXX XVII. and the firft
numeral I, being miftaken for C. Usher alfo concurs in
fixing his death in 544, but he makes his age only 82. He
was canonized by Catztus IJ., who held the papal fee from
A.D, 1119 to 1124. His character is thus Ficned up by
Giraldus. “ He was to all a mirror and a pattern of life :
he taught both by precept and example : he was an excel.
lent preacher in words, but more excellent in works. He
wasa doétrine to thofe who heard him, a model to the reli-
gious, life to the néedy, defence to orphans, fupport to
widows, a father to the fatherlefs, a rule to monks, a direc-
tory tomen of the world ; being made allthings to all men,
that he might wit all to God.”

Tn confequence of the ro 6 of the middle ages, which
created the feven champions of Chriftendom, St. David was
dignified with the title of the patron faint of Wales; but
this rank is hardly known among the people of the princi-

SA‘

pality, being a title diffufed among them from England in
modern times. Owen’s Camb. Biog.

Although the cuftom of wearing leeks on the firft of
Mareh, or St. David’s day, may feem to fome of our rea-
ders to bea trivial fubje&t, yet to thofe who are natives of
the principality, and of thefe the number is not inconfider-
able, the following account may not be unacceptable, or
unamufing, We obferve, however, that this cuitom is
fcarcely known in Wales. Mr. Owen ftates, that in fome
diftri&s of Wales the neighbours of a {mall farmer, deititute
of means for cultivating his land, appoint a day when they all
attend to plough his land, or to ferve him in fome other way,
and that at fuch time each individual carries with him his por-
tion of leeks, to be ufed in making pottage for the com-
pany. But this is a cuftom which does not now fubiit.
Some have fuppofed that the pra¢tice originated with a vic-
tory obtained by Cadwallo, over the Saxons, on the firft of
March 640, when the Welfh, in order to diftinguifh them-
felves, wore leeks in their hats. To this Shakfpeare feems
to allude, when he makes Fluellin fay, ‘‘ the Welfhmen did
goed fervice in a garden where leeks did grow.” Buta
writer in the “¢ Gentleman’s Magazine”? (vol. lvii. p. 131.)
traces it to a more ancient fource. ‘ Scholars,’’ he obferves,
«know that the leek, +ezca of the Greeks, by a corrupt tran{-
pofition of pares-on, and porrum of the Latins, corrupted
from Pur-orus, was an Egyptian deity, and confequently the
Britons, a colony of Egyptians, were worfhippers of leeks,”’
Drayton (Polyolbion, fong 4.) afcribes it to the holy aulte-
rity of St. David, whofe retreat he places in the vale of
Ewyas, on the borders of Monmouththire and Brecknock-
fhire.

¢ That reverent Britifh faint in zealous ages pat
To contemplation liv’d; and did fo truly faft,
As he did onelie drink what cryital Hodney yields,
And fed upon the leeks he gathered in the fields.
In memorie of whom, in the revolving yeere,
The Welfhmen on his day that facred herbe doe weare.””

See Rees’s Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xviii.
Saryt Parricx, the apoftle and tutelary faint of Ire-
Jand, flourifhed in the fifth century, and if we may credit
the accounts that are given of fuch a faint, and of the early
period of his life, his name was Succathus, and he was a
native of Scotland, born A.D. 377. At the age of fix-
teen years, it is faid, he was a flave, and continue fix years
in this degraded condition. He afterwards became a dif.
ciple of St. Martin, who induéted him into the clerical office,
After the unfuccefsful labours and death of Palladius, who
had been fent by Celeitine, the Roman pontiff, into Ireland,
in order to propagate the Chriltian faith among the rude in-
habitants of that ifland, the fame pontiff employed in this
miffion Succathus, above-mentioned, and changed his name
into that of Patrick. He arrived among the Irifh A.D.
432. The fuccefs of his miniftry, and the number and im-
portance of his pious exploits, ftand upon record as un-
doubted proofs, not only of his refolution and patience, but
alfo of his dexterity and addrefs. Having attacked, with
much greater fuccefs than his predeceflor, the errors and
fuperftitions of that uncivilized people, and converted great
numbers of them to the Chriftian religion, he founded, in
the year 472, the archbifhopric of Armagh, which has ever
fince remained the metropolitan fee of the Irifh nation.
Others fay, that after having laboured in effecting the
purpofe of his miffion ior fixty years, he died in the year
460. Hence this famous miffionary, though he was not the
firlt who communicated to the Irifh the light of the go ie
has neverthelefy been jultly entitled the Apottle of the dri 4
5 an

SAI

and the father of the Hibernian church : and is ftill generally
acknowledged and revered in that honourable charaéter.
The venerable Bede has written his life in two books:
and Jac. Wareus, whofe “« Hibernia Sacra’’ was printed in
folio at Dublin in 1717, publifhed at London in 1656, in
8vo. “The Works of St. Patrick.’? The fynods that were
holden by this eminent miffionary are to be found in Wil-
kins’s Concilia Magnz Brit. et Hibernia, tomi. p. 2. See
the Aéta Sanétorum, tom. ii. Marti, p. 517. tom. iii.
Februar. p. 131. 179. Mofheim’s Eccl. Hitt. vol. ii.
Sarnt Evremonp, a man of letters, was born in Nor-
mandy in the year 1633. He ftudied the law at Paris, but
quitted that purfuit to enter into the army, and ferved,
though young, at the fiege of Arras in 1640. He was
taken under the patronage of the prince of Condé, who
made him lieutenant of his guards, and he fought under
him at Friburg and Nordlingen, at the latter of which
places he met with a very fevere wound. Having loft the
favour of the prince by fome raillery which he difplayed,
he was deprived of his commiffion. He afterwards ferved
in Catalonia, where he was made maréchal de camp: here
he could not entirely reftrain his propenfity for farcafm, and
the difplay of his wit drew down upon him the difpleafure of
cardinal Mazarin, and alfo coft him three months’ imprifon-
ment in the Baftille. In the war of the Fronde he attached
himfelf to the royal party, and obtained promotion and a
confiderable penfion. A letter which he took the liberty
of writing to marfhal Crequi, in which he cenfured the
peace of the Pyrenées, embroiled him with the exifting
miniftry, and an order was iflued for committing him again
to the Baltille; but being apprized of the faét he efcaped
to England, where he {pent the remainder of his life. He
was well received at the court of Charles II., and pafled a
long epicurean kind of life, enjoying the pleafures of fociety,
and the table, to which he was extremely addifted. He died
in 1703, at the age of 80, and was interred in Weitmintfter
Abbey, in which a monument was ereCted to his memory.
He was the author of a variety of works, which a century
ago were much read. His profe writings are political, phi-
lofophical, and mifcellaneous, which, without much depth
and erudition, difplay good fenfe and penetration. His
comedies and poems are infipid, and would f{carcely have
been noticed, had they not been handed about in manufcript
among perfons of fafhion. His works were colle¢ted and
publifhed in London, in three vols. 4to. 1705, and at Paris
in ten vols. 12mo. 1740; and again in 12 vols. 12mo. 1753.
Saint-Forx, GerMAIN-F RANGoIS-POULAIN Dk, a French
dramatic writer, was born at Rennes in 1698: he was
brought up to the military fervice, and entered early into
the Moufquetaires, whence he removed to the cavalry. He
had, however, previoufly to this imbibed a tafte for letters,
and efpecially for the theatre ; and while yet a mere youth he
compofed two or three light pieces, which were reprefented
with fuccefs. When war with the emperor broke out in 1733,
Saint-Foix went with his regiment to Italy, where he was aid-
de-camp to marfhal Broglio. Although he acquitted himfelf
with great reputation, yet he could not obtain a troop in
the cavalry, which he folicited, and accordingly he quitted
the army in difguft, and purchafed the poft of mafter of the
waters and forelts, which he retained from 1736 to 1740,
when he finally fixed his refidence in the capital. Here he
became involved in many quarrels, which terminated in duels.
Though impatient of contradiétion, he was upright and
generous, and a modett eftimator of his own talents. The
petulance of his temper fearcely appeared in his writings,
which are in general elegant, delicate, and agreeable. From
1740 to 1761 he produced tweuty comedies, which were all

SAI

fuccefsful on the ftage. They are natural and eafy, but
without much itrength or variety. Among his other writ-
ings were * Lettres Turques,”’ a fort of imitation of Mon-
tefquieu’s Perfian Letters: “ Effais Hiftorique fur Paris,’*
an amufing mixture of manners and antiquities: and * Hif-
toire de Ordre du Saint-Efprit,”’ confilting of biographical
anecdotes of the knights of the order. This laft work he
compofed in the quality of hiftoriographer of the royal
orders. He died at Paris in 1776. :

Sart-Geats, OcTraviAN DE, an early French writer,
was born of a noble family at Cognac in 1466. He ftudied

at Paris, and entered into the ecclefiaitical order, but devoted.

himfelf more to poetry and gallantry than to the duties of
his profeffion. Through the favour of king Charles VIII.
he was nominated by the pope Alexander VI. to the bi-
fhopric of Angouleme in 1494, and in 1497 he went to
refide at his diocefe, where he dicd in 1502. He left be-
hind him many works in verfe and profe, of which the molt
valuable were French tranflations of the Aincid and Ovid’s
Epiftles. “It is,”? fays one of his biographers, “ a remark-
able trait of the times, that his full title, as the reverend
father in God, bifhop of Angouleme, is prefixed to fome of
his amorous publications.” .

Saint-Geats, MERLIN pg, a French poet, faid to have
been a natural fon of the preceding, was born in14g1. He
ftudied at Poiétiers and Padua, and obtained fo much repu-
tation by his Latin verfes, that he was called the French
Ovid. He was favoured and promoted to ecclefiaftical rank
by Francis I. and Henry Il. He died at Paris in 1559.
Saint-Gelais was the Arit perfon who introduced the fonnet
into French poetry, from the Italian; from which langua
he tranflated the tragedy of Sophonifba. He excelled in
epigram, and was fo much given to raillery, that it became
a proverbial faying, «< Beware of the pincers of Saint-Gelais.””
His poems have been popular in France; the lat edition
was probably that of 1719.

Saint-Joun, Henry, lord vifeount Bolingbroke, a
nobleman of great celebrity, as well in the literary as the
political world, was born in 1672, at Batterfea, in Surrey.
His father was fir Henry St.-John, and his mother was a
daughter and co-heirefs of Robert Rich, earl of Warwick.

His education was chiefly under the direGtion of his grand--

father and grand-mother, of whom the latter was daughter
of St.-John, chief juftice under Cromwell, and was attached
to the Prefbyterian fe ; but the impreffion he received from
that circumftance was a rooted averfion to a party whofe
aufterity was very ill adapted to his difpofition. At a
proper age he was fent to Eton f{chool, and thence to Chritt-
church college, in Oxford; and at both thefe feminaries of
learning he gave indications of extraordinary talents, but he
was full more diftinguifhed for his love of pleafure, It is
however faid, that there was no period in which he did not
devote fome hours to the acquifition of knowledge and the
cultivation of literature. He became the friend and pro-
teétor of Dryden in his declining years; and prefixed a
copy of encomiattic verfes to his tranflation of Virgil in

1697-
it was about this period that Mr. St.-John married the
daughter and co-heirefs of fir Henry Winchefcomb of Berk-
fhire, and in 1700 he became a member of the houle of com-
mons, as reprefentative for Wootton-Baflet. He joined the
Tory party, and attached himfelf to Harley, afterwards earl
of Oxford, who in this parliament was chofen fpeaker. In
1704, Mr. St.-John was made fecretary at war, which office
he held during the greater part of the duke of Marl-
borough’s brilliant career. When Harley was deprived of
the feals in 1707, his. friend St.-John refigned his poft; and
ay upon

sat

upon the reftoration of the former to power, three years
after, the latter was appointed fecretary of ftate. It was

_ about this period he wrote a letter, in the periodical paper
entitled the «* Examiner,’ which gained him great fame as
a party writer among the Tories. He fat in the new parlia-
ment as reprefentative for the county of Berks, and on him
devolved the burden of negociating and juftifying the treaty
of Utrecht. In 1712 he was, as a reward for his great
fervices, created baron St.-John and vifcount Bolingbroke :
but he confidered his promotion rather as a punifhment than
an honour, as he found himfelf, in the houfe of peers, almoft
alone to defend the treaties that had been made. At this
period he began to be difcontented, on account of his hold-
ing a fubaltern fituation under Harley, and animofities foon
broke out between thefe ftatefmen, which ended in their
total feparation. Soon after the acceflion of George I.,
the feals of office were taken from Mr. St.-John, and at
the fame time his papers were feized. Conceiving that thefe
violent meafures were but a prelude to an impeachment, he
withdrew privately to France in March 1715. Here, in a
fhort time, but not on the firft application, he accepted the
feals of fecretary of itate to the Pretender. In thisa& we
fee the principles of refentment and difappointed ambition
operating upon his mind, for he could not have any preju-
dices in favour of the Stuarts, and he had formerly pro-
moted the fucceffion of the houfe of Hanover. ~ A bill of
attainder againft him foon followed, founded upon fix ar-
ticles of impeachment fent up from the houfe of commons,
chiefly relative to his conduét in the treaty of Utrecht. He
had already. found reafon to repent of his new engagement,
fince nothing could be worfe planned, or more weakly con-
duGed, than the attempt to reftore tiie exiled family. The
return of the Pretender to Scotland was foon followed by
the difcharge of lord Bolingbroke from hs poft of fecretary,
and that by articles of impeachment ; fo that he had the
fingular fortune of having been in the fame office under a
pao mock fovereign, and having been difmifled in both
inftances with the fame tokens of difpleafure.

He now felt an earneft defire to return to England, and
through the mediation of the earl of Stair, the Englith
ambaffador at Paris, he obtained a promife of pardon under
certain conditions. During this alienation from his country
he wrote “* Reflections upon Exile,” in which he endea-
voured to fuggeft topics of confolation to himfelf, on the
onan of unmerited fufferings. Having become a widower,

married for a fecond wife the marchionefs de Villette, a
niece of Madame Maintenon, a lady of very fuperior merit,
with whom he enjoyed every domettic fatisfaétion. He re-
mained in France till 1723, when, having obtained his ma-
jetky’s pardon, he returned to England. T'wo years after-
wards an act of parliament re(tored him to his family inherit-
ance, which he had forfeited by his attainder, and he then
purchafed an eltate at Dawley, near Uxbridge, where he oc-
cupied hin-felf in rural cares and amufements ; and where,
for atime at leatt, he thought he had abandoned the cares and
pleafures of ambition. « fam,” fays he, in a letter to Swift,
“in my farm, and here I fhoot {trong and tenacious roots. J
have ange hold of the earth, and neither my enemies nor
my friends will find it eafy to tranfplant me.’? There was,
however, one thing which rankled in his breaft—he had not
been able to procure a reftoration to his feat in the houfe
of lords; and conceiving the minifter, Walpole, to have been
the caule of this mortification, he, difdaining all obligations
to him, entered into an aétive oppofition as a writer, which
he continued for ten years, after which he withdrew a fecond
time to France. Here he now devoted himfelf to literature,

and drew up “ Letters on the Study and Ufe of Hiftory ;”

SAI

« A Letter on the true Ufe of Retirement and Study,” &c.
In theory, thefe pieces, which have been, and {till are, much
read, lord Bolingbroke fhews himfelf a true philofopher,
notwithftanding the praétical derelictions of which he may
have been guilty. In the conclufion of his RefleCtions on
Exile, he fays; ‘ the beit refolution we can take is to fuffer
what we cannot alter ; and to purfue, without repining, the
road which Providence, who direéts every thing, has marked
out to us: for it is not enough to fellow ; andheis but a
bad foldier who fighs, and marches on with reluétancy.
We mutt receive our orders with fpirit and cheerfulnefs, and
not endeavour to flink out of the poft which is afligned us
in this beautiful difpofition of things, whereof even our fuf-
ferings make a neceffary part. Refignation to the will of
God is true magnaaimity ; but the fure mark of a pufillani-
mous and bafe {pirit, is to ftruggle again{t, and cenfure the
order of Providence, and inftead of mending our own con-
dud, to fet up correting that of our Maker.” His father,
who had been created vifcount Saint-John during the exile of
his fon, dying in 1742, he returned and fettled at the family
feat at Batterfea, where he paffed the remainder of his life in
dignified retirement, {till occupied with undiminifhed ardour,
in what he thought ufeful inftru@tions to his countrymen and
mankind. The laft work which he publifhed was entitled
‘ Letters on the Spirit of Patriotifm, and the Idea of a Pa-
triot King.”? This was publifhed in 1749, at which period
the profpe&t of the fucceffion of a prince, indebted to no
party for his crown, feemed to hima proper opportunity to
inculcate the leffon of governing upon patriotic principles.
He died in 1751, at the age of 79, leaving no iflue, and was
interred in Batterfea church.

The political charaéter of lord Bolingbroke is fufficiently
fet forth by the hiftory of his life. * 1t was,”’ fays his bio-
grapher, ‘that of a confident and ambitious man, who
could ill brook a fuperior, and was little fcrupulous in the
purfuit of power, or the gratification of refentment. As a
confpicuous figure in the literary annals of his time, he de-
mands a more particular confideration, It is agreed, that
among the profe writers of his age, indeed of any age of
Englith literature, fearcely any one can be found who has
united more excellencies of ftyle ; his elegance, perfpicuity,
and itrength, being accompanied with that graceful eafe,
which is rarely to be met with in thofe who have not been
converfant with bufinefs and the world.”? In his cor-
refpondence with Swift and Pope, he is diftinguifhed by a
polifhed freedom and air of good company, which conftitute
the perfeétion of epittolary writing. According to lord
Chetterfield, whatever fubjeét he either fpeaks or writes
upon he adorns with the mot fplendid eloquence, not ttudied
but a flowing happinefs of diétion, which is become fo ha-
bitual to him, that even his moft familiar converfation would
bear the prefs without the lealt correétion, as to method or
ftyle. His letters on hiftory and patriotifm are, in the
opinion of fome critics, rather fuperficial and declamatory
than folid and profound. Asa philofophical moralilt his
fentiments are difplayed sin eh brilliancy in Pope’s E/ay
on Man, of which celebrated poem the plan and defign are
avowedly his; and fome of the fineft illuttrations, which are
moft admired in their poetical drefs, have been found fketched
by him in profe. To Pope he was, indeed, for many years,
“the guide, philofopher, and friend,” the objeét of his highett
admiration, and warmeft attachment. Lord Bolingbroke
was more direétly exhibited to the public, in the charaéters
of anethical and theological writer, in his pofthumous works,
which were publifhed with his other works by Mallet, in
five vols, gto. Of thefe volumes, a large fhare is occupied by
“ Letters or Effays addrefled to Alexander Pope, efq. on

Religion

SAI

Religion and Philofophy.”” In them he appeared as the
declared enemy of divine revelation, but his reafonings on this
fubject are fhallow, and futile: he has been generally ad-
mitted to have entered on this controverfy with more eager-
nefs and confidence, than his learning or even his reading
could warrant. ‘* Although in his cenfures of the abufe of
authority in matters of religion and philofophy, and his
expofures of ecclefiaftical frauds and ufurpations, he {peaks
the fentiments of many rational friends of revelation; the
arrogance of his tone, and the unmeafured reproaches which
he cafts upon divines of all denominations, cannot but offend
every candid reader.’”’ His attacks on revelation were viewed
in fo formal a light, that the grand jury of Weftminfter made
a formal prefentment of them, as tending to the fubverfion
of all religion, government, and morality. But they met
with a more effectual and appropriate refutation, than that
which could come from the arm of the civil power, from
the pens of fome of the moft able advocates of the Chriftian
religion, and their effe€ts on public opinion have been much
lefs than either the friends or the enemies of revealed religion
anticipated. Biog. Brit. :

Sarmt-Paviy, Dents Sancuin bE, a French poet,
who flourifhed in the feventeenth century, born at Paris,
was the fon of a prefident of inquefts, anda refpeétable
magiftrate of the city. Having a fort of bias and attach-
ment to polite literature, he declined engaging in any active
profeflion, and entered the church for the purpofe of taking
the abbacy of Livry, where he pafled his time in a mixture
of voluptuous and lettered retirement. He was the advocate
of the Epicurean fyitem of philofophy, which he explained
fo as to juftify his own praétice, and the maxims of which
he gave to the public in various poems, written in a. light
and eafy manner, and poffeffing much merit in that kind of
compolition. His charater was fo well underftood and
truly eftimated by his contemporaries, that Boileau, eaume-
rating things impoflible, gives as an inftance Saint-Pavin
becoming a bigot. Thisimplied attack upon his faith, how-
ever, he took fo ill, that he repaid it by a fevere epigram on
the fatyrift. Boileau retaliated, and Saint-Pavin has been
configned to pofterity in his works, with a contempt which,
asa literary charaéter, he did not deferve. His poems, con-
fitting of fonnets, epigrams, rondeaus, and epiftles, have
been feveral times reprinted. They have alfo been printed
with thole of Charleval, in one vol. 12mo. 1759. He died
at an advanced age in 1670. In the view of approaching
diffolution he fought for abfolution, which the priett refufed
to afford till he had thrown his will into the fire, and left all
his remaining property to pious ufes.

Saryt-Pierre, Cuarves [rene Caster pe, was born
in 1658, of a noble family, at Saint-Pierre in Normandy.
He ttudied at the college of Caen, where he came intimately
acquainted with Varignon the mathematician, whom he
took to Paris. He was brought up to the church, and
obtained fome preferment; but he was moderate in his
expectations, and {corned to flatter the great to promote
his advancement in life: his great paffion was to inftruét and
improve mankind by his writings. Thefe were ufeful, but
deftitute of eloquence; pordetliel tag his obfervations on phi-
fophical grammar opened to him the doors of the French
academy, into which he was admitted in 1695. He acquired
fo profound » knowledge in the politics of the age, that the
cardinal Poliznac took him to affift in the conferences for
the peace of Utrecht. This was to Saint-Pierre a mott
Pleafant employment, for he was, as every true Chriitian
and friend to mankind mutt be, the determined, and as far
as the powers that le will allow him, the eager enemy of
war; and one of Saiut-Pierre’s favourite projects was the

SAIL

eftablifhment of a kind of European diet, which he hoped
might enfure a perpetual peace. This plan he fent to car-
dinal Fleury, who, though a pacific minilter, was fufficiently
aware of its practical Biticnlties and pleafantly told the
author that he had forgotten one preliminary article,
which was the delegation of a company of miffionaries
to difpofe the hearts of the princes of Europe to fubmit to
fuch a diet. Saint-Pierre died in the year 1743, at the
age of 85, efteemed by all whofe regards are of any
worth ; but even after his death he was thought an objeét
of courtly and ecclefiaftical rancour. -The bihhop of
Mirepoix, preceptor to the young princes, obtained a
prohibition, addreffled to his fucceflor, forbidding the
academy from paying the ufual tribute of praife to a de-
ceafed member. Saint-Pierre, it will be readily admitted,
was a projector ; but his {chemes were turned to the promo-
tion of the public good, though fometimes the inftances were
rather whimfical. In all his works he fhewed himfelf a
foe to tyranny, intolerance, and oppreffion of every kind;

and at the fame time he pleaded the caufe of the people, °

with an energy and freedom that are highly honourable to
his heart. He forefaw the dangers neceffarily attendant
upon the fplendid profufions and brilliant conquefts of
Louis XIV., and dared courageoufly to expofe them;
and after the death of that monarch he publifhed a work,
in which he fpoke fo freely of his character and conduét,
that the French academy excluded the author-from his
feat among them, Fontenelle alone giving a vote in his
favour. In private life, he was highly refpeCtable, modett,
unafluming, perfectly upright, and philanthropical in the beft
fenfe of the word. He even introduced into the French Jan-
guage the term bienfai/ance, and his life was {pent in practifing
its duties. He adopted feveral orphans, whom he educated
to ufeful trades, rightly judging that in the progreffive im--
provement of mankind, every thing which had not utility for
its bafis would be negleéted. His works were numerous, but
they are now nearly forgotten. One of the molt important
was a “ Memorial on the Eftablifhment of a proportional
Taille,’”’ which is faid to have greatly contributed to alleviate
the tyranny of arbitrary taxation in France.

Saint-Reat, Cxsar Vicuarp ve, a mifcellaneous
French writer, who flourifhed in the feventeenth century,
was the fon of a counfellor of the fenate at Chamberry.
He came at an early age to Paris, where he was well received.
He lived for a time with the hiltorian Varillas, who accufed
him of fecreting fome of his papers. In 1675 he went again

to Chamberry, where he attached himfelf to the duchels of

Mazarin, whom he accompanied to England. Upon his re-
turn to his own country he went to Paris, and pafled many
years as a man of letters, under the chara¢ter of an abbé,
without any particular title or benefice. He died at Cham-
berry in 1692. His works involved him in many literary
difputes ; he was extremely fenfible to criticifm, and was
violent in controverfy. But in other refpects he was an
eltimable character. Asa writer, the abbé Saint-Real had
a lively imagination, and a variety of knowledge. The
beft known of his works are his ‘ Hiltories of the Con-
{piracies of Venice, and of Don Carlos, Sen of Phillip II.’
both of them interetting pieces. The firit has been made
the ground-work of Otway’s “ Venice preferved.’’ The beft
edition of the works of Saint-Real is that of the abbé Perau,

in eight vols. 12mo. 1757. ony
Saint-Simon, Louis pe Royrot, duke of, a French
nobleman, the fon of aduke of the fame title, was bern in
1675. He entered the army while he was very young, and
faw a good deal of fervice between 1692 and 1697, but he
was better adapted to civil employment, and was appointed,
in

SAI

in 192%, ambaffador extraordinary to the court of Spain,
for the purpofe of foliciting the Infanta in marriage for
Louis XV. He was confidential advifer to the regent
duke of Orleans, who is faid to have benefited very much
by his counfels, when he had refolution to follow them.
Wearied, probably, with the routine of 2 court, he retired
to his eftate, where he maintained the charaer of an auftere
religionift ; and fo completely did he feparate himfelf from
the world, that he was almoit forgotten before he died.
Having feen much of the fociety and manners of a court
during the reign of Louis XIV. and the regency, he had
imbibed a very bad opinion of mankind. He was, however,
aman of ftri@ honour and integrity, and when in aCtive
life never failed to fpeak his mind freely. He compofed
«Memoirs of the Reign of Louis XIV. and the Regency,”
which haye been publifhed fince his death. They are faid
to confift of a variety of anecdotes, inter{perfed with portraits
drawn with a ftrong but dark pencil, and to make a valuable
addition to the fecret hiftory and biography of thofe times.
His ftyle poffeffes much energy, but it is incorreé, and often
obfeure. The moft complete edition was printed at Straf-
burg, in thirteen vols. 8vo. 1791.

Sarmyt-AvuLarre, Francis-JosEpH DE BEAUFOIL DE,
marquis de, a French writer of celebrity, was born at
Limoufin, and bore arms in his youth, but afterwards, being
eafy in his circumftances, he quitted that profeffion, and de-
voted himfelf to literary purfuits. He is moft known as an
author by his poetry, which is written in imitation of Ana-
creon. He was admitted a member of ‘the French academy
in the year 1706, and died at Paris in1742, at the great
age of 98.

Sarst-GerMarn, Ropert, count de, was born in
Franche-Compte in the year 1708. He was educated among
the Jefuits, but upon his leaving their feminary he entered
into the military fervice of his country, and became diftin-
guifhed in the wars of 1741 and 1757. At length, difguited
with the treatment which he received from his fuperiors, he
entered into the Danifh fervice, and was made a field-marfhal.
Having loft the greater part of his property by the bank-
ruptey of a houfe at Hamburgh, he retired to a {mall eftate
in Alface, but after the acceflion of Lewis XVI. he was
drawn again into public life, and was made minifter of war.
He died in 1778, having juft finifhed “ Memoirs of himfelf,”’
which were printed in the following year.

Sarint-Lampert, CHARLES FRANCIS DE, was born at
Nancy in 1717, and became diftinguifhed in the republic of
letters: he was admitted a member of the French academy,
and afterwards of the National Inftitute. He died in 1802.
His principal works are, « The Feats of Love,’’ a comedy ;
“Eflay on Luxury ;” “ The four Parts of the Day ;”’
“ The Seafons,” which, it is{aid, Voltaire preferred to the
works of Thomfon, on the fame fubjeét; and “ Oriental
Tales.”

Sars? Gronce, M. ve, a Greek gentleman, who may
have been faid to be centum puer artium; as he feemed
pofiefled of more talents than any individual of our ac-

uaintance. No one, perhaps, was more {killed and
trous in all bodily exercifes, particularly fencing. As
a dilettante mufician, he was long at the head of the Con-
cert des Amateurs at Paris, where he ufed to lead, and
fiefled on the violin a hand, knowledge, and experience,
Levens that of many eminent profeltors To all thefe
talents M. de St. George united the uncommon merits of
good humour, and mode ty concerning his own talents. He
compofed trios, fymphonies, and concertos, that did him
great honour as a contrappuntift. His comic opera of
« Erneftine” was performed at the Theatre Italien at Paris
Voi. XXXII.

SAI

in 4777, and much admired for the many beautiful move<
ments with which it was enriched. In 1778, ‘La Chaile,’”
and in 1787, “ La Fille Garcon.” In 1786, fix violin
quartets, his Op. XIV.; and laftly, twelve violin con-
certos.

This accomplifhed gentleman, who vifited England in
the year 1780, and was much admired and carefled for his
talents and character by the firft people in the kingdom for
rank, talents, and good breeding, was unhappily involved
in the horrors of revolution, and guillotined at Lille in
1794-

Saint Anprew, Knights of. See AnvrEw.

Saint Anne, Order of. See St. ANNE.

Saint Parrick, Order of. See St. Patrick.

Saint Curnpert’s Beads, an Englifh name for the
trochite and entrochi, found in great abundance in the
clay of Yorkfhire, and fome other counties withus. They
are truly the remains of parts of the arms of the /fella
arborefcens, or branching ttar-fifh ; but have been fo far
miftaken by authors, as to be fuppofed a fort of rock-
plants, or the parts of fome unknown vegetable petrified.

Saint Andrew's Crofs, in Botany. See AscyRuM.

Saint Barnaby’s Thifle. See CENTAUREA.

Saint John’s Bread. See CERATONIA.

Saint John’s Wort. See Hypericum.

Saint Peter’s Wort. See Hypericum.

SAINTARA, in Geography, a town of Thibet; 58
miles N.N.E. of Oramtchi Hotun.

SAINTE Martner, Gaucuer DE, or ScEvoLE; in
Biography, was born in 1536 at Poitou, of a family diftin-
guifhed for its talents, a confiderable fhare of which he
inherited. From early youth he cultivated literature with
great fuccefs, became a perfe&t mafter of the learned lan-
guages, and exercifed himfelf in poetry and oratory. He
oon fhewed that he was not lefs qualified for bufinefs
than for ftudy, and was occupied in feveral important duties
and high offices under Henry III. and Henry IV.; which
have been thus enumerated: his courage and loyalty were
confpicuous at the aflembly of the States at Blois in 1588 :
he was intendant of the finances in the army of Brittany
in 1593; and in 1594 he brought Poitou to fubmit to the
authority of Henry IV., whofe interefts he alfo defended
with vigour in the aflembly of the Notables at Rouen in
1597. He was prefident and treafurer of France in the
generality of Poitou; and after a life honourably {pent in
the fervice of his country and of letters, he died in 1623,
at the great «age of 87, having obtained the epithet of
« father of his native city,’’ which he had faved from ruin in
the civil wars. Asan author, the chief works of Scevole de
Sainte Marthe are a colleétion of eulogies, entitled «* Gal-
lorum doétrina illuftrium qui fua patrumque memoria
floruere, Elogia:’? and Latin poems, confilting of ** Peedo-
trophia, feu de Puerorum Educatione,’’ a didactic poem
in three books, lyrics, elegies, epigrams, &c. He had a
fon Abel, who was alfo a Biles poet, and his compofitions
are joined to thofe of his father in a colleétion printed at
Paris in gto. in 1632. He had likewife two other fons,
twins, named Gaucher, and Louis de, who were remark-
able for their great refemblance to one another in body,
mind, and ftudies. Both were king’s counfellors, and
royal patricerag en and they wrote in} concert works
which have rendered their names worthy a place in the
annals of literature. Thefe are « L’ Hiftoire Genealogique
de la Maifon de France,’’ 2 vols. fol. 1628 and 1647:
« Gallia Chriftiana,” being a hiftory of the Gallican church,
publithed in 1666, 4 vols. fol.: « L’ Hiftoire poe» a
de la Maifon de Beavau.”? Gaucher was lord of Mere-fur-

S Indre ;

SAI

{ndre; he died at Paris in 1640.
They were both interred in one tomb.

Sainte ALpEGONDE, Puitip pe Marwrx, lord du
Mont, a ftatefman, was born at Bruflels in 1588. The
cruelties of the Spaniards in the Low Countries led him to
retire to Heidelberg, where he became a member of the
ecclefiaftical council. In 1572 he returned to his own
country, and was deputed by the States to go to England
to folicit aid from queen Elizabeth. He afterwards went
to France for the fame purpofe, and to offer the fovereignty
of Flanders to the duke d’Alencgon, whom he accompanied
to England. As an author he is known by a work entitled
«« Alvearium Romanum,” which is a fatire on the church
of Rome. He died at Leyden in 1598.

Samste Pavaye, JEAN-BApTISTE DE LA CURN®E DE,
was born at Auxerre in 1697. Of his early life we have
no account, but as he advanced in years, he devoted him-
felf to refearches into the language and antiquities of his
country. On account of his labours in this department of
literature, he was admitted a member of the French aca-
demy, and that of Infcriptions. Jn all his labours he was
affifted by a twin brother, who lived with him, and was
his infeparable affociate in his ftudies and even in his amufe-
ments. Sainte Palaye died in 1781. He is chiefly known
as an author by “ Memoires fur l’Ancienne Chevalerie,”’
3 vols. 12mo.; in which he paints in) very lively colours
the manners and cuftoms of that inftitution. After his
deceafe the abbé Millot drew up, from his papers, *¢ L’ Hif-
toire des Troubadours,’’ in 3 vols. 12mo.

Sawnte Maria Horrebecke,-in Geography, a town of
France, in the department of the Scheldt, and chief place
of a canton, in the diftri& of Audenaerde. The place
contains 1505, and the canton 14,965 inhabitants, on a ter-
ritory of 65 kiliometres, in 21 communes.

SAINTERY, a town of France, in the department of
the Channel; 4 miles S.W. of Carentan.

SAINTES, a town of France, principal place of a
diftri@, and capital of the department of the Lower
Charente, feated on the Loire, and having a harbour for
fmall veflels: before the revolution the capital of Sain-
tonge, and the fee of a bifhop; 16 polts N. of Bourdeaux.
It is watered by the rivers Boutonne and Charente, by
which it is divided into two parts: the firft part contains
5105, and its canton 10,899 inhabitants, on a territory of
107% kiliometres, in 7 communes; the fecond part contains
gos7, and its canton 13,013 inhabitants, on a territory of
185 kiliometres, in 13 communes. . The towmis indifferently
built, at the foot and on the declivity of an eminence.
Here are fome remains of a Roman bridge, a triumphal
arch, an amphitheatre, an aqueduct, &c. In its fuburb
is arich BenediGtine abbey, founded A.D. 1049. N, lat.
45° 45’. W. long. 0° 23!.

Saintes. See XAINTES.

SAINTFIELD, a poft-town of Ireland, in the county
of Down, which has.a {mall barrack for cavalry, a church,
a Prefbyterian meeting-houfe, and monthly fairs. It is
faid to bea {mall neat town; 78 miles N.E. from Dublin,
and nearly 10 miles S.S.E. from Belfatt.

SAINTFOIN, or Sainroin, in Botany.
SARUM.

SAIntTroIN, in Agriculture, a fpecies of plant of the
artificial grafs kind, frequently made ufe of for the food
of cattle, cither frefh or when dried; it is fometimes called
holy-hay, or wholefome hay, from its excellent nutritive
quality. It rifes in the ftem from one to two feet in
height, and has tufts of red flowers of sthree, four, or
five inches in length. It was originally brought into

Louis died in 1656.

See Hepy-

SAI

this kingdom from France, or the Low Countries. See
Hepysaxum. ,

This is a kind of plant which, though it has been lefs
attended to than that of clover, is not by any means lefs
beneficial to the farmer. It is, in fat, with the great ad-
vantage of being more durable on the poorer, thinner, and
more light forts of foil, efpecially thofe of a calcareous
nature, what the clover is upon thofe of the more ftrong,
deep, and heavy deferiptions. And in addition to chek.
advantages, it poffefles thofe of being equally fuited to
the ufe of pafturage, as that of being made into hay,
while in the former application it is aflerted not to have
the injurious quality of hoving the animals that. feed upon
it, as is frequently the cafe with the red or broad clover.
Befides, its latting or abiding qualities on foils of the poor.
thin, infertile forts, in elevated expofed fituations, where other
grafs herbage can fearcely at all, or with very great dif-
ficulty, be provided, render it of vait utility in furnifhing
food for different forts of live-ftock, but particularly that
of fheep. The value of this plant is indeed fo great, *that
in fome parts of the ifland the farmers could not pay their
rents, if it were not for the growth of it. It is fuppofed
by Mr. Young, that upon foils proper for this grafs no
farmer can fow too much of it, as no other application of
the land will pay him nearly fo well. It is contended, that

.on poor foils not worth more than from 2s. 6d. to 5s. the

acre, a ton anda half, and even two tons ard a half, of
hay, or a ton at lealt, may be afforded at one mowing,
betides a confiderable after-grafs: and that the ufe of
hay is become now {fo general, that fuch produés can never
want a market. Such management on fuch lands muft
confequently always render them beneficial to their culti-
vators. It is added, that the produ€ts and profit of fuch
land in tillage or fheep hufbandry are very inconfiderable
to what they afford under the culture of this plant.

In diftri€ts where natural meadows and paitures are fearce,
the culture of this plant is alfo an object of great import-
ance to the farmer in the view of hay, and fhould of courfe
be more particularly attended to.

This plant will make a much greater increafe in poor
ground than eny of the natural grafles, which is principally
owing to its having a long perpendicular root of the tap-
kind, which finks to a great depth to attra& its nourifh-
ment and fupport. The length of the root is very con-
fiderable, in many cafes extending itfelf to feveral feet.

But it has been a general opinion among farmers, that
this plant never fucceeds well in any land where there is not
an under-ftratum of ftone, or chalk, or fome other hard
material, to ftop its running down, as otherwife it is apt
to fpend itfelf in root, and come to nothing in the top.
This is, however, an evident error, as the more and the larger
the roots planted are, the more nourifhment they receive,
and the better they thrive. Indeed, it is found that this
plant always fucceeds beft where its roots run deep, and
that the belt crops of all are produced upon lands where
there is no hard under-foil to obitruct their paflage. An
under-foil of clay may however kill the plants, by retain-
ing the moifture, and thereby chilling or rotting their roots.
The long downward root of this plant has alfo near the
furface many horizontal roots ifluing from it, which extend
themfelves every way; and there are others of the fame
kind fent off all the way down, as the root defecnds, but
they grow fhorter and fhorter as it pafles,

And it has been proved, that any dry fort of foil may
be made to produce this valuable and ufeful plant, though
it be ever f& poor; but itil that the richeft and beft land
will produce the beft crops of it. But Mr. Kent ero

2 that

SAINTFOIN.

that the foils mo!t fuited to the culture of this fort of grafs
are thofe of the chalky loam, and light fandy or gravelly
kinds, or almoft any of thofe of a mixed quality, provided
they be not too wet, and have a rocky or hard calcareous
bottom to check the roots at the depth of,a foot or fifteen
inches below the furface, which he, notwithftanding the
above, conceives neceflary, as the plants are apt to exhauft
themfelves in running down. Atnd for this reafon, he cor-
fiders it as improper for being fown where there is a great
depth of mould or foil. It is a plant, that is afferted by
Mr. Marfhall to afford a large produce, even on thofe foils
which are of the poorett quality, and that on fuch as are
of a more rich and friable nature, it frequently produces
abundant crops. Still he conceives, that it is only in the
calcareous foils, as the dry chalk and lime-ftone, or fuch as
have been well impregnated with that fort of matter, that
it fucceeds in a perfect manner, or becomes durable.

In Kent this fort of crop is much grown on the chalky
lands in the eaftern parts of the diftrict, where it fucceeds
well. It is fown alfo very extenfively in fome parts of
Effex on a red fand upon a fandy bottom, without any
chalk underneath it, and continues in fuch for nearly twenty
years; as well as in other parts upon land which has this
fort of under-foil. In Oxfordfhire, where this grafs is cul-
tivated to a very great extent, it is grown on all forts of
land proper for .it, but it is fuppofed by fome to be the
moft profitable on thofe which are poor and thin, as the
ftone-brafh kind, tillage being thought more beneficial on
the gravelly loams; and though it might be conceived to
fucceed well on the dry hard gravels with a red fandy fur-
face in fome places, it has been found not to anfwer well
on them. Nor does it turn out well upon the new grubbed
wood-lands, the foil being left in too light, open, and hollow
a ftate, and it is queried whether beech being as natural to
chalk hills as this plant, they may not rob each other.
Neither does freth cleared furze-laud do well for it, though
on ftone-brafh, for the fame reafon; befides, a bad white
_— is fure in fuch cafes to thicken and greatly injure it.

n feveral trials with it about Chipping Norton, it was
found not to fucceed well on old heath land, on which
furze had been the {pontaneous growth; as it prefently
went off and was loft: but in fome other places in the
fame vicinity, on other forts of land, it is lafting. In
Berkfhire, it is found to thrive beft in a chalky and rubbly
ftone land, with a hard and compaét fub-itratum, but it is
cultivated on very different foils and fituations with fuccefs.
And the chalk hills of Suffex are faid to contain many
thoufands of acres of land, upon which no other plant has
ever yet been difcovered to thrive to fuch advantage as this,
nor any which ever promifed more fair hopes of fuccefs to
the induftrious farmer for the expence of cultivating it. It
therefore evidently admits of fome variety in the foils in
which it is capable of being grown.

Culture.—With ref{peét to the tillage or preparation of
the ground which is requifite, it cannot be made too clean
or too fine before the feed is fown; of courfe it generally
facceeds bett after turnips or other fimilar crops, which re-
quire a fine clean culture while they are growing. It
often, however, anfwers well on lands that have not under-

ne fo high a degree of preparation, efpecially where
pa are quite free from the roots and feeds of weeds, as
thele are the points to be chiefly regarded in this culture.
It has, however, been much too general a notion, that
this plant is only capable of being grown to advantage on
foils of the lime-ltone or chalky kinds, as by this means
many extenfive traéts are excluded from its culture in dif.
ferent parts, in which it might be found highly ufeful to

the farmer. That it will fucceed in lands where it has
not been thought proper, is certain from various trials,
though experiments are {till wanting to fhew to what ex-
tent its culture may be admitted in different forts of land
with fuccefs and advantage. A fine clean ftate of tilth is
all that is neceffary in thefe cafes. :

Seed.—In refpect to the feed, it is the beft practice for -
the cultivator to feleét it from the beft and moft abiding
plants in his particular foil, as fuch as is purchafed at the
feed-fhops can rarely be depended upon. A certain method
of knowing the goodnefs of feed is, by fowing a number
of the feeds, and feeing how many plants are produced by
them. But the external figns of the feeds being good are,
that the hufk is of a bright colour, and the kernel plump,
of alight grey or blue colour, and fometimes of a fhinin
black. The feed may be good though the hufk be black,
as that is owing fometimes to the letting it receive the wet
in the field, and not to its being half rotted in the heap.
If the kernel be cut acrofs, and appear greenifh and freth,
it is acertain fign that it is good. But if it be of a yel-
lowifh colour, and friable, and looks thin and pitted, they
are bad figus. But others obferve, that the beft feed is
that which is plump, heavy, bright, and of a yellowifh-
red colour, and that it fhould always be fown quite frefh,
as that .which is old, or that has been long kept, never
vegetates in a perfeét manner. In purchafing feed of this
fort, it isin general from about three to five fhillings the
bufhel.

In regard to the proper proportion or quantity of feed
to the acre, it is obvious that it muft be different accord-
ing to the particular circumftances and nature of the foil,
as well as the method of culture that is praétifed and the
time of fowing. Inthe broad-caft method, which is that
mottly employed, about four bufhels are in general a fuf-
ficient proportion, though lefs is frequently given, but on
fuch foils as are proper for this plant, it is always neceilary
to have a full proportion of feed. By fome, however, a
much fmaller quantity is made ufe of. And where the drill
fyltem is had edt WE to, a ftill {maller proportion is ufed,
as from two to two and a half, or three bufhels. In fome
places five bufhels are however ufed in the broad-caft method
of Towing. 4

With refpect to the feafon of fowing this fort of grafs
feed, it may be obferved, that the earlier it can be put into
the foil in the {pring the better, as from the greater moif-
ture of fuch foils there will be a greater probability of
their vegetating in a perfeé&t manner. Where the fowing is
executed at a ae period, and dry weather fucceeds, Mr.
Bannifter thinks that much of the feed would be prevented
from growing, and the young plants be more expofed to
the deltruétion of the fly; therefore, according to this
writer, the fowing of the faintfoin feed ought never to be
deferred longer than the beginning of March, and that it
is {till better to complete this work in February. Some,
however, fuppofe it may be deferred to the middle of March
without injury,

This is a jah of grafs that may be fown either alone or
with any of the {pring corn-crops, but with barley after
turnips is fuppofed the beft method. It may likewife be
fown with buck-wheat, where the land is tuitable, with
fuccefs. And fome advife its being fown with about half
the quantity of barley which is ufually fown for a full
crop, as it may fhade and keep it moult during the firlt
fummer, and at the fame time not injure it, from the crop
being lighter, which is fometimes the cafe. Where the
barley is drilled, the faintfoin may afterwards be put in,

*in the fame manner, but in a contrary direction, Lf fown
S2 over

SAINTFOIN.

over the wheat it fhould be harrowed in, and afterwards
rolled. In whatever method it is fown, as the feeds are
larger than thofe of many other grafles, they fhould be
covered in with more care, and to a fomewhat greater depth.
By fome, the ploughing the feed in with a very thin or
fhallow furrow is recommended. In moft cafes, efpecially
in all the more light’ forts of land, in which this fort of
crop is grown, the ufe of the roller may be neceflary im-
mediately after the feed is put into the ground. It is the
practice in fome diftri&s to fow a {mall portion of clover
feed with this crap, with the idea of increafing the firft
year’s produce; but as plants of different kinds feldom
anfwer well when grown together, from there being a con-
tinual conteft in their growth for an afcendancy, it is per-
haps a better method to increafe the proportion of feed,
without mixing it with that of other forts: It is, however,
fuppofed by Mr. Marfhall, that fuch a pra@tice is beneficial
in ultimately procuring a fine clean crop of faintfoin upon
the land.

It is a fort of crop that grows in fo perfe&t a manner in
the broad-caft method, that there can feldom be any neceflity
for having recourfe to the drill. It may, however, be cul-
tivated in the latter mode with much fuccefs. And in Nore
folk it is the praGtice with fome cultivators to have it drilled
at nine inches acrofs the barley crops, which have been fown
in the fame way.

And it has been obferved, that in Lincolnfhire, where
this plant is much grown, the common allowance of feed is
five bufhels to an acre, and that a gentleman fouth of Lin-
coln advifes the fowing or planting a {mall quantity of tre-
foil with it Fae four pounds on an acre). The reafon for
which is, that in that expofed country, the young plants
fuffer more by the fun in fummer, than by the froft in
winter. Of courfe the trefoil, coming to perfeétion the
firft year, and living only three, will be a fhelter for the
young plants, during the firft year or two, and die off
when the faintfoin wants its room. This fyftem is faid to
be well fupported by prattice: but rye-grafs fhould on no
account be fowed with it ; that being, when left for fodder,
a great impoverifher of ground.

It is likewife added, that faintfoin is obferved to get to
perfeétion ia three years, lafts in the land good for five, and
then dwindles during four or five years more. Its firft crops
are from one to two loads ; in its fecond ftage from three to
four loads, and it dwindles down again to one. Laft fum-
mer, which was remarkably dry, did very well with this
grafs. And it has been fown with barley, with wheat, and
without corn in the fpring. It has likewife been drilled,
according to Mr. Tull’s direGtions, in beds, with treble
rows, and in equi-diftant rows. The horfe-hoed beds were
good, as far as they went: the others, drilled at a foot dif-
tance, gave fo much room for weeds to come up, that the
fuccefs was very moderate ; which indeed would have been
the cafe with the former, had not the horfe-hoe cleared them.
On the whole, as far as the experience and obfervation of
the writer reach, he would never choofe to drill his feed, but
to fow it in the broad-caft way, on land very fine, with a
good quantity of feed.

And according to the author of the Rural Economy of
Gloucefterfhire on the Cotfwold Hills, where this plant is
extenfively grown, and where the calcareous rubble, which
forms the fub-foil, is in fome places two or three feet deep,
and the rock below moftly open ; the roots have been traced,
in ftone quarries, to ten, fome will fay twenty feet. Here
the faintfoin flourifhes luxuriantly. But in other places the
rock rifes, in flat horizontal feams, too near the furface:
there the faintfoin is weaker, and goes off fooner. It is*

7f

faid to have been cultivated upon thefe hills upwards of one
hundred and fifty years. And in the eftablifhed praice,
it is generally fown with barley after turnips. The period
of fowing it in this diftri&t is from the middle to the end of
March ; and the quantity of feed in proportion to the
ftate of the land: where the foil is foul, a larger allowance
is made than where the contrary is the cafe, but in general
from one bufhel to three is employed on the acre. The ad-
vocates for faintfoin fuppofe a buthel is fufficient, pro-
vided the land be perfectly clean. And that the plants
by being thin become itronger and more produétive of
herbage.

Alfo, in the Agricultural Survey of the County of Nor-
folk, it is ftated by Mr. Young, that Mr. Allen at Stanhow
had very fine faintfoin on a rich loamy fand, on a clay marle
bottom, worth 16s. an acre. The common crop was two
tons fer acre. And that in 1792, Mr? Bevan at Riddlef-
worth fowed two bufhels an acre of faintfoin, and fix
pounds of clover and trefoil, to give a crop the firft year.
But that in 1802 it got full of rubbifh, did not anfwer,
and was ploughed up after four or five years. The method
he intends to purfue is, it is faid, to turnip his land for two
years, both fed off with fheep, and to lay down with buck-
wheat in June, fowing four bufhels of faintfoin per acre :
he did this fome years ago, and it is now the beft faintfoin
on his farm. He has now twenty-eight acres under the
fecond crop of turnips, to be thus laid down. And he has
fown faintfoin with rye to good effect. Mr. Ward, of Weft
Harling, has alfo done the fame, and got fine crops. It is
further ftated, that Mr. M. Hill fowed faintfoin on a dee
gravel, and it gave, in the third year, one load and a half
per acre: from the repeated failure of feeds he has been in-
duced to lay down this {pring forty-eight acres. The barley
drilled firft at fix inches, and then faintfoin at the fame dif-
tance: three bufhels an acre, each looks very promifing.
The writer adds, that the earl of Albemarle made an ex-
periment with this plant. Taking into his own hands an
immenfe farm of 4000 acres, with 3000 fheep, and wifhin
to provide all forts of food as early as poffible, he vent
to fow a field in extremely bad order, with faintfoin alone in
June: the foulnefs of the land fuch, that his lordfhip’s
hopes were not fanguine. This was in 1801, and the crop
this year, 1802, was among the very fineft the writer had
ever feen, at leaft two tons and ahalf per acre. The refult
is remarkable, and will, he thinks, certainly bring to the
reader’s mind the hufbandry of fowing faintfoin among couch
in Gloucefterfhire, mentioned by Mr. Marfhall, in his Rural
Economy of that diftri&. It is further remarked, that at
Holkham there is much gravel, in fome places to the depth
of above twelve feet, the furface a thin covering of fand;
no chalk or marle beneath, at any known depth. The
writer was folicitous to afcertain whether this foil would do
for faintfoin; Mr. Coke affured him that it fucceeded very
well on it, but it is to be remembered that the whole county
has been marled. He adds, that Mr. Overman and Mr.
Coke drill faintfoin before drilling barley, in the contrary
direétion to that in which the barley is to be drilled, the
rows at fix inches and three quarters, feed three bufhels an
acre, and perfeétly regular; much more fo than the gene-
rality of broad-calt crops. And that Mr. Pitt!s father and
grand-father both tried faintfoin upon very deep and dry

ravels; there are fome pits fifteen or twenty feet deep;

fae it did not anfwer. But Mr. H. Blythe, of Burnham,
has avery fine plant three years old, from drilling three
bufhels of feed per acre, at fix inches three-quarter rows :
it is common to fow from four to five. This field before
produced little or nothing, and was over-run by rabbits and
game.

SAINTFOIN.

game. He gave-a clean fummer fallow for drilled oats, and
drilled the faintfoin acrofs the oats. And in the Hertford-
fhire Report on Agriculture, by the fame writer, it is ob-
ferved, that he has rarely feen finer faintfoin than fome {mall
pieces on Mr. Clarke’s farm at Sandridgbury. The foil is
a good flinty loam on a chalk bottom. He, Mr. Clarke,
thinks the price of corn of late has been too high for this
grafs to anfwer on any good foil; but he has a neighbour,
Mr. Thrale, another tenant of lord Spencer’s, who fows it
on an extenfive feale. He adds, that about the neighbour-
hood of Hitchin, they fow four bufhels with oats on clean
land. It lafts on white land ten years, but on gravel feven
or eight years; and produces two loads an acre while in
vigour, and even more, but one and a half on an average.
The farmers give it to horfes, and break it up with oats,
fowing them always on one ploughing. And Mr. Sedg-
wick confiders this cultivation as the beft for chalk hills.
Four bufhels of faintfoin are fown ger acre with barley,
after turnips. The grafs lafts ten years, and produces fome-
times from a quarter of a load to two loads ger acre. He
afhes it every fecond year. It is the beft hay to fell or ufe.
They rarely cut it for feed, but know it is beneficial to the
crop. It will flourifl well on the fame land again in three,
four, or five years. It is alfo ftated to fucceed well at Mun-
den, and efpecially on a foil of an adhefive nature, on chalk :
they fow four bufhels. This grafs lafts feven or eight years,
and fometimes longer; and produces two loads ger acre.
And Mr. Ruffel, at Chefhunt, fowed faintfoin forty years
fince on a ftrong gravel, and it anfwered well; and there
are ftill fome plants remaining. Mr. Calvert, at Albury,
alfo knows fome plants that are fifty years old.
After-culture.—It is found that in the after-management
of this fort of grals much attention is neceflary, as upon
its being properly performed the fuccefs of the crops in a
great meafure depends. Two practices have been princi-
pally advifed in its culture which are diametrically oppofite
to each other; the firft of which is that of its being con-
ftantly cut for hay in the firft year of its growth, and which
is fupported by a great number of the moft experienced cul-
tivators; while others contend that it is a much more bene-
ficial method neither to have it cut nor paftured in the autumn
of the firft feafon. On which the author of a late praétical
work fuggehs, that it is probable both praétices may be
proper under different circumftances, as in the richer forts of
foils, where this plant moitly affords a tolerable crop when
fown alone the firft year, it may be mown with propriety,
and without much injury done to the plants; but in thofe of
the thinner and more poor kinds, where the. crops are in
general the firft feafon but thin on the ground, and light, it
may be advantageous to let them remain without being cut
or fed down by ftock, as in this way it may {pread more, and
form a better and more clofe fward in the following year.
In fuch cafes the feed, according to Mr. Young, will pro-
bably be worth five pounds the acre, while the {traw is good
horfe-fodder, and the plants not at all injured at the time.
> the plants in this cafe being fuffered to feed, befides the
vantage jult mentioned, they will have acquired a vigour
of growth, and the fucceeding crop be greatly increafed Front
the thedding of the feeds. But in all cafes in the fucceed-
ing fummers a crop of hay may be taken, and the after-
grafo be fed down with any forts of ftock but theep, till to-
wards December, care being taken that they do not eat it in
too clofe a manner, as where that is the cafe, from the large-
nefs of the roots, they may be in danger of injuring the
crowns of the plants. In the following autumns there will
however be tel, rik in this refpeét, and fheep as well as
cattle flock may, it is fuppofedy be turned in and kept upon

the paftures till they are well eaten down, being always
careful to fhut them up as early as poffible in the beginning
of the year. This is the opinion of Mr. Kent. And it is
further fuppofed that as this fort of herbage is confidered
to be improved in its tafte by being nipped by the froft, it
may be a proper praétice not to turn upon thefe lays too
early in the autumnal feafon. With this intention it may
be advifeable to defer it till the latter end of September,
when this fort of rouen or after-grafs will be found to have
much effect in promoting the flow of milk in cows, as well
as in forwarding the condition of fattening-beafts ; great
ftore of feed being ftill left for fheep. But with this fort
of ftock they fhould not be too clofely fed down, or the
fheep remain too long upon them, as much injury may be
fuftained by it. It has been fuggefted that all forts of
cattle ftock fhould be removed by the beginning of the year
from thefe rouens, as. much harm might be done by their
continuing longer. It is fuppofed by fome cultivators of
this plant, that the application of manure upon faintfoin lays
is of very great utility when put upon them in the latter
end of the fecond autumn, after they have been laid down.
And that for this purpofe peat-afhes are the beft material
that can be made ufe of where they can be procured in a
fufficient quantity. And other forts of afhes are likewife
found beneficial where thefe cannot be had. They fhould
be applied fo as to form a thin, even, regular drefling over
the whole furface of the crop. In this view foot has alfo
been found of great utility when f{pread evenly over fuch
lays about the beginning of January in the proportion of
about twenty-five er thirty bufhels to the ftatute acre. And
malt-duft has been employed in the fame way with great
fuccefs and advantage, as fhewn by Mr. Bannifter in his
Synopfis of Hufbandry. And it is fuppofed, that where
thofe forts ef top-dreflings can be applied every third or
fourth year, the {aintfoin crops, when well eftablifhed in the
foils, may be preferved in a ftate of vigorous growth for
ten or fifteen years or more, and the land be confiderably
improved by the roots ftriking fo deeply into it. The faint-
foin plant ufually attains its perfect growth, about the third
year of its growth, and begins to decline towards the eighth
or tenth if not well affitted by manure in the manner which
has juft been ftated. Some, however, fuppofe peat-afhes
to be hurtful in wearing out the faintfoin, as feen below.

In mott parts of Oxfordthire it is top-dreffed, or manured
every year with peat er coal-afhes, in the proportion of fix-
teen or twenty bufhels of the former, and from ten to twelve
of the latter, tothe acre. The benefit of this is faid to be
very great in the increafe of the produce, which materially
depends upon it, as it is often but little without it. The
great fuperiority gained in this way has been long known,
and is now generally underftood by farmers. The fame field
which, with thefe afhes, will frequently give two waggon
loads of this hay on the acre, without them may not gael
half a load on the fame extent. However, about the Hey-
fords, and other neighbouring places in the fame diftrict,
where the common proportion of this grafé is about thirty
acres on a farm of four hundred, they do not fow any afhes
on the faintfoin, yet their average crop of this hay is not
lefs than thirty hundred weight.

In Effex and Suflex they likewife apply top-dreflings of
thefe kinds on the faintfoin, laying fometimes, in the former,
to the extent of from fixty to eighty buthels or more of
coal-afhes on the acre, at the rate of fixpence the bufhel,
carriage included, or thirty fhillings the waggon load, con-
taining a hundred.

Some contend that faintfoin fhould never be fed, or at

molt, that after having been mown, it fhould not be is
unti

SAINTFOIN.

until after Michaelmas, when it will afford great plenty of

rafs until the beginning of the enfuing year, being then
aid by for the fcythe, but never eaten clofe, particularly by
fheep, on the above account. In the above diftri€ of Ox-
fordfhire, it is, for the moft part, mown every year, the
after-crop being commonly fed with lambs, until the begin-
ning of O@tober. Care is, however, generally taken not to
feed too hard with this fort of ftock in the autumn, for fear
of injury; but it is ufual for it to be depaftured with fuch
ftock for one year, at leaft before the leys are broken up.
Eating the whole growth of this crop by fheep, and not
turning in to it until it is advanced, has been found not to
injure the plants. It has been a pretty general opinion that
cutting or mowing this grafs while young is injurious, as it
is liable to bleed, but here the contrary has been found by
fome, as in mowing it very early or young for foiling horfes
or oxen, not the leaft injury has been fultained. And the
feeding of faintfoin with fheep for a year previous to break-
ing it up, has alfo been found very advantageous in increafing
the afhes, by thickening the turf or {ward which is to be
pared for burning.

In this diftri@ it is now generally allowed that neither the
produce nor the duration of this grafs is fo great as it was
‘formerly ; which is moftly attributed to its repetition on the
fame land ; it once lafted, it is faid, from fifteen to twenty
years ; now not more than ten or twelve, and in fome in-
ftances not longer than eight. On the hills, in fome parts
it continues nine years, and in the lower lands ten. Where
the land is fpringy it foon goes, but on true ftone-brafhes it
will laft longer than even twelve years. On new ground, in
fome cafes, it is found to hold out for fourteen or fifteen
ete ; when after being fown twice or three times, it only

afts feven or eight.

But in refpe& to the amount of crops of this kind, or
the quantity of produce which is afforded, it mutt, of courfe,
be lizble to much variation, according to the nature of the
foil, and the care that has been beftowed in the preparation
and after-management ; but on a medium of foils and culti-
vation it may probably be eftimated at from about one and a
half to two tons the acre. And on the poorer and thinner
ftapled forts of land it will perhaps feldom afford lefs than
from a ton toaton anda half ontheacre. And in regard to
the frequency of the cutting thofe forts of crops it 1s pro-
bable that on the thinner forts of foils it can feldom be done
more than once, but on thofe of the deeper forts two crops
may fometimes be taken, in the fame manner as with thofe of
the clover kind, but care is always neceflary in thefe cafes,
that the future growth of the plants is not injured by this
means. In Oxfordfhire two large loads on the acre are
common.

And in refpeé to the application or ufe of this fort of
crop, it is various according to circumftances. In its green
fucculent ftate, it is highly ufeful for all forts of live-ftock,
though fome conceive that when given to milch cows the!
milk is not fo well flavoured as when feeding on the natural
graffes. It is found that when made into hay it is an ex-
tremely hearty and nutritious fodder for working-horfes and
other forts of domeftic animals. In fome cafes it is alfo a
profitable application of this fort of grafs to mow it while
in its green ftate, before it comes into flower, for the pur-
pofe of foiling horfes and other forts of cattle in the ftalls,
in the manner that is practifed with clover, lucern, and
fome other fucculent green crops. But the moft general ap-
plication of it is in hay, which it affords of the beft and mott
nutritious quality, both for horfes and other forts of cattle
tock.

The hay of this grafs in Oxfordfhire'is chiefly eaten by

fheep and cart-horfes ; by the former, while at turnips, in
which way it is fuperior to any other fort of food, but greatly
valuable for every ufe. The after-grafs is fometimes con-
fumed by cows, but more frequently by theep, efpecially
lambs, for which it is an excellent food, as it never {cours
them. Where it is eaten by cows before it has been affeted
by froft, it is fuppofed in fome places to render the cream
bad. The hay, which is of the beft kind, is alfo occa-
fionally employed in fattening oxen that have been wrought,
as well as others, which are wholly completed on it after
they are taken into the ftalls, and with which they do per-
feétly well. This grafs is confidered by fome as giving
better hay the firft year of its growth than any afterwards.
The hay is of fuch value that it pays well for other pur-
pofes as well as fheep. he’
It has been remarked by Mr. D. Hamel, that this fort
of crop may be mowed before it is in bloom, for it is then
admirable food for horned cattle ; and when cut thus early -
it yields afecond crop, which makes ample amends for what
was loft by not letting the firft come to its full worth. This
early cutting is likewife attended with another benefit,
which is, that it purges the cattle, in the beginning of the
fummer, and thereby frees them from diforders occafioned
by the winter’s cold or dry food. But that if the weather
be rainy, it may be left ftanding till it is in bloom; when
it ftill is excellent fodder for cows. But care muft be taken
in making it into hay that the flowers do not drop off, as they
are very apt to do; for cattle are fo very fond of thefe
flowers that they often induce them to eat the reft of the
plant. And that if the rain continue, the faintfoin may be
left ftanding till fome of its feeds are formed, and the crop
will then be the more plentiful; not only becaufe it will have
attained its full growth, but likewife becaufe its leaves, being
more fubitantial, diminifh lefs in drying. It is not, indeed,
then quite fo {weet as before ; but horfes eat it readily, be-
caufe they love to feel between their teeth the feeds, which
now begin to be formed. He adds, that Mr. Tull fays this
fodder 1s fo excellent that horfes need no oats when they are
fed withit. He affirms that he kept a team of horfes with
it a whole year in good plight, without giving them any oats,
though they were worked hard all thetime. He ftates that
he fattened fheep withit in lefs time than others which were
fed with corn. But that the hay of this plant can never be
fo good as when it is cultivated with the horfe-hoe ; for in
the common hufbandry it bloffoms almoft as foon as it is out
of the ground. And if the feafon continues ftill rainy, it
may be more advifeable to let the faintfoin remain ftanding
than to run the hazard of having it rot upon the ground;
for then the feed will ripen, and nearly make up for the lofs
of the fodder, not only becaufe it will fetch a good price,
but alfo becaufe two bufhels of it will go as far in feeding of
horfes as three bufhels of oats ; and cattle in general, as well
as poultry, are extremely fond of it. And it is further
{tated that the firft of thefe forts of faintfoin-hay, cut be-
fore the bloom, is Mr. Tull’s virgin-hay, which is the beft
beyond comparifon, and has not its equal, except lucern.
He gives the next place to the fecond fort, cut whilft in
bloom, and fays that an acre of land, well cultivated, may
yield three tons of this bloffomed-hay ; and he efteems the
third fort, which he calls the full grown, many degrees in=
ferior to either of the former, though it yields a ater
crop, becaufe it has grown to its full bulk, and fhrinks but
little in drying. It is fuppofed that even the faintfoin that
has yielded its feed may be cut down and dried ; and when
other fodder is {carce, it will be better food for horfes and
large cattle, than the coarfe hay of flowed meadows, or any
kind of ftraw. In regard to the method of bringing it inte
the

SAINTFOIN.

the ftate or condition of hay, it differs but little from that
employed for clover and other fimilar crops. It is cut im-
mediately on its coming into full bloffom, and as it remains
but 2 fhort time in this ftate, as much expedition as poflible
fhould be employed both in mowing and making the produce
into hay. It is remarked by the author of the Synopfis of
Hufbandry, who refides ina diftri& where the culture of this
fort of grafs is frequent, that of all other graffes, it requires
the leaft painsin making ; when the feafon is favourable, the
hay-makers may follow the feythe, and having turned over
the fwaths, throw them into wind-rows the fucceeding day
after the grafs is mown, when it may be immediately formed
into cocks, and the whole crop be fit for carting in a week
after it ismown; and though it may appear very green, and
the ftack, when made, take on or acquire a confiderable de-

of heat, there isno danger to be apprehended, providing
the weather has been fair during the hay-making ; asit is fo
far from taking harm by heating in the ftack, that the con-
trary ftate is'the moit to be feared ; and for this reafon great
care is neceffary not to fuffer the fodder to continue long
either in the fwath or in grafs-cocks, left the fun and wind
fhould dry it up too fait, and by exhaling its juices prevent
the heating in the ftack, and thereby render it of little value.
In order to preferve its fucculence, in fome places they put
anumber of thefe grafs-cocks together, fo as to form large
cocks of a fize to contain a load in each, and finifh the
ftacks out of the cocks. And it is likewife a praGtice with
many farmers, where the crop is flight, to turn the {waths,
and then run them into cocks with a three-pronged barley
fork, following witha wooden dew-rake, the head of which
is of fufficient width to cover the ground occupied by three
or four fwaths, in this manner proceeding with the utmoft
difpatch, faving a deal of labour and expence in the bufinefs.

Seeding the Crop.—Where this fort of crop is let itand for
feed, it fhould remain on the land till the hufks become of a
fomewhat brownifh colour, and the feeds are perfe€tly plump
and firm, as by thefe means they will not only be etter in
their quality, but be in lefs danger of being injured in the
field from the very short time that it will be neceflary for
them to remain, and alfo lefs in danger of being hurt by
heating when laid up for future ufe.

It has been aflerted that it requires fome experience to
know of what degree of ripenefs is the beft to cut the feeded
faintfoin ; becaufe all its feeds do not ripen at the fame time.
Some ears bloflom before others; every ear begins bloffom-
ing at its lower part, and continues to blow gradually up-
wards for many days ; fo that before the flower is gone off
at the top, the feeds are almoit filled at the bottom. By
this means, if the cutting be deferred till the top feeds are
quite ripe, the lower, which are the beft, would hed and
be loft. The beft time, therefore, to cut it, is when the

teft part of the {ced is well filled, the firft blown ripe,
and the laft blown beginning to be full. The unripe
feeds will ripen after cutting, and be, in all refpeéts, as
good as thofe that were ripe before. Some, for want of
obferving this, have fuffered their faintfoin feed to ftand
ill all of it has fhed, and been loft in cutting. Saintfoin
fhould never be cut in the heat of the day, while the fun
fhines out; for then much, even of the unripe feed, will
fhed inmowing. ‘The right time for this work is the morn-
ing, or the evening, when the dew has rendered the plants
a. When the weather is fine and clear, the faintfoin
will foon dry fufficiently in the fwaths, without turning
them; but vies rain has fallen, and there is a neceflity for
turning them, it fhould be done very gently, while they are
moift, and not two {waths together, as in the other hay
made of faintfoin before it has feeded. If the fwaths are

turned with the handle of the rake; it is beft to raife up the
ear-fides firft, and let the {tub-fide reft on the ground in
turning, but if it is done with the teeth of the rake, let the
ftub-fide be lifted up, and the ears refted on the earth. If
it be cocked at all, the fooner it be done the better ; becaufe
if the fwaths are dry, much of the feed will be loft in fe-
parating them ; the ears being entangled together. When
moift, the feed fticks faft in the ear, but when dry, they
drop out with the leaft touch or fhaking. It is, however,
the belt practiee, as foon as the proper-degree of maturity
has been attained by the crop, that it fhould be mown in as
fhort a time as can poflibly be made convenient, and remain
expofed in the fwath until the upper furface is fully dried,
when it muft be wholly turned over, but in a very careful
manner, fo as to prevent the feeds from fhedding and bein
loft, as much as the nature of the work may admit oF
When this fide has been rendered perfeétly dry and crifp in
the fame way as the other, the crop fhould either be threfhed
out upon cloths in the field where it is grown, or laid up in
{tacks to be afterwards performed when the farmer has more
leifure and convenience for the work.

But the work of threfhing out the feeds, in this kind of
crop, is much lefs troublefome and expenfive than in that of
the clover kind. In cafes where threfhing-machines are in
ufe, the bufinefs may be executed with great eafe and faci-
lity in that mode. It has, however, been obferved by a
late writer, that when the feafon is favourable, the practice
of threfhing it out in the firft way is probably the moft bene-
ficial, as the ftems or haulm may be laid up for the purpofe
of fodder in the ftack.

As the threfhing in the field cannot be done but in very
fine weather, and while the fun fhines in the middle of the
day. the beft manner of performing it is to have a large
fheet pegged down to the ground, for two men to threfh on
with their flails; while two others bring them frefh fupplies
in a {maller fheet, and two more clear away the hay that has
been threfhed. The feed is emptied out of the larger fheet,
and riddled through a large fieve ; after which it is put into
facks, ane carried into the barn to be winnowed. Care
fhould be taken not to let the hay get wet, as in that cafe
it would be fpoiled. It is a very important, but difficult,
matter, to keep the feed, that has been threfhed in the field,
without becoming wet. If it be winnowed pie Woes
and only a little laid amidit a great heap, or put into a fack,
it will heat and ferment to fuch a degree, in a few days,
that the greate(t part of it will lofe its vegetative quality.
During that fermentation, it will be very hot, and {mell
four. Spreading it upon a barn-floor, though but feven or
eight inches thick, will anfwer no end, unlefs it be fre-
quently and regularly turned, until the heating is over: but
even this will not make its colour keep fo bright as that
which is well houfed, well dried, and threfhed in the winter.
This laft, laid up and unthrefhed, will keep without any
danger of {poiling, becaufe it does not lie clofe enough to
heat. The beft way to preferve the feed threfhed in the
field is to lay a layer of itraw upon a barn-floor, and upon
that a thin layer of feed, and fo on alternately. By this
means the feed, mixing with the ftraw, will be kept well,
and come out in the {pring with as green a colour as when
it was put in. ’

In refpeét to the produce in feed, it is faid to be ufually
from about four to five coombs in fome diltriéts; but in
others it will probably be much lefs, efpecially on the fhal-
lower forts of faintfoin foils. But this mult obvioufly be
liable to great variation from feafon, &c. Seeding crops
of this fort is conftantly found to improve them.

‘There can be no doubt, from the faéts that have been

given

SAINTFOIN.

given above, but that this is a crop of vait utility and benefit
to the farmer, not only in providing an abundant fupply of

jod fodder for the fupport of different forts of live-itock,
but of good feed for the latter part of the autumnal feafon,
in thofe foils that are well adapted to its cultivation and
growth; as it has been feen to be capable of affording a
very large produce even on thofe thin poor forts of land,
that, under other circumttances, yield only a very fcanty
produce either of herbage or hay. And in fuch as are of
the better and more fertile kinds, the quantity of crop is
inconceivably abundant. On thefe grounds it has been
fuggefted, by a pra¢tical writer, that its culture fhould be
extended to all thofe extenfive traéts of land, in different
parts of the kingdom, that afford little or nothing under
other fyftems of hufbandry or modes of cropping,‘ and
which are not adapted to the growth of clover. This is
particularly defirable, as it is an artificial grafs that fucceeds
well in the ordinary methods of fowing, without the trouble
or expence of either the drill or the hoe. And, in addition
to what has been faid above, Mr. Young, in the fourth vo-
lume of his Eaftern Tour, obferves that it feems extremely
probable, from different trials that have been made with
this plant, that it is not by any means fo confined in re{pe&
to foil as has been generally fuppofed ; though there can be
little doubt but that it anfwers beft on thofe of the cal-
careous, dry, loamy kinds. But on fuch as have had occa-
fionally applications of lime, it has been known to fucceed
in a perfe& manner, according to Mr. Marfhall, in his
Rural Economy of the Southern Counties. The moft de-
trimental and unfavourable forts of lands, for the culture
and growth of this kind of grafs, are all thofe where there
is much retention ef moifture, or where it remains upon
them in a ftagnant wet or fpongy ftate. In order to the
healthy growth of this plant, a {tate of confiderable drynefs
is effentially neceflary in the foil.

The moft material inconvenience to which this kind of
crep is expofed is from the rifing of coarfe graffes and
weeds of different kinds; becaufe thefe, in a great méa-
fure, limit the duration of the plants, and not that of their
age. The advantage of a proper and clean preparation of
the land, previous to its being fown, is, therefore, fuffi-
ciently evident. Where, notwithitanding every precaution,
fuch graffes come up, fo as to injure the faintfoin plants,
Mr. Young fays that harrowing has been had recourfe to
with a degree of fuccefs, when performed to fuch an extent
as to leave the furface of the ground in nearly the ftate as if
it had been ploughed. It has been remarked by the culti-
vators of this valuable plant in the ifle of Thanet, that
where the crop takes, it is very advantageous to the farmer ;
yielding him, for many years, plenty of excellent fodder,
upon land which would otherwife, perhaps, fcarcely yielded
him any profit at all: and befides, when it begins to fail,
if proper care be taken, the land, when broken up, will be
found greatly refrefhed, and in a better condition to bear
tillage, and a fucceffion of other crops. It is the practice
with the farmers here, when they intend breaking up a
faintfoin lay, to feed it the laft three or four years. Mow-
ing it at this time, they think, hurts and exhauits the land
too much.

In the pra¢tice of the Oxfordfhire farmers, two methods
are had recourfe to, in breaking up old faintfoix lays: the
one that of common ploaghings the other that of paring
and burning ; the conviction of the propriety of the latter,
when properly performed, being very general. In fome
cafes, they firft rice baulk it, and then give a clean earth
for turnips; but in others, the turnips immediately follow
the burning, The great objet is that of getting the land

into a clean firm condition, before it is fown with corn,
which cannot be done fo well by any other means as that of
turnips; and this is found the beft mode of getting them.
Much effeét is preduced by treading with fheep in eating
them off. The ufual obje¢tions to the praGtice have no
weight, except in fo far as it may be repeated too often; as
it has been purfued not only without inconvenience, but
with much advantage, on the lighteft and thinneft foils of
the {tone-brafh kind for a vaft length of time. It is alfo
very powerful in preventing mifchief from the grub and
wire-worm, by deftroying them. In breaking up merely
by the plough, there is often much danger from the worm;
but this is thought to be much guarded againft by theep
treading, or penning them on the crops and the land before
they are put in, as well as by heavy rolling. Thefe lays
are moftly broken up for oats in the firft place, after which
turnips, then barley, afterwards peafe, vetches, clover, or
trefoil; to which fucceed wheat, turnips, barley, and then
faintfoin again. Some think that the land fhould not be
fown again with this grafe for fourteen years, and that it
would be better if once only in twenty or twenty-five years.
Others do not, however, give credit to the notion, which
has fpread in fome places, that land, which has been under
this crop, muft not be fown with it again for many years,
adducing faéts in proof of the contrary.

In Norfolk, in 1784, Mr. Coke had 400 acres, an ex-
tent to which he carried this excellent grafs, in order to be
able to feed off all his turnips by the end of March; avoid-
ing thereby the common evil of permitting them to run up
to bloffom, for fupporting the flock in April, by which the
fucceeding barley is always materially damaged; he found
the obje& well anfwered. The hay was given in well con-
trived racks on wheels, in which both the hay and the
fheep’s head, while feeding, are under cover from rain. A
{pace fown with winter tares received the fheep in May, if
the layers were not ready for them. The fame excellent
cultiyator then made an experiment on this grafs: ten acres
were fown with an addition of white clover, ten with tre-
foil, ten with red clover, and ten with faintfoin only. The
refult was, that the white clover divifion turned out the
belt, the faintfoin alone the next beft, then trefoil, and the
red clover much the wort. But fome years after that
period, he tried ray-grafs, and approved of it much better
than any other plant for this purpofe ; obferving that it kept
down the blubber-grafs, fo apt to come up with faintfoin :
but from the time of the drill hufbandry being adopted, he
has left off all additions; the regularity of the crop being
fo great, that all fpaces are filled, and the cleannefs of the
land being truited to againft the blubber. And fir M.
Folkes has given much attention to faintfoin, but not with
fuccefs: he has prepared for it by two crops of turnips in
fueceffion, both fed on the land by fhesns yet twitch and
blubber-grafs over-ran the crop in a few years, and fome in
that cafe has been fpoiled in three or four. He has been
careful not to feed it with fhéep, and he has harrowed it
the third year feverely crofs and crofs, and from corner to
corner, yet without deftroying the blubber. By reafon of
this circumftance, the culture does not flourifh at all: whén
broken up, it is fallowed for wheat, and the crop generally

vod. Alfo Mr. Overman, of Burnham, has broken up
Fintfoin layers, and fuffered much loffes by the red-worm,
that he was fearful of fowing corn upon’ the laft field he
ploughed. He therefore ploughed it before winter, and
fummer-fallowed it without manure. After this he fowed
barley, which crop the writer viewed, and found very fine,
not having fuffered the leaft attack. He remarked that the
ploughing before winter probably contributed to the de-
ftruction

SAI

ftruétion of the worm, as well as the fummer tillage. Mr.
Overman broke up another field by thorough fallowing for
turnips, the crop very good; he then fowed peafe, the crop
middling ; turnips again, bad; then barley, which was very
much eaten by the red-worm ; this followed by winter tares,
now (1802) on the ground, and a bad crop. Mr. Coke
of Holkham pared and burnt a faintfoin lay, intending tur-
nips; but changing his mind, fowed wheat, and the red-
worm eat half of it. This fhews that this operation is not
in all cafes effeGive againft that deftruGtive animal. Mr.
Rifhton of Thornham broke up a faintfoin lay eleven years
old, by a baftard fummer-fallow for oats: the wire-worm
ate up the crop. He then laid on ten loads an acre of
dung, and fowed turnips, which came to nothing (eaten
alfo, the writer fuppofes, by the worm); then barley, and

t fifteen coombs an acre; then peafe, ten coombs an acre ;
and this year (1802), a great crop of wheat. Mr. Bloom-
field at Harpley broke up a faintfoin lay in 1802, by one
ploughing, and got a fine tilth for wheat by much {cari-

ley in Hertfordfhire, Mr. Doo at Bygrave finds faint-
foin advantageous to mow for five or fix years; he then
feeds it with fheep three, four, or five years, till it has got
a good turf for paring and burning. Alfo Mr. Parker
broke up a field of this grafs by a fummer-fallow, and fowed
wheat, ‘which the red-worm ate up; he then fallowed the
land again, and fowed it with turnips: and he broke up
another field for Swedifh turnips, and had a fine crop, after
which he fowed oats. It is ftated as the opinion of the

Rey. Mr. Dove, that it is more profitable to break it up

after fix or feven years, as the land will then give better
crops after the mofs has impoverifhed it, as he has
known fome left fourteen or fifteen. The land will yield it
again, he thinks, after ten or twelve years. It fhould be
manured every fecond year with 40 bufhels of foot, or
6o of peat-afhes. A fingular idea is ftated to prevail about
Berkhamftead, which is, that afhes wear out faintfoin; and
that Mr. Rooper has experienced it. It there commonly
lafts fourteen or years ; but if not carefully preferved
from fheep, not more than fix or feven.

In fhort, wherever there is a deficiency of meadow and
ow, farms, this is a moft beneficial grafs, and pro-

ly the ferns fubftitute for them that is yet known; the
produce being equally large, and good in quality for moft
rs peng as that afforded from Pap befides, hy latter-

is excellent for many ufes, fuch as weaning lambs,

milking cows, and moft forts of live-ftock which are to be
kept well. here is in faét no other method of managing
pe haa ta a as no fub-
ute nearly fupport live-ftock in {uch a proportion.

SAINTONG a

ts principal articles of trade are paper,
fie province now forms the department

SAINTS, derived from /an@us, holy, an appellation by
which perfons eminent for their piety and virtue have been
diftinguifhed. There are two terms in the facred writings by
which this appellation is exprelled ; thefe are eyio¢ and izin;.
The former is uniformly rendered in the New Teftament
holy, or when ufed fubftantively in the plural, faints ; and the
latter, except in one inftance, is always rendered by the fame

term, not oo in the Englith bible, but in moft modern
Vor. XXXI.

SAI

tranflations. Hence fome have concluded that both thefe

Greek words are altogether equivalent. Dr. Campbell,

however, is of a different opinion. In fupport of this

opinion he alleges, firf, that in the Septuagint, which is

the foundation of the Helleniftic idiom, one of them is that

by which one Hebrew word, and the other that by which

another, not at all fynonimous, are commonly tranflated.

“Ayaocis the word ufed for wy yp>hadoe Janus, holy ; ics; for

VDM: chafid, Lenignus, gracious. e argues further, that

thefe words have been underftood by the ancient Greek

tranflators to be {fo diftin@ in fignification, that no fingle in-

ftance occurs, in which the Hebrew word kadofh is rendered

by the Grek écios, or chafid by cyiox. Another reafon, which

inclines this excellent biblical writer to think that the two

words are not fynonimous is, becaufe he finds, on examin-
ing and comparing, that there is a confiderable difference in
the application of them, not only in the Old Teftament, but
inthe New. As to the word aiyioc, it ic applied not only to
perfons, but to things inanimate, as the facred utenfils and
veftments ; to times, as their jubilees and fabbaths, their fo-
lemn fettivals and fafts ; and to places, as the land of Judea,
the city of Jerufalem, the mountain on which ftood the tem-
ple, the temple with its courts; but more efpecially the
houfe which the courts inclofed, the outer part of which
was called, by way of eminence, # cyuc, fc. cxwn, the baly
place, and the inner, » cysx cysav, the holy of bolies, or the meoft
haly place. Whereas the word écios is applied only to perfons,
or beings fufceptible of chara&er. Moreover, when e&yins
is applied to perfons, it has not alwaysa relation to the moral
character, but often to fomething which, in regard to the
perfon, is merely circumftantial andexternal. In this refpe&
the children of Ifrael are called a oly nation, being confe-
crated by their circumcifion, though they were rather worfe
inftead of better than other nations, as Mofes their great
legiflator often declares to them. In this fenfe the tribe of
Levi was Aolier than any other tribe, purely on account of its
fele&tion for the facred fervice : the priefthood had more 4oli-
ne/s than the other Levites, and the high prieft was the ho-
fief of all. Thus our author conceives the term «yo: to
have been applied to Aaron (Pf. cvi. 16.) ; not becaufe his
perfonal charaéter entitled him to this diftin&tion above Mofes,
but becaufe he was the only individual of the people who
bore on his forehead the jignature of his confecratien, helinefs
to the Lord, cis aux Kuve. On the other hand, it does not
appear, from any clear paflage, either in the Old Teftament
or the New, that the Hebrew word chafid, or the Greek éci03,
is fufceptible of this interpretation. ‘T'o this purpofe, Hou.
bigant, in his valuable edition of the Old Teftament, with a
new Latin tranflation, and notes, will not admit that it can
any where refer to Aaron or his fucceflors in the pontificate.
Our author further alleges, that the application of the
words e&yios and écios is different in another refpeét, viz. that
the latter is fometimes found coupled with other epithets,
expreffive of different good qualities, and applied to cha-
rater or moral conduét, cach exhibiting, as it were, a fea-
ture diftinét from thofe exhibited by the reft ; whereas the
word e105 is not commonly accompanied with other epithets :
when this is the cafe, they are of fuch a general nature, as
rather to affe&t the whole charaGter than feparate parts of it.
This obfervation is illuftrated and confirmed by feveral ap-
propriate inftances, deduced from Heb. vii. 26. ‘Tit. i. 8. and
Rom. vii. 12. to which the reader is referred. Our author,
having afligned his reafons for thinking that the two words
bows and ayos in the New Teftament are not fynonimous,
proceeds to afcertain the meaning of each. ‘The primitive
fignification of the word kadofh, hagios, appears to have been
den ; firft, in the literal ee as denoting free —< “9

iy th,

SAI

filth, and fecondly, as exprefling what, according to the re-
ligious ritual, was accounted clean. The firit is natural, the
fecond ceremonial cleannefs. Some traces of the firlt of
thefe meanings occur in the Old Teftament ; but nothing is
more common than the fecond, particularly in the Pentateuch.
Moreover, as things are made clean for ufe, the term has
been adopted to denote, thirdly, prepared, fitted, defined for a
particular purpofe ; and more efpecially, fourthly, con/écrated,
or devoted to a religious life: fifthly, as things fo prepared
and devoted are treated with peculiar care and attention, to
hallow or Santi comes to fignify to honour, to reverence, to
ftand in awe of, and /o/y to imply worthy of this treatment,
that is, honourable, venerable, awful; and fixthly, as out-
ward and corporeal cleannefs has, in all ages and languages,
been confidered as an apt metaphor for moral piety, it de-
notes guiltlefs, irreproachable, which is at prefent, among
Chriftians, the moft common acceptation of the word. The
author has produced fome examples of the fix ufes above-
mentioned. See Deut. xxili. 11. 13, 14. 2 Chron. xxix.
5, &e.—15, 16. 18.—5. 17. 19. Lev. xi. 42, &c. xx. 25,
26. Exod. xix. 10.14.22. Lev. xxi. 1—6. Johh. ii. 5.
Joth. vii. 13. Numb. v. 17. Jer. vi. 4. Mic. ii. 5. 2 Chron.
xxx. 17, 18. LTfaiah, lxv. 5. Jer. xii. 3. 1 Cor. vii. 14.
Jofh. xx. 7. Judg. xvii. 3. Jer. i. 5. Lev. xxii. 32.
Numb. xx. 12. Jofh. xxiv. 19. Pf. xxix. 3. Pf. cxi. 9.
If. vi. 1, &c. Rev. iv. 8, &c. If. viii. 12,13. Lev. x.
1, &c. We fhall here add, that the exhortations to holi-
nefs in the New Teftament are evidently to be under-
ftood of moral purity, and of that only. On other occa-
fions, the words holy and faints, aio, evenin the New Tef-
tament, ought to be explained in conformity to the fourth
meaning above affigned, viz. devoted or confecrated to the
fervice of God.

With refpe& to the word “OM, chafid, ozi:, our author
obferves, that this is aterm which properly and originally ex-
preffesa mental quality, and that only in the fame manner as
PTW» tadik, dixasocy jufly \ ON, amon, meaning at different
periods; its meft certain acceptation being gracious, merciful,
beneficent, benign. In its reference to God and religion, it
means oso and devout. Agreeably to this fenfe, our tran{f-
lators have, in feveral places of the Old Teftament, rendered
it godly ; and the phrafe o éci: ve Ore is, therefore, not im-
properly rendered the faints of God, that is, his pious
fervants.

Without farther enlarging, we fhall clofe this article with
our author’s obfervation, that in regard to the manner of
tranflating kadofh in the Old Teftament, and Aagios in the
New, when all circumftances are confidered, it is fafeft to
retain very generally the common verfion Ao/y. The fame re-
mark holds nearly alfo of the conjugates. Campbell’s Preli-
minary Differtations, part iv.

Saints, Sandi, in the Romifh church, holy perfons de-
ceafed, and, fince their deceafe, canonized by the pope,
after feveral informations and ceremonies.

One of the pointsin which the, Roman Catholics and Pro-
tefants differ is, that the former addrefs, invoke, and fup-
plicate faints, &c. to intercede for them; whereas the latter
hold it fufficient to propofe their good examples for our imi-
tation,

Cardinal Bellarmine, and other popifh writers, have
pleaded, that by praying to the faints, they only intend to
exprefs a defire of their interceffion, and that their invoca-
tion of the faints terminates ultimately in God. Accord-
ingly they have diftinguifhed two forts of worhip, one
called atria, appropriate to God, and another dulia, which
being of an interior nature, is paid to angels and faints.
However, many of their own writers bave exploded this dif-

SAI

tinction, and others have owned that it is unfcriptural.
There is another fort of worfhip, which is of a higher
= than that paid to faints in common, and which is pe-
culiar to the Virgin Mary: this they call iperdalin

After all, thofe who read their books of devotion, their
Hours, their Offices, their Rofaries, their Breviaries, and
their Miffals, will find many direét addreffes to the faints,
which are very different from thofe prayers whofe objeét is
merely to fupplicate their interceffion. Befide, the council
of Trent, fefl. 25. dire€ts to apply to the faints for their
help and affiftance, as well as their prayers; and condemns
all who think that it is not good and profitable to offer
prayers to faints, as chargeable with impious fentiments.
And the creed of pope Pius IV. exprefsly infifts upon it as
an article of faith, that the faints, reigning together with
Chrift, are to be invocated. As to the antiquity of this
practice, the council of Trent, fefl. 25. {peaks of it as the
ufage of the Apoftolic and Catholic church from the begin-
ning of Chriftianity. As to the doftrine of the intercef-
fion of faints and angels, there is not the leaft intimation of
it in the writings of the two firft centuries ; though it muit
be allowed to have been introduced in the next century, and
that Origen and Cyprian exprefsly favour this fuperitition.
The worfhip of faints and angels is of a much later date ;
efpecially as a ftanding generally received doétrine of the
church. For though Athanafius was for worfhipping the
faints, yet Cyril, who lived in the next century, fays, we
neither call the holy martyrs gods, nor are we ufed to wor-
fhipthem. St. Avuiftin affirms, that neither faints nor angels
will be worfhipped. Archbifhop Uther fays, that as to the
firft four hundred years after Chrilt, for nine parts of that
time, not one true teltimony can be produced out of any
father in favour of this doétrine ; and cardinal Perron, Riche-
lieu, and other learned writers among the Romaniits, own,
that the invocation of faints was not praétifed for the three
firft centuries. The firft fymptoms of this worfhip did not
appear till towards the end of the fourth century, and it
feems to have {prung out of the regard which the Chriitians
at that time cine’ to the memory of the martyrs. Vs
Retics.) They frequented their tombs, and ereéted altars
there, praying to God, and engaging themfelves to a ftri&
imitation of the virtues and piety of the departed martyrs ;
by degrees this veneration degenerated into praifes and eulo-
giums of the faints themfelves, in which they ufed fome apof-
trophes and rhetorical addreffes ; whence proceeded a fupertti-
tious regard to them, and at length, a dire¢t inyocation and
worfhip of them. Nor does it appear, that any public prayers to
faints were eftablifhed till A.D. 788, by the fecond council of —
Nice ; and this council was condemned by another held at
Francfort, A.D. 7943 and the invocation of faints was like-
wife condemned by a former council held at Conttantinople,
A.D. 755, confifting of three hundred and eighty-eight
bifhops. In the feventh century, Gregory exprefsly fays,
that angels refufed to be worfhipped fince the appearance of
Chrift. See Papist and Porgry. P

In order to convey fome idea of the extravagance to
which veneration for reputed faints hath arri in the
Romifh church, we fhall only mention one initance out of
many that might be alleged. It is well known that there
were three altars in the cathedral church of Canterbury,
one ereted to the honour of Chrift, another to the Virgin
Mary, and a third to St. Thomas a Becket; and the offer-
ings at his fhrine amounted to about 1000/., when thofe to
the Virgin did not amount to 5/., and thofe to Chrift were
nothing. And Rapin informs us, that in one year, viz.
AD. 1420, there were no lefs than fifty thoufand foreiguers
who came in pilgrimage to pay their homage at this tomb.

The

—EE

SAI

The number of faints, allowed as fuch, in the Romifh
church, is prodigious. Father Papebroche reckons feven-
teen or eighteen hundred to have died on the firit of June,
only. Indeed the crowd of faints, with which their mar-
tyrologies are itocked, is {candalous, even to the more fober
of their own communion. Father Mabillon, in an exprefs
differtation oa the worfhip of unknown faints, obferves,
that honours are given to faints, who, perhaps, were not
Chriftians, and whofe very names were never known.
Hence, being under a neceflity of giving them names, they
are therefore called baptifed faints. He adds, that they
every day befeech faints to intercede for them with God,
when it is much doubted whether they themfelves be in
heaven.

Father Papebroche and his affociates were a long time
employed in writing the lives and aéts of the faints; they
ranged them each on the day of the year in which they
died. For the firit fix months they publifhed twenty-four
yolumes in folio; and fince Papebroche’s death, in 1714,
his fucceffors have publifhed more.

SAINT WIX, Tuomas, in Biography, door in mufic,
and mafter of Univerfity college in Cambridge, 1463.
Wood, however, in his Fafti, has been able to produce no
names of mutficians that were enrolled among mufical gra-
duates of the univerfity of Oxford before the 16th century ;
though we are told of feveral at Cambridge of. an earlier
period. Henry Habington was admitted to the degree of
bachelor of mufic there in 1463, when Saintwix received
his diploma of doétor. See Docror in Mufic, and De-
GREES. .

SAINVILLE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Eure and Loire; 15 miles E. of

hartres.

SAIPACHZELL, a town of Auftria; 6 miles S.E.
of Wells.

SAIPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of
Benares, and diftri& of Singrowla; 68 miles S. of Benares.
N. lat. 24° 17'. E. long. 82° 59/.

SAIRE. See Zarre.

SAIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Lower Egypt,
in the Saitic nome, of which it was the capital. Strabo
=: that it had a temple confecrated to the worfhip of

inerva. It was fituated hetween the Canopic canal and
the Sebennytic, and gave the name Saitic to one of the
mouths of the Nile.

SAISAR, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Irak; 75 Si NW. of Hamadan.

SAISSAC, a town of France, in the department of the
Aude, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Car-
eafione; 12 miles N.W. of it. The place contains 1754,
and the canton 5991 inhabitants, on a territory of 160
Kiliometres, in 8 communes.

SAISSANDIN, a toavn of Africa, in Satadoo. N. lat.
13° 15'. W. long. 10° 30’.

SAISSANS, a town of France, in the department of
the Gers; 3 miles N. of Mafleube.

SAITA, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 11 miles N.
of Bettiah. N. lat. 26°59/. E. long. 84° 28’.

SAITELBACH, a river of Bavaria, which runs into
the Fils, near Kuchen, in the territory of Ulm.

SAITO, a river cf Naples, which runs into the fea,
5 miles E. of Squillace.

SAIVA, the defignation of a very extenfive fect of
Hindoos, who worthip Siva, the perfonification of the de-
ftroying, or rather changing, form of the deity. ‘The term
comprehends, indeed, feveral feéts, being ratlter generally
deferiptive of all thofe who, in any form or chiaraéter, adore

S A K

exclufively or principally the deftra&tive member of the
triad; in contradiftinétion to thofe who, under the like
general name of Vaifhnava, fimilarly worfhip Vifhnu the
preferver, under any of his forms or chara&ers. Of the
latter, fee VAISHNAVA.

In this comprehenfive view of the term, we are difpofed
to clafs under the head of Saiva all thofe fe&s who exclu.
fively or principally worfhip Parvati, the fakti or energy
of Siva, direétly or fymbolically, through the groffnefs
either of idolatrous or typical intervention ; as well as thofe
who addrefs their adoration more immediately to Siva, or
his fymbol. The worfhippers of Parvati are called Saktas.
(See thefe articles, and Saxrr.) Such as worfkip her
fymbol, the Yoni, are called Yonija; under which articles
fome account of them will be found. And under the ar-
ticles Linca, the name of the Phallic emblem of Siva, (the
deity who prefides over generation, as well as deftruction,)
Lryeancita, and Linai, the defignations of the fe& or
fe&ts of Saivas, who adore their deity typically through the
intervention of the Linga, we have given-as much as we
deem expedient on topics not fufficiently underftood, per-
haps, to admit of more full expofition ; or reconcileable to
our notions of decency, in matters where every thing of a
contrary tendency ought to be ftudioufly fhunned. To the
articles above-mentioned, to Sects of Hindoos, and to the
others thence referred to, fuch of our readers may turn, as
are defircus of farther information on points on which we
avoid extended difcuffion.

The Saivas are alfo called Siva-bakht, as the Vaifhnavas
are Vifhnu-bakht ; and we are told that they may be ex-
ternally diftinguifhed by the feétarial lines or marks on the
forehead ; the Saivas drawing them horizontally, the Vaifh-
navas perpendicularly. The former have fometimes one,
two, or three yellow lines, four or five inches in length,
ftraight or curved, of equal or unequal lengths, with dots
Rect or white between or under them. Sometimes a
crefcent, with various marks under or within it; all of
which are faid to have their appropriate meanings and myf-
ticifms. Of thefe « feétarial marks or fymbols,’’ diftin-
guifhing the various feéts of Hindoos, plate II. of the
Hindoo Pantheon contains a great and curious variety ;
and in the 4oodth and following pages, a copious explana-
tion is given of them.

In the Prabod’h Chandroyana, a name meaning Rife of
the Moon of Intelle&t, a very curious Sanferit drama,
tranflated by P. Taylor of Bombay, a Saiva is introduced,
who thus defcribes himfelf; “* My necklace and ornaments
are of human bones, I dwell amongtt the afhes of the dead,
and eat my food in human fkulls. Hearken to our rites:
we drink out of the fkulls of Brahmans; our facrificial fires
are fed with the brains and lungs of men, mixed up with
their flefh ; and human viétims, covered with the frefh blood
guthing from the dreadful wound in their throats, are the
offerings by which we appeafe the terrible god.’’ By the
terrible god is of courfe meant Siva, whofe name in this
chara&ter is Bhairava, or Vairava, the tremendous, Sce
VAIRAVA.

SAIZY, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Saone and Loire; 10 miles E. of Autun.

SAK, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Volga,
12 miles above Samara, in the government of Simbirfk.

SAKARA. See Saccana.

SAKARIA, a river off Natolia, which runa into the
Black fea, 50 miles W. of Eregri, N. lat. 40° 53/-
E. long. 31°.

SAKATEA, a towa of Braffl; 14 miles W. of Go-
ragot.

a4 SAKER,

SAK

SAKER, the name formerly ufed for a fmall fort of
cannon, of which there were three fpecies ; extraordinary,
ordinary, and kaft fized.

SAkER extraordinary, was about four inches diameter at
the bore, 1800 pounds weight, ten feet long; its load five
pounds, fhot three inches and a half diameter, and fome-
thing more than feven pounds and a quarter weight ; its
level range was eftimated at 163 paces.

SAKER ordinary, was a fize lefs, three inches three quar-
ters bore, nine feet long, 1500 weight; its charge, four
pounds of powder; bullet’s diameter, three inches and a
half; weight, fix pounds ; its level range was 160 paces.

Saker of the leaf? fize, was three inches and a half dia-
meter at the bore, 1400 pounds weight, eight feet long,
its load near three pounds and a half; fhot four pounds
three quarters weight, and three inches and a quarter dia-
meter. See CANNON and Gun.

SAKeER, in the Manege, the fame with dock.

SAKER, in Ornithology. See SACRE.

SAKI, in Mythology, aname of Indrani, the confort or
fakti of Indra, the Hindoo regent of the firmament, as fuf-
ficiently noticed under thofe articles. ‘

SAKIEH, in Geography, a town of the Arabian Irak ;
80 miles N.W. of Baflora.

SAKIES, a river of Canada, which runs into lake
Michigan, N. lat. 47° 58'. W. long. 86° 45.

SAKIT, a town of Egypt, on the welt fide of the Nile;
8 miles N.E. of Afhmunein.

SAKITA, a country of Hindooftan, contained in an
extenfive traé& of a triangular form, whofe bafe of 200 miles
or more is a line drawn from Cafhmere to the eaftern con-
fines of Anderab, and whofe fides are the continuation of
Himmaleh on the eaft, and that of Hindoo-Kho on the
weft. This {pace contains, amongft other ccuntries, not only
Sakita, correfponding to the Sace of Ptolemy (fee Sac),
but Little Thibet (or Balti-ftan), the Bylte of Ptolemy,
and Kuttore, anfwering to the Comedi of the fame geo-
@rapher. It alfo contains the fources of the Indus. This
whole {pace is mountainous, its general level being far ele-
vated above the countries on either fide of it.

SAKKAMIUT, a town of Eatt Greenland. N. lat.
60° 32'. W. long. 44° 20’.

SAKKAR, a town of Hindooftan, in Golconda; 50
miles N.W. of Rachore.

SAKMANZUR, a town of Turkifh Armenia; 18 miles
N. of Erzerum.

SAKMARA, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the
Ural, near Orenburg.

SAKRA, in Mythology, a name of the Hindoo regent
of the firmament, of whom an account will be found under
his more common appellation of INpRA. See alfo Va-
MANAVATARA.

SAKRADAWENDRA, is the name of one of the
Ceylonefe deities, who commands and governs all the ref,
and formerly anfwered the prayers of his worfhippers ; but,
according to the fabulous account which is given of him,
the golden chair, on which he fat, and the foot of which
was made of wax, that was foftened by their prayers and
tears, and funk downwards, fo that he could take notice of
their requefts and relieve them, being difpofed of among the
poor, they no longer derive any benefit from him, or pay
him any reverence. Phil. Tranf. abr. vol. v. part ii. p. 182.
See Bunun.

SAKRAN, in Geography, a river of Perfia, which runs
into the gulf of Perfia, near Bender Rigk.

SAKRIPA, in Mythology, 2 name of the Indian deity
Boodh, or Budha. One of his leading tenets was the fin

SAK

of depriving any animal of life: hence, and from the generat
tendernefs and humanity of his do¢trines, contrafted with
the practices of fome feéts of Hindoos of that time, Boodha
obtamed the appellation of Saéripa, or benevolent ; alfo that
of Sadaya-hridaya, or tender-hearted. See of him and his
doGrines under Boopu, Sects of Hindsos, and Saxya.
SAKROTSCHIN, in Geography, a town of the duchy

of Warfaw; zo miles N.W. of Warfaw.

SAKTA, the defignation of a fe& of Hindoos, who
worfhip exclufively the female principle of nature, typified
in Parvati, as the fakti or a€tive energy of Siva. As his
fymbol is the Linga, an emblem fimile to the Phallus of
the Greeks, fo her’s is the female organ, named Yoni.
Thefe fymbols are worfhipped, it is faid, figuratively ; and
doubtlefs are fo by fome, while the ignorant’ adore them
literally and grofsly, though not in the groffeft forms,
The ivaividuals comprized in this fe€t are called Saktas.
Thofe who worfhip the male principle, under the form of
the Linga, are called Lingi. Several of the Hindoo feéts
have a right-handed and decent path, and a left-handed and
indecent mode of worfhip. Thé indecent worfhip of the
Saktas is faid to be moft grofsly fo, confifting of unbridled
debauchery with wine and women. This profligate fe& is
fuppofed to be numerous, though unavowed. In moft
parts of India, if not in all, they are held in deferved de-
teftation ; and the decent Saktas do not publicly avow their
fe&t, nor wear en their foreheads the feCtarial mark, left
they fhould be fufpeéted of belonging to the other branch
of it. The feGtarial mark of the Saktas is compofed of
three lines drawn, through a circlet, horizontally on the
forehead, with afhes, obtained, if poffible, from a hearth
on which a confecrated fire has been maintained. The
circlet is yellow, made with faffron, or with turmeric and
borax. (On the fubjeé of confecrated fire, fee SaGNIKa.)
The left-handed path, or indecent mode of worfhip, efpe-

cially that of the Saktas, is founded on the Tantras, a °

branch of literature for this reafon held in difefteem by the
correét and refpectable part of the community. See
TANTRA.

It is remarked above that Parvati, under one or more of
her many names and forms, is the deity to whom the Saktas
chiefly addrefs their worfhip ; but it is believed that the
Saktis, or ative energies of other gods, are fimilarly ad-
dreffed. Radha, for inftance, the faktiof Krifhna, is faid
to be fo worfhipped, and under circumttances of groflnefs
fcarcely credible ; of which fome notice is taken under the
article Rapma of this work. The goddefs Sita, the fakti
of Rama, is alfo exclufively addrefled or worfhipped by a
fe& called Ramanuj; and they are fometimes called Saktas,
but are not accufed of the indecencies of thofe who follow
the left-handed path of that fe@. “(See Ramanus.) For
farther notice of the points mentioned in this article, the
reader is referred to the following: Linea, Marri, SAKTI,
Sects of Hindoos, Siva, Yons. Under our article Vepa
it is noticed, from the beft authority, that the legends, on
which the worfhip of feveral of the feéts above-mentioned is
grounded, are not to be found in the Indian feripture ; it
is, therefore, reafonably to be inferred that fuch feétarial
worfhip is comparatively of modern origin.

SAKTI, a name given, by Hindoo mythologiits, to the
conforts of their male divinities. It mult be recolleéted
that this fyftem has perfonified the abftraét and attraétive
powers of the deity, and has popularly afcribed fexes to
thofe mythological perfonages. The fakti, or energy, of
an attribute of God is Fotis and is fabled as the confort
of that perfonified attribute. The molt obvions attributes
of the deity, thofe of creation, prefervation, and deftruc-

tion,

SAKTI.

tion, perfonified, form the trimurti, or triad, of Brahma,
Vifhnu, and Siva. Their faktis, or ative energies, are
Sarafwati, Lakfhmi, and Parvati. Not only are the great
powers fo accommodated ; the inferior deities in their own
perfons, and the avataras or terreftrial incarnations of the
fuperior, are ikewife mated in fable, and have their will
executed by active kelpmates; each of whom, “ with the
fame form, the fame decoration, and the fame vehicle,”’ as
is exprefled in one of the Puranas, exaétly refembles the
deity-whofe partner fhe is ; from whofe bodies, indeed, as
Eve from Adam’s, they are in fome theogonies -itated to
have proceeded, and whofe powers and attributes they are
armed with. See Sects of Hindoos.

Withont affeGting much accuracy of arrangement, we will
here give the names of fuch of thefe faktis as we find any au-
thority for affigning to the fabulous deities of the Hindoos.
1. Sarafwati, called alfo Brahmi, and Brahmani; fakti of
Brama. 2. Lakfhmi, of Vifhnu. She is otherwife called

Vaifhnavi, and as his fakti in his form of Varaha,
is Varahi; in his form of Narafingha, fhe is Narafinhi ;
in that of Narayana, Narayani: as Rama, fhe accompanied
him under the name and form of Sita; as Krifhna, again as
Radha; as Wittoba, he had Rukmeni and Satyavama, fornts
of Lakfhmi. See the article VisHNu, for a litt of his principal
avataras, orincarnations. 3. Parvati, faktiof Siva. Under
their various forms and names they affume different appella-
tions, her’s generally diftinguifhed from his only by a femi-
nine termination, as Bhaga and Bhagi; Bhagavata, Bha-
vati; Bhagefa, Bhagifi; Bhava, Bhavani; Bbhudeva,
hudevi; Bhuva, Bhuvi; Hara, Hari; Ifa, 1fi; Ifwara,
Ifwari; Kala, Kali; Maha-kala, Maha-kali; Mahefwara,
Mahefwari; Pikefwara, Pikefwart; Rudra, Rudri, or Ru-
drani; Swardeva, Swardevi, and others. In his chara¢ter
of Kandehrao, Siva was accompanied by Parvati under the
name of Malfara. 4. Indrani, fakti of Indra. 5. Kau-
mari, of Kumara. 6. Kauveri, of Kuvera.

In addition to thefe may be added, among others, the fol-
lowing incarnated faktis, attending the avataras, or defcents,
of their lords. To Prith’u belonged Prithwi: Chandri is
called the confort of Chandra, or Soma; Nirriti, of Nairit
or Nirut ; Varuni, of Varuna; Swaha, of Pavaka; Prabha,
of Surya, &c. &c.

The * eight faktis, or matris,” are fometimes fpoken of
in Hindoo books ; and no diftintion is perceptible between
thefe defcriptions of perfons. Still the confort, or energy of
fome of the above, are ftiled faktis, though there is no au-
thority for adding them to the lift of devi matris, or divine
mothers. (See Marni.) It may, however, be here, as in moft
other m logical diverfities, obferved, that all thefe faktis
are refolvable into, as they emanate from, three, (thofe firft
named,) and thefe into one, Bhavani or Parvati; the con-
fort of Siva, the changes of forms ; therefore both creator and
deftroyer, as the latter term is ufed in common language ;
but which philofophically means transformer or renovator
combining thus the two great attributes of the Deity,—
the three indeed, for the intermediate power of prefervation
is neceflarily predicated. Thus all are refolvable into Siva,
or his fakti; and all are fo refolved by the Saivas, and Saktas,
who exclufively worfhip this attribute, in the male or female
nature, under the fymbols of the Linga or Yoni. The
Vaithnavas trace them up to their deity Vifhnu and his fakti
Lakthmi, and Vaifhnavi. Now both Siva and Vishnu are
avowed to be the fun, who is typically adored as the fymbol
of the Deity ; and thus is the charge of polythicifm evaded
by the philofophers of the Ealt, who fanétion in the ignorant
public the grofleft idolatry, and the moft irrational fuper-
ttition. See Surya, Ibovarny, and Trimunri.

From the concluding part of the laft paragraph it may
be inferred how intimately connected are the perfons, and
how clofely interwoven are the. multiform fubjeéts, of the
Hindoo Pantheon: fo much fo as to render it very difficult
to avoid confufion and repetition m the endeavour to divide
and clearly arrange what, under our prefent knowledge, are
almoft incompatible with feparation and arrangement.

So much of the mythology of Italy and Greece has been
proved either to be taken from that of India, or from a
fource common to all, that a difpofition is evident on the
part of fome enquirers to prove the identity of the whole.
Without offering any opinion on this point, we have to no-
tice that, in conformity with fuch difpofition, an attempt
has been made, and made with confiderable ingenuity, to
prove the three faktis of the Hindoo triad, that is to fay,
Sarafwati, Lakfhmi, and Parvati, to be the fame with the
Parce of weftern mythologifts. The laft-named Hindoo
divinity, under her name of Sweta-devi, or the White god-
defs, combines the three in a triune form, conftituting a fe-
male trimurti. (See Trimurti.) She is then called 'Tri-
Kala-devi-Kumari, or the divine threefold maid Kali; Tri-
fakti-devi, or the goddefs with the triple energy ; Tri-vidha,
or threefold; Tri-fakti, triple energied, &c. ; reminding us
of the “¢ triple Hecate,’’ in fome of the varied forms of the
Grecian Juno, or Diana. (See Parvati.) A triangle de-
noting a combination of three in one, is a fymbol of her and
of her lord, like a fimilar fymbol in fome of the mytteries of
the weftern world. See O’M.

Having in this article introduced this point, we fhall pro-
ceed to ftate fome farther particulars relating to the fup-
pofed identity of the three faktis of India with the Parce
of the Weft.

Sweta-devi was born on mount Kailafa (fee Karnasa) ;
the three gods direGted their eyes fo that their looks met in
a focus, or point, and this divine maid fprang up inftantly,
partaking of the three powers whence fhe was produced :
when creating, fhe is Satwiki-Brahmi ; when foftering, Vaifh-
navi; when deitroying, fhe is Raudri. Thefe three god-
defles are concluded (as well from thefe as from other points
of coincidence that we do not give) to be the Parc, which,
according to Plutarch (de Fato) were ‘bree and one. Fate,
he fays, inafmuch as it be an energy, is the general foul of
the world, and is threefold, Clotho, Lachefis, and Atropos.
And Plato fays that Providence, by which he underftands
fate, both phyfical and metaphyfical, is threefold. Thefe
* daughters of neceflity’’ correfpond thus: Clotho with
Sarafwati, or Brahmi, weaving the web of creation; La-
chefis with the fottering Lakfhmi, or Vaifhnavi; and Atro-
pos with Parvati, in her character of Raudri, “ black as
night,”? the deathly energy of the dettruétive Siva.

Under the article Marri of this work many particulars
are given, referring Paudlly to the fakti, the fubjeét of this :
both are fometimes fpoken of fo conneétedly in Hindoo
books, that it is not eafy to perceive much difference between
one and the other. Sometimes we read of feven, fometimes
of eight faktis, or devi matris, which latter, both in name
and de{cription, immediately remind us of the mother Ree
defles, or dew matres, of the Weft. Matri-devi, in Sanferit,
has precifely the meaning of matres dew in Latin, In
India they are, as in Italy they were, confpicnous and.im-
portant deities. ‘The feven are invoked together: no nup-
tial rites, among many clafles of Hindoos, are performed
without a previous oflering to the matri-devi, the mother
goddefles. Seven parallel lines are drawn on the floor or
ground with due form to reprefent thefe divine mothers, who
are then reverently circumambulated in the manner noticed
under our article Pranaksuna. They are alfo called in

9 Sanfent

SAL

Sanfcrit Janani-devi, reminding us again in found and figni-
fication of the Junones-dez of the Sianams a name like-
wife of the mother-goddefles ; who, in the Welt, were farther
ftiled Matres Familias, an appellation equivalent to the
Kula-devata of the Hindoos, which literally means Deus, or
Dea-Familias. Hindoos, efpecially Brahmans, out of refpe&,
often call their mothers Janani-devi.

Several of the particulars related in the latter part of this
article are taken from Mr. Wilford’s ingenious and learned
«« Effay on the Sacred Ifles in the Wett,”’ in the 11th volume
of the A fiatic Refearches ; to which, and his preceding eflays
on the fame fubjeé in the earlier volumes, we refer our
readers for much very curious information as to the claf-
fical coincidences of eaftern and weitern mythology and
literature.

It is reafonably believed that the ufages of the faktis are
comparatively of modern origin ; as in the Veda, or Hindoo
{cripture, there is no authority for, or.indeed mention of
them ; except in fome detached portions, the genuinenels of
which is itrongly fufpeéted. (See Vepa.) This belief ex-
tends to the legends on which the worfhip of the avataras of
Vifhnu is grounded: of Kri/hna and Rama for inttance.
See thofe articles. f

SAKYA, a name of the Hindoo deity Budha, or Boodh.
The term is faid to mean a wife man,—a philofopher ; a ge-
neral epithet applied by his numerous followers to this great
reformer. Muni is another of his names of like import ; and
he is fometimes ftiled Sakya-muni; and Sakya-finhia, or the
lion Sakya; the latter intimating, perhaps, that he was a
warrior as well asa philofopher. In the Sanf{crit language,
both Budha and Sakya are faid to be generic terms for wif-
dom. (See Muni.) General Vallancy, in his Effay on the
Primitive Inhabitants of Great Britain and Ireland (Collec-
tanea de Rebus Hibernicis, vol. iv.) fays, that Budh, both
in Irifh and Sanfcrit, means wife, /ei/ful ; and that. the other
name of this reformer, which the learned general writes Sea-
cha, ot Seagha, the fame probably as Sakya, means crafty,
cunning, ingenious, in both languages.

The name of Sakya is of extenfive ufage in the Eaft, al-
though differently {pelled and pronounced. The Xa-ka of
the Chinefe, and the Seaka of the Japanefe, have been rea-
fonably fuppofed the Oinc with Sakya. Speaking of the
Budz, or Seaka, of the Japanefe, Kampfer fays, “ I have
flrong reafons to believe, both from the affinity of the name,
and the very nature of this religion, that its author and
founder is the very fame perfon whom the Brahmins call
Budha, and believe to be the effential {pirit of Wifhna, who
made his ninth appearance in the world under this name : the
Peguers call him Samana-Khutama.’”? Hift. Japan. b. iv.
ch. 6. The latter name is a variation probably of Gau-
tama, or Godama. (Sce that article.) Samana is alfo a
name of Budha, meaning holy, &c. Hence we have the
Somonocodom of fome writers. See Hindoo Pantheon,
art. Buddha; and Symes’s Embally to Ava, p. 300. Sud-
hodana, and Sugata, are other names of this extenfively
worfhipped perfonage. See thofe articles, and Skcrs of
Hindoos.

SAKYLA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the go-
vernment of Abo; 33 miles S.S.E. of Biorneborg.

SAL, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Don, oppo-
fite to Kotchelovfkaia; 20 miles N.E. of Tcherkalk.——Alfo,
a town of Arabia, in the province of Nedsjed ; 20 miles
N-E. of Jamama.—Alfo, a river of Pruffia, which runs into
the Draulen lake ; 5 miles W. of Holland.

SAL, or Salt, one of the Cape de Verd iflands, about 40
miles in circumference, fo called from its number of falt-
ponds, the water of which cryttallizes into a beautiful falt ;

SAL

but it is fo barren as to afford no trees, nor even verdure, ex-
cept a few {mall fhrubs. Dampier, when he vifited it, could
{carcely perceive a blade of grafs, and faw no animals except
a few lean goats; but Davity fays, that notwithitanding its
barrennefs, it produces large flocks of goats, fome affes, a
few {mall horfes, and abundancg of fea-fowl. La Croix
obferves that a prodigious number of tortoifes lay their eggs
on this ifland, upon which many inhabitants might fubli;
neverthelefs, all authors agree in defcribing it as a defolate
and defert ifland. N. lat. 16° 35'. W. long. 22° 4o!,

Sax Lake, a lake of North America. N. lat. 50° 25',
W. long. 91° 30!.

Sax, Salt. See Sarr.

Sax Alkhalinus. See ALKALI, and SALts.

Sav Ammoniac, in Chemifiry, a {alt compofed of muriatic
acid and ammonia, or the volatile alkali, and hence properl
called muriate of ammonia. In commerce and the arts, it is
called falammoniac. From its great confumption in dyeing,
and feveral manufaétures, it is manufactured extenfively in
Great Britain, France, and Germany. It takes its name
from Ammonia, a country in Libya, in the foil of whieh it
exilts ready formed. This falt, till the year 1759, was folely
fupplied from Egypt. The preparation of it conlifted in
collecting the excrement of camels and other animals feeding
on faline plants. This excrement is firft made into matles,
and ufed as fuel. The falt is afterwards colleéted and put
into large glafs bottles. The bottles are expofed in the
lower part to nearly a red heat, in furnaces made for the pur-
pofe, the upper part of the bottle being kept at a lower
temperature, and the mouth flightly fttopped. The falt in
this proce(s is fublimed into the upper part of the bottle, in
the form of a cake of a white colour, but flightly tranfparent,
the impurities being left in the bottom. When the bottles
are cold they are broken, and the cake of falt removed. The
foot affords from about one-third to one-fourth of its weight
of falt.

Since the period above-mentioned, the manufaéture of it
in Europe has continued to increafe fo much, as to render
the importation from Egypt unneceflary.

In the manufactories of Europe, the ammonia Is georally
obtained from animal fub{tanees, and in fome cafes from the
foot of pit-coal. Lord Dundonald attempted to obtain it
by the direét dittillation of coal, but the procefs was not fuffi-
ciently profitable. The Newcaitle coal contains much more
than moft others. This is remarkably fhewn in the great
liability which brafs and copper have to be deftroyed by
expofure to the {moke in London.

The animal fubftances employed for the extraétion of
crude ammonia are generally bones, and fometimes hoofs,
and the refufe of horns. The waite of curriers and fhoe-
makers yields a confiderable quantity. It might alfo be
obtained in confiderable quantity, and at little expence, from
blood in the vicinity of large towns, or where great quan-
tities of cattle are flaughtered.

The diftillation of any of thefe fub{tances is carried on in
large {tills made of calt or wrought iron, but the latter is to
be preferred, from not being fo liable to crack with heat,
which is often to a degree above rednefs, The moft advan-
tageous form is a fhort direét cone witha broad bottom, the
fire playing all over it - this will be obvious, from the difficulty
of heat being communicated through loofe unconneéted
mafles. The exit-pipe for the vapour is at the higheft point
in the {till, which is either inferted into a worm-tub, or pafles
through a running {tream of water into a receiver. The
receiver fhould be fpacious, and kept quite cool. The fub-
{tances which come over are animal tar in vapour, condenfing
int a light brown fluid in the — and extremely fetid ;

7 an

SAL AMMONIAC.

an inflammable gas, which does not condenfe ; and carbenic
acid, united to the ammonia, which condenfes in the re-
ceiver. Befides thefe there is a great quantity of water,
commonly called phlegm. The latter is lefs when dry animal
fubftances are employed, fuch as bones and horns.

The inflammable gas fhould be conveyed from the receiver
by a tube, fo as to open into the afh-pit, where the gas is fet
on fire. The refulting produéts of this combutftion, and
other fetid matter, pafs through the fire of the ftill, and in
a great meafure prevent the {mell which is too often a nui-
fance in thefe manufaGtories. The tube above-mentioned
fhould be provided with a valve opening outwards, and fit-
ting very tight. This is to prevent a retrograde current,
when the gas ceafes to be formed in the itill. At the time
the latter takes place, and when the heat decreafes, a partial
yacuum is formed in the receiver. The common air now
rufhes in with the returning inflammable gas on fire, and a
dreadful explofion enfues. All this mifchiefis prevented by
the valve above-mentioned. The contents of the receiver are
carbonate of ammonia, diffolved in water of phlegm, and the
animal tar. A confiderable quantity of the latter may be
feparated mechanically in the form of a brownifh oil. The
clear liquid is ftill very fetid, and is known by the name of
crude hartfborn. This generally is diftilled a fecond time, by
which more of the fetid matter is feparated. It is now fuf-
ficiently pure for the preparation of fal ammoniac. This
fubitance, reétified to a greater-degree, is known by the name
of /pirit of hart/born.

In the ftate above-mentioned it is direétly, or indireGlly, to
be faturated with fulphuric acid, which expels the carbonic
acid, and forms fulphate of ammonia. This was formerly
effected by immediately adding fulphuric acid.

A patent was obtained for forming the fulphate of am-
monia by means of fulphate of lime (gypfum). When the
latter falt, in powder, is placed on a large filter, and a fo-
lution of carbonate of ammonia runs through it, a double de-
compofition enfues. The fulphuric acid of the fulphate of
lime combines with the ammonia, forming a folution of ful-
phate of ammonia. ‘The carbonic acid of the carbonate of
ammonia combines with the lime, forming carbonate of lime,
which being infoluble remains on the filter. The fulphate
of ammonia, which paffes through, requires now to be eva-
porated till it can be obtained in cryitals, which feparates
the pure falt from the refidual produéts of the animal matter.
This falt, whether formed by the free fulphuric acid, or by
the lait procefs, is now to be employed for obtaining the
muriate of ammonia.

For this purpofe the fulphate of ammonia and muriate of
foda mutt be intimately mixed together, in the proportions
of three of the former to two of the latter by weight, the
falts being previoufly dried at the temperature of 212°.

The muriate of ammonia is now to be feparated from the
fulphate of foda by heat, the former falt being volatile at
about 400° or 500° of heat. The mixed faits are put into
an earthen veflel capable of bearing a red heat without

ane This veflel is to be covered with another veflel
inverted upon it, of the fame materials, and glazed in the
infide. [ts fhape fhould be conical, having a {mall hole in

the fummit, with a conical plug. The lower veflel is to be
placed in a furnace capable of heating it red-hot. ‘The pro-
ion of the height of the veflels to their width fhould be
uch, that the upper veflel may be kept at a heat jult fhort
of fubliming the falt. When the procefs commences, the
lug mult be removed from the upper vellel, the two veflels
@ carefully luted at their joining with a mixture of pipe-
clay and fand. The juncture will be more complete, if the
lower vellel has a groove round the top for the reception of
the upper one, leaving a little {pace for the lute. ‘I'he fire

is now to be gradually raifed. A quantity of aqueous va-
pour, in the firft place, efcapes at the hole in the upper
veffel. When this ceafes, white fumes begin to appear,
which are the fublimed falt. The plug may now be put in
flightly. As the vapour of the falt rifes, it as quickly con-
denfes, and adheres to the upper veflel, and ultimately forms
a cake of the fhape of the veffel. This cake is the thickeft
at the top, and, when broken, exhibits a cryitalline arrange-
ment, the mafs being flightly tranfparent. The latter ap-
pearances will be more marked the hotter the upper veffel,
fo that it be not too hot to volatilize the falt. When the
white vapour ceafes to afcend, the procefs muit be ftopped,
and the veflels allowed to cool.

The falt in the lower veffel is fulphate of foda, which
requires only to be diflolved and cryftallized for the market.
The fal ammoniac is fold in the cakes as it comes from the
veffel.

There would be no economy in making the fubliming
veflels of a larger fize than from about 12 to 18 inches in
diameter. One fire-place, provided with a number of holes,
may hold from fix to eight pots. .

A patent was granted to Mr. Jofeph Aitley, dated July
28, 1807, for an improved procefs for forming this falt. He
procures the mother-water of the falt-pans, called dittern,
which contains the muriate of magnefia. This, as well as the
other earthy muriates, gives out its acid with moderate heat.

~ He mixes the Jittern with the animal fubftance from which the

ammonia is to be procured, in fuch proportion as to afford
mutual faturation. The animal fub{tance being reduced inte
{mall pieces, the liquid bittern is added, and the mafs dried
in a ftove. It is then diftilled in the common way. The
acid of the earthy muriate rifes at the fame heat the ammonia
is evolved. They therefore unite in their nafcent form,
dire@tly producing the muriate of ammonia. The falt is, by
a fecond procefs, either cryttallized in the humid way, or
fublimed by the apparatus already alluded to in the common
method. Salammoniac, or muriate of ammonia, in a {tate of
purity, and in its fublimed ftate, is acompaét cake, flightly
elaftic, and poffefling fo much flexibility as to-be difficult to
reduce to powder. In this {tate it is not white, owing to its
flight tranfparency, but it becomes white when finely pow-
dered. It diflolves in about 2.5 times its weight of water
at 60°, and is much more foluble in boiling water. The
folution affords cryitals of a plumous appearance, which,
when clofely examined, are long fix-fided pyramids. If
expofed to the temperature of 600° it quickly rifes in white
fumes, giving a white appearance to the furface on which it
condenfes. If the oxyds of copper or iron be prefent, they
rife with the falt, forming what have been thought triple
compounds. ‘The latter is known in the old pharmacopeias .
by the name of Fores Martiales. This fubftance is doubt-
lefs a combination of oxymuriatic acid with iron, or, accord-
ing to Dr. Thomfon’s Nomenclature, a chlorite of iron. It
is the great facility which this falt poflefles of carrying
off the oxyd of copper and iron, that renders it fo valuable
in the foldering of metals. No fooner do the white fumes
begin to rife, than the metal difplays a bright furface, and
at the fame inftant the folder flows very freely. Sal ammo-
niac is alfo ufed in dyeing for giving brightnefs to feveral
colours.

The compofition of this falt, according to the moft mo-
dern analyfis, is 51 acid, 32 ammonia, and 17 of water, in
100 parts.

Sat Ammoniac, inthe Materia Medicay an inodorous falt,
of a falt, bitterith, acrid, and cool tafte, perfiftent in the
air, rather duétile, and not very ealily reduced to "pero
Its {pecific gravity is 1.42. It requires, fays ‘T romfony
3} times ite weight of water at 60°, and its own weight at

212",

SAL

212°, to diflolve it; and it is alfo foluble in 4.5 parts of
alcohol, Its component parts, according to Kirwan, are
28 parts ef ammonia, 42.75 of acid, and 29.25 of water.
The fulphuric and nitric acids unite with its alkali, and fet
free the muriatic acid. Potafs and its carbonate, carbonate
of foda, lime, chalk, magnefia, and carbonate of magnefia,
combine with its acid, and fet free the ammonia; fuper-
acetate of lead, when added to a folution of it, throws down
a precipitate of muriate of lead; hence thefe falts are incom-
patible in prefcriptions with muriate of ammonia.

This falt was formerly confidered as a powerful aperient
and attenuant of vifcid humours, acting as a diaphoretic, diu-
Fetic, purgative, and emetic, according to the mode of its
exhibition, or its dofe; but it is now (fays Thomfon)
fcarcely ever ordered as an internal medicine. The liberal
and continued ufe of it, according to Boerhaave, renders
the blood fo thin as to burft through the veffels, particularly
thofe of the lungs and the urinary organs. In dofes of half
adrachm, or a drachm, diffolved in water, if the patient is
kept warm, it generally proves fudorific; by moderate ex-
ercife, or walking in the open air, its action is determined
to the kidneys ; in larger dofes it loofens the belly.

The firft who gave {al ammoniac internally was Platerus ;
but its ufe in fevers was not then known ; he only ufing it in
aithmas. In fucceeding times it became known as a febri-
fuge. It was frequently ufed with this intention in Germany
and Holland, and with great fuccefs. The common dofe
to a grown perfon was one drachm; the largeft dofe, in
cafes of the moft robuft conftitutions, was two drachms.
A perfon of eleven or twelve years old might take two
fcruples, and an infant of a year old, fourteen grains. Its
chief virtue was thought to be manifefted in intermittent
fevers, in which it may be thus given. Let the dofe of fal
ammoniac, proportioned to the age and ftrength of the pa-
tient, be diffolved in an ounce of common water, or of any
diftilled water ; and let the patient take it half an hour be-
fore the time that the fit is to come on. This is to be re-
peated in the fame manner, before every fit, till the diftemper
is removed.

‘Though the great ufe of this medicine was in intermitting
feyers, it was thought, however, not adapted only to thofe,
but to be of ufe in fevers of other kinds. The fame dofe
was recommended to be taken every five or fix hours, drink-
ing a bafon of fage-tea after it. It very frequently fuc-
ceeded fo well, that one dofe of it carried off the difeafe, fo
that it never returned again; but if the firft dofe did not
fucceed in this manner, a few others were thought to be
effeGtual. Two, three, or four dofes, almoft always proved
fufficient. This medicine has no vifible effe€&t upon the
body, more than the fudden removal of the ficknefs ; for it
neither operates by vomit, nor by ftool, nor by fweat; its
effe&t feems to be owing to the corre@ting and altering of the
matter of the difeafe, not the evacuating it out of the body.

The bark was deemed f{uperior to this falt in the cures of
quartan agues, and indeed in other cafes it 1s more certain in
the ttopping of a fecond fit ; but in this there was faid to be
another advantage which the bark was fuppofed to want ;
this is the prevention of relapfes. Thefe are very frequent
after cures in the common way, but it is faid they are fearcely
ever found to follow in cafes when this falt has been ufed.

Another advantage of this medicine is faid to be the fmall
quantity of the dofe, and the few dofes that are neceflary to
be taken for a cure; whereas every one knows how many
large dofes of the bark are neceflary, and that often at fuch
fmall diftances of time, in cafes, that it is often difficult to
perfuade the patient to be cured at the expence of fo nau-
feous a load of medicines. (A&. Erudit. 1717.) Dr. Lewis
abferves, that in many cafes, as an aperient, it is an excellent

SAL

affitant to the bark, where that aftringent drug would by
itfelf produce dangerous obftruétions, or aggravate thofe
already formed.

This falt is advantageoufly employed, externally, as a
fomentation, on account of the cold produced by its fo«
lution in water, to abate the pain and heat of inflammation,
and to allay violent head-ache; alfo in cafes of mania,
plethoric apoplexy, injuries of the head; and to affift in the
reduction of hernial tumours. Its ftimulant qualities render
it an excellent difcutient, when diffolved in the proportion
of 3j of the falt in fZix of water with £3) of alcohol, in
indolent tumours, gangrene, pfora, and chilblains ; and as a
gargle, it is occafionally ufeful in cynanche, and in atte- -
nuating and diffolving thick mucus in the mouth and fauces.
Saturated folutions of it are faid to confume warts. Lewis
Mat. Med. Thomfon’s Difp. ,

For its officinal preparations, fee AMMon1ACAL Prepa-
rations, and Ammonia, &c. under the article Sats.

Sat Ammoniac, Native, Naturlicher falmiak, Werner,
in Mineralogy, a {abltance of a greenifh-white colour, pafling
to apple.green, or brownifh-black. It occurs in thin fuper-
ficial efflorefcences, or maffive, or ftalaétical, or rarely in
minute imperfe& cryftals; and has in general a flight vitreous
luftre. Its fracture is fine-grained, uneven; foft, and often
friable. It has a pungent bitter faline tafte. In chemical
characters it agrees with the manufactured falt. It is found
fublimed in the crevices of volcanoes; fuch as /Etna, Ve-
fuvius, the Solfatara, and the Lipariiflands. Ajikin’s Di@.

SAL Agypti, in Natural Hiftory, a name given by Hip-
pocrates, and many other of the old writers, to the aatrum
of the ancients, called alfo nitrum by fome, though very
different from our nitre. It had the name natrum from Na-
trium, or Nitrium, the name of a city of Egypt; and
therefore this, as well as the name ufed by Fi noociaals
ince for Egyptian falt. See Narron and CarsonaTe of
Soda.

Sat dquarum, a name given by many of the ancient
writers to the nitre of the ancients, or natron ; which fee.

They had this falt principally from Egypt, and called it
in their works the produce of the evaporated waters of the
Nile ; for this reafon Hippocrates fometimes calls it al
fEgypti, and fometimes fal in aquis crefeens, a falt growing in
the water. ;

Sat Catharticus Amarus, the bitter purging falt, com-
monly called Epsom Salt, (which fee, ) Shida firft made
by Dr. Grew by evaporating Epfom waters.

This fulphate of magnefia, or bitter purging falt, is
found native ina pure ftate ; but more a ae combined
with gypfum, and in folution in fea-water, and feveral mi-
neral {prings, as ftated under the article Epsom Sa/t. For
many years paft, the whole quantity of it ufed in this coun-
try has been manufactured from bittern, or the refidual brine
after the cryftallization of fea-falt. This fubftance confilts
chiefly of muriate of magnefia, muriate of lime, fome com-
mon falt, and a fmall portion of fulphate of lime; and
therefore the fulphate of magnefia is probably ebtained by
decompofing the muriate by means of fulphate of iron, or
{ulphuric zcid in fome form, though, as fome fay, the bittern
is only boiled down to a high point of concentration ; when
the fulphate of magnefia forms, and is purified by a fecond
folution and cryftallization. The fulphate of the fhops

enerally contains fome muriate of magnefia; and fho
therefore be preferved in jars, clofely covered. For its che-
mical properties, fee Sulphate of Macnesta. Its fpecific
gravity is 1.66. As it is decompofed by the alkalies and
their carbonates, lime-water, the muriates of barytes and
lime, nitrate of filver, and acetate and fuper-acetate of lead,
of courfe thefe are incompatible with it in pref{criptions.

With

SAL

With regard to its medical properties, this falt is purgative
and diuretic ; it operates readily without griping ; and not-
withitanding its naufeous talte, it is generally retained by
the ftomach, more efpecially when given in {mall dofes
largely diluted, or united with an acidulated infufion of
rofes. In thefe forms it is a very ufeful purgative in hypo-
chondriafis, colica pitonum, ileus, puerperal fever, and in
all acute difeafes. It is alfo ufed as an adjun& to ftimulating
clyfters. By moderate exercife in the open air, while taking
this falt, its purgative efie&t is dimimfhed, and its diuretic
property increafed. The dofe is from 3j to 3ij diffolved in
water, gruel, or any other vehicle; and taken either at
once, or in divided dofes frequently repeated. See Car-
BONATE of Magnefia, and MaGnesia.

Sat Catharticus Glauberi. See Sau Mirabile, and Sul-
phate of Sopa.

Sau Circulatum, in Chemiflry, a term ufed by Paracelfus
for a preparation of fea-falt, of which he diftinguifhes two
kinds, under the names of the circulatum minus, and circu-
latum majus. Thefe feem to have a great affinity with the
famous aikaheit, or univerfal folvent, fo much talked of in
the works of this author, and his fucceflor Van Helmont.
Many ridiculous properties were attributed to it. See
ALKAHEST. *

Sax Communis. See Sarr.

Sax de Duobus. See Arcanum Duplicatum, Vitriolated
Tartar, and Sulphate of Potafb, under Satrs.

Sat Decrepitatum. See Common SAtt.

Sat Diureticus, a form of medicine, of the nature of the
terra foliata tartari, introduced into praétice by the College
difpenfatory of 1745. See Acetate of Potafh, under Sauts.

Sat Enizum. See Entxum Sal, and Super-fulphate of
Potafb, under Savts.

Sat Gemmz. See Rocx-Salt, Sart, and Muriate of Sova.

Sau Jamblici. . See Jamsuici Sal.

Sat Lucidum, a name given by fome to nitre. Others ufethe
phrafe to exprefs the nitre of the ancients, that is, the natron.

Sat Marinus. See Sacr.

Sat Marinus, in Ichthyology, the name of a trutta-
ceous fifth of the umbla kind, and very much approaching
to that fpecies called the reutele ; and by {ome {ufpeéted not
to be ellentially different from that fpecies. It is a very
fearce fifh, and is extremely valued for the table, but is never
caught in any plenty, never keeping in fhoals as many other

but living fingly. It loves clear ftony rivers of a fharp
current, and teeds on {mall fifh. . Its moft frequent fize is of
about a pound weight, and it very rarely exceeds twice
that. Its tail aud fins are very red; its fides and belly
reddifh, and its back of a fort of orange-colour or reddifh-
+ having fome yellow {pots ; its foales are moderately
and do not edt fall off in rubbing.

"he fal marinus is diftinguifhed by Artedi by the name
of the forked-tail falmon, with a yellowifh back, and with
yellowith {pots. See Samo.

Sat Marinus ratus, in Chemifiry, the name given to
a fea-falt, produced by adding a fixed vegetable alkali to
marine acid, or the acid fpirit of falt drawn by diftillation.
The procefs is thus; dilute four ounces of oil of tartar,
with three times its weight of fair water ; put this mixture
into a tall glals body, and heat it, and drop into it any of
the kinds of fpirit of fea-falt, whether Glauber’s, or that
prepared with bole; fhake the veffel now and then, and
continue to drop in the acid till the alkaline liquor is fated,
and there rifes no more efferveicence ; filter the liquor, eva-
oe a pellicle, and fet it by to eryltallize, and there will
be procured er sftale of perfeét fea-falt, in all things agreeing

common falt, See Muriate of Potofb, uuder SAvts.

Len a denominated the febrifuyal falt of Syl-

OL. ,

SAL

vius ; though it does not feem to deferve the name. How-
ever, in proper dofes, it may, as a purgative and antifeptic,
contribute to the cure of fome fevers ; qualities which it
pofiefles in common with other neutral falts. But it is not
now employed.

Sat or Vitriolum Martis, falt of iron, a chemical prepa-
ration, now called /ulphate of iron. See Iron, in the Ma-
terta Medica.

This falt is one of the moft powerful preparations of iron ;
it is tonic, emmenagogue, and anthelmintic. It has been
given with advantage in diabetes, in the latter flage of
phthifis, and in amenorrhea, depending on a weakened
a¢tion of the blood-veflels. The dofe is from g’. j to v, com-
bined with ammoniacum, rhubarb, myrrh, or bitter ex-
tracts ; improper dofes of this falt occafion pains of the
bowels, naufea, and vomiting, and by being too long con;
tinued, it proves hurtful. It has been lately ufed, difiolved
in water, as a lotion to cancerous and phagedenic ulcers.
Thomfon.

Sat Microcofmicus.
Fufible Sart, &c.

Sat Mirabile, or Glauber’s fait, is compofed of the vitri-
olic acid of the mineral alkali natron, and is now called “ na-_
tron vitriolatum.’”? It has been ufually prepared by adding
to fea-falt equal or half its weight of oil of vitriol, diluted
with water, diftilling off the marine acid, and diffolving-and
cryttallizing the refiduum. Though this be a well-known
preparation, and the refult of a mixture of a vitriolic acid
with marine falt, and the world has fuppofed it could be ne
other way found than by {uch an union made by art; yet
M. Hellot has communicated to the Academy of Sciences at
Paris an account of its being found in vitriol alone, without
the addition of any foreign matter.

M. Lemery has fhewn, that after a moderate diftillation
of green vitriol, a falt of the nature of alum may be drawn
by alixivium from the colcothar; and befide this, M. Hellot
has found in that colcothar a vitrifiable earth, and a genuine
“ Glauber’s falt.”? Mem. de l’Acad. Scien. Par. 1738.”

Glauber’s falt may be obtained from borax, by mixing
oil of vitriol with it. Mix four ounces of borax with one
ounce and one drachm of oil of vitriol ; upon fublimatio
this gives the fal fedativam of Homberg, and the refi-
duum, expofed toa {trong fire, affords Glauber’s falt, This
operation may be fhorteued very much, for inftead of fub-
limation, the falt may be obtained by cryttallization, in light
foliated laminz. This falt, whether prepared by {ublimation,
or by cryttallization, has the property of diflolving in {pirit
of wine ; and if the {pirit of wine be fet on fire, the flame
is green. Spirit of wine has no effeét on borax, and the oil
of vitriol digeited with it does not make its flame green ;
therefore it is neceflary, in order to give this greennefs to the
flame, that borax fhould be united to an acid. © Phil. Tranf.
N° 436. p. 89.

nd, in general, Glauber’s falt may be obtained from all
vitriolic falts with earthy or metallic bafes, by decompofing
them with foda; and alfo by burning fulphur with common
falt, or foda.

Sal mirabile may likewife be obtained by the following pro~
cefs ; powder calcined kelp in an iron mortar, put it into a
glazed earthen pan, and pour uponit boiling water, in the
proportion of a quart to a ch ; ftir it about, and either
filtrate or decant the clear liquor from the fedimént; put
this liquor into a glazed earthen difh, and havingr heated it
over a gentle fire, pour in gradually oil of vitriol, diluted
(viz. to every pound of oil allowing a pint and a half of water)
till no effervefcence arifes ; and having thus gained the exact
point of faturation, filtrate through paper, or let it ftand
to depurate, and decant the clear liquor ; evaporate it toa

U pellicle,

See PHospHorus and URINE, and

SAL

pellicle, and fet it by to cryftallize. By the above procefs
eight ounces and a half of the falt have been procured from
a pound and a half of kelp; and fomewhat lefs than two
ounces of the oil of vitriol was found fufficient for the fatura-
tion. Mr. Fergus, who defcribes this procefs, obferves that it
may be alfo had from barilla inftead of kelp, but not fo cheap.

Glauber’s fal mirabile was long thought to be the produce
of art only ; but of late years, a natural falt, perfeétly fimi-
lar to Glauber’s, has been found in many places. We have
a full account, by Mr. Boulduc, of a fub{tance of this
kind, which had been found near Grenoble in Dauphiné.
The fame gentleman alfo found a fal mirabile in the waters
of Pafly. The true Epfom falt, defcribed by Dr. Grew in
1696, is alfo either the fame as Glauber’s, or at leait Glau-
ber’s is the principal part of it. Stahl afterwards found a
true Glauber’s falt in the acidulz, or ferruginous waters,
and he did not fcruple placing this among the natural mineral
falts. Hoffmann alfo found a {pring of very bitter and pur-

tive mineral water, a pound of which contained two
Sits of this falt. The cathartic falt, found near
Madrid, is alfo of the fame nature ; and it may be obferved
in general, that though it differs from Epfom falt, it is con-
tained in fea-water, and many mineral waters. See Hitt.
de ? Acad. Par. 1727, p. 29, 30; and the Memoirs of the
fame year, 4to. p. 375.

It isto be obferved, that though Glauber made his falt
known about the middle of the preceding century, yet
Kunckel, in his Laborat. Chymic. aflures us it was known
in the eleétoral houfe of Saxony a hundred years before.
However this be, we owe the knowledge of it to Glauber,
who called it admirable ; and it foon acquired, and has ever
fince maintained, the reputation of an excellent internal me-
dicine in many cafes. Its medicinal qualities are nearly the
fame with thofe of the /al catharticus amarus, which frequently
fupplies its place in the fhops. For a further account of this
falt, now known under the appellation of Sulphate of Sopa,
fee that article. ;

Sau Muriaticsus Calcareus, is a combination of the marine
acid with calcareous earths, which forms a very pungent
faline compound, that affumes with difficulty a cryftalline
form, deliquiates in the air, diffolves not only in water but
in rectified fpirit of wine, and changes the colours of blue
flowers of vegetables toa green. This falt is contained, in
confiderable quantity, in fea-water, and remains fluid after
the cryftallization of its other faline matters; and it is found
alfo in many common waters, to which, like the calcareous
nitre, it communicates a greater or lefs degree of hardnefs
and indifpofition to ater according to its quantity. It
is much more antifeptic than the perfe& marine falt, and is
faid to be diuretic and lithontriptic. The medicine, commonly
fold as alithontriptic, under the name of Jiquid-/hell, appears
to be no other than a combination of this kind, confifting of
calcined fhells diffolved in marine acid. Thefe combinations
have been chiefly prepared, by mixing the calcareous earth
with fal ammoniac, and urging the mixture with a gradual
fire, till the volatile alkali of ‘ie fal ammoniac is either diffi-

ated in the air, or colleéted by diftillation, and only its acid

ft incorporated with the earth; and fo much of the earth
as is fatiated with the acid, may be feparated from the reft
by elixation with water. Lewis. See Murtate of Soda,
and Sopa.

Sav Nitrium. See Natron.

Sat Petre, or Nitri. See Sartrerre, Nitre, Porass®
Nitras, and Nitrate of Potafb, under Sats.

Saw Polychreft of Scignette, a foluble tartar made with fal
kali, inftead of falt of tartar; or it is fulphate of potath,
combined with a very {mall portion of fulphur, formerly ufed
in medicine. M, Boulduc deferibes this falt in the Mem.

2

SAL
Acad. Scienc. 1731. See Rurettensis Sal, and Sulphate
of Potafh, under Satts. :

Sa Prunelle is nitrate of potafh, from which the water
of cryttallization has been expelled by fufion. See Pru-
NELL&, and Crystat Mineral.

Sau Rupelienfis. See Ruretvensis Sal, and Tartrite of
Porass and Sopa.

Sa Sedativus of Homberg. This ufed to be made by dif-
folving borax in water, into which oil of vitriol was poured,
and then diitilling this mixture, quieting falt was obtained.
M. Geoffroy has lately taught us an eafter way of prepar-
ing it; he evaporates the liquor to the proper confiftence,
and then allows it to cryftallize. See Sedative Saur, and
Sat Mirabile.

Sat Tartari. See TARTAR.

Sa Vegetabilis, is obtained by diflolving vegetable alkali
in boiling water, in the proportion of a pound toa gallon,
and then adding refined tartar, till a frefh addition occa-
fions no farther effervefcence ; the liquor is then filtered while
hot, and either cryftallized or evaporated to drynefs.

Sau Volatile. See CARBONATE of Ammonia, and Amme-
nia, &c. under SALTs.

Sav Volatile Oleofum, is the name of an aromatic volatile
liquor firft prepared by Sylvius de la Boe, and found a very
notable medicine, chiefly as a cephalic and cordial.

It is made thus: to an ounce of volatile falt of fal ammo-
niac, diftilled with falt of tartar, and dulcified with fpirit of
wine, put a drachm and a half of fome aromatic oil, or eflence,
drawn from fome generous aromatic vegetable ; as cinnabar,
cloves, rofemary, baum, &c. ; and when the {pirit and oil are
well ftirred and incorporated together, draw off the volatile
falt and fpirit ina cucurbit. Some, initead of this, mix all
the ingredients together at firft; vz. the fal ammoniac, fal
tartari, {pirit of wine, and powder of cinnamon er cloves,
with other aromatics, and diftil off the volatile fpirit and falt
at once; but the former way is preferred.

The College of London tormerly ordered a quart of the
dulcitied {pirit of fal ammoniac, two drachms of effential
oil of nutmegs, the fame quantity of effence of lemons, and
half a drachm of oil of cloves, to be diftilled together
with avery gentle heat. That of Edinburgh direGed
an ounce and a half of oil of rofemary, an ounce of oil of
amber, and half an ounce of eflence of lemons, to be put
to eight ounces of the volatile falt of fal ammoniac, and a
gallon anda half of French brandy, and near a gallon to be
drawn off in the heat of a water-bath. See Spirit of
Ammonia, &c. F

Sa, in the Hiffory of Gems, aterm ufed by Pliny and
the ancients, to fignify a defe& or flaw, which took off very
much from the value of the gem. Martial having occafion
to mention this fort of blemifh in cryital, calls it nitrum in-
ftead of /a/.

« Et turbata levi queftus cryftallina nitro.”

The critics have fometimes changed this word nitro, to
vitro, and others have made the confufion yet greater, by
fuppofing that the poet did not mean rock cryftal, but cry{-
talline glafs ; but thefe are all errors. It is plain, by what
Pliny and others have faid on the fame fubject, that the au-
thor means here the fame that others do by the word fal.
This was a dufky and dufty foulnefs, feemingly compofed of a
quantity of faline particles, fhooting into their forms within
the body of the cryftal. The gems in general were fubjeé
to this blemifh ; and we find, in particular, that the emerald
was frequently debafed by it.

It is found at this time, indeed, that cryital is much more
fubjeét to it than any of the gems; but as the Romans
called all the green cryftals found in the copper mines of

Cyprus

SAL

Cyprus by the name of emeralds, it is eafy to conceive,
that the emerald, as they underftood the word, mutt be
frequently fubje&t to it. The poets ufing the word nitrum
inftead of fal, is not wonderful; for the Greeks called
common falt Aalonitrum, fo that the words feem almoft
fynonimous.

SALA, Nicoxa, in Biography, one of the moft learned
contrapuntifts of the Neapolitan fchool. This venerable
matter, Duranti’s difciple and fucceffor in the confervatorio
della Pieta de Terchini, drew up, during forty years’ itudy
and experience, a regular and well-digefted fy{tem of coun-
terpoint, or praétical harmony, for the ufe of the con-
fervatorio over which he prefided ; but when he had finifhed
it, he found himfelf unable to-fupport the expence of the
impreflion. Having, however, made his cafe known to the
late fir William Hamilton, who was well acquainted with
his worth, and the eltimation in which he ftood for mufical
feience with all the Neapolitan matters, heundertuok to repre-
fent to his Sicilian majefty how ufeful a work it would be in
forming young compofers, and continuing that reputation
which Naples had long fo juftly enjoyed for producing the
greateft number of eminent compofers which Italy could
boaft. The king gracioufly condefcended to be at the whole
expence of printing Sala’s Treatife at the royal prefs, in
the moft fplendid manner. And this moft valuable work
was publifhed in 1794.

What became of the copies of this impreffion, or the
plates, we know not, during the anarchy in which Naples
was thrown by the arrival of the French in that city ; but
we believe there is at prefent no other copy in England than
that now before us, for which we are indebted to the muni-
ficent kindnefs of lord and lady Bruce, who brought it from
Naples with pictures and other valuable books and antiques,
which miraculoufly efcaped from all the perils of war and
revolution.

This excellent author teaches more by example than pre-
cept. His rules are few, and without exceptions. His
examples are chiefly a cappella ; but they contain all that is
neceflary, except novelty and invention, which no books
can teach. Perufing and hearing the works of the greatett
matters, meditation, pra¢tice, Sl ese effeéts, will ferment
ideas if the feeds are planted by Nature, and qualify a ftudent
for compofing fuch mufic as generally pleafes, yet it muft
not be without novelty, and {cience fufficient to attra& the
notice of able matters.

Sala does not write on canto fermo fo much as on the
feale, which is in” faét writing on the regle de V’o¢tave,
and which extends the ufe of his work to fecular mufic,
while Fouchs and P. Martini confine their labours wholly
to facred compofitions, built on fragments of ancient chants.

As this work will be of difficult attainment, we fhould
with to give our mufical readers fpecimens of the author’s
fcience in every {pecies of learned and ingenious compofition,
at the Pa of which a young contrapuntilt can afpire ;

o-

SESE == SE
a oes

Se Sere

If the fubjeét begins on the 8th, the anfwer fhould be on the sth, and 2 contra.

SAL

but it would require more plates than our plan allows te
any one article, or indeed entire branch of {cience ;, we muft
therefore content ourfelves, and, we hope, our readers, by
deferibing his method, and the arrangement of his materials,
which have been fo fuccefsfully ufed in the firft mufical
feminary at Naples, the moft celebrated {chool of counter-
point in Europe.

Analyfis of Sala’s Rules of Counterpoint.—He allows four
concords, the 3d, sth, 6th, and 8th; two perfe&, the 5th
and 8th; and two imperfe&, the 3d amd 6th. Four dif-
cords, the 2d, 4th, 7th, and gth. The + are ufed ona
binding note in the bafs, and refolved by the bafs defcend-
ing one degree, when the 2d becomes a 3d, and the ath a
5th, amounts to the 6th. The 7th and oth are te and
refolved in the treble. The 7th is prepared in all the con-
cords, and generally refolved on the 6th to the fame bafs,
but on the sth, if the bafs, inftead of falling a sth, rifes one
degree. See Di/appointed CADENCE.

He begins by cadences in two, three, and four parts,
fimple, compound, and double. Then gives a treble to the
{cale in the bafs, and a bafs to the feale in the treble. After
which, two trebles to each note of the fcale in the bafs;
then the fame two notes in the bafs to one in the treble.
He next gives three and four notes to one in both {cales.
After this, we have 7ths refolved into 6ths in binding notes
to the fcale in the bafs. Then 2ds in the treble, while the
bafs has driving or binding notes. This is the beginning of
double counterpoint. Afterwards sths into 6ths, to avoida
Succeffion of Sths, fo ftrongly prohibited in all elementary
works in compofition of thorough-bafs. Sevenths into 6ths
again to the fcale in both parts. He then gives examples
in three and four parts, of the different ufe of the 2d and gth,
and examples of the ¢, with fcales, firft in plain counter-
point ; then giving four crotchets to each part alternately,
to femibreves in the other parts.

He next proceeds to binding notes in one of four parts,
by turns. Double {cale in canon, the other two parts moy-
ing in different melodies. Two parts in {cale, afcending, the
other two parts moving in melody by 3ds. Three parts
in florid counterpoint, and one in feale. A movement fugato
in fcales of two parts. Genere chromatico alla moderna, to
a fcale in five parts: five examples.

Rules for double counterpoint, alla decima, ed alla duo-
decima, or in the 1oth and 12th. Examples of double coun-
terpoint on canto fermo in two parts; three parts, two in

canon. Tour parts, /’i/effo moda. ‘Two parts, fometimes
three, in canon. Then three parts in imitation, and one in
divifion. In five parts. In fix parts.

The fecond volume begins with fhort examples of canon
in every interval, from the 2d to the 9th, in two parts.
Followed by examples of imitation per moto contrario.

Principles of fugue, nearly the fame as Dr. Pepufch gives
from the authentic and plagal modes of the church, See
Avuruentic and PLAGAL.

Subject. | Subject.

—_—__——

wpe Anfwer.

Anfwer.

d

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aaa 3

— —- --

Fugues

SAL

Fugues on two and three fubje&ts. Fugues in moto con-
trario, of contrary motion, and various ingenious and arti-
ficial contrivances in two parts, to p. 11. Then the method
of writing two parts upon the date of a prolated bafs.
After which two trebles perform the feale in 3ds, and the
principal treble is given to the bafs. Seven different ways
of difpofing the parts in fugues of three parts, to p. 14.
Then fugues of all kinds in three parts. Ditto in four parts,
with rules for bringing in the anfwers, and inverting fub-
je&ts, p. 24 to 33. Then follow ftudies of fugues: in four
parts of every kind, to p. 43. When a method is given of
anfwering fubje&ts of fugue in contrary motion, and direét.
This latt feétion is given for itudy, not for ufe. A mafs,
motet, fervice, or anthem of this kind, would be too ela-
borate for a common choir to perform, or a common congre-
gation to hear with pleafure. Each movement of thefe ex-
amples is a curiofity ; ufeful in the perufal to itudents, and
amufing to mafters. To all the examples of fugue in four
parts, on one, two, three, and four fubjects, front Pp: 33
to 73, there are Latin words from the Roman Miffal. All
thefe examples are treated with great ingenuity, clearnefs,
and feience. It is true that nothing like tafte or fancy ap-
pears in this work, which perhaps have uo bufinefs in facred
mufic; but all thefe examples are excellent foundations, on
which tafte and fancy may be built with convenience and
fafety.

At p. 72 begin rules for the difpofition of the parts in
fugues for two fopranos or trebles, a counter-tenor, tenor,
and bafs, in fix different ways; in which we have examples
of augmentation and diminution, or what Morley calls, “ pro-
lation of the more and prolation of the lefs.””

From p. 80 to 116, examples of fugue, canon, and other
kinds of learned counterpoint, in five parts, are curious
ftudies for young muficians. After which there is a fugue
in eight parts, or for two choirs, at p. 122, written with
ye clearnefs and harmonical accuracy. After which a

ugue in eight parts, concertata e ricercata, with different and
more rigid ways of oe me the fubjeét in the firft and fecond
chorus. Then another fugue in eight parts on four fub-
jets, which are reverfed. P. 127. Introduétion in canon to
canto fermo, and the canto fermo in canon, with the anfwer
in the 4th above, with the two other parts likewife in the
4th above. P. 129. Canto fermo in canon a 4, with a
moving organ-bafs. P. 134. Canto fermo concertato, in
due maniere, or two ways.

Antifona & § concertata. P. 141. The fame canto
fermo, concertato a 5. Then follows, p. 143, a pfalm
in five parts, which the author compofed in 1745, when a
candidate for the place of maettro di cappella in the chapel
royal at Naples.

P. 145. Canto fermo in the 4th ecclefiaftical tone, upon
which is built a fhort movement to a pfalm, concertato, in
five parts.

P. 150. Canto fermo in the 7th tone, and in the 5th ec-
clefiaftical tone, a otto. P. 153. Canto fermo in the 5th
tone, concertato a otto, with two organ-bafles in canon.

RP: 159: Canons in the unifon, 2d, 3d, 4th, sth, 6th, and
7th, which are reverfed in two parts, and in moto contrario.

Chromatic canon in two parts; in four parts, with the
anfwer in prolation, or notes of double value. After which
nine canons in three parts. Then canon upon canon, in four
parts, all’ ottava, per moto contrario, p. 168. Ditto witha
moving bafs, p. 170. Another, all’ ottava, with a fimilar
bafs. Canons in triple time of two parts: in unifon,
all’ ottava, in moro contrario, p. 175. ‘Then canone chiufo,
or a clofe canon, written not in feore, but on one ftaff, with
figns or numbers to indicate when the feveral parts come in,
p. 176. Then the fame canon opened or feored.

SAL

This is followed by five more myfterious canons on one
line, and explained and folved in a feore of four lines. Then
canon upon canon, with a coda, or tail-piece. After which
p- 179, et feq. very curious and artificial canons in three,
four, five, and fix parts. Other canonsin ten parts. And,
finally, a canon, of which the {cere occupies fourteen ftaves,
eight for the two choirs, four for the intonation {welled out
a pedale, in unifons and oétaves, and two for organ-baffes,
in perpetual imitation, bar for bar.

Upon the whole, thefe are not only the moft ample, com-
plete, and beft digefted rules of counterpoint, without vio-
lating the ancient laws of modulation, but the volumes are
the moft magnificent in fize, and engraved on copper plates,
in the lapel cleareft, and moft elegant character, of any
mufical publication which we have ever feen.

SALA, in Ancient Geography, a river and town on the
weftern coaft of Africa, in Mauritania Tingitana, according
to Pliny, 50 miles from the river [bur.—Alfo, another river
of the fame country, belonging to the Greater Atlas, 6° 50!
more foutherly than the preceding, according to Ptolemy.—
Alfo, a town of Hifpania, in the interior of Beetica, in the
country of the Turduli, between Tucci and Balda. Ptolemy.
—Alfo, a town of Upper Pannonia, fituated near Patavium,
according to Ptolemy.—Alfo, a town of Afia, inthe Greater
Armenia. Ptoiim—Alfo, a town of Thrace, fituated to the
eaft and at the mouth of the Hebrus, in a canton named
Dorifea, according to Herodotus, who gave to this nome
the epithet of Samothracian, becaufe it lay in a part of the
continent inhabited by the people of the ifle of Samothrace.
—Alfo, a town of Afia Minor, in Greater Phrygia, be-
tween Pylaceum and Gazena, according to Ptolemy.—Alfo,
a town of Hyrcania, called alfo Safe and Sace. Prtol.

Sata, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the kingdom
of Tombu€too; 140 miles N.E. of Tombu&oo.—Alfo,
a town of the duchy of Parma; 3 miles S.S,W. of
Parma.

Sara, La, atownof France, in the department of the
Dora; 11 miles W. of Aofta.—Alfo, a town of Naples,
in the province of Principato Citra; 15 miles N. of Poli-
caftro.— Alfo, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province
of Diarbekir; 15 miles S.E. of Hefn Kaifa.

Sata, or Salberg, a town of Sweden, in Weftmanland,
near which is a filver mine, formerly very productive, and a
medicinal {pring ; 28 miles W. of Upfal. N. lat. 59° 55’.
E. long. 16° 29!.

SALABIA Bay, a bay on the E. coalt of Dominica,

SALABIM, or Sevesim, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Paleftine, in the tribe of Dan.

SALACIA, Alcager de Sal, a town of Hifpania, in
Lufitania, belon ing to the Celtici, near the mouth of the
river Calipus or et Bee N.W. of Olifipo and S.E. of Pax
Julia. Ptolemy afligns it to the Turdetani.

SALACTA, in Botany, a genus known to Linnzus only,
who is fuppofed to have dedicated it to Salacia, the {poufe
of Neptune. Hence De Theis imagines it to be a native
of the fea-fhore ; for which however we can meet with no
authority. We rather apprehend the author of the name
had the word /a/ax in view, and meant to allude to
the remarkable proximity of the anthers to the ftigma,
which mutt fo greatly facilitate the impregnation.—Linn.
Mant. 2. 159. Schreb. 607. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 150.
Mart. Mill. Dic. v. 4. Jufl. 424.—Clafs and order,
Gynandria Triandria. Nat. Ord. uncertain.

Gen. Ch. Cal, Perianth inferior, of one leaf, very fhort,
in five deep, ovate, acute, fpreading, permanent fegments.
Cor. Petals five, roundifh, feffile. Stam. Filaments none ;

anthers three, of two lobes, divaricated at the bafe, feffile —

on the fummit of the germen. Pi/, Germen fuperior,

roundifh, ©

4
$
z
3
i

SAL

roundifh, larger than the calyx ; ftyle very fhort, between
the anthers; ftigma fimple. Peric. and Seeds unknown.

Eff. Ch. Calyx inferior, in five deep fegments. Petals
five. Anthers feffile on the fummit of the germen. Style
very fhort. Stigma fimple.

1. S. chinenfis. Linon. Mant. 2. 293. Willd. n. 1.—
Leaves alternate, entire—Native of China. A /brub, with
fmooth, angular, purplifh, or fomewhat glaucous branches.
Leaves {cattered, remote, about two inches long, oval,
rather pointed, entire, fmooth, fomewhat coriaceous ; paler
beneath; furnifhed with a mid-rib, fending off two or
three pair of veins. Footftalks thick, channelled, {mooth,
about half an inch in length. Flowers fmall, on fhort
fimple ftalks, feveral together from each axillary bud, ac-
companied at the bafe by many downy fcales. The
fpecimen of Linnzus, from whence he made his defcription,
ftill exifting in his writing on the back of the paper, is fo
very imperfect, that, except many flowers were deftroyed
in the examination, it is difficult to conceive how
he could obtain fufficient information from hence. Its
affinity to Svilago merely relates to the artificial fyftem, for
we can trace no other ; and this latter fuppofed genus is now
known tc be merely the male plant of Antide/ma alexiteria.

2. S. cochinchinenfis. Loureir. Cochinch. 526.— Leaves
oppofite, fomewhat ferrated.””—Native of bufhy places in
Cochinchina, where it is called Cay Traoc mau.—Loureiro
defcribes this plant as a /brub, fix feet high, nearly ere&,
with numerous twifted branches. Leaves oppolite, ftalked,
ovate, fomewhat pointed, lightly ferrated, fmooth. Flowers
fmall, crowded, axillary, of a yellowifh-red. Ca/y2 coloured.
Style none. Stigma a minute point. Berry roundifh, un-
equal, reddifh, of a middling fize, eatable, of one cell, with
three fmooth roundifh /eeds.—The reft of this author’s
defcription, particularly the fituation of the anthers, agrees
precifely with the account of the other {pecies, given above.
Loureiro had not feen that fpecies, and was not without a
fufpicion of his being the fame plant ; to which its oppofite
and fomewhat ferrated /eaves feem to us a fufficient objec-
tion. Ifhis be however of the fame genus, as appears pro-
bable, the generic chara¢ter might be enlarged with “ Berry
of one cell, with three feeds.”’

Savacta, or Salecia, in Zoology, the name of a genus of
infe&ts of the gymnarthria kind; the body of which is
ovato-oblong, and the tentacula are numerous, and dif-
pofed in little clufters.

It is called by different authors priapus marinus, and
mentula marina. ‘This is the fpecies denominated Mentula,
under the clafs of A/idia in the Linnean fyitem.

SALACONIA, in Ancient Geography, a place of Africa,
in Mauritania Tingitana, between Ad Mercuri and Tamu-
fide, according to the Itinerary of Antonine.

SALACSAE, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by the
inhabitants of the Philippine iflands to a kind of bird, by
whofe flight they pretend to divine the event of things.
All the account we have of the bird is, that it is of a {mall
fize, and is varioufly coloured, and has a long and large
beak. e

SALAD, Conn, in Agriculture, a plant of the weed kind,
met with in tillage-fields, as well as pafture-lands, where
the plough has been, but efpecially in the former, when
much exhaufted by cropping. It alfo prevails in fome
places on the bank-fides of the fences; but being only
annual in its nature, there is but little danger to be appre-
hended from it. See Weeps.

Satan Herbs, in Gardening, the different forts of efcu-
lent plants from which herbs for falads are colleéted.
Thefe, by different fowings, plantings, &c. are obtained at

SAL

all times of the year; but the moft generally efteemed
forts may be comprifed under the heads of large, {mall, and
occational falad herbs. The firft of thefe kinds confitt
chiefly of the different forts of lettuces, the different forts of
endive, and all the varieties of celery, which forts are in the
belt perfe€tion for ufe when arrived at the full growth;
any of which may be eaten as a falad alone, or all mixed
together, or with a proper quantity of {mall falading, efpe-
cially in winter and fpring ; as the {mall falading, being
of a warm nature, renders the falad more grateful and
wholefome. Lettuces are generally efteemed moft in fum-
mer, when full grown and firmly cabbaged, but may be
ufed at all feafons. The endive and celery are excellent
for autumn and winter falads, being in full perfection from
September to the end of November, when they are full
grown and finely blanched, and often continuing in tole-
rable perfection all winter and fpring. See Lacruca,
CicHorrum, and Arrum.

And the fecond forts are crefles, muftard, radifh, rape,
and fome others ; in all of which herbs, the young leaves
are the ufeful parts for the purpofe of falad, and are always
in beft perfection when quite young, as a few days or a
week old at moft, while in their firft leaves, cutting them
up, ftalks and top together, clofe to the ground; as when
ufed thus quite young they eat exceedingly tender, with an
agreeable warm relifh, but become too hot by age.

The lait forts are principally corn-falad, or lamb’s let-
tuce, purflane, fpear-mint, water-crefs, borage, and borage-
flowers, nafturtium-flowers, and the young leaves, chervil,
burnet, and fometimes red cabbage, radifhes, red beet-root,
finochia, or Azorian fennel, forrel, tarragon, young onions,
cives, and fometimes horfe-radifh, incorporated with other
herbs, moft of which forts are occafionally ufed in com-
pofition with other {mall falad herbs, and fome alone as a
falad, fuch as red cabbage, water-crefs, young borage, &c.
See their refpeétive kinds.

SALADA, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Weft
Indies. N. lat. 10° 58’. W. long. 64° 13!.—Alfo, a
river of Chili, which runs into the South Pacific ocean,
S. lat. 27° 15'.—Alfo, a bay on the coaft of Chili, in the
Pacific ocean. S. lat. 27° 15!.—Alfo, a river of Spain,
which runs into the ftrait of Gibraltar, E. of Tarifa.

SALADILLA, a town of South America, in the
government of Buenos Ayres; 280 miles N.N.W. of
Buenos Ayres.

SALADIN, in Biography. See SALAHEDDIN.

SALADINE, a tax impofed in England and France, in
the year 1188, to raife a fund for the croifade undertook
by Richard I. of England, and Philip Auguttus of France,
againft Saladin, fultan of Egypt, then going to befiege
Jerufalem.

The Saladine tax was thus laid: that every perfon who
did not enter himfelf a croifee, was obliged to pay a tenth
of his yearly revenue, and of the value of all his moveables,
except his wearing-apparel, books, and arms.

The Carthufians, Bernardines, and {ome other religious,
were exempted from the Saladine. See SALAHEDDIN, infra.

SALAGENA, or SAvaGeENa, in Ancient Gengrapiys a
town of Cappadocia, in the Sargaranfenc territory. Ptol.

SALAGESSA, or SALaaisa, a town of India, on
this fide of the Ganges. Prol.

SALAGRAMA, a itone found in a river of Nepaul,
and confidered by many feéts of Hindoos as very facred and
myftical. It is an eflential article in feveral of the fuper-
{titious rites and ceremonies of the Brahmans: it is ufed in
propitiatory oblations to Vifhnu, as well as in funeral and

other ceremonies. Many ftones, efpecially thofe of a conical
form,

SAL

form, are deemed myttically facred to Siva; but the fala-
ma feems confecrated peculiarly to Vifhnu.

Mr. Colebroke informs us (Af. Ref. vol. vii.), that the
fala -are found in part of the Gandaki river, within
the pal of Nepaul. They are black, moftly round, and
are commonly perforated in one or more places by worms,
or, as the Hindoos believe, by Vifhnu, in the fhape of a rep-
tile. According to the number of perforations, and of
fpiral curves in each, the ftone is fuppofed to contain Vifhnu
jn various charaéters. For example, fuch a ftone, per-
forated in one place only with four fpiral curves in the per-
foration, and with marks fancied to refemble a cow’s foot,
and a wreath of flowers, contains Vifhnu and his confort
Lakfhmi, in that form or combination called Lakfhmi-
Narayana, a form in which they are commonly feen in
images of a dimiautive fize, fitting on the knee of Vifhnu
or Narayana. The falagrama is found not to be calca-
reous : it ftrikes fire on fteel, and fcarcely at all effervefces
with acids.

Sonnerat defcribes the falagrama, we think, very incor-
re€tly, in calling it a petrified fhell, of the fpecies cornua
ammonis. He {ays it is very heavy, commonly black, but
fometimes violet, oval or round, a little flat, nearly refem-
bling a touch-ftone, and hollow, (how then can it be very
heavy?) with only one {mall aperture, almoft concave within,
having {piral lines terminating towards the middle. Some,
he fays, are fuppofed to reprefent the gracious incarnations
of Vifhnu, and are then highly prized; but when they
border a little on the violet, they denote a vindiétive avatara,
fuch as Narafingha, when no man of ordinary nerve dares
keep them in his houfe. The fortunate pofleffor of a fala-

a preferves it in a green cloth: it is frequently per-
‘umed and bathed, and the water, thereby acquiring virtue,
is drank, and prized for its fin-expelling property.

The Brahmans and Hindoos, in general, look on this
ftone with much reverence. It is rarely met with in India
in vulgar hands. Two of them have recently pafled under
the infpe€tion of the writer of this article. They are lefs
than a {mall billiard-ball, nearly round; appearing like
our common filiceous pebble, or one of granite, rendered
fmooth by attrition, and blackened by being foaked in
oil. They are folid, without perforation or aperture.

From general Kirkpatrick’s « Account of the Kingdom
of Nepaul,”? we learn that the river in which thefe holy
ftones are exclufively found, is in that part of its courfe
where they moft abound, called Salagrami; and that the
name of Gandaki, by which we have been taught to call it,
is, in Nepaul, a general appellation for a river, aad not
{pecifically applicable to that in queftion.

SALAGUA, in Geography, a harbour on the W. coait
of Mexico. N. lat. 18° 50’.

SALAHEDDIN, Yuser Esn Ayvs, in Biography,
commonly called Saladin, a celebrated fultan of Egypt
and Syria, was born in the year 1137, in the caitle of
Tecrit, of which his father, a Curd foldier of fortune, was
governor. In his youth he ferved under his father, and an
uncle, named Shiracough, the latter of whom was fent to
affift the Fatimite caliph Adhed againit the vifier Shawer.
Saladin accompanied his uncle in the expedition, and on
his death, in 1168, he was appointed to fucceed him in the
command of the caliph’s armies. Previoufly to this he had
been greatly addiéted to wine and gaming, but the im-
portant duties of his fituation led him to a complete courfe
of reformation ; and from this period he rigoroufly obferved
the precepts of the Koran, and wifhed to be regarded as the
hero of his religion. Looking to Noureddin as the fource
of his authority, he followed his intentions in reprefling the

SAL

fe& of Ali; and in 1171, by his order, he put an end to
the dynafty of the Fatimite caliphs in Egypt. The death
of Adhed happening at the fame time, Saladin took poffef-
fion of his treafures, and though nominally holding the
country under the caliph of Bagdat, amd in fubordination
to Noureddin, he refolved to make himfelf independent of
both. With this object in view, he ingratiated himfelf .
with the Egyptians by a mild and prudent government ;
and to wean them from the do@trine of Ali, he eftablifhed
colleges, in which were taught the principles of theolo
mott according with his own notions. At the death of
Noureddin, he, in point of form, acknowledged Al-Malek,
the minor fon of the late prince, as lawful heir to the throne,
but at the fame time took meafures to feize his dominions,
firft under the preténce of protecting them, and then
openly for himfeif. He now appeared in the charaéter of
an enemy, and reduced Damafcus and other places in Syria,
and befieged Al-Malek himfelf in Aleppo, but was not fuc-
cefsful in that projet. He endeavoured to expel the Franks
from the maritime parts of Palettine, but was entirel;
defeated at Afcalon, with the deftruétion of almoft all his
army. By the death of Al-Malek, in 1181, Saladin ob-
tained the full poffeffion of Syria, as well as of Egypt, to
both which provinces his title as fultan was confirmed. He
now manifefted an ardent defire to expel the Chriftians
from Paleftine, and recover the city of Jerufalem. His
ardour was further inflamed by the defire of vengeance.
A foldier of fortune, Reginald de Chatillon, had. feized a
fortrefs on the edge of the Defart, from whence he pillaged
the ‘caravans, infulted Mahomet, and threatened even the
cities of Mecca and Medina. Saladin complained of this
infraction of treaties, but fecretly rejoiced that he was de-
nied that juftice to which he had a claim, and at the head
of 80,000 horfe and foot, he invaded the Holy Land. The
choice of Tiberias for his firft fiege was fuggeited by Ray-
mond, count of Tripoli, to whom it belonged; and the
king of Jerufalem drained his garrifons for the relief of
that important place. By the advice of the perfidious
Raymond, the Chriftians were betrayed into a camp’ deiti-
tute of water: he fled on the firft onfet: Guy of Lufignan,
an oppofing warrior, was overthrown, with the lols of
30,000 men. The royal captive was conducted to the
tent of Saladin, and as he was on the point of fainting
with thirft and fear, the generous victor prefented him with
a cup of fherbet cooled in fnow, without fuffering Reginald
to partake of this pledge of hofpitality and pardon. ‘* The
perfon and dignity of a king,” faid the fultan, “ are facred ;
but this impious robber muft inftantly acknowledge the
prophet whom he has blafphemed, or meet the death
which he has fo often deferved.’? The warrior difdained
the proffered terms of mercy: Saladin ftruck him on the
head with his fcimitar, which was a fignal for his guard
to finifh that which he had begun, and Reginald was imme-
diately difpatched. Lufignan was fent to Damafcus, and
was {peedily ranfomed ; but the vi€tory was flained by the
execution of 230 knights of the hofpital, the intrepid
champions and martyrs of their faith. From all the cities,
both of the fea-coait and the inland country, the gene
had been drawn away for the fatal field. Tyre and Tripoli
alone could efcape the rapid inroad ef Saladin; and three
months after the battle of Tiberias, he appeared in arms
before the gates of Jerufalem. For a time he peremptorily
refufed all offers of capitulation, and exprefled a deter-
mination to take it by ftorm. At length, however, finding
the inhabitants refolute in their preparations for a vigorous
defence, he agreed that they fhould evacuate the city, and
carry away heir effects. Saladin entered the holy capital
an

SAL

in great triumph, and fairly executed the conditions of the
treaty. From Jerufalem he proceeded to lay fiege to
Tyre; but the deftruction of his fleet by the Franks ren-
dered the attempt abortive. The lofs of Jerufalem excited
the utmoft grief and confternation among the Chriftian
powers, and the emperor Barbarofla, the kings of France
and England, with feveral other princes, took the crofs,
and prepared armaments for the relief of the Holy Land.
Succours arrived from various parts of Europe to the
Chriftians in Tyre, by which they were enabled, in 1189,
to undertake the recovery of Acre. This attempt recalled
Saladin from the purfuit of other conquefts, and for two
years the fields of Acre were the theatre of fome of the
fierceft contefts recorded by hiitory between the followers
of Chrift and Mohammed. In one of the early conflicts
the Chriitians penetrated as far as the fultan’s tent, and
made a great carnage. In another, Saladin threw into the
city a confiderable reinforcement. The death of the em-
peror Frederic, who had arrived with an army in Afia,
infpired the Mohammedans with hopes, which, however,
were confiderably checked by the news of the approach of
the kings of England and France, Richard and Philip, at
the head of a mighty hoft. Upon their arrival, the fiege
was pufhed with fo much vigour, that Acre, in 11g, fur-
rendered to their united arms. Philip, upon this event, re-
turned to Europe; but Richard remained, and after he
had twice defeated Saladin, took Czefarea and Jaffa, and
fpread alarm as far as Jerufalem. At length a truce was
made between the two fovereigns, by the terms of which
the coait from Jaffa to Tyre, inclufively, was ceded to the
Chriftians; Afcalon was left demolifhed and unoccupied ;
and the reft of Paleftine remained to the fultan. The
departure of Richard freed Saladin from his moft formidable
opponent ; but his death by difeafe, in 1193, put a period
to all the projeéts which his aétive ambition might have
formed. He died at Damafcus, at the age of 56; and the
lofs of their hero plunged his fubjeés in Syria and Egypt
into deep mourning. The unity of the empire was diffolved
by his death ; his fons were opprefled by the ftronger arm
ptf their uncle Saphadin ; the hoftile interefts of the fultans
of Egypt, Damafcus, and Aleppo, were again revived ; and
the Franks, or the Latins, exulted in their fortrefles along
the Syrian coaft. The chief monument of a conqueror’s
fame, and of the terror which he infpired, is the Saladine
tenth, a gencral tax, which was impofed upon the clergy, as
well as the laity, of the Latin church, for the fervice of the
holy war. The praétice was too lucrative to expire with
the occafion ; and this tribute became the foundation of
all the tythes on ecclefiaftical benefices which have been
d by the Roman pontiffs to Catholic fovereigns, or
referved for the immediate ufe of the Apottolic fee.
Saladin was unquettionably one of the moft confpicuous
chara¢ters of that period: though chargeable in the outfet
of life with thofe unjuftifiable methods of obtaining power
which the ambitious rarely {cruple to adopt, but which he
only {natched from the hands of other ufurpers, he employed
his power with great attention to the good of his fubjects,
whofe burdens Re lightened, while he benefited them by a
t number of ufeful works and eftablifhments. In his
rivate and perfonal expences he was extremely moderate ;
ut in his donations he was magnificent, and was fo little
ited to hoarding, that the whole contents of his treafury
his death were a fingle gold coin, and a few filver drachmas.
In religion he was a fanatic and intolerant. ‘The only
ftudy which he encouraged was the orthodox theology of
his feét, and he looked with contempt or averfion upon all
polite literature and profane feience. He was faithful in

SAL

all engagements, and dtminiftered justice with diligence and
impartiality. By his virtues he is faid to have obtained the
efteem of his enemies. He left a family of 17 fons and a
daughter, and was himfelf the founder of the dynafty of
Ayoubites. Univer. Hift. Gibbon.
SALAIGNAG, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Dordogne; 7 miles N.E. of Sarlat.
SALAKA, a fea-port of Nubia, on the W. coaft of
the Red fea. N. lat. 20° 42’. E. long. 37° 5!.
SALAKARI, a {mall ifland on the E. fide of the gulf
of Bothnia. N. lat. 65° 17/. E. long. 25° 7!.
SALAMANCA, a city of Spain, in the province of
Leon, fituated, in the form of an amphitheatre, partly on
a hill, and partly on a plain, on the banks of the Tormes,
which bathes a part of its walls, and waters its beautiful
plain, and over which is a {tone bridge, by fome perfons
attributed to the Romans, having 27 arches, and being
about 500 feet in length. This is one of the moft ancient
bifhoprics in Spain, fuffragan to Compoftella; it has a
revenue of 2500/. fterling, and is one of the ecclefiaftical
jurifdiGions. This city has a royal adminiftration, com-
pofed of a corregidorat, a governor, an alcalde-mayor,
common alcaldes, &c. It has a cathedral and collegiate
church, compofed of 26 canons, 25 parifh churches, 20
convents of monks, feveral of nuns, an univerfity, 25 private
colleges, four great colleges, feveral hofpitals and peniten-
tiary-houfes, chapels or oratories, hermitages, &c. Several
of its churches are magnificent ; and fome of its convents
are fpacious ; and though its ftreets are narrow and dirty,
it has many large buildings, and two confiderable fquares,
many fountains, and a variety of ftru¢tures and appendages
that ferve to the embellifhment of a town.’ Of all the
public edifices, the cathedral is the molt worthy of notice ;
it is majettic, and in the Gothic ftyle. Its foundation was
laid A.D. 1513; but it was not finifhed till the year 1734.
It is 378 feet in length, 181 wide in the clear, 130 high in
the nave, and 80 in the aifles. ‘The whole is beautiful ;
but the moft ftriking part of this church, and of many
public buildings in this city, is the feulpture, which dif-
plays much talte, and is well preferved. Over the prin-
cipal gate is reprefented, in bold relief, the adoration of
the fages ; and over another, the public entrance of Chrift
into Jerufalem ; all appearing as frefh and fharp as if they
were recently put up. Befides the chief gate, which is
finely executed, it has a fuperb and grand fteeple, fur-
rounded by a broad, commodious, and handfome gallery,
where feveral people can walk abrealt. By the fide of this
cathedral, whofe cloifter merits infpection, there is an-
other church, perhaps more ancient, to which the defcent
is by fteps, and which is much frequented. Before the
cathedral is a large fquare, paved with large fquare ftones,
and encompafled with thick pillars, about fix feet high,
connected by a {trong iron-chain, with openings for foot-
paflengers. The church of the Dominicans is little infe-
rior to the cathedral in point of fculpture ; it has a repre-
fentation of St. Stephen ftoned, with a crucifix above it, all
as large as life, and to appearance not injured by the
weather. In the year 1030 there was not a fingle convent
in Salamanca ; and in 1480, previoufly to the difcovery of
America, they had only fix for men and three for women ;
but they have now (fays Mr. Townfend) thirty-nine.
In 1518, they counted 11,000 virgins; but when Mr.
Townfend vifited the city, the pitions under vows were
happily reduced to 1519. Among the more handfome con-
vents we may mention thofe of St. Dominic, of St. Ber-
nard, and of Auguftus. ‘The ancient church of the Jefuits,
now that of St. Marc, defervea notice; as do alfo the

King’s

SALAMANCA.

King’s college, built in the reign of Philip II., and the
Collegios mayores de’St. Bartolomé, particularly admired
for its fize. All the convents and colleges have libraries,
and MSS., which are more or lefs valuable. But the
eftablifhment which merits more particular notice, is the
univerfity. It was founded, fays Townfend, in the year
1200, by Alphonfo IX., king of Leon, and regulated by
Alphonfo, the Wife, A. D. 1254. It foon rofe to im-
portance, and became eminent in Europe by acquaintance
with the Arabian authors, and, through them, with the
Greek. The reverence of its firft profeffors for Ariitotle
and for Thomas Aquinas, it is faid, continues to the prefent
day. La Borde dates the eftablifhment of this univerfity
in the year 1239, out of the ruins of that at Palencia ; and
he fays, there have been as many as Sooo {cholars in it,
whe came thither from every part of Spain, and 7000
from the other countries of Europe. But their number
has been fince much reduced. In 1785 they reckoned
1909 matricules. The univerfity has 61 profeffors, at the
head of whom is a rector, and next to him is the grand matter
of the clafles, who nominates all the civil officers of the
univerfity, which is itfelf endowed with above 1,200,000
reals. Here are 80 endowed profeffors, and feveral candi-
dates for profefforfhips, who have no falaries. Befides the
univerfity, there are 25 colleges, which have 30 collegians
each, who live in common with the matters, and four col-
legios-mayores, or grand colleges ; the fcholars are the moft
illuftrious, and the children who are brought up here are
thofe of the greateft, families in Spain. There are no
more than feven of thefe colleges in Spain. One of the
four eftablifhed at Salamanca was founded by Fonfeca,
archbifhop of Toledo. The Irifh college was built A. D.
1614, by the Jefuits; but upon their expulfion, it was
divided: the fouth fide being given to the [rifh, and the
north to the bifhop of the diocefe for his ftudents. In the
Irith college 60 ftudents are received at a time, and when
thefe return to Ireland, the fame number is admitted, to be
trained up for the miniltry. ‘The courfe of their education
requires eight years, four being devoted to the ftudy of philo-
fophy, and the remainder to divinity. They rife every
morning at half paft four, and have no vacations. Their
mode of education is as follows, and deferves the notice
of other fimilar inftitutions. They have queftions propofed
for their difcuffion twice every day, and on thefe they are
infermed what books to read; then, fuppofing the fubjeé&
to admit of a difpute, it is carried on by two of them,
under the direétion of a moderator, who gives afliltance
when it is wanted, and guides them to the truth. When
this mode of proceeding is not admiflible, the tutors, in-
ftead of giving formal lectures, employ themfelves in the
examination of their pupils, and the bufinefs of inftruétion
is thus greatly expedited. “ Dr. Curtis,” fays Mr.
"Townfend, in his “ Journey through Spain in the years
1786 and 1787,”’ ‘lives with his pupils like a father with
his children ; and, although in a {tate of banifhment, feems
happy in the difcharge of his important funétions. It is,
however, much to be lamented, that he and they fhould be
reduced to the neceflity of feeking that protection in a
foreign and diftant country, to which they are intitled in
their own. This kind of perfecution is neither juft nor
politic. It is certain that ignorance and bigotry have a
{trong conneétion. Would you overcome inveterate pre-
judices, and are you anxious to banith fuperttition? let in
the light. Would you conciliate the afleétions of thofe
who differ from you in their religious creed? no longer
perfecute., Embrace them, and from enemies they will
become your friends; let in the light, and difference of
4

opinion dies away. Catholics, in the more enlightened
countries, are no longer papilts; their whole fyitem is
going to decay ; and, without claiming more than common
agacity, we may venture to foretel, that in proportion as
the limits of toleration fhall be extended, all that cannot
bear the light will gradually vanifh, till the diftin@ion be-
tween Catholics and Proteftants fhall ceafe.

“ 'To haften this event, the education of Catholics in Ire-

land, for the purpofe of the miniltry, fhould not only be
connived at, but fhould meet with all poffible encourage-
ment.”

The fcholars of the univerfity of Salamanca and of the
colleges, about 3000 in number, are all, without exception,
clad in black gowns like priefts; their heads are fhaved and
covered with a cap; they are not permitted to wear a hat
in the town, unlefs it rains, and are fubjeGted to a moft
regular life. In fine, they have great privileges, are de-
pendent only on their profeffors, and are under the jurif-
diction of the rector.

In a curious edi& of Charles V. for the regulation of
mendicity, there is a claufe permitting ftudents in the uni-
verfity to beg, provided they have a licence from the reétor;
but in the prefent day they appear to be in a more refpe@-
able condition, and few, if any, avail themfelyes of this
privilege. The library is fpacious, and tolerably well fur-
nifhed with modern books ; but the bulk is trafh, confifting
principally of {cholaftic divinity.

OF all the colleges and convents, it were endlefs to
enumerate the treafures and rich jewels defigned for the
fervice of the altar. Whatever is mot valuable, the pro-
duce of Europe, Afia, Africa, and America, is here col-
le&ted ; and the beft workmen in every country have ex-
erted all their tafte and flill, each in his feveral branch, to
fhew the perfection of his art. The ornaments and -drefles
of the priefts are both rich and beautiful; but the moft
coftly piece of furniture, in molt convents, is the cuftodia,
that is, the depofitory of the hoft, or, according to the
ideas of a Catholic, the throne of the Moit High, when
upon folemn feftivals he appears to command the adoration
of mankind. It is not uncommon to expend fix thoufand
ounces of filver upon one of thefe, befides gold and preci-
ous itones; yet, in moit of them, the workmanfhip fur-
pafles the value of the materials.

From the account already given of Salamanca, it might
be imagined that it was a city of the firft order, and that
it was very populous and rich; but it has much declined
frem its former ftate. It contains about 3400 families,
without including the {cholars, the members of the univers
fity and of the colleges, the priefts, monks, nuns, and
officers of the government. It is, however, full of mer-
chants, and is mhabited by a tolerably numerous nobility,
The houfes, fays Mr. Townfend, are no more than 3000,
yet they have 27 parifh churches, with 15 chapels ; and the
clergy are, cf thofe that are parochial, 399, of the cathe-
dral, 132, befides 49 of the royal clergy of St. Mark;
amounting in the whole to 580.

The town is furrounded by a good wall; the public
edifices are of different eras; the pooreit of them are of
the 18th century: the moft curious are thofle of the time
of the kings of Cattile and Leon, and of that of Charles V.;
and others of the reigns of Philip Il. and Philip LL. Its
numerous fquares admit a free circulation of air; and one
of thefe may rank with the fineit in Spain; it is f{pa-
cious, modern, .and of an elegant architecture. It is en-
vironed by a portico of 20 arcades; the houfes are of th
{tories, each ornamented with a handfome balcony, whie
furrounds it, fo that each {tory has its balcony contin

withou

YT i ee eS
ae

SAL

without interruption. In the archivoltes are placed medal-
lions, containing the kings of Caftile and. Leon, down to
Charles III., then all the illuftrious warriors of Spain.
This uniform building is crowned above its entablatures
with baluitrades: The portico is not more to be admired
for its beauty in the day, than for the protection it affords
by.night ; becaufe in this city they have an execrable cuf-
tom, fimilar to that for which the inhabitants of the Old
town in Edinburgh have.been defervedly reproached. The
town-houfe occupies one fide, and feveral ilreets run from
the others. :

In this city beggars abound; and in confequence of the
ample provifion made for lazinefs, every itreet {warms with
vagabonds ; not only with thofe who are objects of com-

affion, but with wretches who, if compelled to work,
would be able to maintain themfelves. The hofpicio, or
general work-houfe, has not funds fufficient for their recep-
tion, amounting only to 1600/. a-year, which can only fup-
port 450 paupers. In this hofpicio are various implements,
and particularly one for weaving tape, of which Mr. Town-
fend has given a drawing and defcription. In its conftruc-
tion it is cheap and fimple, and in its operation fo expedi-
tious, that a little child weaves near 50 yards, and a woman
more than 120, in a day.

The country about this town is beautiful and fertile.
The river Tormes abounds in eels, barbel, and excellent
trout. Salamanca is 100 miles N.W. of Madrid, and 70
S. of Leon. N. lat. 41° 24!. W. long. 5° 54!.

SALAMANCA, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Mechoacan; 40 miles N.N.W. of Mechoacan. N. lat.
20° 40’. W. long. 102°.

SaLaManca de Bacalar, a {mall but flourifhing town of
Mexico, in the province of Yucatan, on the E. fade of the

ifthmus which joins the peninfula of Yucatan to the conti-”

neat ; containing about 120 houfes, with a bad fort and a
{mall garrifon, to prevent contraband trade; 160 miles S. of
Merida. N. lat. 17°45’. W. long. go° 36!.

Satamanca, New. See Ramana.

SALAMANDER, in Zoology, a name given by au-
thors to feveral fpecies of the lizard kind. See Lizaxp.

SaLamaAnpeEr’s Blood, a term which chemitts give to
the red vapours, which, in diftilling {pirit of nitre, rife
towards the latter end, and fill the receiver with red
clouds.

They are the moft fixed, and the ftrongeft part of the
{pirit ; nothing but nitre yields a red vapour in diftillation.

SALAMANDRINO, in Jchthyology, a name given by
the Italians to that {pecies of falmon, which Salvian calls
Jad marinus.

SALAMANIE, or Caremut, in Geography, a river
of North America, in the Indiana territory, which runs
into the Wabahh; 12 miles E. of Eel town.

SALAMANIz, in Mufic, the true Turkifh flute, a wind
inftrument in ufe among the Turcoman fhepherds in
Arabia, It is entirely open, and without any reed, fo that
to wind it is no eafy matter. This is the favourite inftru-
ment of the Merlavi dervifes, who, as they ufe mufic in
their aéts of religious worthip, are the beft muficians in the
Eaft, and excel efpecially in playing on the flute. It is
made either of a reed, or of a piece of fine wood.

SALAMASCIA, in Geography, a town of Mingrelia;
8 miles N. of Ifgaur.

SALAMBORIJA, or Sanapnea, in Ancient Geography,
a town of Cappadocia, in Garfauria. Ptol.

SALAME, in Geography, a {mall ifland at the entrance
of the Perfian gulf, near cape Muflendom. N. lat. 26° 201.
E. long, “ 48’.

Vou. XXXL.

SAL

SALAMEA. See ZaLamea.

SALAMGA, in Natural Hiflory, the name given by
the people of the Philippine iflands to a fpecies of fea-
fwallow. This is the bird, whofe nefts are fo famous as an
ingredient in foups.

SALAMI, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the pro-
vince of Nedsjed; 20 miles E. of Tima.

SALAMIEH, a town of Arabia, in the province of
Nedsjed ; 25 miles E. of Hamah.

SALAMINE, in Ancient Geography, a {mall ifland in the
Saronic gulf, which formerly made a part of the territory of
Attica. It anciently bore the name of Cycria, after Cy-
chreus, the name of its firft king, and that of Pityufla, from
the quantity of pines which were found there. Strabo gives
it the appellation of Scirias, after that of an ancient hero.
The name of Salamine was derived from Salamis, who,
according to Greek authors, was the daughter of Afopusy
king of Beotia, tranfported to this ifland by Neptune, by
whom fhe became the mother of Cychreus. It has in fuc-
ceffion twe towns, called Salamis, one towards the fouth,
oppolite to Egina, and the other towards Attica. This
latter, or New Salamis, became very populous, and was
governed by its own laws until the time of Augutitus.
Some authors fay, that this ifland was anciently peopled by
Tonians, and afterwards by colonies from different parts of
Greece. After Cychrzus above-mentioned reigned Teucer,
and after him Telamon, whofe fon Ajax conduéted the fhips
of Salamine to the war of Troy. One of the fucceffors of
Teucer ceded this ifland tothe Athenians; from them it was
taken by the Megarians, and again recaptured by the Athe-
nians, at the requeft of Solon. When the kings of Macedon
humbled the power of the Athenians, they loft among
other iflands under their dominion this ifland of Salamine,
which revolted under the reign of Caffander ; but this en-
terprife terminated unfortunately ; for the Athenians, be-
ing more powerful than they were fuppofed to be, fup-
prefled this revolt, and drove from the ifland all who pof-
feffed any kind of property, and placed a colony of Athe-
nians in their room. Sylla declared the ifland of Salamine
free, and it enjoyed this privilege until the reign of Vef-
patian, who reckoned it among the Roman provinces. Sala-
mine is famous for a naval battle fought in the year 479 B.C.
in the ftrait formed between the ifland and the continent.

SALAMINIAS, a town of Afia, in Syria, fituated at
the foot of the mountains, S.W. of Occaraba, and N.E.
of Emefa.

SALAMIS, a famous town of the ifland of Cyprus.
According to Scylax this town had a fecure port, proper
for the fhelter of fhips in the winter. It was ruined by
an earthquake, which caufed the fea to overflow it: but
it was again re-eltablifhed in the 4th century. Here
was a temple dedicated to Venus. When it was re-
eltablifhed in the qth century it took the name of Con-
{tantia ; and though it was depopulated about the end of the
7th century, the name of Contlanza was annexed to its
ruins. St. Paul came to Salamis with St. Barnabas, A.D.
44, and there converted Sergius Paulus. Aéts, xiii. 5.
See Famacusta.—Alfo, a {mall country of Afia.

SALAMONE, in Geography, a cape of the ifland of
Candia, at the E. end; 16 miles E. of Settia.

SALAMPRIA, a river of Theffaly, which runs into
the Peneo; 20 miles W. of Larifla.

SALAMPSII, in Ancient Geography, a people of
Africa, in Mauritania Cefarienfis, 1 the vicinity of the
Machuri, and E. of the Baniuri. Prol.

SALAMUN, in Geography, a town of Egypt, at the
W. branch of the Nile; 4 miles S. of Shabur.

x SALANCHA,

S A i

SALANCHA, or Satancues, a town of France, in
the department of Mont Blanc, late capital of Upper
Faucigny, ina mountainous fituation, on the banks of the
Arve; bearing marks of antiquity, and containing 4000
inhabitants; it has a weekly market, and the inhabitants
carry on a confiderable traffic in horfes, cattle, cheefe,
woollen ftuffs, iron tools, &c.; 31 miles S.E. of Geneva.
N. lat. 45° 54. E. long. 6° 30!.

SALANCON, in Ancient Geography, a river of Illyria,
which ran into the Atlantic gulf.

SALANDRA, or Savanpria. See CHELANDIUM.

SALANDRA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Bafi-
licata ; 22 miles S.E. of Acerenza.

SALANDRETTA, a river of Naples, which runs
isto the Adriatic, N. lat. 40° 27'.. E. long. 16° 42'.

SALANGA. See JuNKSEILON.

SALANGARI, a fmall ifland in the Eatt Indian fea,
near the W. coaft of Gilolo. N. lat. 2°25'. E. long.
127° 31!.

SALANIEH, a town of Egypt; 1 mile W. of Da-
mietta.

SALANKEMEN, a town of Sclavonia, onthe S. fide
of the Danube, oppofite to the mouth of the Theifs; 18
miles N.W. of Belgrade.

SALAPHITANUM Obppipem, in Ancient Geography,
a town in the interior of Africa, which was fubjeét to the
Romans, according to Pliny, who reckons it in the number
of the thirty towns which were indulged with the liberty of
choofing their own magiltrates.

SALAPIA, Satpz, a town of Italy, in Apulia, towards
the fouth coalt, near the fea, in a marfhy fituation, which ren-
dered it very infalubrious. Some pretend that it was
founded by Diomedes. It was a poft of confequence, which
was eagerly contended for by the Romans and Cartha-
ginians during the fecond Punic war.

SALAPOREE, or Satapour, in Geography, a town
of Hindooftan, in Dowlatabad; 30 miles W.N.W. of
Nander.

SALAR, in Ichthyology, a name given by fome authors
to the trout.

; Gia apply the name to a young falmon, while very
mall.

SALARANO, in Geography, a town of Italy, on the
Lambro ; 5 miles W.S.W. of Lodi.

SALARIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania
Tarragonenfis, in the interior of the country, and in the
territory of the Oretani. Ptol.

SALARS, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Aveiron; 7 miles S.E. of Rhodez.

SALARY, Savarium, a ttipend, or wages allowed
any perfon in confideration of his pains, induitry, or fervice,
in another man’s bufinefs.

SALAS, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the pro-
vince of Leon; 22 miles W. of Aftorga.—Alfo, a town
of Spain, in Old Caltile ; 20 miles S.E. of Burgos.

SALASCO, atown of Italy, in the department of the
Sefia; 7 miles W. of Vercelli.

SALASSES, lofty mountains in the ifland of Bourbon,
faid to be 1600 toifes high, and having on the S.W. part a
volcano.

SALASSI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Gallia
Tranfpadana, more northerly than the Taurini, in a fine
valley watered by the Duria Major. In the year of Rome
Gro, a difference took place between the Salaffi and fome of
their neighbours. Appius Claudius Pulcher, to whom was
afligned the department of Gaul, took occalion to war
againit them; he lost the firft battle, but gained the fecond,

5

SA L

and fubjeéted the country to the dominion of the Romans,
On occafion of a fecond revolt in 728, Auguttus fent againft
them Terentius Varro Murena, who terminated the war in
a fingle lan and under a pretext of levying contri-
butions, he diftributed his troops through the whole coun-
try. Strabo fays that the Salaffi, to the number of about
40,000, were forcibly difpoffefled and carried away by the
Romans ; 36,000 were fold as flaves ; and 4000 were incor-
porated with the Pretorian cohorts. :

SALASSUR, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in the Arabian Irak ; 170 miles N.W. of Baffora.

SALATH, a river of Stiria, which runs into the Kai-
nach, near Voitfberg.

SALATHOS, in Ancient Geography, a people of Africa,
in Interior Libya, who inhabited the territory between mount
Mandre and Sagapola. Ptol.—Alfo, a river of Africa, in
the environs of mount Mandre.

SALATY, in Geography, a town of Samogitia; 1
miles W.N.W. of Bice. : ae

SALAURIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hilpania,
fituated on the coaft, between mount Sellius and the town of
Tarracone, among fandy defarts.

SALAWAUK, in Geography, atown of Hindooltan,
inthe Carnatic ; 35 miles S.S.W. of Madras.

SALAYA, a town of Mexico, in the province of Me-
choacan ; 50 miles N.N.E. of Mechoacan. N. Jat. 20° 45.
W. long. 102° 20’.

SALAYAR, or Satayver, one of the Celebezian ifles
inthe Eaft Indian fea, about ten leagues long, and one
broad, feparated from the S. coalt of the ifland of Celebes
by a ftrait to which it gives name. It is nearly S. from
point Lafleus, and diftant two leagues. In the ftrait be-
tween them are the Budjeroons, called by our feamen the
‘Boeferoons, which are three {mall uninhabited iflets. Sa-
layer is mountainous and woody, and in tts forefts are many
deer. Its productions are ochre and batta, the lalt being a
fort of millet, which conititutes a chief part of the food of
its inhabitants. It likewife produces capas, or cotton, of
which is manufactured a large quantity of coarfe, blue, and
white, ttriped cloth. This ifland is governed by 14 regents,
who once a year, in the month of O&ober, refort to fort
Rotterdam with 250 or 300 of their countrymen, to perform
the.cultemary duties of vaflalage, and to obtain an adjutt.
ment of their difputes. The inhabitants, according to
Capt. Forreft, amount to about 60,000, who drink much of
a liquor called Saguire, drawn from the palm-tree, and burn
tallow obtained from the tallow-tree, as in China. They
are defcribed by Stavorinus as pufillanimous and fervile, and
at the fame time perverfe and quarrelfome, fo that if they
do not like their fituation, they immediately migrate, with
their whole family, to another country. ‘The Macaffars,
who had pofleflion of this ifland, ceded it, by the treaty of
Boni, to the king of Ternate ; but in procefs of time it was
wretted from the Ternatefe by the Dutch company. There
are feveral other iflands which lie round and near Salayer,
and belong to it ; but ef thefe, two only are inhabited, vx.
Bonarette and Calauwe. Thefe were given in fief to the old
Radja Palacea, and his fucceflors have appropriated it to the
purpofe for which he afligned it, that of inftructing his
dancing girls. S. lat. 6° 5’. E.long. 120° 55’.

SALAYASIR, in Natural Hifory, the name by which
the people of the Philippine iflands call that fmall {pecies of
duck, which is fo common thereabouts. ‘This is an inha-
bitant of their lakes and marthes, and is a perfe@ duck, and
very beautifully coloured, but does not exceed the bignefs
of aman’s fill,

SALAZAR, in Geography, a town of South Ame-

rica,

SAL

rica, in the kingdom of Granada ; 40 miles N. of Pam-
lona.

SALBARRY, a town of Hindooftan, in Berar; 43
miles W. of Nagpour.

SALBERG. See Sara.

SALBEY, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Go-
hud ; 20 miles N.E. of Narwa.

SALBOE, a town of Norway, in the province of Dron-
theim; 40 miles $.S.E. of Drontheim.

SALBRIS, a town of France, in the department of the
Loire and Cher, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict
of Romorantin; 12 miles N.E. of it. The place contains
1260, and the canton 7791 inhabitants, on a territory of
735 kiliometres, in 8 communes.

SALCHENAU, or Sacenav, a townof Auttria; 2
miles N.W. of Ebenfurth.

SALCOMBE, a bay and village of England, on the
S. coaft of Devonfhire, between the Mew ftone and Praule

oint.
a SALDA, in Ancient Geography. See Buca.

SALDAGNA, or Satpana, in Geography, a town of
Spain, in the province of Leon; 38 miles E. of Leon.

SALDANHA Bay, a bay of the Atlantic, on the S.
coaft of Africa, and N.W. of the Cape of Good Hope.
This is reprefented by Mr. Barrow as one of the beft har-
bours, perhaps, in the world: and asitis a windward port
with regard to Cape Town, it is the molt defirable wintering
ftation for fhipsof war. Any number of fhips may lie here,
in perfeé& fecurity, at all feafons of the year, either to the
northward of the entrance in Hoetjes bay, from whence they
can at all times go out in the winter months, or to the fouth-
ward in fummer, when, with equal facility, the fouth-eafterly
winds will at any time carry them out. On the W. fide of
Hoetjes bay, nature has ereGted a granite pier, again{t the
fides of which fhips may be brought as to the fide of a
quay 5 and it terminates to the northward in a fine fmooth
andy beach, where boats may always land with fafety. The
pofition of Marcus ifland, in the entrance, a folid block of
granite, is peculiarly favourable for protecting the bay, to
which a battery ereéted upon it, and mounted with heavy
cannon, would be fully competent. The different points
alfo jutting into the bay are well calculated to provide for
itsdefence. Befides, the fituation of Saldanha bay is much
more convenient than that of the peninfula, for receiving the
fupplies afforded by the country. The deep fandy ifthmus,
fo deitruétive to cattle, could be altogether avoided ; and its
diftance from the corn diftriéts, which is the moft material
article of confumption, is much lefs than that of the Cape.
Its fituation with regard to all the northern parts of the co-
ne is much more convenient than Cape Town ; and equally
fo for thofe who inhabit the diftant diltri& of Graaf Rey-
net, and who ufually pafs over the Roode Sand Kloof. It
is fubje&t, however, to one very great inconvenience, that
no ftream of water, like that of the T'able mountain, falls
into this bay ; nor has any {pring been yet difcovered in the
pel of its fhores, {ufficient for fupplying the demands of
a {mall fquadron for frefh water. In procefs of time, and
by farther trials, it is thought that water might be found.
Moreover, it is obferved, in recommendation of this bay,
that if a naval eftablifhment were once formed here, many
coafting veffels and fithing thips would be con{truéted, as it
affords every convenience that could be required for build-
ing thips; and this would be the means of increafing the
coafting trade, and efpecially with regard to the article of

wre: the produce of the colony. Barrow’s Africa,
vol, i,

SAL

SALDI Parrentco, a town of Sicily, in the valley of
Mazara; 14 miles W.S.W. of Palermo.

SALDUBA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania,
upon the coait of Beetica, with a river of the fame name.
Pliny.

SALE, in Geography, a river of Pruffia. See Sar.—
Alfo, alake of Perfia, in the province of Farfiitan ; 9 miles
E. of Schiras.

Sarr, Gerorcr, in Biography, an Englifh Oriental
{cholar of great eelebrity, but of whofe perfonal hiitory
very little is known. The following particulars of him have
been collected by the writers in the General Biography.
He wasa married man, and had afon, who was educated at
New college, in the univerfity of Oxford, of which he be-
came a fellow, and was afterwards eleéted to a fellowfhip in
Winchefter college. Mr. Sale himfelf was one of the
founders, and of the firft committee of a fociety for the en-
couragement of learning, eftablifhed in 1736, of which fe-
veral noblemen, and fome of the mott literary charaCters of
the age, were members. This fociety was inftituted with a
view of enabling authors to publifh their own works, without
the intervention of bookfellers. Mr. Sale’s fervices to the
fociety were of very fhort duration, as he died in the month
of OGober 1736. He was one of the authors of the
great “ General Dictionary,” and had a confiderable fhare
in that tranflation of the works of Bayle which is incorpo-
rated with it. He contributed to that work the cofmogony,
and a {mall part of the hiftory immediately following the
fame. But his moft important produétion is the ** Koran,
tranflated into Englifh immediately from the Original Ara-
bic, with explanatory Notes, taken from the moit approved
Commentators. To which is prefixed a preliminary Dif-
courfe,” 1734. Thisisa literal, and at the fame time an ele-
gant verfion of the facred code of thofe numerous nations
that follow the prophet of Mecca, enriched with notes
abounding with curious as well as important information.
The preliminary difcourfe contains the following fubjeés.
1. Of the Arabs before Mohammed, their hiftory, religion,
learning, and cuftoms. 2. Of the {tate of Chriftianity, par-
ticularly of the Eaftern churches, and of Judaifm, at the
time of Mohammed’s appearance; and of the methods
taken by him for eftablifhing his religion. 3. Of the Koran
itfelf, the peculiarities of that book, the manner of its being
written, and the general defign of it. 4. Of the dottrines
and pofitive precepts of the Koran, which relate to faith and
religious duties. 5. Of certain negative precepts in the
Koran. 6. OF the inftitutions of the Koran in civil affairs.
7. Of the months commanded by the Koran to be kept fa-
cred, andof the fetting apart of Friday for the {pecial fer-
vice of God. 8. Of the principal feéts among the Moham-
medans, and of thofe who have pretended to prophecy
among the Arabs, in or fince the time of Mohammed.

Sar, Venditio, in Commerce, is the transferring of the
property of goods from one to another, upon valuable confi-
deration ; and if a bargain is, that another fhall give me 5/.
for fuch a thing, and he gives mo earnett, which I accept,
thisis a perfeét fale. On fale of goods, if earneft be given
to the feller, and part of them be taken away by the buyer,
he mutt pay the refidue of the money upon fetching ete
the reft, becaufe no other time is appointed ; and the earne
given binds the bargain, and gives the buyer a right to de-
mand the goods; but ademand without paying the money is
void; and it has been held, that after the earneft is taken,
the feller cannot difpofe of the goods to another, unlefs
there is fome default in the buyer ; therefore, if he doth not
take away the goods, and pay the money, the feller ought to
require him foto do; and then if he doth not do it in con-

X 2 venient

SAL

venient time, the bargain and fale are diffolved, and the
feller may difpofe of them to any other perfon. A feller of
athing is to keep it areafonable time for delivery ; but
where no time is appointed for delivery of things fold, or for
payment of the money, it is generally implied that the de-
livery be made immediately, and payment on the delivery.
Where one agrees for wares fold, the buyer muf not carry
them away before they are paid for, except a day of pay-
mentis allowed him by the feller. It is faid a perfect bar-
gain and fale between parties will be good, though the feller
knows of an execution that is againit him, and doth fell the
goods, to prevent the falling of it upon them. A fale may
be of any living or dead goods in a fair or market, be they
whofe they will, or however the feller came by them, if
made with the cautions required by law ; but if one fell my
goods unduly, I may have them again. If a man affirms a
thing fold is of fuch a value, when it is not, this is not ac-
tionable ; but if he actually warrants it at the time of the
fale, and not afterwards, it will bear an action, being part of
the contract.

Save of Difirefs. See Distress and Repievy.

SALEBRO, in Ancient Geography, a place of Italy, in
Etruria, N.W. of Rufellz, upon the Aurelian way, between
the lake Aprilis and Manliana.

SALECHA, Satcua, or Salchan, a town of Paleftine,
towards the northern extremity of the portion of Manaffeh,
in the kingdom of Og, and country of Bafhan, beyond
Jordan. Deut. iii. ro. 1 Chron. vy. 11. Jofh. xi. 5.
xiii. 11.

SALECTO, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Tunis, on the E. coalt, near the Mediterranean ;
nearit are the remains of a large cattle, anciently called « Tur-
ris Hannibalis,”’ 40 miles S.E. of Cairoan. N. lat. 35° 13/.
E. long. 11° 3/.

SALEEN, Loven, a lake of the county of Mayo, Ire-
land, not far from Caitlebar.

SALEF, a river of Afiatic Turkey, which runs into the
Mediterranean, near Seleftria.

SALEFUR, a name given by fome of the chemifts to

den faffron.

SALEHIEH, in Geography, a town of Egypt; 20
miles S.W. of Tineh.

SALEK, a town of /Weftphalia, in the bifhopric of
Fulda; one mile S.W. of Hamelburg.—Alfo, a river of
South Wales, which runs into the fea, two miles N. of
Aberyitwith.

SALEM, in Ancient Geography, a name given by the
facred writers to Jerufalem. (Pf. Ixxvi. 2.) It has been a
common opinion, that Melchifedech, king of Salem, was
king of Jerufalem. Gen. xiv. 18. Heb. vii. 1, 2.

Savem, or Shalem, a town of Palettine, which belonged
to the Shechemites, where Jacob arrived on his return
from Mefopotamia. Gen. xxiil. 18.

SaLeM, a place near to Jerufalem, or weft of it, accord-
ing to Jerom.

SAveM, or Salamias, a place of Paleftine, in the territory
of Scythopolis, 8 miles from this city. Jerom.

Satem, or Salim, a place of Paleitine, on the banks of
Jordan, in the half tribe of Manafleh, where John the Bap-
tift baptized. John, ii. 23.

SaLem, a town of Paleltine, where Melchifedech is faid
to have reigned, ‘This town, according to Jerom and Re-
land, was different from Jerufalem, and is placed by the
former m the territory of Scythopolis, in which were ruins,
in his time, of what was faid to have been the palace of Mel-
chifedech.

SALEM, 2 name fometimes given by the Septuagint

SAL

writers to Shiloh, which was fituated in the tribe of Ephraim.
See Jer. xli. 5. xlviii. 5.

SALEM, a river which difcharged itfelf into the ocean,
about go ftadia from the promontory of Abila, according
to Philoftratus.

SALEM, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the
Barramaul country ; 28 miles S. of Darempour.—Alfo, a
town of Perfia, in the province of Kerman; 115 miles
N.E. of Sirgian. N. lat. 30° 26’. E. long. 58° 50’.

SALEM, a county of New Jerfey, in America, bounded
E. by Cumberland, and W. by Delaware river, and divided
into nine townfhips, of which thofe on the Delaware river
are excellent for pafture, and have large dairies. Befides, the
foil produces flax, Indian corn, whéat, and other in;
but the people, it is faid, are fubjeét to intermittent tery
In this county the Friends have four meeting-honfes, the
Prefbyterians four, the Epifcopalians two, the Baptiits
three, and the German Lutherans one.—Alfo, a poft-town
of New Jerfey, and capital of the above county, on a branch
of Salem creek, about 34 miles from its confluence with
Delaware bay. It contains a meeting-houfe for Baptifts,
one for Quakers, and one for Methodilts ; a court-houfe,
gaol, and about 100 houfes, moftly built with brick, and
many ‘of them elegant. It contains 929 inhabitants, 37
miles S.W. by S. from Philadelphia.—Alfo, a townfhip of
Vermont, in Orleans county, at the S. end of lake Mem-
phremagog, containing 58 inhabitants.—Alfo, a port of
entry and poft-town of Maflachufetts, and the capital: of
Effex county ; 19 miles N. by E. from Bofton. It is fup-
pofed to be the fecond town for fize in the United States,
and, except Plymouth, the oldeft. It was fettled in 1628,
and called by the Indians “* Naumkeeg.”? It contains
12,603 inhabitants. Here are a fociety of Friends, an epif-
copal church, and five congregational focieties. The town
is fituated on a peninfula, Perieed by two {mall inlets of the
fea, called North and South rivers. Notwithftanding the
inconvenience of its harbour, Salem has more fhipping and
more trade than any port of the commonwealth, Botton ex-
cepted. The inhabitants are faid to be richer than thofe of
any town in the United States. The fifhery, the trade to
the Welt Indies, to Europe, to the coaft of Africa, to the
Eait Indies, and the freighting bufinefs from the fouthern
ftates, are here purfued with energy and fpirit. Here are
two banks, one eftablifhed in 1792, and another in 1803.
A court-houfe, built in 1786, forms a principal ornament of
the town. Salem is connected with Beverly by Effex
bridge, upwards of 1500 feet long, ereéted in 1789. The
harbour is defended by a fort and citadel. N. lat. 42° 3o!.
W. long. 70° 50!.—Alfo, a townfhip in Weft Cheiter
county, New York, bounded E. and S. by the ftate of
Connecticut, and W. by Pounbridge, Bedford townthips,
and Croton river.—Alfo, the county and poft-town of
Wathington county, New York, bounded W. by Argyle.
—Alfo, a poft-town of Stokes county, North Ca a,
on the W. fide of Wack creek ; containing above 100
houfes, regularly built, and occupied by tradefmen. This
fettlement was formed by Moravians in 1766; 35 miles
N.E. by N. from Philadelphia.—Alfo, a county in South
Carolina, in Sumpter diftri@.—Alfo, the chief town of
Surry county, in Salifbury diftri& of North Carolina,—
Alfo, the name of two townthips of Pennfylvania; the
one in Luzerne county, containing 530 inhabitants, and the
other in the county of Weftmoreland, containing 1518 in-
habitants.—Alfo, atownfhip of Rockingham county, New
Hamphhire, in the S.W. corner of the county, adjoining
Plaftow, and divided from Methuen by the Maffechufetts
line. It was incorporated in 1750, and contains 1179 inha-

itants.

SAL

bitants.—Alfo, a Moravian fettlement in the ftate of Ohio,
on Mufkingum river ; abandoned in 1781, and plundered by
the Indians in alliance with the Britifh army.—Alo, a Mo-
ravian fettlement on the N.E. bank of Monongahela river ;
78 miles W. from Pittfburg.—Alfo, New Salem, a Mora-
vian fettlement of Chriitian Indians, on Huron river, on
the S. fide of lake Erie.

SALEMIA, a town of Arabia, in the province of
Nedsjed ; 40 miles N. of Jamama.—Alfo, a town of Afiatic
Turkey, in the pachalic of Tripoli, on the borders of the
defarts of Syria; 70 miles N.N.E. of Damafcus.

SALENZ of Ptolemy, in Ancient Geography, a town
of the ifle of Albion, in the country of the Cattivellauni,
probably fituated at Saludy in Bedfordfhire, where feveral
Roman antiquities have been found.

SALENGORE, in Geography, a city of Afia, and
capital of a kingdom of the fame name, fituated to the fouth
of Queda, in the peninfula of Malacca. N. lat. 3° 27/.
E. long. ror° 20/.

SALENI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Hifpania,
in the Tarragonenfis and in Cantabria, in the environs of the
river Salia. Mela.

SALENTIA, or Satrenti#, a town of Magna
‘Grecia, in the country of the Meflapians. Steph. Byz.

SALENTINA Recio, a country of Magna Grecia, in
which was the promontory called Japygium, and that called
Salentinum promontorium, which terminated the peninfula
of Japygie ; now called cape St. Marie de Leuca. The in-
habitants of this country were called Salentini. Ptolemy.

SALENTINO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in
the province of Bari; 11 miles S.S.E. of Bittetto.

SALEP, in the Materia Medica, the root of @ fpecies
of orchis.

The orchis mafeula of Linnzus is moft valued, although
the roots of fome of the palmated forts, particularly of the
orchis latifolia, are found to anfwer almoft equally well.
The orchis flourifhed in various parts of Europe and Afia,
and grows in our country fpontaneoufly, and in great
died. It is much cultivated in the Eaft, and the
root of it forms a confiderable part of the diet of the inha-
bitants of Turkey, Perfia, and Syria. The falep, which
is brought from the eaftern countries, is in oval pieces, of a

ellowifh-white colour, fomewhat clear and pellucid, very
, and almoft horny, of little or no {mell, in tafte like

m tragacauth. ;

Salep fhould be chofen clean, firm, and hard ; it is very
little liable either to decay, or fophiftication.

The people of the Eaft are extremely fond of falep ; they
look upon it as one of the greateft reftoratives and provo-
catives to venery in the whole vegetable world.

That falep is the root of an orchis, no way differing from
our common orchis in virtue, but owing its appearance to
the manner of preparing it, and, coniequently, that falep
may be payer from the roots of orchis of our own

wth, M. Geoffroy has proved in the following manner.

¢ confidered, that the method of curing one root in the
eaftern part of the world was probably the fame with that
ufed in all ; and obferving that Kampfer had defcribed the
manner in which the Chinefe prepare their ginfeng, to make
it pellucid, which was by fark fteeping, or macerating it in
water, and afterwards carefully drying it, he determined to
attempt the curing of the roots of the common orchis, ina
method not unlike that ufed with the ginfeng, in order to
make falep of it. The falep which we receive from Tur-
yo Be a root of a white or reddith colour, according to its
di t age; aud as we receive it, is always tran{parent.
As to our own orchis, if we attempt to dry the roots in the

SAL

commor: way, they never will appear at all like the falep,
but will become fhrivelled up and brown, and will always
retain, or be ready to imbibe from a humid air a great quan-
tity of moifture. To prepare thefe, in imitation of the
falep, M. Geoffroy chofe the largeit, plumpeft, and fairett
roots he could find ; thefe he nicely fkinned, taking off the
whole outer rind, then throwing them into cold water, he
fuffered them to macerate there fome time; after this he
flightly boiled them ; and taking them out of the water,
and draining them, he had them ftrung upon threads, to
be dried in a warm and dry air. When the roots were
thoroughly dried, they were very tran{parent, and refembled
pieces of gum tragacanth, and continued dry and hard.
The roots, thus prepared, may be kept long in a dry place,
and will never attraét humidity, or become mouldy and
rotten; as they will always do in wet weather, if dried in
the common way with their {kins on.

The orchis roots thus prepared may be reduced to pow-
der; this powder will diflolve away in boiling water, and
a feruple of it will make a bafon full of jelly, in the manner
of the Turkifh falep. This jelly is an admirable medicine
in all the cafes in which falep is prefcribed, and may be ren-
dered agreeable by the addition of wine, fugar, fpice, &c. ;
and the powder may be given with great fuccefs in affes’ milk,
for difeafes of the breaitt.

If the water, in which the roots have been boiled, be eva-
porated over a gentle fire in an earthen veffel, there will re-
main an extraét of a vifcous texture, and a very agreeable
fmell, refembling that of a meadow of flowers when the
wind blows over it.

Retzius, in the Swedifh Tranfactions for 1764, has im-
proved upon Geoffroy’s method ; but Mr. Moult, of Roch-
dale, having publifhed a new procefs, which is recommended
by the ingenious Dr. Percival, from his own knowledge of
its fuccefs, we fhall here add an account of it ; firft pre-
mifing, that the beft time for gathering roots is when the
feed is formed, and the italk ready to fall; becaufe the new
bulb, of which the falep is made, is then arrived to its full
maturity, and may be diftinguifhed from the old one, by a
white bud arifing from the top of it, which is the germ of
the orchis of the fucceeding year. The new root 1s to be
wafhed in water, and the fine brown {kin which covers it is
to be feparated by means of a {mall brufh, or by dipping
the root in hot water, and rubbing it with a coarfe linen
cloth, When a fufficient number of roots have been
thus cleaned, they are to be fpread ona tin plate, and placed
in an oven heated to the ufual degree, where they are to re-
main fix or ten minutes, in which time they will have loft
their milky whitenefs, and acquired a tranfparency like horn,
without any diminution of bulk. In this {tate they are to be
removed, to dry and harden in the air, which will require
feveral days; or by ufing a very gentle heat, this operation
may be finifhed in afew hours. Mr. Moult obferves, that
his falep has a quality of thickening water, which is to that
of fine flour nearly as two and a half to one, with this dif.
ference, that the jelly of falep powder is clear and tranf-

arent, whereas that of flour is turbid and white. Phil.

ranf. vol. lix. p. 1, &c.

Dr. Percival informs us, that falep thus prepared may be
afforded, in that part of England where labour bears a high
value, at about an mae or ten-pence per pound, and that
it might be fold ftill cheaper, if the orchis were cured with-
out feparating from it the brown fkia which covers it 5
whereas the or falep is fold at five or fix fhillings per

ound.
* Salep is faid to contain the greateft quantity of vegetable
nourifhment in the {mallet bulk, The powder of it has

been,

SAL

been, therefore, propofed to conftitute part of the provifions
of a fhip’s company at fea. This powder, and portable foup,
or the dried gelatinous part of flefh, diffolved in boiling
water, form arich, thick jelly ; andan ounce of each, with
two quarts of boiling water, will be fufficient fubfiftence for
a man a day; and as portable foup is fold at half a crowna
pound, and falep, cultivated in our own country, might be
afforded at ten-pence per pound, the day’s fubfiftence would
amount only to two-pence halfpenny. A.nd this food, it is
faid, would prove more nourifhing than double the quantity
of rice cakes, made by boiling rice in water. Befides rice,
as an aliment, is flow of fermentation, and a very weak cor-
reGtor of putrefaction, and much inferior, as a wholefome
nourifhment, tofalep. Salep has alfo the fingular property
of concealing the tafte of falt-water ; and it has the pro-
perty of retarding the acetous fermentation of milk. Dr.
Percival propofes falep as a very ufeful and profitable addi-
tion to bread.

The reftorative, mucilaginous, and demulcent qualities
of the orchis root, render it of confiderable ufe in various
difeafes. In the fea-fcurvy, it powerfully obtunds the acri-
mony of the fluids, and is eafily affimilated into a mild and
nutritious chyle. In diarrhoeas and the dyfentery, it is highly
ferviceable, by fheathing the internal coat of the inteftines,
by abating irritation, and gently correcting putrefaction.
In the fymptomatic fever, which arifes from the abforption
of pus, from ulcers in the lungs, from wounds, or from
amputation, falep ufed plentifully isan admirable demulcent,
and well adapted to refift the diffolution of the cralis of the
blood, incident to thefe cafes. By the fame mucilaginous
quality, it is equally efficacious in the ftrangury and dyfury.
It has alfo been found an ufeful aliment for patients afflicted
with the ftone or gravel. Percival’s Eff. Med. and Exp.
vol. ii.

SALER Mouter, in Geography, a town and fortrefs of
Hindooftan, in the Baglana country ; 114 miles N.W. of
Aurungabad. N. lat. 20° 44’. E. long. 74° 7/.

SALERA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa
Propria, taken by Scipio. Livy, b. xxix.

SALERNE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Var, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Draguignan ; 10 miles W. of it. The place con-
tains 2417, and the canton 4265 inhabitants, on a territory
of 1174 kiliometres, in 3 communes.

SALERNI, atown of Sicily, in the valley of Mazara ;
34 miles S.W. of Palermo.

SALERNO, a fea-port town of Naples, capital of the
province of Principato Citra, and the fee of an archbifhop.
The harbour is good, and defended with a cattle ; 26 miles
E.S.E. of Naples. N. lat. 40° go’. E. long. 14° 35).

SALERNUM, Satcerno, in Ancient Geography, atown
of Italy, S.E. of Neapolis, at the bottom of a {mall gulf,
in the territory of the Picentini. It was fituated on an emi-
nence, at a {mall diftance from the fea ; and the Romans, in
fortifying it again{t the Picentini, extended it to the coatt.
Under the confulate of P. Cornelius, Scipio Africanus, and
Sempronius Longus, in 559, the Romans fent hither a
colony. When the Normans, in the rrth century, obtained
poffeflion of this town, it had the title of a principality, and
in the 13th century the emperor Frederic founded an uni-
verfity, which was in great reputation for medical inftruction.
See the next article.

Sarennum, the School of, in Medical Hiflory, the firlt
Chriftian univerfity eftablifhed in Europe, unlefs we believe
the accounts which fome writers give of thofe of Paris and
Bologna.

Many learned men, who had ftudied medicine and philofo-

SAL

phy in the Arabian fchools, confifting moftly of monks, but
including alfo Hebrew and other eaiaee had affembled at
Salernum, in Italy, as early as the middle of the feventh
century, and by their learning and {kill procured fo much
reputation for that city, that Charlemagne thought proper
to found a college there, in the year 802. Their employ-
ment was the diffufion of the learning of the Arabians, and
efpecially the medicine, which they introduced into Europe,
with the moft extravagant applaufe, ignorant of its origin
from the Greeks, whofe very name the reputation of thefe
Arabian phyficians had almoit extinguifhed, and whofe
writings were fcarcely ever looked into, except by very
few, till the end of the fifteenth century. Salernum, how-
ever, though thus eftablifhed by royal charter, and the feat
of the learning of the Eatt, and though its exiflence asa
college was prolonged for feveral centuries, appears to
have produced few phyficians of confiderable note, and
nothing, as a body, except a collection of precepts for the
prefervation of health, which was entitled «* Schola Salerni-
tana,’’ the Schvol of Salernum.

The principal writer of note, who flourithed at the college
of Salernum, was Conftantine the African, a native of
So ip who had fpent thirty years at Babylon and
Bagdad, and had become fully acquainted with the Oriental
languages and learning. He wrote many books, which he
afhrmed were in a great meafure original ; but which were,
in fact, mere compilations and plagiarifms, efpecially his work
entitled «* Loci communes,”’ which is an entire tranfcription
from Haly Abbas, whofe name he has not mentioned.
Conftantine, however, held a high reputation ; wasa great
promoter of medical knowledge ; and, by his influence and
intereft with Robert, duke of Normandy, the fon of our
William the Conqseror, obtained great patronage for the
fchool. This duke, on his return from the crufade, re-
mained fome time in Apulia, and confulted the phyficians of
Salernum refpeéting a wound in his arm, which had become
fiftulous, in confequence, it was fuppofed, of having been
infliGed by a poifoned arrow. They recommended fuétion
of the wound ; but the duke would not admit of it, leit the
perfon who did it might be poifoned. But his wife, Sybil,
anoble and accomplifhed lady, whom he had married in

Sicily, taking the opportunity in the night, frequently —

fucked the fore, and it healed. About this time, namely in
the year 1100, the Schola Salernitana was compiled, which,
from its high origin, made a great noife both then and in
fucceeding ages. It has been maintained by a French writer,
Andry, in the Journal des Savans, that this work was com-
pofed by Tufa and Rebecca Guerna, two celebrated ladies,
who diftinguifhed themfelves by feveral writings. It is not
generally believed, however, to be the work of an old
woman, but is afcribed to John of Milan, and was deci-
cated, in the name of the whole college, to duke Robert,
in honour of whom a chapter was added, on the cure of
fiftulous fores. This work was written in Leonine verfes, in
compliment alfo, it is fuppofed, to the fame noble patron ;
as this fort of poetry was in great requeft among the Romans.
The work contains an account of the fix non-naturals, with
a feries of rules for the prefervation of health, It had the
honour of being commented upon by Arnaldus de Villa Nova;
and of being imitated by /Egidius, an Athenian, and a Bene-
diGine heal, about the end of the twelfth century, ina
work on the virtues of medicines, of urines, and the pulfe, in
Latin hexameter verfes, though without much regard to th
quantity of the fyllables. r
The fchool of Salernum continued to flourifh for many
ages. "The hiftorian Ordericus Vitalis, who died in 1141,
affirms that, in his time, this college was renowned be
a

SAL

all the world for its excellent {killin phyfic ; and Benjamin
of Tudela, a Jew, on his return from his travels over the

teft part of the then known world, about 1165, com-
mends it as the beft {eminary of medicine among the fons of
Edom ; for fo he calls the weftern Chriftians. The ftudy
of medicine was greatly patronized in this city by feveral
royal perfonages ; efpecially duke Roger, the firft king of
both the Sicilies, in 1130, and by his fucceffors, William
the firft and fecond, who followed his example. It had alfo
fome great privileges conferred upon it, about the year 1225,
by the emperor Frederic II., particularly an exclufive power,
(together with the college of Naples,) of granting degrees
and licences to practice. This emperor was, in fact, a great
judge as well as patron of learning, and was the principal
promoter, at this time, of the tranflations of the works of
the Arabians into Latin. Indeed, not only the original
Arabiaus were tranflated, but their tranflations alfo of the
writings of the Greek authors were put into that language ;
acireumftance which, though it contributed partly perhaps
to the negle& in which the Greek originals remaimed for
fome centuries, yet it prevented probably the Greek copies
from being ultimately loft, as Dr. Freind has obferved, by
directing the attention of the learned to them.

The itatutes of the college of Salernum were of very
ancient date, being probably the firft fpecimen of fuch
ordinances, and obvioufly the models of fubfequent enact-
ments of the fame nature. St. Matthew was the patron of
the inftitution: the motto on its feal was ciVITAS HIPPO-
craticA. The college confifted of the limited number of
ten doétors, who fucceeded according to feniority. The ex-
amination for admiffion to a degree was very ftrict, and muit
be either in Galen’s treatife on therapeutics, or in the firft
of the canons of Avicenna, or in the Aphorifms. The
perfon admitted to examination muft have attained the age
of 21 (a miftake, in the opinion of Dr. Freind, for 25
or 27); and mult produce teftimonials of having itudied
phyfic for feven years. If he wifhed to be admitted a fur-
cme he mutt have learned anatomy for one year. He mutt

wear to be true and obedient to the fociety; to take no
fees from the poor ; and to have no fhare in the gains of
apothecaries. After this, a book was put into the sae of
the candidate, and a ring upon his finger; his head was
- crowned with laurel ; and he was difmiffed with a kifs.
There are many other ftatutes for the regulation of the
practice of the profeffion; particularly the apothecaries
were obliged to make up their medicines according to the
directions of the phyficians, and to fell them at a certain
rice.

The reputation of the college, rather than the intrinfic
merits of the work, contributed probably to the exten-
five diflemination and multiplication of the editions of the
“ Schola Salernitana, de confervanda valetudine.’? More
than twenty editions appeared in Latin in the courfe of a
century, after the invention of printing ; and it has been
tranflated into moft of the European languages. See
Freind’s Hittory of Phyfick, part ii. ; Eloy Did. Hitt. de
la Med.

SALERS, in Geography, atown of France, in the de-

ment of the Cantal, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri€t of Mauriac; 9 miles S.E. of it. ‘The place
contains 1645, and the canton 12,598 inhabitants, on a ter-
ritory of 330 kiliometres, in 11 communes?

SALES, a town of France, in the department of the
Aude, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriét of Caltelnau-
dary, 7 miles W. of it. The place contains 939, and the
canton 4958 inhabitants, on a territory of 135 kiliometres,
in 14 Communes.

SAL

SALESBURY, Witram, in Biography, a Welth
grammarian, who flourifhed at the beginning of the 17th
century, was bred to the law. He affitted bifhop Davies
in tranflating the New Teftament into the Welth language,
which was printed in 1620. He is knownas the author of
« A Welth DiGionary ;?? “ A Treatife on Rhetoric ;??
* Poems,”? &c.

SALES-CURAN, or SaLtes-curRAN, in Geography,
atown of France, in the department of the Aveiron, and
chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of Milhau ; 11 miles
S.E. of Rhodez or Rodés. The place contains 1164, and
the canton 3886 inhabitants, on a territory of 210 kilio-
metres , in 8 communes.

SALET, Sauter, Salade, or Celate, in War, a light
covering or armour for the head, anciently worn by the ight
horfe ; only differing from the cafk in that it had no crett,
and was little more than a bare cap. It fometimes had a
vifor, and was fometimes without it.

Nicod derives the word from fila, which had the fame fig-
nification among the Latins; others from /aladinus, alleg-
ing that it was borrowed from the Orientals ; others from
the Italian celeta, as if the head were hid by it ; others
from the Spanifh celada, a little cafk, &c.

SALETZ, or Saez, in Geography, a town of the
Helvetian republic, in the county of Sax, on the Rhine;
4 miles E. of Sax. :

SALEVE, Monr, one of the Alps, fituated about two
leagues S. of Geneva; extending near nine miles in length,
and elevated above the lake not quite 3300 feet. The fide
of it, which is next Geneva, is for the moft part a barren
rock, the N.E. end of it being almoft a perpendicular
precipice ; the other fide is lefs rude, of a more gentle ac-
clivity, covered with trees, fhrubs, and herbage, as is alfo
the top, where is fome of the fineft pafture in the world.
It is inhabited only by a few fhepherds, who pafs the fummer
months here with their cattle, in little miferable huts or
barns ; during the remaining part of the year, viz. for about
four or five months, it is covered with fnow. This mountain
confilts chiefly of a calcareous ftone ; and there is reafon to
believe that in fome parts of-it there is an ironore. This
was one of the ftations feleted by fir George Shuckburgh
for making his obfervations for afcertaining the heights of
mountains : another of his {tations was the Mola, an infulated
mountain about 18 miles E. of Geneva, and rifing near
5000 feet above the lake. From the fummit of this mountain
the clouds had a ftriking appearance to an inhabitant of the
plain ; very few of them being at above one-fifth of the
height ; not governed by the wind, but moving in every
poflible direction. Some of them feemed creeping along the
ground, whillt others were rifing perpendicularly between
the hills. The clouds obferved fom Geneya were generally
three days in the week below the fummit of Mont Saleve ;
fo that the ordinary region of thefe vapours feems to be at
that height in the atmofphere, where the barometer would
ftand at about 26 inches in this climate. Phil. ‘Tranf.
vol. Ixvil. p. 538.

SALEYER. See Sacaver.

SALFELD, or Saat, a town of the duchy of Ca-
rinthia; 6 miles N.E. of Clagenfurt.

SALFELDEN, a town of the archbifhopric of Salz-
burg, on the Saal; 26 miles S.S.W. of Salzburg.

SALFELDT, a town of Pruflia, in Oberland; 26
miles 8.E. of Marienberg.

SALFERINA, a town of Italy, in the department of
the Mincio; 17 miles N.W. of Mantua.

SALFORD, Upper and Lower, two townfhips in Mont.
gomery county, Pennfylvania,

SALFORD,

SAL

SAtrorp, a tewnfhip in the parifh of Manchefter,
hundred of Salford, and county palatine of Lancafter, Eng-
land, is fituated on the northern bank of the river Irwell, at
the diftance of 180 miles N.W. by N. from London. It is
to Manchefter what Southwark'is to the metropolis, being
feparated from it only by the river above-mentioned, over
which are thrown feveral bridges to facilitate communication.
Salford is a royalty belonging to the crown, and wouid ap-
pear to have been anciently a town of fome importance,
from the circumftance of its giving name to an extenfive
hundred. Here are held two fairs, one at Whitfuntide, the
other in November, for horfes, horned cattle, pigs, toys,
and various articles of peddling merchandize. The principal
ftreet in Salford extends from the old bridge to the entrance
of the town from Warrington to Bolton. It is denominated
Chapel-ftreet from Trinity chapel, which ftands near its
centre, and was founded in the reignof Charles I. The fe-
condary ftreets, which are numerous, branch off from Chapel-
ftreet on both fides. A new church, called St. Stephen’s,
was confecrated in 1794, and the increafe of the town has, in
every refpeét, kept pace with that of Manchefter. Several
of the public buildings are fituated on the Salford fide of
the river, and among others the New Bayley prifon, over
the entrance to which is a commodious and large teffion-
room, where the weekly and quarterly feflions are held,
befides various with-drawing rooms for the magiftrates,
jurors, witnefles, &c.

According to the parliamentary returns of 1811, the town-
fhip of Salford contains 3718 houfes, and 19,114 inhabitants.
(See Mancuester.) A brief hiftorical Defcription of the
‘Towns of Manchefter and Salford, &c. 8vo. 1804. »Aikin’s
Manchefter, 4to. 1795. Beauties of England and Wales,
by John Britton, F.S. A.

SALGA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, in
Mauritania. Steph. Byz.

SALGADO, in Geography, a river of Brafil, on the
fouth coaft, 13 leagues N.E. of Rio Lagoa de Sal, or
Salt-lake river ; navigable only for {mall boats, but having
a very good harbour behind the fands.

SALGANEA, or SALGaANneus, in Ancient Geography,
a town of Greece, in Beeotia, at the paflage of the Euripus
to the ifle of Eubcea. j

SALGIR, in Geography, a river of Ruffia, which rifes
in the fouth part of the government of Tauris, and runs
into the ftrait of Theodofia, on the eaft coaft, N. lat 45°
30. E. long. 36°.

SALGO, a town and caftle of Hungary; 16 miles S.E.
of Korpona.

SALHI, atown of Egypt, on the right bank of the
Nile; 3 miles N.E. of Atfieh.

SALHUUS, a town of Norway, in the province of
Bergen; 6 miles N. of Bergen.

SALI, a town of Hindoottan, in Berar; 38 miles W.
of Mahur.

Saut, in Ancient Geography, a people of European Sar-
matia, north of the Agathyrfi. Ptolemy.

SALLA, in Antiquity, Roman virgins, dreffed after the
manner of the Salii, who aflifted the pontiff in facrificing.
Pitifc. in voc.

SALIAN, or Satuiay, James, in Biography, was born
at Avignon in the year 1557. He entered the fociety of
the Jefuits at the age of 21, and was foon appointed to
teach the principles of polite literature at different femi-
naries, in the province of Lyons. After this he was chofen
to the office of reétor of the college of Befangon. ‘The re-
mamder of his life he {pent at Paris. He died in 1640, at
the age of 83. He is knownas a-confiderable author, and

SAL. :

among his works are the following: “¢ Annales Ecclefiaftici
Veteris Teftamenti, ab Orbe condito ufque ad Chrifti Do-
mini Mortem,” in 6 vols. folio; an ‘ Epitome’? of the
preceding work; “ Enchiridion Chronologicum facre et
profane Hiftorie.”

SatiAn Dance, in Antiquity. See Dance and Saui.

SALIANAH, in Geography, a town of Thibet. N.
lat. 28° 8!. E. long. 81° 22’.

SALIANT, in Fortification, denotes projeding.

The word is formed from the French, /ai/lant, which fig-
nifies the fame thing ; of /ailler, to proje&, advance outwards 3
and that of the Latin, /alire, to leap. 3 P

There are two kinds of angles; the one /aliant, which are
thofe that prefent their points outwards; the other re-
entering, which have their points inwards. Inftances o
both kinds we have in tenailles and ftar-works. ;

SALIBABO, in Geography, an ifland in the Eaft Indian
fea, twelve miles long and three broad, with a harbour,
called «« Leron,”? on the S.E. coaft. The inhabitants are
fubjeé&t to Sanghir, which is under the dominion of the
fultan of Ternate, and much oppreffed by their chiefs, who
on trivial occafions fell them for flaves. They manufaGture
a kind of cloth from wild plantain leaves. This ifland gives
name to a group, including Tolour, Kabroang, and another
ifland. N. lat. 4°. E. long. 128° 9!. ae

SALIC, or Sarique Law, Lex Salica, an ancient and
fundamental law of the kingdom of France, ufually fup-
pofed to have been made by Pharamond, or at leaft by
Clovis, in virtue of which males only are to inherit.

Some, as Poftellus, will have it to have been called Salic,
g. d. Gallic, becaufe peculiar to the Gauls. Cenal takes
the reafon to be, that the law was only ordained for the
royal falles, or palaces. Claud. Seiflel fays, it was thus
called, becanfe of the /a/t and the prudence with which it
abounds. Fer. Montanus infilts, it was becaufe Pharamond
was at firft called Salicus ; others, with the abbot Ufperg,
derive its name from Salogaf, Pharamond’s principal mi-
nifter; and others, from the frequent repetition of the
words Si aligua, at the beginning of the articles. Gene-
brard fays, it was called Salic for Salomonic, becaufe Solo-
mon fet the firft example of it. Davifon derives it from the

German words /alts and lick, q. d. like to falt. The moft —

probable opinion is that which derives the word from the
ancient Franks, who were called Sali, Salici, and Salingi,
on account of the Sala, a river of ancient Germany, This
is the fentiment of Rhenanus and /Emilius, who are fol-
lowed by feveral others; among the reit, Menage, Paf-
quier, Borel, and Juncker. Boucctne gives another
plaufible origin oft the word: he fays it comes from the
word /falich, which, in the old Teutonic language, fignitied
falutary ; and that the French in this law imitated the policy
of the ancient Romans, who made falutary laws, which the
magittrates were to have before them when they adminiftered
juftice. This he confirms from a curious figure taken out
of the Notitia Imperii, where the book is reprefented co+
vered with gold, with this infcription, Leges /alutares.

Du Haillas, after a critical examination of the Salic law,
declares it to have been an expedient of Philip the Long,
in 1316, for the exclufion of the daughter of Louis Hutin
from inheriting the crown. Father Daniel) on the other
hand, maintains, that it is quoted by authors much more
ancient than Philip the Long; and that Clovis 1s the real
author of it. The opinion of Du Haillan has been con-
futed by Meflrs. Vertot and de Foncemagne, in the Ment
de Acad. des Infcript. tom. ii. p. 603, &c. and tom, viii.
p- 490, &c. who trace the exiftence of the Salic laws to
the kings of the firft and fecond race. The ityle, wee is

7 ly

— i ——_

SALIC LAW.

fcarcely intelligible, and which is in a Latinized diale&, is
a mark of its antiquity.

After the Franks had quitted their country, fays Mon-
tefquieu, they made a compilement of the Salic laws, with
the affiftance of the fages of their own nation. According
to M. Leibnitz, in his Treatife of the Origin of the Franks,
the Salic law was made before the reign of Clovis; but it
could not be before the Franks had quitted Germany, for
they did not at that time underftand the Latin tongue.

Before the eleGtion of the Merovingian kings, the moft
powerful tribe or nation of the Franks appointed four
venerable chieftains to compofe the Salic laws; and their
labours were examined and approved in three fucceflive
affemblies of the people. After the baptifm of Clovis, he
reformed feveral articles that were incompatible with Chrif-
tianity. The Salic law was again amended by his fons;
and at length, under the reign of Dagobert, the code was
revifed and promulgated in its a€tual force, 100 years after
the eftablifhment of the French monarchy. Within the
fame period, the cuftoms of the Ripuarians were tranfcribed
and publifhed; and Charlemagne himfelf, the legiflator of
his age and country, had accurately ftudied the qo national
laws, which itill prevailed among the Franks: the former,
or Salic law, extended from the Carbonarian foreft to the
Loire ; and the latter, or Ripuarian, might be obeyed from
the fame foreft to the Rhine.

Latin appears to have been the original language of the
Salic law. It was probably compofed in the beginning of
the fifth century, before the era (A.D. 421) of the real or
fabulous Pharamond.

The tribe of the Ripuarian Franks having joined itfelf,
under Clovis, to that of the Salians, it preferved its own
cuftoms ; and Theodoric, king of Auftrafia, ordered them
to be reduced to writing. He collected likewife the cuf-
_ toms of thofe Bavarians and Germans who were dependent
on his kingdom. The Thuringian code was given by the
fame Theodoric, for the Thuringians were his fubjeds.
As the Frifians were fubdued by Charles Martel and Pepin,
their law cannot be prior to thofe princes. Charlemagne,
the firft that reduced the Saxons, gave them the law {till
extant. As foon as the Vifigoths, the Burgundians, and
the Lombards, had founded their refpetive kingdoms, they
reduced their laws to writing, not with a view .of obliging
the vanquifhed nations to conform to their cuftoms, but
with a defign of regulating their own conduét by them.
In the Salic and Ripuarian laws, as well as in thofe of the
Alemans, Bavarians, Thuringians, and Frifians, there is an
admirable fimplicity: they breathe an original rutticity,
and a {pirit which no other fpirit had weakened. They re-
ceived but very few alterations, becaufe all thofe people,
except the Franks, remained in Germany; and even the
Franks themfelves laid there the foundation of a great part
of their ire, fo that they had none but German laws.
The fame obfervation is not applicable to the laws of the
Vifigoths, of the Lombards, and Burgundians; their cha-
raéter altered confiderably, from the great change which
happened in the chara¢ter of thofe people, who had fettled
in their new habitations. The kings of the firft race
ftruck out of the Salic and Ripuarian laws whatever was
abfolutely inconfiftent with Chriftianity, but left the chief

untouched; but this cannot be faid of the laws of the
which were new-moulded by their kings and by

the . The laws of the Burgundians, and efpecially
thofe of the Vifigoths, admitted of corporal punifhments ;
whereas thefe were not tolerated by the Salic and Ripuarian
Jaws. They preferved their charaéter much better. ‘The
bifhops had an immenfe authority at the court of the Vifi-

Vow. XXXII.

goth kings. All the maxims, principles, and views of the
inquifition, afterwards eftablifhed, are owing to the code of
the Vifigoths, and the monks only copied againft the Jews
the laws formerly ena@ted by bifhops. The laws of the
Burgundians and Vifigoths were impartial; but this was
not the cafe with the Salic law, for it eftablithed between
the Franks and Romans the moft mortifying diftinGions.
When a Frank, a barbarian, or one living under the Salic
law, happened to be killed, a compofition of 200 fols was
to be paid to his relations; only 100 upon the killing of a
Roman poffeffor, and no more than 42 for a Roman tri-
butary. The compofition for the murder of one of the
king’s vaflals, if a Frank, was 600 fols; of a Roman,
though the king’s gueit, only 300. Moreover, if a number
of people aflembled together to aflault a Frank in his houfe,
and he happened to be killed, the Salic law ordained a com-
pofition of 600 fols; but if a Roman or a freedman was ,
affaulted, only half that compofition. By the fame law, if
a Roman put a Frank in irons, he was liable to a compofi-
tion of 30 fols; but if a Frank had thus ufed a Roman, he
paid only 15. A Frank ftripped by a Roman was entitled
to a compofition of 624 fols, and a Roman ftripped by a
Frank received only 30.

The country at this day called France was, under the
firft race, governed by the Roman law, or the Theodofian
code, and by the different laws of the barbarians who fettled
in thefe parts. Inthe country of the domain of the Franks,
the Salic law was eftablifhed for the Franks, and the Theo-
dofian code for the Romans. If it be afked, how comes it
to pafs, that the Salic laws gained almoft a general autho-
rity in the country of the Franks, and the Roman law gra-
dually declined; while in the jurifdiGtion of the Vifigoths,
the Roman law {pread itfelf, and obtained at laft a general
{way ?—Baron Montefquieu replies, that the Roman law
came to be difufed among the Franks, on account of the
great advantages accruing from being a Frank, a barbarian,
or a perfon living under the Salic law; every one, in that
cafe, readily quitting the Roman to hve under the Salic
law. The clergy alone retained it, becaufe a change could
be of no advantage to them. The Roman law inflifed no
hardfhips upon them, and in other refpeéts it was moft
proper for them, as it was the work of Chriftian emperors.
On the other hand, in the patrimony of the Vifigoths, as
the Vifigoth law gave no civil advantages to the Vifigoths
over the Romans, the latter had no temptation to difcon-
tinue living under their own law, in order to live under
another. They retained, therefore, their own laws, with-
out adopting thofe of the Vifigoths. In Burgundy the
Roman law was continued, in hat. to regulate the difputes
of Romans among themfelves. The latter had no induce-
ment to quit their own law, as in the country of the Franks ;
and the rather as the Salic law was not eftablifhed in Bur-
gundy. The Roman and Gothic laws continued likewife
in the country of the eftablifhment of the Goths, where the
Salic law was never received. The Salic, the Ripuarian,
Burgundian, and Vifigoth laws, came by degrees to be dif-
ufed among the French, becaufe, when fiefs became here-
ditary, | arriere-fiefs were extended, many ufages were
introduced, to which thefe laws were no longer applicable ;
and as France found itfelf divided into a number of petty
lordfhips, which acknowledged rather a feudal than a po-
litical dependence, it was very difficult for only one law ta
be authorifed. Accordingly the Salic, Burgundian, and
Vifigoth laws were extremely negleéted at the end of the
fecond race, and at the beginning of the third they were
fcareely ever mentioned.

d
The Salic law, or that % the Salian Franks, differed
m

SALIC LAW.

in feveral refpeéts from that of the Ripuarian Franks, and
other barbarous nations. The Salic law did not allow of
the cuftom of negative proofs ; that is, if a perfon brought
a demand or charge again{t another, he was ie by the
Salic law to prove it, and it was not fufficient for the ac-
cufed to deny it ; and this is agreeable to the laws of almoft
all the nations in the univerfe. In one cafe, however, this
kind of proof was allowed; but even then they were not
admitted alone, and without the concurrence of pofitive
proofs. The plaintiff caufed witneffes to be heard, in order
to ground his aétion ; the defendant alfo produced witneffes
on his fide ; and the judge was to come at the truth by com-
paring thefe teitimonies. The Salic law did not admit of
the trial by combat ; though it had been received by the
laws of the Ripuarians, and of almoit all the barbarous na-
tions. ‘The Salic law allowed of the ordeal or trial by
boiling water, and as it was exceflively cruel, the law found
an expedient to foften its rigour; for it permitted the per-
fon, who had been fummoned to this trial, to ranfom his
hand, with the confent of the adverfe party. The decline
and difufe of the Salic and Roman laws were partly, if not
principally, owing to their not admitting judicial combats.
That particular paflage of the Salic law, which is commonly
diftinguifhed by the terms “ the Salic Jaw,” has not any
particular regard to the crown of France: it only imports,
in the general, that with regardto Salic land no part of the
inheritance fhall fall to any female, but the whole to the
male fex. De terra Salica nulla portio hereditatis mulieri
veniat; fed ad virilem fexum tota terre hereditas per-
veniat.”” So that it is a popular error to fuppofe, that the
Salic law was eftablifhed purely on account of the fucceffion
of the crown; fince it extends to private perfons as much
as thofe of the royal family.

Part of it feems to have been borrowed by our Henry I.
in compiling his laws, cap. 89. ‘* Qui hoc fecerit, fecun-
dum legem Salicam moriatur.”” .

By Salic lands, or inheritances, were anciently denoted
all lands, by whatever tenure held, whether noble or bafe,
from the fucceffion to which women were excluded by the
Salic law ; for they were by it admitted to inherit nothing
but moveables and purchafes, whenever there were any males.
Indeed, M. Fenelon obferves, that there were originally
Salic lands, diftinguifhed from all others, and deftined for
the military pecs of the nation; and to thefe, it is fup-
pofed, the law was originally intended to be confined.

In order to underftand the nature of thefe Salic lands
nothing more is neceflary, fays Montefquieu, than to invef-
tigate the ufages and cuitoms with refpeé to lands amongtt
the Franks betore they came out of Germany.

Mr. Echard, he fays, has very plainly proved that the
word Salic is derived from Sala, which fignifies a houfe ;
and that therefore the Salic land was the land of the
houfe. Montefquieu goes farther, and examines what was
the houfe, and what the land belonging to the houfe, among
the Germans.

«“ They dwell not in towns,”’ fays Tacitus, * nor can they
bear to have their houfes joined to thofe of others; every
one leaves a {pace or {mall piéce of ground about his houfe,
which is inclofed and fhut up.” Tacitus is very exaét in
this account; for many laws of the Barbarian codes have
different decrees againft thofe who threw down this in-
clofure, as well as again{t thofe who broke into the houfe.

We learn from ‘T'acitus and Cefar, that the lands culti-
vated by the Germans were given them only for the {pace
of a year; after which they again bécame public. They
had no other patrimony but the houfe and a piece of land,
within the inclofure that furrounded it. It was this parti-

10

cular patrimony which belonged to the males. And indeed
how could it belong to the daughters? they were to pais
into another houfe.

The Salic land was then within that inclofure which be-
longed to a German houfe ; this was the only property they
had. The Franks after their conquefts acquired new pof-
feffions, and continued to call them Salic lands.

When the Franks lived in Germany, their wealth con-
fitted of flaves, flocks, horfes, arms, &c.; the houfe, and the
{mall portion of land adjoining to it, were naturally given
to the male children who were to dwell there. But after-
wards, when the Franks had by conquelt acquired large di-
vifions of land, they thought it hard that the daughters
and their children fhould be incapable of enjoying any part
of them. They introduced a cuftom of permitting the
father to recall his daughter, and her children. | hey
filenced the law ; and it appears that thefe recalls were fre-
quent, fince they were entered in the formularies.

The Salic law had not in view a preference of one fex to
the other, much lefs had it a regard to the perpetuity of a
family, a name, or the fucceflion of land. Thefe things did
not enter into the heads of the Germans; it was purely a
law of economy, which gave the houfe, and the land de-
pendent on the houfe, to the males who fhould dwell in it,
and to whom it confequently was of moft fervice. ante f

We need here only tranfcribe the title of the Allodial
lands of the Salic law, that famous text of which fo many
have fpoken, and which fo few have read.

“ry. If a man dies without iflue, his father or mother
fhall fucceed him. 2. If he has neither father nor mother,
his brother or fifter fhall fucceed him. 3. If he has neither
brother nor filter, the filter of his mother fhall fucceed him.
4. If his mother has no filter, the fifter of his father hall
fucceed him. 5. If his father has no ‘filter, the neareft
relation by the male fhall fucceed. 6. Not any part of
the Salic land fhall pafs to the females; but it fhall belong
to the males, that is, the male children fhall fucceed their
father.”” 4 aA .

It is plain that the firft five articles relate to the in-
heritance of a man who dies without iflue ; and the fixth to
the fucceilion of him who has children. _

When a man dies without children, the Jaw ordains! that
neither of the two fexes fhall have the preference to the
other, except in certain cafes. In the two firft degrees of
fucceffion, the advantages of the males and females were the
fame; in the third and fourth, the females had the pre-
ference, and the males in the fifth.

The Salic law enjoins, that after the father’s fifter, the
fucceffion fhould be held by the nearett male relation; but
if this relation was beyond the fifth degree, he fhould not
inherit. ‘Ehus a woman of the fixth degree, might inherit —
to the prejudice of a male of the fixth: and this may be
feen in the law of the Ripuarian Franks, (a faithful inter-
pretation of the Salic law,) under the title of Al/odial lands,
where it follows ftep by we the Salic law on the fame
fubjeet. , 5 IEA

If the father left iffue, the Salig law would have the
daughters excluded from the inheritance of the Salie land,
and that it fhould belong to the male children. >

It would be eafy, fays Montefquieu, to prove that the Salie
law did not abfolutely exclude the daughters from the pof-
feffion of the Salic land, but only ia the cafe where they were
excluded by their brothers. This appears from the Salic law
itfelf ; which, after having faid that the women fhall potlefs
none of the Salic land, but only the males, interprets and
re{trains itfelf, by adding, “that is, the fon fhall fucceed
to the inheritance of the father.” ;

Montef-

ites

9

;

a

{
;

SAL

Montefquieu maintains, in oppofition to feveral writers
on this fubjeét, that the Salic lands were not fiefs. Fiefs
at firft were not hereditary : if the Salic lands had been fiefs,
how could Marculfus treat that cuftom as impious which
excluded the women from inheriting, when the males them-
felves did not fucceed to fiefs. ‘The chartere which have
been cited to prove that the Salic lands were fiefs, only
prove that they were freeholds. Fiefs were not eftablifhed
till after the conquelt, and the Salic cuftoms fubfifted long
before the Franks left Germany. It was not the Salic law
which, by fetting bounds te the fucceflion of women, formed
the eftablifhment of fiefs; but it was the eftablifhment of
fiefs that fet limits to the fucceflion of women, and to the
regulations of the Salic law.

‘After what has been faid, one would not imagine that
the perpetual fucceffion of the males to the crown of France
fhould have taken its rife from the Salic law. And yet this
is a point indubitably certain. Montefquieu proves it from
the feveral codes of the barbarous nations. The Salic law
and the law of the Burgundians refufed the daughters the
right of fuccceding to the land in conjunction with their
brothers; neither did they fucceed to the crown, The
law of the Vifigoths, on the contrary, permitted the
daughters to inherit the land with the brothers; and the
women were capable of inheriting the crown.. Amongit
thefe people the regulation of the civil law had an effe& on
the political.

This was not the only cafe in which the political law of
the Franks gave way to the civil. By the Salic iaw all the
brothers fucceeded equally to the land, and this was alfo
decreed by a law of the Burgundians. Thus in the king-
dom of the Franks, and in that of the Burgundians, all the
brothers fucceeded to the crown; if we except a few mur-
ders and ufurpations which took place amongft the Burgun-
dians. Spirit of Laws, vols. i. and ii.

M. Eccard, a Hanoverian, is faid to have recovered an
ancient MS. of this famous law, containing a third part of
it, much more ample than any yet difcovered, with a very
curious chronology of the fame law, hitherto unknown.

SALICA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania, in
the country of the Oretani.

SALICARIA, in Botany, fo called by Tournefort,
from /alix, a willow, becaufe the moft common {pecies grows
in willow-beds, or ofier-holts, and fometimes bears the name
of Willow-herb. See Lyturum.

Savicania, in Ornithology. See Moraciiia Sakcaria.

SALICARIA, in Botany, a natural order of plants,
the o1ft in Juflieu’s fyitem, the gth of his 14th clafs, fee
Ficormnex. The name of this order alludesto Lythrum Sa-
licaria, one of the belt known of the plants it contains, and
the charaters given by Juflieu are as fllows.

Calyx » or pitcher-fhaped. Petals definite, inferted
into t of the calyx, alternately with its fegments ;
fometimes wanting. Stamens definite (indefinite in Lager/iroe-
mia and Munchaufia), ether the fame number with the pe-
tals, or twice as many, inferted into the middle of the calyx ;
anthers {mall. Germen Simple, fuperior ; ftyle one; ftigma
oftencapitate. Cap/ule encompafled with the calyx, of one
or many cells, with numerous feeds, inferted into a central

receptacle. Corculum dettitute of albumen. Stem fhrubb
or herbaceous. Leaves oppofite or alternate. Flowers axil-
lary or terminal.

Seétion 1. Flowers polypetalous.

This confifts of Lagerflroemia; Munchaufia, jultly fuf-
petted to be its congener ; Pemphis of Fortler, reduced by
the younger Linnzus to Lythrum; Ginoria of Jacquin and
Linneus; Griflea; Lawfonia; Crenea of Aublet and

SAL

Schreber; Lythrum; with Acifanthera, Parfonfia, and
Sophes of Browne, the former referred by Linnzus to
Rhexia, the two latter to Lythrum.

SeGtion 2. Flowers often apetalous.

Lfnardia; Ammannia; Glaux; and Peplis,

The order in quetftion differs in feveral re{pedts from fome
that agree with it in the infertion of its ftamens and petals ;
as from Juffieu’s Onagre, and Myrti, in having a fuperior
germen. Someof the Melafome come nearer to it in this re-
{peé&t ; but have a different and peculiar ftru€ture of anthers,
Juflieu doubts whether the genera conftituting his fecond fec-
tion might not be removed to the PorTtuLace®; fee that
article.

SALICASTRUM, a name by whick Pliny, and fome
other botanical authors, have called the /olanum lignofum, the
woody nightfhade, or bitter fweet. Ger. Emac. Ind. 2.

SALICE, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the pro-
vince of Otranto; 4 miles S.S.W. of Aleffano.

SALICHA, in the Materia Medica, a name given by
fome of the old writers to cinnamon. Avicenna and Sera-
pion ufe it for the bark we call ca/fa lignea, and the Greeks
Aylocafia, when itripped clean from the wood.

SALICINEA, a name ufed by Gefner, and fome other
authors, for the nardus celtica, or Celtic fpikenard.

SALICO, or Saxuco, in Geography, atown of Africa,
and capital of a country N. of the Gambia. N. lat. 11°
22’. E. long. 8° 20.

SALICORNIA, in Botany, is generally fuppofed to be
fo called from /a/, falt, and cornu, ahorn, in allufion to the
horn-like fhape of the branches, and the falt flavour of the
whole plant. De Theis however fays, that the name Salicot,
or Salicor, by which this herb is known in Languedoc, was
latinized by Tournefort, as above. The fame author, ne-
verthelefs, acknowledges that thefe names originate in /a/,
and allude to the alkaline falt or foda obtained from the Safie
cornia.—Linn. Gen. 5. Schreb. 8. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3.
23. Vahl. Enum. v. 1.9. Mart. Mill. DiG. v. 4. Sm.
Fl. Brit. 2. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 1.12. Purfhh2. Brown
Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 410. Juff. 86. Tournef. t. 485-
Lamarck Illuftr. t. 4.—Clafs and order, Monandria Mono-
gynia. Nat. Ord. Holeracez, Linn. Atriplices, Jui.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tumid, en-
tire, permanent. Cor. none. Stam. Filament one, fome-
times two, fimple, longer than the calyx; anther oblong,
erect, of two roundifh lobes. Pi/?. Germen ovate-oblong,
fuperior ; ityle folitary, fimple, very fhort; ftigma with
three or more notches. Peric. none, except the {welling
calyx. Seed folitary.

Obf. Linnzus remarks, that he once faw a folitary f{ta-
znen, in the annual fpecies cultivated ; but that other per-
fons had fubfequently noticed two. The hiftory of the fe-
veral {pecies, which differ in the number of their ftamens,
will account for this apparent contradition.

Eff. Ch. Calyx fwelling, undivided. Petals none.
mens one or two. Seed folitary, enclofed in the calyx.

1. S. herbacea. Common Jointed Glaffwort, or Annual
Samphire. Linn. Sp. Pl. 5. Willd.n. rt. Fil. Brit. n. 1,
a Ait.n1. Purfhn.1, Fl. Dan, t. 303. (S. annua ;
Bait. Opufe. y. 2. 105.t. 10. Engl. Bot. t. 415. S. five
Kali geniculatum; Ger. Em. 535.)—Stem herbaceous,
ereét ; interftices obconical ; joints comprefled, emarginate.
Spikes tapering. Stamen folitary.—Common on the fea
fhores of Europe, in places overflowed by the tide, efpe-
cially on a muddy foil, lowering in Augult, It is alfo com-
mon all along the coalt of North America, according to
Mr. Purfh, at the fame feafon. The root is fmall, fibrous,
annual. Stem ereét, now and then curved and inclining at

¥ 2 the

Sta-

SALICORNIA.

the bottom, divided above into copious, oppofite, fometimes
compound, nearly cylindrical, jointed branches, rather taper-
ing towards each end, of alight bright green, quite fmooth,
very fucculent, and full of a falt, bitterifh, and mawkifh
juice ; each joint is much longer than broad, except in the
flowering part, flightly {welling upwards, compreffed and
emarginate on each fide, at the top. There are no /eaves.
Spikes folitary at the end of each branch, of which indeed
they are a continuation with fhortened joints, the uppermoft
of which diminifh gradually. Flowers fmall, about three,
feffile and crowded, on each fide of the bafe of every joint.
Stamen always folitary, with an incumbent yellow anther.
Stigma in three acute fegments. Seed ovate, imbedded in
the pulpy calyx. This herb makes a very good pickle, if
properly feafoned with fpices, having little flavour of its
own ; in which refpeé it differs widely from the true Sam-
phire, or Sampire, Crithmum maritimum, found on Dover
cliffs, and immortalized by Shak{peare.

2. S. procumbens. Procumbent Jointed Glaffwort. Engl.
Bot. t. 2475. (S. herbacea; Ehrh. Beitr. fafc. 7. 178.
Purfh n. 1. 2?)—Stem herbaceous, procumbent ; interttices
obconical; branches fimple. Spikes tapering. Stamens
two.—Very common in fimilar fituations with the preceding,
flowering in Auguft. Root annual. Stem procumbest, a
fpan long, with feveral primary divifions at the lower part
only. Branches ufually, if not always, fimple. Joints of
the fem notched ; the interftices {welling upward, com-
prefled, or rather quadrangular. Spikes tapering, acute.
Stamens always two to each flower. Stigma with many
notches. The determination of this diandrous {pecies ac-
counts for the contradiétory accounts of botanilts ; fome of
whom affert §. herbacea, or annua as it is often called, to
have but one flamen, whilft others as pofitively declare they
have found two. We believe the plants fo circumftanced to
be perfeily diftin& fpecies, differing moreover in the growth
of their ems, though even Linnzus undoubtedly confounded
them, as his herbarium fhews.—Whether the S. herbacea y or
2 of Fl. Brit. be varieties of this, we have no means of afcer-
taining, but muft refer them to the confideration of fome
Dorfethhire botanift. Still lefs can we fay any thing about
var. « of the fame work, except that it feems more likely to
belong to the following.

3. S. radicans. Creeping Jointed Glaflwort. Fl. Brit.
t. 1691. (S. herbacea8; Fl. Brit. 2. S. ereéta, foliis
brevibus, cupreffiformis ; Dill. in Rati Syn. 137. Woody
Jointed Glaflwort ; Petiv. Herb. Brit.t. 9. f. 4?)—Stem
woody ; procumbent and taking root at the bafe ; joints
comprefled, notched ; interftices nearly cylindrical. Spikes
oblong. Stigma deeply three-cleft. Stamens two.—Found
on the muddy fea-coaft of Norfolk, Suffex, Dorfetthire,
and other parts of England, flowering in September. This
fpecies appears to be perennial, having a fhrubby and creep-
ing flem, which throws up many upright compound branches,
refembling the individual plants of S. herbacea, and there-
fore often confounded therewith; but their interftices are
more flender and cylindrical; the /pikes not fo uniform in
thicknefs throughout. Stamens two. Stigma big fepa-
rated into three, occafionally only two, long narrow fegments.

4. S. perennans. Spreading Perennial Jointed Gla{{wort.
Willd. n. 1. Vahl. n. 3. (“S. herbacea @; Pallas
It. v. 1. append. n. 89. t. D. f. 1.””)—* Stem herbaceous,
fpreading ; joints compreffed, cloven. Spikes axillary, ter-
nate, ftalked. Scalesacute. Root perennial.’’—Gathered
by Pallas, in partly dried marfhes in Siberia. Willdenow.
Whether this be referrible to any of the foregoing, we have
no means of determining, for want of {pecimens, and an
exact defeription of the fowers ; but it feems difting.

9

5. S. fruticofa. Shrubby Jointed Glaflwort. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 5. Willd. n.3. Fl. Brit.n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 2467.
Ait. n.12. (Kah; Camer. Epit. 246. K. geniculatum
perenne fruticofius procumbens ; Raii Syn. 136.) —Stem
woody, afcending ; joints and interftices cylindrical. Spikes
nearly feffile, cylindrical, obtufe. Stigma cloven.—Native
of the fea-coaft, in the more temperate parts of Europe.
Sir Hans Sloane found it in the ifle of Shepey, and Dille-
niusin the ifle of Grain, inthe Thames. Mr. Yalden ob-
ferved it on the fea-fhore, all the way from Weymouth turn-
pike to Rhodipole, but no botanift, for many years patt,
has been equally fuccefsful there, fo that in order to pro-
cure a figure of this fpecies for Englifh botany, recourfe was
neceflarily had to one of Mr. Yalden’s original fpecimens,
now, with all Mr. Lightfoot’s herbarium, in the hands of
the Queen. Thefe {pecimens have been moft carefully com-
pared with that in the Linnzan colleGtion. The fhrubby
Jlem, repeatedly branched ; the cylindrical flender interftices
of the joints ; and the fmall, fhort, denfe /pikes, all feem to
eftablith this as a {pecies, efpecially as the figma has only
two, and thofe very fhort, divifions. The lait charaGer
furely keeps it diftin& from S. radicans, n. 3. however liable
the other particulars might be to variation. Whether a fuc-
ceffion of mild winters might occafion fuch an alteration in
the habit of the radicans, we fhould fcarcely difpute, were
there no difference in the figma.

Willdenow, under S. fruticofa, tranfcribes aremark from
Linneus which contraits this plant with Aerbacea, though he
himfelf has inferted an intermediate {pecies, to which, for
want of a neceffary correction in the wording of the paf-
fage, it a€tually refers, and might caufe great perplexity to
an implicit reader.

6. S. frobilacea. Catkin Jointed Glaffwort. Pallas
It. v. 1. 481. n. or. t. B. Willd. n. 4. Geertn. t. 127.
a arborefcens, fine geniculis; Buxb. Cent. 1. 6. t. 10.
- 2.)—-Stem proftrate, fhrubby ; joints abrupt. Spikes
oppofite, cylindrical, fhort, obtufe.—Native of the falt
cliffs about the Cafpian fea. The /femis branched, with cy-
lindrical joints, fearcely dilated fufficiently to be notched.
Spikes very numerous all along the upper part of the branches,
moftly oppofite and equal, from half an inch to an inch
long, formed of very fhort and crowded joints, with (as far
as we can judge by the dried fpecimen) three fowers on eacli
fide of every joint, and two /lamens to each flower.

7. S. virginica. Virginian Jointed Glafiwort. Linn.
Sp. Pl. ed. 1.4. Willd. n.5. Purfh n. 2. (S. canlium
ramorumque articulis apice bicornibus ; Gronoy. eat ed. 1.
129.)—Stem herbaceous, ereé&t. Joints comprefled at the
top, emarginate, with two points.—Frequent on the coait
of Virginia and Carolina, flowering in July and Auguit.
Root annual. Smallerthan §. herdacea, n. 1, and of a more
flender habit. Mr. Purfh thinks it fcarcely diftin& from
that fpecies. We have merely feen this plant in the Grono-
vian herbarium at fir J. Banks’s, when we were enabled to
determine one point at leaft, that Linnzus, having origi-
nally defcribed the Virginian plant in the firft edition of Spe-
cies Plantarum, and confounded therewith a German variety
(as Willdenow judges it) of the herbacea, fell into another
error on receiving row herbarium from Dr. Solander.
He there found a Jamaica Ipecimen, which is defined and
defcribed in his Sy/?. Veg. as virginica, with mention of a {pe-
cies from Virginia, lately examined by him ina living ftate,
whofe * calyx was an ovate ereét feale, hollow like cadien :
the flamens certainly two ; the pi/il fuperior.”” What this
laft might be we know not. We fhall now defcribe the Ja-
maica Teekaitin ‘

8. S. pelyflachya. Many-fpiked Jointed es

. vire

SALICORNIA.

(S. virginica; Linn. Sytt. Veg. ed. 13.51. S.n.13
Browne Jam. 112.)—Stem herbaceous, ereét; branches
fimple ; joints with a dilated, abrupt, double-pointed,
fpreading border. Spikes terminal, folitary, very long,
tapering, with numerous, fhort, bordered joints. Stamen
folitary.—Obferved by Browne very abundantly in Jamaica,
in low falt-marfhes near the fea. Root {mall, annual. Stem
from eight to eleven inches high; naked below; bufhy
above, with many oppofite fhort fimple éranches, whofe in-
terftices are fhort and cylindrical, each crowned with a re-
markably dilated border at the jot. Every dranch ends ina
fimple /pike, five or fix times its own length, and much
thicker, tapering at each end, compofed of innumerable
joints, fcarcely fo long as broad, three-flowered at each fide,
asin herbacea and its allies, and bordered at the upper edge.

Browne fays there is “* but one /famen to each flyle.”?
. S. arabica. Arabian Jointed Glaflwort. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 5. Suppl. 81. Willd. n.6. Ait. n. 3. ‘ Pall. It.

y. 1. append. n. 92. t. D. f. 3.” (S. arborefcens geni-
culata; Buxb. Cent. 1. 6. t. 10. f. 1? Kali geniculatum
alterum, vel minus; Morif. fe&. 5. t. 33. f. 7.)—Stem
fhrubby ; joints cloven, gibbous at each fide, fomewhat
leafy. Spikes ovate.—Native of Arabia and Siberia. A
fhrubby bufhy fpecies, repeatedly branched ; the interftices
of the branches not much lenger than broad, . turbinate,
thick, and flefhy, each cloven fo deeply at the fummit as
to refemble a pair of oppofite fheathing leaves. Spikes ter-
minal, ovate, fhort, and thick. The figure in Buxbaum
appears to us better than that of Morifon. S. perfoliata,
Forfk. Egypt-Arab. 3, but not his t. 1, is fuppofed to be
this plant.

10. S. foliata. Leafy Jointed Glaflwort. Linn. Suppl.
$1. Willd. n.7. “ Pall. It. v. 1. append. n. 93. t. F.”
—Leaves linear, alternate, decurrent, and partly embrac-
ing the ftem.—Native of Siberia. Stem woody, leafy, with
long, round, alternate branches. This fpecies, unlike al-
mott every other, has real elongated aves, whofe decurrent
bafes only are incorporated with the branch, forming as it
were an imperfect or half joint. Yet they have fo much
the air of a Sal/ola, that nothing lefs than the authority
of profeffor Pallas could peninade us that the plant
belongs to Salicornia.
ternate.

11. S. amplexicaulis. Heart-leaved Jointed Glaffwort.
Vahl. Symb. fafc. 2. 1. Willd. n.$.—* Leaves heart-
fhaped, clafping the ftem.’’—Native of the fhores of a
lake near Bardo in Tunis. Stem decumbent, fhrubby at the
bafe, four or five inches long, much branched ; the branches
axillary, alternate, widely fpreading, an inch and a half
long, two always near together. Leaves {mall, alternate,
bluntifh, convex beneath, flattifh above; imbricated on the
younger branches. Vah/. ‘This having, as it feems, real
braves, perhaps confirms the genus of the lait.

12. beac Tamarifk Jointed Glaflwort.

ld. n. “ Pall. It. v. 1. ap-

FL 5. ? Vahl. n. 8.
d.n.go. t-D.f. 2.” (8. arborefcens, tamarifci facie ;
Buxb. Cent. 1. 7. t. 11. f. 1.)—Stem fhrubby ; branches
thread-fhaped ; with crowded, dilated, bordered joints,
Spikes ovate.—Gathered by Buxbaum in muddy places
about the Cafpian fea, as well as in Media. The genuine
fpecimens of this {pecies have numerous, crowded, {lender,
mple branches, compofed of very thort flefhy inter{tices, be-
tween very broadly bordered joints. Spikes terminal aud late-
ral, oppolite, flalked, ovate, obtufe. In one of the Linnean
Siberian fpecimens the flowers are further advanced, the /pitcs
more elongated, and the joints of the branches diltant, with
more flender and lefe fucculent interflices. The appearance of

The /pikes are fhort, ovate, and al-

Linn. Sp.

this fpecimen is fo different from the original and moft au-
thentic one, that, though named by Linnzus, we feel fome
doubt as to its identity. Neither can we be certain as to
the S. ca/pica of the learned Marfchall von Bieberftein, de-
{cribed in Sims and Konig’s Annals of Botany, v. 2. 400,
particularly refpe&ting Buxbaum’s fynonym; nor can we
from dried {pecimens judge of the fructification, fo care-
fully defcribed in the place juft quoted. Is it poffible that
Jtrobilacea, n. 6, could be the plant there defcribed ?

13. S. cruciata. Croffed Jointed Glaflwort. Forfk.
fEgypt-Arab. 2. Ic. t. 1. (perfoliata). Vahl. n. 6.—
Stem fhrubby ; lower joints of the branches nearly globu-
lar ; upper cylindrical, horizontal, crofling each other.—
Found by Forflcall on the fouth fide of the falt-pits at
Alexandria. The Arabs call it Sabia. ‘The /lem is pro-
cumbent, round. Branches crowded, ere, moitly un-
divided, about a finger’s length, tapering at each end,
their lower joints barren, tuberculated with a fix-fold row
of fcales; the more numerous upper ones much larger,
horizontally prominent at each fide, furnifhed with many
fucculent {cales, from which the flowers proceed. Stamen

one. Stigma deeply cloven.
14. S. glauca. Glaucous Jointed Glaflwort. Delifle
Pl. Agypt. MSS. (S. virginica; Forfk. A2gypt-Arab. 2.

Chrafi of the Arabs.)—Stem fhrubby ; interftices cylindrical.
Spikes cylindrical, of numerous cup-fhaped, dilated, flightly
cloven, imbricated, many-flowered joints, broader than long.
—Communicated by Dr. Delifle from Egypt. A large
{pecies, whofe /fem feems to be procumbent, throwing up
many branches, a foot high, compofed chiefly of numerous,
oppofite, or aggregate, ere&t /pikes, two inches or more in
length, and formed of imbricated cup-like joints; each of
which bears at its upper part three flowers on each fide,
hardly projeting beyond the margin. Forfkall fays the
plant is of a greenifh-blue, covered with a fine powder,
which being wiped off, the furface becomes bright green.

A fpecimen from the abbé Pourret, gathered at Nar-
bonne, and fent for S. fruticofa of Linneus, comes nearer
the prefent {pecies than any other, and indeed feems the
fame of a rather more humble form of growth.

15. S. indica. Indian Jointed Glaftwort. Vahl. n. 2.
Willd. Nov. A&. Natur. Scrut. Berol v. 2. 111. t. 4.
f. 2. Brown n. 1.—Stem fhrubby, diffufe, with numer-
ous afcending branches ; inter{tices club-fhaped, comprefled,
abrupt. Spikes cylindrical, with very fhort, clofely im-
bricated, many-flowered joints. Stamens two.—Gathered
by the Rev. Dr. Rottler abundantly in the extenfive plains
on the fea-coaft of 'Tranquebar ; and by Mr. Brown on all
parts of the fhores of New Holland that he vifited. This
is a large and very fucculent fpecies, light and fpongy when
dry, whofe thick woody /fem throws up many principal
branches about a foot long, compofed of numerous, fhort,
oppofite, fimple ones, each terminating in a folitary, thick,
cylindrical /pike, an inch and a half long, formed of nu-
merous, clofe, yery fhort and abrupt, flightly cloven and
pointed, joints. Lach joint, according to Mr. Brown, bears
from five to feven diandrous flowers.

16. S. Arbufiula. Little Buthy Jointed Glaffwort.
Brown n. 2.—** Stem fhrubby, cre¢t ; interltices oblong,
fomewhat club-fhaped, emarpinate. Flowers ternate. Sta-
men one.’’—Gathered by Mr. Brown in Van Diemen’s
ifland, as well as on the neighbouring fouth coalt of New
Holland. ‘This requires to be contralted with fome of the
above-deferibed thrubby {pecies, but we have not materials
for the purpofe.

17. S. ambigua. Doubtful Jointed Glaflwort. Michaux
Doreali-Amer. v. 1, 2. Purfh n. 3.— Stem fhrubby,

afcending,

SAL

afcending, irregularly branched, fpreading.”—In iedgy
falt meadows, from New Jerfey to Carolina, flowering in
July and Auguft. Either biennial or perennial, pale green.
It refembles S. fruticofa very much, and is taller than either
of the other American fpecies, n. 1. and 7. Pur/b. Michaux
defcribes it as {preading in a loofe and irregular manner.

Some other fpecies probably remain to be accurately de-
termined, in various parts of the world; of which we have
hitherto but mutilated {pecimens, or imperfe& accounts.

SALICOTTA, in Geography, a town of Hindoottan,
in Myfore ; 9 miles E. of Chinna Balabaran.

SALIENS Puncrum. See Punctum.

SALIENT, Satranz, or Sailant, ia Heraldry, is applied
to a lion, or other beaft, when its fore-legs are raifed in a
leaping pofture.

A lion falient is that which is erected bend-ways ; ftand-
ing fo that his right fore-foot is in the dexter chief peint,
and his hinder left-foot in the finifter bafe point of the
efeutcheon ; by which it is diftinguifhed from rampant.

SALIERI, Anronio, in Biography, an Italian com-
pofer, born at Venice, maeftro di cappella to the emperor.
He had been a fcholar of Pefcetti, and afterwards of Gaf-
man. Many of Salieri’s produétions had very confiderable
fuccefs the latter end of the laft century. He has fet operas
in Italian, German, and French; but has chiefly diftin-

uifhed himfelf at Vienna, where he compofed for five or
fs different theatres. In 1784, he fet «* Les Danaides,”’ a
ferious opera, for the Academie Royale de Mufique at Paris,
which had great applaufe, even in competition with the
operas of Ghuck, Piccini, and Sacchini. Since that period
he has produced, for the fame theatre, ‘‘ Les Horaces,”’ and
“ Tarare,’’? This lait has had a very uncommon fuccefs,

SALIES, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Lower Pyrenées, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftrict of Orthes; 8 miles W. of Orthes.
The place contains 6419, and the canton 14,679 inhabit-
ants, on a territory of 160 kiliometres, in 14 communes.

SALIGNAC, a town of France, in the department
of the Dordogne, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
tri of Sarlat. The place contains 1184, and the canton
7555 inhabitants, on a territory of 210 kiliometres, in 11
communes.

SALII, in Antiquity, priefts of Mars, of whom there
were twelve inftituted by Numa, for preferving the brazen
fhield which was faid to have fell down from heaven, in the
bi year of the reign of Numa, for the relief and fafety
of Rome, againft a raging pettilence ; and alfo thofe other
eleven fhields made fo much to refemble this, that they could
not be diftinguifhed from one another: they wore painted
parti-coloured garments, and high bonnets, with a fteel
cuirafs on the breatt.

They had their name Salii from faltare, to dance; becaufe,
after affifting at facrifices, they went dancing about the
ftreets with ancilia, or bucklers, in the left hand, and a rod
in their right, ftriking mufically on one another’s bucklers
with their rods, and finging hymns in honour of the gods.
Their great feaft was kept in the month of March, when
they carried their facred charge about the city. They
alfo carried about the ancilia whenever a juft war had been
proclaimed by order of the fenate again{t any ftate or people,
fuppofing that by this means they fecured the patronage
and fuccour of Mars. There were two companies or col-
leges of the Salii; the ancient eftablifhed by Numa, called
Palatina; the latter by Tullus Hottilius, called Collini and

Agonales. Though Servius tells us there were two kinds
inftituted by Numa, the Collint and Quirinales; and two
others by Pallus, the Pavorii and Palorit.

SAL

In finging, they ufed a peculiar ancient fong, called Sa-
are Carmen ; and after the ceremony they- were entertained
with a feaft; whence Saliares Epule, and Saliares Dapes,
paffed into a proverb for good eating.

Their chief, called pre/ul, and magifler Saliorum, was one
of their number. It was he that led the band, and began
the dance; the reft imitating all his fteps and motions. The
whole company was called Collegium Salierum.

Sext. Pompeius makes mention of Salian maids, virgines
Saliares, hired for the purpofe, and joined with the Salii,
wearing a kind of military garb, called pa/udamentum, with
high round bonnets like the Salii, and like them performing
facrifice with the pontifices in the palaces of kings.

SALIM, in Geography, a river of Ruffia, which runs into
the Oby, 60 miles W. of Surgut.—Alfo, a town of Perfia,
in the province of Kerman; 140 miles E.N.E. of Sirgian.

SALIMBENI, Ventura, in Biography, was born at
Sienna in 1557, and was inftruéted in the art of painting
by his father Archangelo Salimbeni, a painter of confider-
able note in that city. He afterwards travelled through
various parts of Italy to cultivate and improve his talents,
by the ftudy which the works of other and greater mafters
afforded him ; and particularly attached himfelf to the Lom-
bard fchool. At Rome he applied his time to the ftudy of
the antique, and perfected himfelf in defign to a confiderable
degree of excellence.

He had a ready invention, with much elegance and tafte,
but lacked expreffion. His colouring is agreeable and
harmonious, and he had confiderable {kill in the manage-
ment of the chiaro-tcuro. The principal teftimonies of
his art are preferved at Rome, Florence, Genoa, and his
uative city of Sienna; and his {maller works are not un-
common in thiscountry. At Wilton is one of much value,
reprefenting the defcent of the Holy Ghoft. This mafter
is generally known in Italy under the name of Bevilagna;
the cardinal Bonifacio Bevilagna, who was his patron, hav-
ing given itto him. Hedied in 1613, aged 56.

SALIMBENI, FeELiceE, an opera finger, born at Milan in
1712, who flourifhed from 1730 to 1750, and obtained the
higheft reputation and favour, ffom his perfonal figure, and
pathetic manner of finging. He was the contemporary and
friend of Monticelli. In 1737 he was in the fervice of the
emperor Charles VI. at Vienna; and in that of the king of
Pruffia in 1742. In 1750 he went to Drefden, and died in
1751. He was not fo good an actor as Monticelli ; but his
voice and expreffion in finging, and the beauty of his per-
fon, procured him conttant fuccefs and admiration.

SALIMPOUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Bahar ; 20 miles S. of Bettyar.

SALINA, a village at the S.E. end of Onondago lake,
in New York, in the county of Onondago. On lands re-
ferved here by the ftates are falt-fprings, whofe waters
cover feveral acres of ground; and the water is faid to be
ten times falter than that of the fea. The falt is obtained
by boiling the water till the frefh particles are evaporated :
the country to a great diltance around is fupplied with falt
from this {pring. : :

Sauna della Marfa, falt-{prings in the ifland of Sicily,
near the town of Marfa. When this falt-pit is dried up in
fummer, a great quantity of falt remains, and ts fhovelled
by labourers into heaps. For every afs-load the lord of the
manor receives a Sicilian carlin, about one penny, and for a
mule-load twice as much. When this pit yields but little
falt, the ttewards caufe it to be ploughed up as foon as dry,
and then it yields as much falt as hale

SALINA, CasTELLana, in Ancient Geography, a townof
Gallia Narbonenfis, N. E. of Antea ; placed by Ptolemy in the

Maritime

SAL

Maritime Alps, and deriving its name from its falt-fountains.
—Alfo, a place of Italy, in that part of Magna Grecia called
Apulia.—Alfo, a place of Italy, on the fea-coaft, in Picenum.
—Alfo, a place cf Gaul, attributed by Ptolemy to the Sue-
tri, fuppofed by M. d’Anville to be the prefent Saillans, in
thé northern part of the diocefe of Frejus.
Satin#. See Sart and Satt-Marfhes. See alfo Sarine.
SALINAS, Francis, in Biography, a native of Burgos,
in Spain, was blind from his infancy, having, as he fays,
fucked in that calamity with the infeGted milk of his nurfe.
His parents, foon perceiving that the ftudy of mufic might
be purfued by him in {pite of this misfortune, had him
taught very early to fing and play upon the organ. It was
by mere accident that he acquired any knowledge in the
learned languazes ; for while he was a boy, a young wo-
man, celebrated for her knowledge in the Latin tongue, and
who was going to take the veil, having a great defire to
learn to play on the organ, came to his father’s houfe, and,
in return for the leffons which fhe received from Salinas in
mufic, taught him Latin. After this, he was fo eager to
purfue the ftudy of literature, that he prevailed on his pa-
rents to fend him to Salamanca, where, during fome years,
he applied himfelf clofely to the ftudy of the Greek language,
philofophy, and the arts in general. Dr. Smith, who feems
never to have feen Salinas’s treatife on mufic, though he
quotes it, fays, that ** after Ais return into Spain, he applied
himfelf to the Latm and Greek languages, and caufed all
the ancient muficians to be read tohim, &c.”” (Harmonics,
p- 50. rt edit.) It is not, perhaps, of much confequence,
whether Salinas ftudied the learned languages in youth or
age ; but inaccurate affertions on one fubje¢t throw doubts
upon others. Salinas, unable to fupport himfelf longer
in that univerfity, was introduced in the king’s palace to
Peter Sarmentus, archbifhop of Compottella, who received
and treated him very kindly, and who being foon after cre-
ated acardinal, carried Salinas with him to Rome. Here
he had not only an opportunity of converfing with the
learned, but of confulting ancient manufcripts, particularly
thofe on mufic, in the Greek language, which have been fince
colleéted and publifhed by Meibomius and Dr. Wallis. (An-
tiq. Muf. Aud. feptem, Amft. 1562. Claud. Ptol. Harm.
et Man. Bryennii, Lond. 1699.) In thefe ftudies he {pent
thirty years ; when the death of his patrons, cardinal Car-
owe cardinal Burgos, and the viceroy of Naples, by whom,
fays, (in Pref.) he was more beloved than enriched, de-
termined him to return to Spain, and pafs the remainder of
his days in humble obfcurity : but, on his arrival at Sala-
manca, he was appointed public profeflor of mufic, and read
le€tures in that univerfity both on the theory and praAtice of
the art. However, by his long ftudy of Boethius, as well as
the ancient Greek theorifts, his doétrines feem to have been
chiefly fpeculative, and confined to calculations of ratios,
divifions of the monochord, fyftems of temperament, and the
mufical pedantry of the times, without beftowing a thought
a: harmony, modulation, or even melody ; except fuch as
the ecclefiattical modes and {pecies of oftave fupplied.
However, the treatife upon mufic written by Salinas i
not only fearce, but, on many accounts, valuable ; as it is
‘written with cleatnefs by a praétical mufician, who fatisfac-
torily explains feveral parts of ancient mufic, which, though
of little ufe to the modern, will at leaft gratify the curious ;
and though ‘he treats of feéts and fubtilties, concerning
which the prefent ftudents, either in the theory or praétice
Of the art, are not much interelted 3; yet as the curiofity of
fome enqvirers is boundlefs, and as the doétrines now ex.
ploded or contemned are here collected into a point, thofe

SAL

who fancy they can be amufed or inftru@ed by the perufal
of fuch difcuffions, will think themfelves in pofleffion of a
great literary treafure, when they are fo fortunate as to find
this work, which has for title, ‘* Francifci Saline Burgenfis,
abbatis Sanéti Pancratii de Rocca Scalegna in regno Nea-
pelitano, et in academia Salmanticenfi Mufice profefforis,
de Mufica libri feptem, in quibus ejus doGrine veritas tam
que ad Harmoniam, quam que ad Rhythmum pertinet,
juxta fenfus ac rationis indicium oftenditur, et demonttratur.
Salamantice, 1577.”” The firfl book, containing twenty-
eight chapters, is merely {peculative, treating of nothing
but the different methods of calculating the ratios of found ;
and of arithmetical, seometrical, and harmonical proportion.
Second, definitions of found, intervals, concords perfect and
imperfect, and difcords; greater and lefs tone and femi-
tone, the diefis, apotome, limma, and comma; twenty-nine
chapters : in one of which he takes up the gauntlet in de-
fence of the 4th being a concord, which practical muficians
had then but lately began to rank among difcords. Salinas
fays, that he had with pleafure often heard it ufed in the
Greek church at Naples; and that the prince of all contra-
puntifts, Jofquin des Pres, in. the beginning of the verfe re-
Jurrexit, of two parts only, in his mals /ur ? Homme Armé, in
the 6th tone, has ufed it naked and unaccompanied by any
other interval, which he would not have done, if he had re-
garded it as a difcord. Third, treats of the three genera,
diatonic, chromatic, and enharmonic, fuch as were ufed by
the ancients ; for the moderns have no chromatic ftrictly
ancient, nor enharmonic of any kind. Dr. Pepufch has
afferted, in his letter to M. de Moivre, that Salinas had dif-
covered the true enharmonic genus of the ancients. How
much it is to be lamented that neither Salinas nor Dr. Pepufch
has obliged the longing world with enharmonic compofitions
in counterpoint, to confirm their converts in the faith, and
not only renovate, but extend the ufe of this long loft genus!
As it is, the difcovery of Salinas, and pofitive aflertion of
Dr. Pepufch, remain, to vulgar ears, as ufelefs, and as much
matters of faith, as the mufic of the {pheres. Salinas fays
nothing of the major or minor modes or keys in prefent ule,
which are more the bufinefs of a modern mufician than the
chromatic or enharmonic of the ancient Greeks and Ro-
mans. It isin this book that the author has incurred the
difpleafure of the abbé Rouffier, by treating of the different
methods of correéting falfe confonances and intervals by
temperament. (Effai fur la Mufique, tom, iii. p. 366.)
Temperament was probably not a thing of choice with
Zarlino or Salinas; but an expedient to obviate the
greater imperfections which would acerue to harmony
by partial perfection (all that can be attained), on fixed in-
ftruments. Fourth, chiefly treats of the different {pecies
of diapafon or oétave ; of the hexachords, faid to have been
invented by Guido, and of their correfpondence and con-
nection with the tetrachords of the Greeks. Of the ancient
modes or tones of Ariftoxenus and Ptolemy, of the doctrines
of Pythagoras, Ariftoxenus, and Boethius; all which he
freely cenfures. The participation, or equal divifion of
femitones by Ariltoxenus, defended. ‘The doétrines of Didy-
mus, Ptolemy, Bryennius ; and of the more modern theoritts,
Faber, Franchinus, Glareanus, Fogliano, and Zarlino ;
thirty-three chapters : in the latt of which there is an enco-
mium upon Zarlino, and an epitome of his writings.

The fifth, fixth, and feventh books chiefly concern rhythm,
and the feet of ancient Greek and Roman verfes ; thefe he has
exprefledin mufical notes; and though he ufes only two kinds,
the femibreve and minim, for the long and fhort fyllables, the

variety of meafure arifing from this mixture is wonderful !
Thefe

Thefe four founds only 5

affording thirty-four different mutations of meafure, in the
arrangement of long and fhort notes and fyllables. Sa-
linas feems of opinion, that the ancients had no mufic ftriétly
inftrumental ; but that all melody was originally derived
from the different order of fyllables in verfification, and had
been firft fet to words, before it was played by inftruments ;
and this was the opinion of the late Rouffeau. (Dié. Muf.
art. Mufique. Edit. 8vo. p. 309.) Even for the movement
and meafures of dance tunes, fuch as the pavan and paffa-
mezzo, he finds correfponding Latin and Spanifh verfes ;
and the moft curious parts of thefe lait chapters to us are
the little fragments of old Spanifh melody, which belong to
his {pecimens of verfification. Some of them are very grace-
ful and pleafing, particularly thofe in triple time, which
refemble the Neapolitan meafures more than any other in
prefent ufe. The reader may confult Dr. Burney’s “ Ge-
neral Hiftory of Mufic,” vol. iii. pp. 294,295, for charac-
teriftic fragments of feveral kinds of Latin and Spanifh
metre, in notation.

Salinas is faid to have been an admirable performer on the
organ; an inftrument which {eems peculiarly happy in its
conftruction for the difplay of great mufical talents, after
the privation of fight: for not only Salinas, but Francefco
Cieco, the firft great organift upon record ; Pothoff, the late
excellent organiit at Amfterdam; and our own Stanley, who
delighted the lovers of that inftrument more than fifty years,
feem, with refpe& to their performance, rather to have gained
than loft by this calamity. Milton, we are told, could
amufe him/elf, and Handel, we know, had the power of de-
lighting others, upon this inftrumnent, after total blindnefs,
though it came on late in life.

R Salinas died in 1590, at 77 years of age.

Saxinas, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the province
of Guipufcoa, on the borders of Alava, near mount St. Adrian;
owing its name to the falt-{prings, and diftant 16 miles N.E.
from Vittoria.

Satinas Bay, a bay on the coaft of Peru, 60 miles N. of
Callao. S. lat. 11° 12'.—Alfo, a large bay of the Pacific
ocean, on the coaft of Cofta Rica. NN. lat. 10°. W. long.
85° 36'.—Alfo, a bay on the coaft of Brafil, S.E. of cape
Cors. Veflels refort hither for falt. North-eaft of the
entrance into the harbour are Salinas fhoals, or Baxos de
Salina. §, lat. 5°. W. long. 36°.

SaLinas, Cape, a cape on the coaft of Terra Firma, op-
pofite to the N.W. point of the ifland of Trinidad, which
forms the paflage called the gulf of Paria, 3 leagues S. or
S. by W. from cape Tres Puntas.

Satinas Gulf, lies on the W. coaft of Mexico, N.W. of
the ifland of Cano, which is in N. lat. 8° 4o!.

Saxinas Point, a point on the S. coaft of the ifland of
St. Domingo, having to the N.N.W. the famous bay of
Ocoa, which is 18 leagues W.S.W. of the city of St. Do-

mingo.

SALINCA, in Ancient Geography, a people of Africa,
in Mauritania Tingitana, Ptolemy.

SALINE, in Geography, a hamlet in Louifiana, fituated
on the W. bank of the river Miflifippi, at the mouth of a
creek, 2 miles below St. Genevieve. ‘The Illinois country is
wholly fupplied with falt from the fpring at this place ;
g miles S.W. from Kafkafkias.

Satine Creek, a river of America, which runs into the
Ohio, N. lat. 37° 23'. W. long, 88° 37!.

SAL

SALINE, a name given to a preparation of fea-falt, pro-
cured from the froth of the fea, hardened by the fun in
hot countries. It is called by fome authors pilatro de Le-
vante, and is ufed in glafs-making ; and in the making the
fine purple colour from cochineal, by boiling it in a {mall
quantity, with the bran and foenugreek, of which the magif-
tery is made for that purpofe. ‘

SALINE is alfo the name given by authors to fprings of
falt-water, called by us /alt-wells, falt-/prings, and brine-pits.
Mott parts of the world are found to have thefe ; but thofe
of Franche Compté, in France, feem to be the moft remark-
able. The {prings are fituated in deep caves, and thofe in
the greater work are about four hundred feet in length and
fifty in breadth; into this work they defcend by a ftone
ftaircafe of forty fteps, and thence by a wooden one of twenty:
at the bottom of thefe ftairs is a cave with an arched roof.
The firft cave, or vault, is forty feet long, and thirty-two
feet and a half broad, and in it are fix {prings of falt-water,
and two fprings of frefh-water ; all which iffue out of the
fame rock, in the {pace of fourteen feet in length. From
this cave they go into others, which are fupported in the
middle, each by a row of thick pillars, from which are car-
ried double rows of arches. They then pafs through two
gates into a {pacious vault, thirty-five feet high, and fup-
ported, nigh the entrance, by four {trong pillars, placed in
form of afquare. Inthe middle {pace, between thefe pillars,
is a bafon of a very confiderable fize, into which the falt-
water from feveral f{prings is colle€ted; and in the fame
vault, beyond thefe pillars, are four others placed in a row,
fupporting different arches, of fixty feet in length and forty-
eight in breadth ; beyond which there is an irregular {pace
fixty-three feet long, in which are fix or feven f{prings of falt-
water, and ten or twelve of frefh. The falt-waters of thefe
{prings, and of the fix f{prings before-mentioned, are kept
feparate from the frefh-water, and are all conveyed through
gutters to the bafon before-mentioned. From this bafon
they are drawn out by a wheel and buckets into four large
ftone bafons or refervoirs, one of which holds 15,000 hog-
fheads, and the other three together 25,000 biaprthead,
From thefe refervoirs.they are to be drawn off, as occafion
requires, into {mal] cifterns placed near the boiling-houfes ;
and the waters contained in the feveral bafons, as they are
drawn from {prings, at different times, and are of different
ftrength, are mixed together before the boiling, in fuch
proportion that each pound of the water yields three ounces
of falt.

The water of the frefh fprings is alfo colleéted in the
caves into a frefh-water bafon prepared to receive it, and
raifed by means of a crane to the level of a little brook,
through which it runs away by a fubterranean conduit.
Brownrig of Salt, p. 94.

Satine Principle, a term ufed by fome chemical writers
to exprefs a conftituent part of feveral mixt bodies, on which
their exiftence in that form depends; and which, though
always exiftent in them, and always feparable by art, is
yet not perceivable in many of them in the complex. See
SALT.

The faline principle of vitriol is of the number of thofe
made by fome neceflary principle of the exiftence of that
body, and by others fuppofed not to exifl at all, otherwife
than in the general form of that compound falt. But the
exiltence of it, in a feparate ftate, is proved by this experi-
ment: take four or five gallons of the ftrong vitriolate
water at the water-works, as it runs from the beds of py-
rites to the great ciftern; this is to be chofen, becaufe
having yet undergone no operation but that of the air and

water,

antitindiedin=e > aati

SAL

water, it muft needs be in the moft fimple nnd natural ftate ;
diftil from this about two-thirds of the infipid water, let the
glaffes cool, and the water will then let fall a vitriol of a
pale n colour, together with a large quantity of ochre
aiylion earth. Evaporate away a third part of the re-
maining liquor, and more vitriol itill will be produced, of a
paler colour than the former, and fome yellow earth will alfo
be thrown down, though lefs in quantity than before.
After this has been repeated five times, initead of vitriol,
a yellow falt will be obtained ; and after that, on more
evaporations, a white falt will be every time obtained, which
will be extremely different from vitriol both in colour and
tafte, being fiery and pungent, and partaking fcarcely at all of
that acrid and naufeous attringent tafte, which is fo peculiar
to vitriol. It is unétuous, like falt of tartar, and cleanfing
like foap, rendering the hands wafhed with it foft and fup-
ple; whereas the common vitriol makes them very harfh and
rough ; finally, this laft falt diffolved in water appears fatty
and mucilaginous.

From five pounds and a half of the laft lixivium four
pounds of this falt will be obtained, and half a pound of the
liquamen will never congeal. It is remarkable, that this
faline matter is the moft foluble of all the forts, as the greateft
quantity of it may be kept fluid in the {malleft quantity of
water we know of in any experiment of this nature.

The liquamen remains thin, and is of an acrid and fiery
tafte, {earcely fupportable on the tongue. See LiquaMEN
Pyriticum.

The white falt, which is called the faline principle of vi-
triol, being put into a retort, and diftilled in a fand furnace,
the far greater part of it comes over in form of a highly
acid {pirit, efpecially that coming lait in fmall drops. This
liquor being reétified in a tall glafs body, a volatile fulphu-
reous liquor arifes immediately on the application of the
heat. The {mell of this is fo fubtile and penetrating, that
it is almoft infupportable, and yet it is clear as water, and
infipid to the tafte. This may be preferved in its full per-
fe€tion many years, only by keeping it clofe ftopped, not
letting fall any fediment. The remaining liquor is the com-
mon acid liquor of vitriol, and by diftillation may be fepa-
rated into f{pirit of vitriol, and that heavy and corrofive
liquor, commonly called oil of vitriol.

In alum, vitriol, and mineral fulphur, the faline principle,
which in each of them is by far the chief part, both in quan-
tity and energy, has much the fame nature and properties.
In the laft indeed it is clogged with fulphur ; for the true
nature of common fulphur is, that it is a vitriolic falt, the
very fame with that of common vitriol ; and the fulphureous

arts, which give it that form and exiftence which we exprefs

y the word fulphur, are lefs copious than could be ima-
gat compared with the faline, which are genuine vitrial,

iffering in nothing from the common vitriol, but that it
contains a f{maller admixture of terreftrial and metalline

parts. Phil. Tranf. N° 123.

Saving Larths. The chemitts under this, as a general
head, reckon all thofe faline and earthy fub{tances, which
are calcined or burn in the fire; as all the kinds of lime,
pot-afhes, foot, and the like ; thefe being fo many mixtures
of falt and earth ; and all falts appearing to them, indeed,
on a rigorous examination, to be only earths of different
natures, which, when reduced to a certain degree of {ubtilty
or finenefs of parts, fo as permanently to diffolve in water,
are then emphatically denominated falts. Shaw’s Le¢tures,

p- 67.
Satine Julep. See Jurer.
Satine Mixture. See Mixrene.
Satine Manure, in Agriculture, that fort which is con-
Vor. XXXI.

SAL

ftituted of any kind of material-which is of the falt defcrip-
tion, or which contains it in any pretty large quantity or
proportion ; as the refufe or waite of different falt or foap
manufaétories, the fubftances of the former kind which are
left in the curing of different forts of fifh, alkaline combina-
tions, various denominations of fea-weeds, foot, and many
other matters of the fame nature. See Sant, as manure.

In fome fituations and conditions of land, the ufe of this
fort of manure is faid to be pretty general and beneficial :
while in others it is fcarcely at all attended to, and fuppofed
to be not only inefficacious, but fometimes injurious. It is
conceived by fir Humphrey Davy, that much of the dif-
cordance of the evidence, which relates to the efficacy of
faline fub{tances as manures, depends upon the circumftance
of their having been ufed in different proportions, and, in
general, in quantities much too large. It is thought that
the different forts-of afhes, which confift of the vegetable
alkali united to carbonic acid, and which, as it is found in
moft plants, is not difficult to fuppofe may conftitute ax
effential part of their organs, may be ufeful in this way.
The general tendency of the alkalies, it is remarked, is to
give folubility to vegetable matters ; and in this manner they
may render carbonaceous and other fubitances capable of
being taken up by the tubes, in the radical fibres of plants.
Farther, that as vegetable alkali has likewife a {trong at-
tra@tion for water, it may, even in {mall quantities, tend to
fupply a due degree of moifture to the foil, or to other
manures; though this procefs, in confequence of the {mall
quantities employed, or which exi{t in the foil or land, can
only be of a fecondary nature.

To the mineral alkali, which is found in the afhes of
fome other plants, and which is contained in fome other
fubftances in large proportions, the fame reafoning, it is
alfo fuppofed, will apply, when it is in its pure ftate, as to
the nature of its operation in this intention.

The trials of others would, however, feem to make againit
the utility and power of any fort of faline manure, when
applied to land. In order, therefore, to throw more light
upon this difficult and involved fubje&@, and afford a more
full explanation of it, the above writer, in the months of
May and June in 1807, made a variety of experiments on
the effects of different faline fubftances on barley and on
grafs growing in the fame garden, the foil of which was a
light fand; in one hundred parts of which there were con-
tained fixty of filiceous fand, and twenty-four parts of
finely divided matter, which confilted of feven parts of car-
bonate of lime, twelve parts of alumina and filica, and lefs
than one part of faline matter, chiefly common falt, with a
trace of gypfum and fulphate of magnefia; the fixteen parts
which remained confifted of vegetable matter. The folu-
tions, or diflolved parts of the faline fubftances, which were
had recourfe to, were made ufe of twice in the courfe of the
week, in the quantity of two ounces at a time, on {pots of
gra{s and corn, fufficiently remote from each other to guard
againit and prevent any interference of refults. The parti-
cular {ubftances tried in thefe cafes are {tated to have been
fupercarbonate, fulphate, acetate, nitrate, and muriate of
potafla; fulphate of foda, fulphate, nitrate, muriate, and
carbonate of ammonia. See thefe heads.

It was found that, in all cafes, when the quantity of the
faline matter equalled one-thirtieth part of the weight of the
water, the effects were injurious; but the leaft fo, in the
inftances of the carbonate, fulphate, and muriate of am-
monia. When the quantities or proportions of the faline
materials were one-three-hundredth part of the folution, the
effects, it is faid, were different. ‘he plants which were
watered with the folutions of the fulphates, are flated to

yA have

SAL

have grown exa@tly in the fame manner as fimilar plants wa-
tered with rain-water. Thofe that were ated on by the
folutions of nitrate, acetate, and fuper-carbonate of potaffa,
as well as the muriate of ammonia, are faid to have grown
rather better.- But that thofe which were managed with
the folution of the carbonate of ammonia, grew the moft
luxuriantly of all. This laft refult is, it is conceived, what
might have been expected, as carbonate of ammonia confifts
of carbon, hydrogen, azote, and oxygen. However,
another refult took place, which the writer had not antici-
pated: the plants which were watered with a folution of
nitrate of ammonia did not grow better than thofe which
were watered with rain-water. It is noticed, however, that
the folution made ufe of reddened litmus paper, and that
probably the free acid exerted a prejudicial effeét, and in-
terfered with the refult.

At Roehampton, too, in the year 1808, he found the
growth of wheat affifted in a field by a very weak folution
of the acetate of ammonia.

The efficacy of foot and foapers’ waite, as manures, has
alfo been commonly thought to depend, in fome meafure,
upon the faline matters which they may contain. In the
former, this, it is fuggefted, may be partially owing to the
ammoniacal falts it contains; and it is noticed that the
liquor, afforded by the diftillation of coal, contains car-
bonate and acetate of ammonia, which is likewife faid to be
a very good manure. In the latter article, the quantity of
different faline matters, which it contains, is ftated to be
very minute indeed ; and that in the beft of it there is hardly
a trace of alkali.

Sir John Sinclair, in his “¢ Inquiry into the Nature and
Caufes of the Blight, the Ruft, and the Mildew in Wheat,”
fuggetts that faline manure may have a tendency to prevent
its being injured by thefe means. He appears to have been
accidentally led to the particular confideration of this fort
of manure, in confequence of hearing that in a field of
about fixteen acres, of light dry turnip land, in Berwick-
fhire, the expofition and elevation of which were every
where nearly equal, about five acres that were manured
with fea-ware retained a much healthier colour than the reft
of the field, and that the produce was eftimated to be about
one-third better; the quantity of the produce and the qua-
lity of the grain being both confidered, though the other
parts of the fame field had been partly manured with lime
and partly with dung. It was found, on more inquiry,
that lands lying on the fea-coafts of the northern parts of
England, and the fouthern parts of Scotland, were either
wholly hindered from being affe&ted with the mildew, or
prevented from receiving any material injury from it. The
fame opinion alfo prevails on the fhores of Effex. This,
however, was found not to be the cafe in the lands on the
coafts of Sullex, which is afcribed to over-dunging, that
has the fame effe& in other fituations. If the fea-air be of
ufe in this way, it is fuggefted as moft probably arifing
from the difpofition of the faline particles with which it is
loaden on the earth, in fuch neighbourhoods, for a great
length of time. On this account, the grafs on the fea-coatts
is conttantly, it is faid, finer than that in the interior of the
ceuntry, and its wholefomenefs as food for all domellic
animals well known.

It is conceived that the faline fubitance denominated
common falt, may be beneficial in this intention, in a mo-
derate proportion, by its antifeptic quality, or that of
preventing the corruption of the plants, as well as by its
highly ftimulant properties. It is likewife fuppofed that it
may be ufeful in fome other ways: and that other faline
manures may have the fame tendency, by contributing to

SAL

ftrengthen the plants; as the weaker they are, the more
liable they are to be affeéted with the difeafe. :

The fuppofition of the utility of faline manures in this
way, it is {tated, has fince been rendered {till more ftrong
by the trials of Mr. H. Sickler in Cornwall, who, in go-
ing over his land, in preparing it for turnips, employed
24 bufhels, of 84 lbs. each, to the acre of the f2me county,
of the refufe faline material ufed in curing pilchards in that
difri&, which probably contains a little oil. Wheat is
ftated to have followed ; and that he never had a rufty ftraw,
when the land was fo managed. One field of fix acres,
which was not worn out fo much as the others, he put into
peafe, followed by wheat: the crop rufted fo badly, that
he had not five bufhels on the acre, and the fample was a
very bad one. Next turnips on the wheat, a rich ftubble,
with the ufual quantity of the above fort of faline material,
fucceeded by wheat, a very heavy crop; no appearance of
tuft. This field, in his courfe of crops, has fince been three
times in wheat, without the leaft appearance of ruft; nor
has he found a rufty ftraw in any of the fields falted in the
above manner for turnips; whilft on other lands in the fame
vicinity, which were not falted, fome have appeared. It
never, however, occurred to him that this faline matter
prevented the rult, till he was put in mind of it; but now
it ftrikes him very forcibly, he fays, that it prevents its ap-
pearance. This is the whole of what he knows on the fub-
jet at prefent ; but further new trials for a wheat crop are
promifed. ’

It is noticed that the refufe falt of the pilchard fifhery is
completely free from duty; and that the quantity ufed on
the common or {tatute acre, in the above experiments, was
314 bubhels, of 56 lbs. weight, or 1764 lbs. See Sar,
as manure. r

It is fuggefted that the beft mode of applying this fort of
faline fubitance, in this intention, would require many ex-
periments to fully decide it. But it may be fown in a mo-
derate quantity at the fame time with the feed of the crop,
and its effeéts afcertained on every other ridge. It may alfo
be ufed on fallows in {trong lands, as has been the cafe al-
ready in fome diltri€ts, as Chefhire, as well as in the manner
that has been {tated above for turnips. The efficacy of
other faline manures, as thofe of fea-ware and fea-mud, &c.
fhould be carefully determined ; as in the former there muft
be much faline matter, as is evident from the kelp it affords ;
and the latter would feem to contain many faline particles.
It fhould ftill further be afcertained, it is faid, whether
mildew was ever known on falt-marfhes, and whether coal
and other afhes have the power of preventing it; as Darwin
has advifed the ufe of fuch dry fubftances as a remedy
again{t it, on the fuppofition of its being occafioned by
damp. See Sea-Ware and Sra-Mud. ,

The faline fubftance called foot has long been thought
ufeful in this intention, by being fown either with the corn,
or direétly after it; but the fact is fuppofed far from being
well afcertained ; though it, as well as the refufe of it taken
from different manufactories, are known to be beneficial in
various ways, and for different ufes and purpofes. Befides,
in a depot of it, which was kept pertectly diftin@ from
other forts of manure, there did not feem to be any fungi
making their appearance, as con{tantly takes place in other
cafes. See Soor.

In fhort, it is concluded, that ‘ if it could be afcertained
that falt and faline manures, in general, were an effetual
preventive againit the mildew, it would certainly be one of
the moft important difcoveries hitherto made in agriculture.””
And that if the point were once fully eitablifhed, it is pro-
bable that a much {maller quantity than 25 or 30 bufhels to

the

SAL

the acre would be found fufficient ; and alfo that the duty
would be remitted on the falt, in order to promote fo im-
portant an objeé as the fafety of our crops, and the fecurity
of .our fubfiftence. The expence of the falt would be
no obitacle, as the price of rock-falt at the pits, at this
time, is only 34d. the bufhel of 65 lbs., and that of white
falt only 6d. at the town of Liverpool.

This interefting fubje€t, however, ftands in need of fur-
ther inveftigation, and the more full proof of additional
faGts and experiments.

The author of the work entitled «« The Elements of
Agricultural Chemiitry,” thinks it unneceflary to difcufs,
to any greater extent than what has already been noticed,
the effects of faline fubftances on vegetation; as, except the
ammoniacal compounds, or thofe containing nitric, acetic,
aad carbonic acid, none of them can afford, by their de-
compofition, any of the common principles of vegetation,
as carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. And the alkaline ful-
phates and the earthy muriates are faid to be fo feldom
found in plants, or are found in fuch minute quantities or
proportions, that it can never be an obje& to apply them
to the foil in the way of manure. As the earthy and alka-
line fubftances of plants feem never to be formed in vegeta-
tion, fo there is every reafon likewife to believe, it is faid,
that they are never decompofed ; for after being abforbed,
they are found in their afhes. Their metallic bafes cannot
exilt in conta with aqueous fluids; and thofe bafes, like
other metals, have hitherto not been refolved, by the pro-
cefles of art, into any other forms of matter: they have the
power of readily combining with other elementary matters,
but remain undeilruétible, and can be traced, unreduced in
quantity, through their diverfified {tates of combination.
See VEGETATION.

SALINES, in Geography, a fea-port town of the ifland
of Cyprus, on the fouth coaft, near Larnica, and once a
very flourifhing place. The decaying fortrefs, with a {mall
garrifon, ferves only to falute the fhips of foreign powers
that come to water on the coafls. Near the citadel is a
large inclofure, like a religious edifice with many cells,
where ftrangers are et and accommodated at a {mall
expence. Here is alfo a bazar, or market, where provi-
fions, cloth, ftuffs, and other necefflaries, are fold. This
market is the moft frequented in the ifland. All the veflels
of the Syrian coa{t come hither to procure provifions, which
are exceedingly cheap. The fhops alfo afford all kinds of
European merchandize. Next the bazar is the cuftom-
houfe, which is under the management of an aga, or Turkifh

_ SAuines, a bay on the fouth-eaft of the ifland of Mar-
tinico. n! :

SALINI, one of the Lipari iflands, anciently known

under the appellation of Didyme or Jemella. It is fertile
in wine and fruits; 8 miles E.N.E. of Palermo. N. lat.
38° 40’. E. long. 15° s!.
» SALINS, a town of France, and feat of a tribunal, in
the department of the Jura, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftriét of Poligny. The place contains 8125, and the
canton 13,548 schabivenss on a territory of 150 kiliometres,
in 27 communes. In its vicinity are alabafter, black
tmarble, quarries of jafper, and falt-{prings. N. lat. 46°
17'. E. long. 5° 53’.

SALINUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Lower
Pannonia. Ptolemy. :

SALIORE, in Geography, a town of Hindooltan; 15
miles N. of Calicut.

SALIR de Mats, a town of Portugal, in Eftremadura ;
12. miles E.N.E. of Peniche,

SAL

SALIS, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Riga;
25 miles N.W. of Volmar.

SALISBURIA, in Botany, received that name from the
writer of the prefent article, in a paper read before the Lin-
nzan Society, December 6, 1796, ** in honour of Richard
Anthony Salifbury, efq. F. R.S. and F.L.S., of whofe
acutenefs and indefatigable zeal in the fervice of botany, no
teitimony is neceflary in this foctety, nor in any place which
his writings have reached.’”? We need fcarcely obferve that
the original barbatous name of this plant, GinxGo, fee
that article, is not admiffible in fcientific nomenclature ; and
was merely tolerated for a time, by Linnzus, till he had
materials by which to define the genus.—Sm. Tr. of Linn.
Soc. v. 3. 330. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4.472. Ait. Hort. Kew.
v. 5- 304.—Clafs and order, Monoecia Polyandria. Nat. Ord.
Conifere, Linn. Juff.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. a naked, thread-fhaped catkin, de-
ciduous. Perianth none. Cor. none, Stam. Filaments
{carcely any ; anthers feveral, incumbent, rather diftant, tri-
angular, each of two oblong divaricated lobes, conneéted at
the top only, and burfting longitudinally.

Female folitary, on the fame tree, Ca/. Perianth inferior,
in four equal fegments, permanent. Corenone? Pi/}.
Germen fuperior, roundifh; ityle... ftigma.... Peric.
Drupa globofe, with a firm adhelive pulp. Seed. Nut foli-
tary, elliptic-oblong, obtufely triangular, thin, but hard,
of one cell, with a folitary oval kernel ; whofe brown outer
{kin adheres to the fhell, the inner to the kernel itfelf. Al-
bumen greenifh-white, the fhape of the feed, of an almond-
like fubitance. Corculum yellow, ftraight, inferted into the
bafe of the albumen, of two cotyledons.

Eff. Ch. Male, Catkin naked. Calyx and corolla
wanting. Anthers incumbent, their cells connected at the
fummit only.

Female, Calyx four-cleft. Drupa fuperior, with a trian-
gular nut.

1. S. adiantifolia. Sm.asabove. Willd.n. 1. Ait. n. 1.
(Ginkgo biloba; Linn, Mant. 313. G. biloba foliis adi-
anti; Thunb. Jap. 358. G. vel Gin an, vulgo Itsjo, arbor
nucifera, folio adiantino? Kempf. Am. Exot. 811. t. 813.)
—Native of Japan ; faid to have been firft cultivated, in Eng-
land, by Mr. James Gordon, in 1754. It proves a hardly
deciduous tree in our climate. The male flowers only have
been obferved, on an individual trained againft a wall, at
Kew, for feveral fucceflive {prings. They were firft noticed
there in May 1795. With the help of Kempfer’s book,
and fome nuts fent from China to the late Mr. Ellis, now
in our hands, the above characters were made out. It is to
be hoped the female flowers may one day or other appear,
and the fruit be ripened in England. Kempfer def{cribes
the tree as larger than a walnut-tree, with a lofty ftraight
flem, and a grey bark, full of fiflures when old. Wood
light and foft, with a foft fungous pith. Leaves on the
fhoots of the prefent year only, of an clegant fern-like
afpect, alternate, flalked, wedge-fhaped, abrupt, cloven,
jagged and notched at the extremity, {fmooth, fhining,
pliant, of a fine green, with numerous, minute, parallel
ribs ; their margin fomewhat thickened. J oot/lalks twice or
thrice as long as the leaves, linear, channelled, woolly on
the upper fide about half way up, efpecially at the bafe,
where they are flightly dilated. ale catkins {mall, yellowih,
feffile, from the fame bud as,the leaves. Drupas ftalked,
axillary, folitary, nearly globofe, yellowifh, with a very
auftere white pulp, infeparable from the nut, except by ma-
ceration or putrefaétion. Nut white, larger than that of
the Piflacia, its kernel flavoured like an almond, with fome
degree of autterity. Thefe nuts are reputed to be ufeful in

Z 2 promoting

SALISBURY.

promoting digeftion, and curing flatulence. Kempfer fays
they are never omitted in the entertainments of the Japanefe,
and that they enter into the compofition of the feveral difhes,
after being freed by culinary arts from their aufterity.
Thunberg relates that even the flefhy part of the fruit,
freed from its fkin, is eaten in Japan, though infipid or
bitterith ; but if flightly roaited, fin and all, it is not un-
palatable.

SALISBURY, in Geography, a city in the hundred of
Underditch, and county of Wilts, England, is fituated
near the river Avon, at the diftance of 83 miles W.S.W.
fram London. It is divided, with refpeét to jurifdiction,
and alfo by an inclofure wall, into two diftin& portions, the
city, properly fo called, and the liberty of the Clofe; the
latter of which comprehends the cathedral, and buildings at-
tached to it, and is fubject exclufively to the authority of
the bifhop, and thedean andcanons. The city is governed
by a mayor and corporation, and comprifes three parithes,
viz. St. Edmund’s, St. Martin’s, and St. T'homas’s, which,
united with the liberty of the Clofe, contain, according to
the parliamentary returns of 1811, 1575 houfes, and 8243
inhabitants.

Salifbury is one of the few cities or towns of ancient times,
whofe origin is precifely defined by authentic records. In-
deed, we queftion if there is another city in Europe, the
early hiftory of which is fo free from doubt and uncertainty.
The nucleus, from whofe attraGtion it fprung into exiftence,
was its cathedral, which was founded in 1220, in confe-
quence of a bull from pope Honorius to bifhop Richard
Poore, authorizing him to remove the feat of his diocefe
from Old Sarum, where the former cathedral church ftood.
The reafons affigned for this change were the lofty, expofed,
and inconvenient pofition of the ancient city, and the circum-
itance of its being a fortified polt, garrifoned by military
tenants, who not only frequently infulted the clergy in
the exercife of their worfhip, but levied upon them contri-
butions and exactions. The fame caufes had previoufly
operated to induce many of the citizens to build in the
valley ; fo that no fooner was the new cathedral begun, than
the anxiety to free themfelves from the tyrannic controul
of the foldiery occafioned a rapid and general removal.
To this difpofition, as might be fuppofed, the bifhop gave
all the facility and encouragement in his power. He ob-
tained from king Henry III. a charter conftituting the
new eftablifhment a free city, and conferring upon the inha-
bitants the fame privileges and immunities which the ancient
city of Winchefter enjoyed. ‘This deed bears date at Wett-
minfter, the 30th of January, in the 11th year of that
monarch’s reign ; and among other rights therein granted to
the bifhop, it empowers him to furround the city and clofe
with ditches, and to alter and repair the roads and bridges
leading to it; as alfo to levy tallage, as often as the reigning
monarch fhould tallage his dominions. Thefe refpeétive
privileges were confirmed by king Edward I. in the 13th
year of his reign; but in the thirty-third year of the fame
king a violent difpute arofe between the bifhop and the
citizens, relative to the payment of fome aid demanded by
the former. Both parties appealed to the king in council,
who, after a full hearing, decided againft the citizens, where-
apon they delivered up their charters, and thus degraded
Salifbury from the rank of a city. After the vaphe of a
year, however, the inhabitants, perceiving that ruin and dif-
perfion would refult from longer oppofition, folicited the
bifhop to come to an agreement with them, which he ac-
cordingly did, and afterwards joined them in foliciting the
reftoration of their ancient charters, and the re-eftablifhment
ot their priftine rights, This requeit the king was prevailed

upon to grant ; and an amicable adjuftment of all differences
confequently took place. It was not, however, of very
long duration, for in the reign of Richard II., when the
doétrines of Wickliffe began to be propagated in England,
the bifhop, having in vain applied to the mayor and com-
monalty to fupprefs fome meetings of the Lollards, inftituted
an action againft them, in which it was decided that they
fhould aid the bifhop’s officers in the execution of the epif-
copal decrees. From this period open hottility between

the citizens and the ecclefiaftical community ceafed ; but —

as their refpeétive rights were ftill undefined, James I.
St to the inhabitants a new charter, confirming all their
ormer privileges, and regulating the duties and powers of
the cathedral officers. This charter was renewed by queen
Anne, with fome additional claufes relative to the eleétion
and province of the deputy recorder ; and under this the
city 1s now governed. The corporation confifts of fifty-fix
members, viz. a mayor, recorder, and his deputy, twenty-
four aldermen, and thirty affiftants. The mayor is elected
annually from among the aldermen or affiftants, and is fworn
into office by the bifhop in his court ; or in his abfence, by
the recorder in council. The other officers of the corpora-
tion are a chamberlain, town-clerk, three ferjeants at mace,
two beadles, four conftables, and thirteen fub-conftables.
There is befides an honorary officer eftablifhed by cuftom,
called the high fteward, who is always a nobleman or gen-
tleman of property and influence in the county. The prefent
high tteward is the earl of Pembroke, who has a fplendid
feat at Wilton, about three miles weftward from the city.
The recorderfhip is alfo a dignified office, and is now held
by the earl of Radnor.

Salifbury was firit reprefented in parliament in the twenty-
third year of the reign of Edward I., when it was fummoned
to fend two burgeffes to affift in the national councils, and
has done fo regularly ever fince. The members are elected
by the corporation, one from among the citizens, and the
other through the influence of the Bouverie family. The
mayor makes the returns under the great feal of the city.
The chief manufa€tures of Salifbury are cutlery goods, flan-
nels, and fancy woollens. Markets are held here twice a-week,
on Tuefdays and Saturdays, for various articles of merchan-
dize and all forts of provifions ; and there are fairs on the
Tuefday after the 6th of January, Tuefday after the 25th of
March, Whitmonday, fecond Tuefday in September, fecond
Tuefday after 1oth of O&ober, and Tuefday before Chritt-
mas day. Leland informs us that in his time the market of
Salifbury was “ well ferved of flefch, but far better of fifch,
for a great (part) of the principal fifch that is taken from
Tamar to Hampton refortith to this toun.”? This ftatement
appears fingular, confidering the inland pofition of Salif-
bury ; but as it is corroborated in feveral old writings, there
is no reafon to doubt its truth.

The ground upon which the city of Salifbury ftands,
from its fituation in a broad vale, near the junétion of three
rivers, poffefles many advantages for the {cite of a populous
town. The foil is a fine black mould, lying on a fub-
{tratum of gravel, which forms a dry and firm foundation
for buildings ; while the numerous artificial ftreams that
flow ehtongh almoft every ftreet are at once highly bene-
ficial to health and cleanlinefs, and are calculated to faci-
litate many procefles of manufacturing indultry. Thefe
ftreams are fupplied by means of fluices on the river Avon;
and as the principal ftreets lie at se angles, they not
unfrequently flow acrofs each other. From this peculiarity
of being watered by fo many rivulets, ati moit pro-

bably poflefles more bridges than any city in Europe, not
even Venice excepted, ‘The whole confifts of two marked
and

)

and diferiminating features, called the clofe and the city.
The firft, which is appropriated to, and occupied by, the
cathedral, the bifhop’s palace, the deanery, prebendal houfes,
and fome handfome private dwellings, holden chiefly under
the bifhop and chapter, comprifes an area of about half a
mile {quare ; while the conneéted part of the city extends
above three-quarters of a mile from north to fouth, and,
including the ttreet of Fifherton, nearly as much from eaift
to weit. This portion has five principal ftreets running in
the former direétion, and the fame number in the latter,
all at right angles with each other ; fo that the {paces be-
tween them are nearly regular and uniform. Each {pace
conftitutes a fquare, and is occupied by a feries of houfes,
abutting on the ftreets, the middle area being appropriated
to gardens, yards, &c. By this arrangement, there are
{carcely any alleys or narrow lanes, which, in large towns
and cities, are commonly the receptacles of filth, and con-
fequently pernicious to health. Moit of the houfes are
conftructed of brick; but there are a few alfo built of
timber, which are in general very irregular, both as to fize
and fhape. The public buildmgs may be divided into
claffes, as they are refpetively fituated in the clofe and in
the city. Thofe within the clofe are the cathedral, the bi-
fhop’s palace, and the college of matrons.

Hiflory and Defcription of the Cathedral.—The cathedral,
as already itated, was begun to be built by bifhop. Richard
Poore, under the authority of pope Honorius, and with
the confent of king Henry III., who was invited, together
with all the chief nobility and ecclefiaftics of the kingdom,
to attend the ceremony of its foundation. A great number
of dignified perfons, and a vaft concourfe of the inferior
orders of fociety, were prefent at the folemn fpeétacle,
which took place on the 28th of April, in the year 1220.
William de Wanda, who was precentor of Salifbury ca-
thedral at the time of its tranflation, and afterwards dean,
has left a manufcript account of the early events relating to
this church, from which the following particulars are de-
rived. The ceremony began by the performance of divine
fervice, after which the bifkop and the other clergy of the
church walked in proceflion to the {cite of the intended new

_ ftruéture, where a fermon was addrefled to the people, ex-

horting them to contribute towards its erection. Then the
firit ftone was laid by the bifhop for pope Honorius;
the fecond for the archbifhop of Canterbury ; and the third
for himfelf ; the fourth was laid by William Longfpee, earl
of Sarum; and the fifth by his countefs Ela, a lady of
diftinguifhed piety. After her, certain noblemen added
each a flone, and were followed in the fame aét by the dean
and canons, and many others. Several of the abfent nobility
alfo, on their return from attending the king in Wales,
came to Salifbury, and laid a ftone, binding themfelves to
advance fpecific {ums of money annually for feven years,
upon fimilar terms to thofe which the dean and chapter had
previoully agreed to with refpeét to their own advances.
The cathedral having been thus commenced under fa-
vourable aufpices, the building of it proceeded with fuch
rapidity, that in lefs than five years a portion of it was
ready for the celebration of divine fervice. Three altars
were, in confequence, confecrated on the vigil of St. Michael,
in the year 1225; one to the honour of the Holy Trinity
and All-Saints ; a fecond to St. Peter and the Apoftles ;
and a third to St. Stephen and the reft of the martyrs.
On this occafion many valuable donations were offered on
the altars; among the reft a text of the bible, fet with
precious ftones, and the relics of many faints, which ap-
_ to have been preferved here till she period of the re-
ormation, as it is mentioned in the inventory made by the

SALISBURY.

commiffioners of Henry VIII. In 1226, William Longfpee,
earl of Sarum, having died, was buried in the new cathe-
dral, having been the firft perfon who was fo honoured:
and in the fame year the bodies and tombs of three bifhops,
St. Ofmund, Roger, and Jofceline, were removed hither
from the church at Old Sarum. Soon after this event,
bifhop Poore was tranflated, by a papal bull, to the fee of
Durham, when Robert Bingham was eleéted his fucceflor,
and was confecrated at Wilton in 1229. Like the illuf
trious founder, he profecuted the building of the cathedral
with great ardour; but though he fat eighteen years, it
was far from being finifhed at the time of his death, which
happened in 1246. William of York, who next obtained
the prelacy, rendered himfelf extremely unpopular by re-
viviag the vexations of attending the lords’ courts. He
died in 1256, and was fucceeded by Egidius, or Giles de
Bridport, in whofe time the great oak of the cathedral
was brought to a clofe, as far at leaft as was at firft in-
tended, for the fpire, which was fubfequently ere¢ted, is
faid to have been an after-thought, and to have formed no
part of the original defign. Bifhop Godwin ftates that
it was dedicated by Bomiface, archbifhop of Canterbury,
Sept. 30, 1258, in the prefence of king Henry III.; but
Wanda fays that the king could not attend, being engaged
at Shrewfbury. The coit of the ereétion of the whole edi-
fice, as appeared from an account then delivered to the king,
was 40,000 marks.

Bithop Bridport had f{carcely furvived four years after
the completion of the cathedral, when he died, and left the
vacant fee to Walter de la Wyle, who founded the college
of St. Edmund’s in this city. He deceafed Jan. 3d, 1270,
and was fucceeded by Robert de Wikhampton, the dean,
whofe eleétion was violently oppofed by archbifhop Kil-
wardy ; but he was neverthelefs finally compelled to con-
fecrate him in 1274. This prelate died in 1284, when
Walter Scammel was chofen bifhop, but did not enjoy his
dignity above two years. His fucceflor was Henry de
Braunditon, who lived only a few months after his ele€tion.
He was fucceeded by Laurence de Hawkburn, who like-
wife died before he was confirmed, his nomination having
been difputed by William de la Corner, his fucceffor. This
prelate was confecrated May 14th, 1289, and dying in
1291, had for his fucceflor Nicholas Longfpee, fon of
William Longfpee, earl of Sarum, and his countefs Ela.
Previous to his elevation to the fee, he held the office of
treafurer of the cathedral; and having been far advaneed
in life, he fat only fix years, during which period no-
thing remarkable occurred. He died in 1297, when
Simon de Gandavo, or Gaunt, was confecrated bifhop, and
enjoyed the prelacy till his death, in 1g15. This bifhop
empowered the mayor and citizens of Salifbury to fortify
the city with a wall and ditch. His fucceffor was Roger
de Mortival, dean of Lincoln and chancellor of Oxford,
who died in 1329, and was fucceeded by Robert Wyvil,
whom Walfingham chara@terifes as one of the moft deformed,
ugly, and illiterate men of his age. He inftituted, in 1355+
a fuit againft William de Montecute, earl of Sarum, claim-
ing the caftle of Old Sarum as the inheritance of the bifhops
of Salifbury, in right of bifhop Roger, from whom he
alleged it had been unjuftly wrefted by king Stephen.
So difficult of determination did this point appear, that
the judges left it to be decided by fingle combat; but
the king interpofed his authority, and the matter was com-
promifed by the furrender of the caftle for the fum of 2500
marks. Wryvil alfo recovered for his church Beerewood and
Sherborne cattles, the latter of which had been con{tru@ted by
bifhop Roger, and had fhared the fate of the fortrefs of Old

Sarum.

¢

SALISBURY.

Sarum. This prelate died in 1375, when Ralph Erghum
was confecrated bifhop, by the nomination of the pope, in
oppofition to John de Wormenthall, who had been elected
by the canons, and had received the approbation of the
king. He fat twelve years, after which he was tranflated
to the fee of Bath and Wells, by a papal bull. On his
removal, John Waltham, or Waltan, mafter of the rolls,
and keeper of the privy feal to king Richard If. fucceeded,
and continued in the enjoyment of all his dignities till his
death, in 1395. Richard Metford was the next prelate
of his fee, having been tranflated hither from Chicheiter in
the fame year. He died in 1407, when Nicholas Bubwith
obtained the fee, but was foon afterwards removed to the
bifhopric of Bath and Wells, and invefted with the dignity
of treafurer of England. Upon this event Robert Hallam
was advanced to the vacant prelacy ; but in lefs than two
years afterwards he was nominated to the dignity of a
cardinal, and deputed to affift at the council of Pifa, con-
vened in 1413. He was likewife prefent at the council of
Conitance in 1417, and died in the month of September in
that year. His fucceffor in the fee of Salifbury was John
Chandler, the dean, who prefided ten years, and was fol-
lowed by Robert Neville, founder of the monaftery of Sun-
ning, in Berkfhire. He was removed to the fee of Durham
in 1427, and William Aifcough, or Hacliff, fucceeded to
the bifhopric of Salifbury. This prelate fell a victim to
the barbarity of his own tenants, who, taking part in Jack
Cade’s rebellion, ftoned him to death, and pillaged his
palace at Eddington, on the 29th of June, 1450. Richard
Beauchamp next obtained the fee, having been tranflated
hither from that of Hereford, by a papal bull. Godwin
affirms, that this bifhop was the firft chancellor of the Garter;
but Dr. Milner, in his « Hiltory of Winchetter,”? with more
probability, claims that honour for William de Eddington,
one of the bifhops of that diocefe. Beauchamp built a
chapel on the fouth fide of the Lady chapel in Salifbury
cathedral. His death happened in 1481, when Lionel
Woodville fucceeded, but fcarcely furvived his eleva-
tion four years. He was fon to Richard Woodville,
earl Rivers, and brother to Elizabeth, confort of Ed-
ward IV. On his death, in 1484, Thomas Langton,
bifhop of St. David’s, was tranflated to Salifbury, and
prefided nine years, and at length was removed to the
bifhopric of Winchelter. His fucceflor was John Blythe,
who received confecration in 1493, and was appointed chan-
cellor of Oxford the year following. He died in 1499,
leaving the vacant fee to Henry Deane, bifhop of Bangor,
who, about a year afterwards, was nominated lord chan-
cellor of England, and archbifhop of Canterbury. Thefe
preferments were beftowed upon him by king Henry VII.,
whofe interelt he had materially promoted in his capacity of
chancellor of Ireland, by crufhing the rebellion of Perkin
Warbeck. He departed this life in 1502, when Edmund
Audley was preferred to the fee of Sarum. This prelate
founded and built an elegant chapel, or chantry, in his
cathedral, and erected a {tone pulpit in the church of St.
Mary, in Salifbury. His death happened in 1524, and
made way for cardinal Laurence Campeggio, the pope’s
legate in England, whither he bad been difpatched from
Rome to induce king Henry VIII. to join the confederation
of Chriltian princes againft the Turks. He afterwards was
again fent to this country to fit as judge with cardinal
Wolfey, on the queftion of the king’s divorce from Catha-
rine of Arragon; which proved the occafion of his being
deprived of fis fee of Salifbury by the king, who con-
ferred it on Nicholas Shaxton, in 1535. The latter, how-
ever, did not long enjoy it, having been eje&ted for non-

John Jewel next obtained this prelacy.

conformity in 1539, when John Salcot, or Capon, was
tranflated to this bifhopric from Bangor, and held it till his
death in 1557. His fuccetfor was John Peto, who was ap-
pointed by pope Paul IV., in oppofition to cardinal Pole,
the favourite of queen Mary. Her majetty, irritated at this
meafure, not only refufed Peto pofleflion of his bifhopric,
but banifhed him from her dominions, and he died in exile.
He was a man of
great talents and erudition, and ftrenuoufly advocated the
caufe of Proteftantifm, in the tenets of which he had been
educated. He terminated his mortal exiftence at Morkton-
Farley, in Wiltfhire, on the 22d of September 1571, and
anes place to Edmund Guett, or Gheaft, who prefided
even years, and was a great benefa€tor to the cathedral
library. His death occurred in 1598, and, in the fame year,,
John Piers was tranflated hither from Rochetter. He held
this fee ten years, and was then preferred to the archbifhopric
of York in 1589, from which time the prelacy remained
vacant for three years, when John Caldwell obtained it,
This prelate is remarkable for having been the firft married
bifhop of Sarum. He fat five years, and was fucceeded,
after a lapfe of two years, by Henry Cotton, who died in
1615, and made way for Richard Abbot, a celebrated lec-
turer in fupport of the royal authority, in oppofition to
Bellarmine and Suarez. This bifhop died in 1617, and had
for his fucceffor Martin Fotherby, D.D., who being far
advanced in age, fcarcely held the fee a complete year, be-
fore his death. A fimilar fate happened to his fucceffor
Robert Tounfon, who was fucceeded by John Davenant,
his brother-in-law, a prelate of great abilities, and an adept
in controverfial argumentation. He died in 1641, when
Brian Duppa, tutor to prince Charles, was elevated to the
fee. After the death of king Charles I. he refided privately
at Richmond, till the reftoration, an event which again put
him in poffeffion of his bifhopric; but he died in lefs than
two years afterwards. His fucceflor was Henry Henchman,
a {trenuous fupporter of the Stuart caufe, who prefided three
years, and was then advanced to the fee of London. Durin
his prelacy, confiderable alterations were made in the form
and decorations of the choir. John Earle next held this
bifhopric, a man highly extolled by his contemporaries for |
his learning and wit. He was author of * Microcofmo-
aphy, or a Piece of the World difplayed,’’ which has
ately been republifhed, with notes and an appendix, by
Philip Blifs, fellow of St. John’s college, Oxford. Earle
died at Oxford in 1665, and was fucceeded by Edward
Hyde, a native of Salifbury, who fearcely furvived two
years. The next bifhop was the celebrated Seth Ward, by
whom the cathedral and bifhop’s palace were materially re-
paired, and through whofe influence the chancellorfhip of
the Garter was made hereditary in the bifhops of Salifbury.
In his time, the {pire of the cathedral was ftruck by light-
ning, and apprehenfions being entertained of its Itability,
on account of its remarkable declenfion from the perpen-
dicular, fir Chriflopher Wren was engaged by the bifhop
to furvey the whole ftructure, and draw up a report on the
{tate of its architecture. This prelate further founded the
college of matrons, fituated in the Clofe, and likewife en-
gaged in a warm controverfy with dean Pierce refpecting
the right of beftowing prebends. His death occurred in
1689, when Gilbert Burnet, equally celebrated for his po-
litical condué and his hiftorical writings, obtained the vacant
fee, and held it till 1715. The fucceeding bifhop was Wil-
liam Talbot, whofe death, in 1730, made room for Richard
Willis, then bilhop of Glouceiter. The latter died in
1734, and in the fame year the far-famed Benjamin Hoadley,
bifhop of Bangor, one of the moit diltinguifhed polemical
3 writers

——

——_————

.
7
*
‘
t
}
}

|

ian

SALISBURY.

writers of his own, or perhaps any other age, was confe-
crated bifhop of Salifbury.. The Bangorian controverfy is
familiar to every ecclefiaitical reader. He prefided at
Salifbury twelve years before his removal to Winchelter, at
which time Thomas Sherlock was inftalled in his place, and
likewife attraGted notice by his controverfial writings. His
fucceflors were John Gilbert, afterwards archbifhop of
York ; John Thomas, who was tranflated to Winchetter ;
Robert Drummond, who was promoted to York; a fecond
John Thomas, who died here in 1766; John Hume, who
deceafed in 1782; and the Hon. Shute Barrington, now
bifhop of Durham, during whofe prelacy extenfive im-
provements were executed in the internal arrangement and
ornaments of the cathedral, and alfo in the bifhop’s palace
and gardens. On his removal, John Douglas, D.D., the
able dete€tor of Lauder’s forgeries againft Milton, was no-
minated to the bifhopric, which he held till 1805, when he
died, and was fucceeded by the prefent bifhop, John
Fither, D.D. and F.S.A., preceptor to the princefs Char-
lotte of Wales. 4 :
The cathedral of Salifbury is admitted by all, who are
capable of appreciating architeGtural merit, to be one of
the moft interefting ecclefiaftical edifices in Europe, com-
bining the qualities of fimplicity and harmony of defign,
with beauty of proportion and chaitenefs of decoration. In
its parts, it difplays the utmoft lightnefs and elegance, and,
as a whole, is grand and impreflive, without being gloomy.
Though flight variations of ftyle are perceptible in fome of
its members, particularly in the weft front, tower and fpire,
thefe neverthelefs harmonize fo well with the general cha-
raéter of the building, that even were record wanting to
authenticate the fat, the intelligent artift would imme-
diately recognize it as the work of one period, and the refult
of a determinate and fettled plan.. The church confifts of a
naye, with two lateral aifles; a bold and lofty porch, pro-
jeGting on the north fide, near the weft end ; a large tranfept,
with an eaftern aifle ; a choir, with lateral aifles, and a fecond,
or {mall tranfept, with an aifle ; a chapel at the eaft end, with
an intermediate veltibule or double aifle terminating the
choir ; anda lofty tower and {pire, which rife from the inter-
feétion of the great tranfept. To the fouth of the ‘church
are appended the cloifter, chapter-houfe, confiltory court,
and veltry. Such are the chief y portions, or features, of this
edifice, but it will be proper to defcribe fome parts more
particularly. The weit front is feparated into five compart-
meuts, longitudinally, and feveral irregular parts horizontally.
Four large buttrefles, ornamented with niches, itatues, &c.
project from the elevation. Inthe central compartment, at
the bottom, between two of the buttrelles, is a portico, con-
filling of three arches, one of which faces the chief entrance,
and communicates with the nave of the church; over this
is a feries of arcades with acute canopies, and above them
a large window, formed by a lofty pointed arch in the centre,
and a fmaller one on each fide. ‘The upper divifion, or
pediment, difplays two windows, with two lights in each,
alfo three circular windows or pannele. ‘To the right and
left of the centre portico, is another fimilar one, but
{maller, and over each are five different compartments of
windows, blank arches, &c. Both angles of this front are
fi rted by fquare turrets, having their exteriors covered
columns, canopies, tracery, and pedeftals; and their
interiors occupied by ftaircafes, furmounted by a central
fpire, and four corner pinnacles. Each tranfept is divided,
in elevation, into four compartments, with acute pediments
in the centre, and pinnacles at the angles. A feries of
double windows are continued all round the aifles, while the
upper divifion or portion over the roof of the aifles is lighted

by a continued feries of windows, of three openings to
each. The tower above the roof of the church confifts of
two divifions, varioufly decorated with pilafters, canopies,
&c. and crowned with four oftangular crocketted pinnacles
from the centre, between which rifes the fpire, whofe fummit
is 404 feet above the level of the ground. The ftyle of
archite€ture, in this member of the church, is more elaborate
than in moit of its other parts, and hence it is generally
thought to have been executed at a fomewhat later period.
That a ftru€ture fo lofty, and fo light and tapering in its
con{truétion, ‘as this fpire, fhould have fwerved 223 inches
from the perpendicular, in the courfe of five centuries, is
not furprifing ; but when the narrownefs of its bafe is con-
fidered, it feems aftonifhing that it has ftood for fo many
ages. The fact of its having done fo, is a conclufive proof
of the talents of the archite&, and the fkill of the mafon,
as well as of the excellence of the materials which compofe
it. To raife fucha mafs of ftone, was at once an arduous
and dangerous experiment, and demanded the higheft appli-
cation of fcience in its defign, and the greateft energy and
courage in its execution.

The cloifters and chapter-houfe, as before noticed, are
fituated on the fouth fide of the church. The former are
covered with a lofty vaulted ceiling, and are feparated from
the fquare area in the centre by a feries of unglazed win-
dows. On the eaftern fide a veltibule forms a communication
with the chapter-houfe, which is a lofty, light, and elegant
pieee of archite&ure, of an o¢tagonal form, and fupported
in the centre by a {mall cluftered column. A ftone feat fur-
rounds the interior; and at the eait end, facing the entrance,
is a fecond feat, raifed above the former. <A feries of
arcades, with columns and arches, extend round the lower
part, between the feat and the fills of the windows. Over
thefe arches are feveral fpecimens of ancient fculpture, in
bold baflo and alto relievo, reprefenting various incidents
mentioned in the facred writings. The interior of the
church alfo contains many fubjects entitled to notice and
defcription. At its weftern extremity is a lofty window,
filled with ftained glafs, the work of William Egginton,
who executed it at the expence of William Benfon Earle,
efg. Two windows at the eaft end of the church are like-
wife filled with ftained glafs, one from a defign by fir Jofhua
Reynolds, and the other from a piéture by Mortimer. ‘The
former reprefents the Refurreétion, and the latter a group of
figures raifing the brazen ferpent. The ftalls, bifhop’s
throne, organ-fcreen and organ, are all of modern date, and
all betray marks of their origin. Parts of the organ-fereen
are, however, extremely beautiful, as are alfo two: other
fereens, which have been placed under the north and fouth
arches of the tower, in order to {trengthen and fupport
them. The monuments are too numerous to admit of
feparate defcription. We fhall only therefore mention the
names of the principal perfons to whom they belong, or
who are known to have been buried here. The bifhops who
have monuments are, Herman, Jofceline, Poore, Roger, Wal-
ter-de-la~Wyle, Ofmund, Hyde, Thomas, Hume, Davenant,
Capon, Ward, York, Audley, Bingham, Wyckampton,
Roger de Mortival, Wyvil, Gheaft, Jewel, and Mitford ;
but feveral others of them were undoubtedly interred in the
church. The other diftinguifhed characters whofe afhes re-
pofe here, are ‘Thomas, baron Wyndham, of Finglafs in
Ireland; William Longfpee, earl of Sarum; Robert, lord
Hungerford; one of chs lords Stourton; lord Cheney ; fir
Walter Hungerford ; lord chief juftice Hyde; fir Thomas
Gorges, of Longford caftle; Edward, earl of Hertford ;
John, duke of Somerfet ; Elizabeth, duchefs of Somerlet ;
James Touchet, lord Audley ; James Harris, efq. _

eo

SALISBURY.

of Hermes; Henry, earl of Pembroke, and numerous mem-
bers of the fame illuftrious family. Here is befides a monu-
ment of a choral bifhop. It confifts of a flab of ftone, fup-
porting the effigy of a boy habited in epifcopal robes, with
a mitre on his head and a crofier in hishand. Att his feet is
a figure of a dragon, with his head reflext to his tail. This
monument, having been concealed by feats, lay undifcovered,
as was fuppofed, for feveral centuries, and when brought to
light, in 1680, excited much fpeculation relative to its
actual intention. The firft perfon who gave a fatisfactory
folution of the difficulty was the Rev. John Gregory, chap-
lain to bifhop Duppa. This gentleman, after much labori-
ous refearch into the ancient archives of the church, dif-
covered a remarkable cuitom, practifed in early times, of
ele&ting annually, from among the children of the choir, a
chorifter. bifhop, whofe authority lafted from the day of St.
Nicholas to Innocents’ day at night. This boy-bifhop not
only bore the name and held all the ftate, but likewife exer-
cifed fome of the moft important funétions of the epifcopal
office ; and in the event of his death during his prelacy, was
buried with allthe honour and pomp becoming his high ftation.

The different members belonging to the cathedral are a
bifhop, a dean, a chancellor, three archdeacons, a fubdean,
a fubchanter, forty-five prebendaries, four vicars and petty
canons, fix finging men, eight chorifters, and an organift,
befides fextous, vergers, and other inferior officers. The
dean, together with fix refidentiary canons, who are chofen
from among the dignitaries and prebendaries, conftitute the
chapter, and have the fuperintendance and management of
all affairs conneéted with the church. In ancient times the
bifhops of Salifbury held the dignity of precentors to the
archbifhop of Canterbury ; and fince the reign of Charles II.
they have been hereditary chancellors of the Garter. The
diocefe over which they prefide contains the whole of
Wiltthire, with the exception of two parifhes, King{wood
and Whitefbury ; and al Berkfhire, except the parifh of
Chilton, and the chapelry of Little Faringdon, in Langford
parifh, comprehending in all 544 parifhes, of which 109
are impropriations. The archdeaconries are thofe of Salif-
bury, Wiltfhire, and Berkthire; the firlt comprifing the
deaneries of Salifbury, Amefbury, Chalk, Wilton, Wyly,
and Pottern; the fecond, with the rectory of Minety, thofe
of Avebury, Cricklade, Malmefbury, and Marlborough ;
and the third thofe of Abingdon, Newbury, Reading, and
Wallingford, with the annexed retory of North Moreton.
See Hiftory and Antiquities of the Cathedral Church of
Salifbury, illuftrated with engravings, by J. Britton, F.S.A.
4to. 1815. Hiftorical Account of the Epifcopal See of
Salifbury, by William Dodfworth, gto. 1815.

The Bifbop’s Palace, which {tands at a fhort diftance from
the fouth-eait corner of the cathedral, is a large, irregular
ftru€ture, evidently the work of different and diftant periods.
Indeed we believe fearcely a bifhop has pofleffed the fee for
yr length of time, who has not made alterations in, and
enlargements to, this building. The late bifhop Barrington
added fome parts to it, and alfo effe&ted confiderable im-
provements in the garden. The prefent noble dignitary has
ee particular attention to the latter; and under his lord-

ip’s tafteful dire&tion much improvement as to picturefque
effet is likely to be produced. In the palace are feveral
portraits of bifhops, the oldeft of which is that of bifhop
Duppa, and the lateft that of the prefent prelate.

The College of Matrons, fituated near the entrance into
the Clofe atts the High-ftreet, was ereéted by bifhop
Ward, who fettled upon it an endowment yielding 200/. per
annum, but that fum has fince heen greatly increafed by the
rife in the value of property, and alfo by various additional

4

benefactions. This college is appropriated for the reception
of ten widows of clergymen of the eftablifhed church, who
have each an allowance of money, and is under the patron-
age of the bifhop, dean, and chapter, who eleét alternately
in the event of a vacancy.

Public Buildings in the City—Among the principal
are the new council-houfe, the parifh churches, the in-
firmary, and the county gaol. The new council-houfe
ftands at the fouth-eaft corner of the market-place, on the
{cite of an older building appropriated to the fame purpofes,
which was deftroyed by fire in 1780. It was ereéted be-
tween the years 1788 and 1795, under the authority of an
a&t of parliament, and at the fole expence of the earl of
Radnor, to whofe munificence and public fpirit Sali
is indebted for feveral other valuable improvements. This
{tructure is of brick, but the angles of each front are orna-
mented with ruftic work in ftone. The principal front faces
the north, where the afcent to the door is by a femicircular
flight of fteps, beneath a recefled portico, fupported by
four Doric columns, with an infcribed entablature above, in
commemoration of the founder and donor. All the apart-
ments are on one floor, and confilt of a council room, two
court rooms, a grand jury room, rooms for the different
officers of the corporationy a waiting room, and a veftibule.
The courts of law occupy the left, and the council the
right wing. j

The parifh churches are three in number, St. Martin’s,
St. Thomas’s, and St. Edmund’s. St. Martin’s church
itands upon an eminence at the eaft end of the city, and is
faid by Leland to have been ereGted in place of a more
ancient edifice, which was fituated at Harnham; but the
author of the “ Antiquitates Sarifburienfes” contends, that
the church of St. Martin has always ftood on the fame {cite.
The prefent building confifts of a nave, two aifles, and a
chancel, with a tower at the weft end, and contains a few
monuments, but none of them are of any note. The
church of St. Thomas, fituated near the centre of the city,
is faid to have been eretted by bifhop Bingham about the
year 1240, and to have been dedicated by him to Thomas &
Becket, in honour of the martyrdom of that bold and zea-
lous advocate for ecclefiaitical {upremacy. ‘This ftatement,
however, we prefume mutt allude to fome building anterior to
the prefent, as its ityle befpeaks it to be of much later date
than the early part of the thirteenth century. It is a large
ftruture, confifting of a fpacious nave, with twe fide aifles,
three chancels, a veltry room, and a tower at its fouth-
weftern angle. In this church the mayor and other officers
of the corporation have pews appropriated to them. Here
are feveral large and curious monuments in honour of the
Eyre family ; alfo a plain altar-tomb, without either date or
in{cription, but which is attributed to the duke of ae.
ingham, who was beheaded by king Richard ILI: in thi
city. The laft-mentioned church, St. Edmund’s, {tanding
at the northern extremity of the city, was formerly col-
legiate, and was founded by Walter de la Wyle, bifhop of
Salifbury in the year 1268; but the prefent building is of
much later ereétion, as appears from the ityle of its archi-
te&ture. One of the windows was formerly filled with
{tained glafs, reprefenting a feries of {cripture ftories. ‘This
was deftroyed by Henry Shertield, efq. recorder of the city,
for which aé& he was a ae by the bifhop before the
ftar-chamber, in 1632, and adjudged to pay a fine of sco/.
The principal monuments in this church commemorate the
anceftors and family connections of Penruddock W yadhiam,
efq. a gentleman who has evinced a great predileétion for
topographical and antiquarian {tudies, and who has a large
manfion adjoining the church. a

: SALISBURY.

The Infirmary ftands near Fifherton bridge, and is a
large brick building, more remarkable for commodious in-
ternal arrangement than for external elegance of appearance.
This eftablifhment was indebted for its origin to the hene-
volence of lord Feverfham, who bequeathed the fum of
5oo/. to the firft charity of the kind which fhould be
eltablithed within the county of Wilts. It is fupported by
benefaGtions, fubfcriptions, legacies, and other charitable
donations, the amount of which, from the commencement
of the charity in 1766 to the year 1803, is ftated in the
report then made at 44,608/. 4s. 113d. j

The County Gaol ttands near the Infirmary, and like it, is
deftitute of architectural intereft. The fame remark is
equally applicable to the aflembly and concert rooms, the
theatre, and the grammar-fchool. The laft, however, is a
very flourifhing eitablifhment of royal foundation, and can
boaft of many names among its pupils, who have been highly
diftinguifhed as political and literary characters. One of
thefe was the celebrated Mr. Addifon, who was a native
of this county. The other charity fchools here are Godol-
phin’s {chool, endowed for the maintenance and education
of eight orphan young ladies; and the Bifhop’s fchool, in
which twenty boys and girls are cloathed and educated.
There is alfo a Sunday {choel in each parifh ; and the city
abounds with private feminaries of great refpetability.

Monaftic Inflitutions, Hofpitals, &c.—In Catholic times
Salifbury appears to have contained a great variety of reli-
gious eftablifhments of a monaftic and collegiate defcription,
though none of them attained any very high degree of dif-
tintion or opulence, except the college St. Edmund, before
mentioned. We hhall notice the others therefore as briefly as
poffible. Near the fouth-eaft entrance into the Clofe, ftood
a convent of Francifcan or Grey friars, which William of
Worcetter ftates to have been founded by bifhop Peore, in
the year 1227; but in the ColleGtanea of Leland, its origin
is aieribed to a citizen named Pude, and a bint is given of
its removal from fome former fituation, probably Old Sarum.
In this priory Radulphus Monthermer, earl of Gloucefter,
was buried in the year 1325. The Dominican or Black
friars had a houfe in Fifherton, which according to Speed
was erected and endowed by king Edward I. and archbifhop
Kilwardy, about the year 1276, but Godwin fays it was the
work of the latter only. Mary, countefs of Norfolk, in-
ftituted in this convent a chantry of fix priefts, dedicated to
our Lady, St. Ann, and All Saints; all veltiges of which
are now effaced. St. Nicholas hofpital ftood near Harn-
ham bridge. It was founded by bifhop Richard Poore for
a mafter, eight poor women, and four poor men, but feems
to have been chiefly carried on and endowed by his fuc-
ceflor, bifhop Bingham. At the time of the diffolution
this hofpital was among the few which were fortunate
enough to efcape the rapacity and reforming zeal of king
Henry VIII.; but queen Elizabeth granted it away to

tentees, from whom it was purchafed by the then earl of

embroke, who prevailed upon king James to reftore it.
During the commonwealth the whale of its revenues were
conveyed by Oliver Cromwell to the corporation of Salif-
bury ; but part of them was afterwards reftored, and the
lifhment ftill continues to maintain a malter and twelve
pore perfons, fix women, and ag many men. Near this

{pital ftand the ruins of the college of Vaux, or Vaulx,
which owed its origin to bifhop Egidius, in the year 1260,
for the reception of fludents; but ite profperity was of
very fhort duration, and at the reformation it had {unk
into a fort of appendage to the hofpital of St. Nicholas,
both being, as at prefent, under one warden, who ftill en-
joys the accommodation and revenues annexed to the warden-

Vor. XXXI.

fhip of the ancient eollege. In Caftle-ftreet may be ftill
feen the remains of an hofpital dedicated to Sts John; and
mention is made in the Magna Britannia, and by Speed and
Dugdale, of an hofpital in honour of St. Michael, and ‘a
college dedicated to St. Edith; but their exiftence is quef-
tioned, upon good grounds, by bifhop Tanner. The other
hofpitals in Salifbury are, Trinity hofpital, which maintains
twelve poor perfons; Bricket’s hofpital, for fix poor
widows ; Eyre’s hofpital, for the accommodation of fix
men and their wives; Bleckydon’s hofpital, for fix poor
women; Taylor’s hofpital, for fix men; and Froud’s hof-
pital, which receives fix men, and as many women. Befides
thefe charities, there are in this city various alms-houfes,
ere€ted and endowed for the ufe of the poor. In Culver-
{treet are fix tenements, faid to be the gift of bifhop Poore ;
in St. Ann’s-{treet three houfes, the legacy of Mr. Sutton;
in Bedmin-ftreet twenty houfes, a donation by Mrs. Marks;
and in Caitle-{treet fifteen tenements, given by William
Huffey, efq. when one of the city reprefentatives.

The Bridges, the only public obje@s which remain to
be noticed, are Fifherton bridge, Crane bridge, and Harn-
ham bridge. The two firft are ftone ftructures, of fix arches
each, and ferve to conneé the city with the fuburb of Fifher-
ton. Harnham bridge, on the other hand, unites Salifoury
with the fuburb of Eaft Harnham, which fome writers af-
fert to have been a confiderable village before the found-
ation of the new city. This bridge is of ancient erection,
confilting of ten arches, and is commonly afcribed to bifhop
Bingham, It is divided into two parts by a {mall iflet,
where formerly ftood a chapel, in which three chaplains
were appointed to fay mafs, and to receive the contribu-
tions of paflengers towards defraying the expence of re-

airs.

Hiftorical Events.—Having thus fursifhed an account and
defcription of Salifbury in its municipal and ecclefiaftical
chara&ter, we fhall now briefly notice thofe events that
have occurred here, which properly belong to general hif-
tory. A parliament, or national council, was {ummoned to
meet in this city by king Edward I. to confult on the mea-
fures beft calculated to recover the Englifh dominions in
Gafcoigne, which had been feized by Philip of France.
In that aflembly the lay nobles only were prefent, the clergy
being then fufpended from the exercife of their civil privi-
leges, for having refufed feme previous aid demanded by
the king, who had befides confifeated their eftates, hoping
thereby to intimidate the lay barons. In this hope, how-
ever, he was difappointed. His demands at Salifbury
were oppofed with firmnefs ; and when the king threatened
punifhment, nearly forty of them threw off their allegiance,
and marched out of the eity at the head of their armed
followers. A fecond parliament was held here in 1328,
to enquire into the {tate of the kingdom, then groaning
under the odious tyranny of queen If{abel and earl Mor-
timer. That nobleman, aware of the intention of the earl
of Lancafter to move his impeachment, procured an order
under the great feal, that none of the nobles fhould appear
armed in the aflembly. This ftep occafioned mott of the
lay barons to abfent themfelves, fearing fome evil defign,
and in this they were not miftaken; for fcarcely had thofe
who met, chiefly clergy, began their deliberations, when
Mortimer broke in upon them with an armed force, and
threatened them with death, if they prefumed to pafs a
fingle refolution contrary to his pleafure, This violent
conduét afterwards formed one of the articles of impeach-
ment againft him, when he was brought to trial by com-
mand of the king in 1330. ‘The next event of hittorical
importance which occurred here, was the execution of

Aa Henry

SALISBURY.

Henry Stafford, duke of Buckingham, by whofe influence
and exertions Richard [II. was advanced to the throne,
though he fubfequently thought proper to raife the flandard
of rebellion againft his matter. In the 17th century, when
civil war defolated the kingdom, Salifbury was frequently
laid under contribution by both parties; but no event of
particular import happened in this city till towards the
clofe of Cromwell’s government. At the time, however, of
the premeditated revolt in 1655, it is remarkable as having
been the only place in England which became the fcene
of aétive operations in favour of the houfe of Stuart. Pen-
ruddock, Grove, Jones, and feveral other gentlemen of
Wilthhire, marched into the city with a fquadron of 200
horfe, and feizing the fheriff and judges, then prefent at
the aflizes, proclaimed Charles II. king. Clarendon affirms,
that if this troop had been fupported by a fimultaneous
movement of their aflociates in other parts of England,
the reftoration of that monarch would moft likely have
been effeted by force of arms, and not, as afterwards hap-
pened, by the decifion of parliament and the influence of
general Monk.

Eminent Natives.—Salifbury has given birth to many per-
fons of diftin&tion, among whom are the following ; Walter
Winterburn, cardinal of St. Sabin; William Horman, au-
thor of feveral works in profe and verfe; John Thorn-
borough, bifhop of Worcefter; George Coryat, a Latin
poet, and a topographer ; Michael Mafchiart, an able civi-
lian and poet ; fir Toby Mathews, a celebrated Jefuit and
politician; Dr. Thomas Bennet, a diftinguifhed divine and
writer; Thomas Chubb, and John Eedes, alfo noted con-
troverfialifts; John Greenhill, an eminent portrait painter ;
Richard Hayter, a theological author ; William and Henry
Lawes, both famous muficians and compofers; Dr. Harris,
an eminent hiftorian and biographer ; James Harris, the re-
nowned author of Hermes, and of other philofophical and
philological works; John Tobin, author of the Curfew
and the Honey Moon; and the late John Feltham, author
of a Tour through the Ifle of Man, and feveral other
volumes.

In the vicinity of Salifbury are many obje&s worthy of
detailed defcription, but our limits reftrain us from more
than a curfory mention of them. About two miles fouth-
eaft from the city is Clarendon park, anciently a royal foreft,
and the fcite of a palace, commonly called king John’s pa-
lace, from a tradition that it was ereéted by that monarch.
It is certain, however, that.a royal refidence exilted here
before his time, as Henry II. is mentioned by the old
writers as having frequently held his court at Clarendon. In
1164 that monarch convened a great council here, in which
thofe laws limiting the ecelefialtical authority were pafled,
which are ftill called «* The Conftitutions of Clarendon.”
Richard I. occafionally vifited this retreat during the fhort
period of his reign which wasfpentin England. His bro-
ther and fucceflor, king John, is faid to have been much at-
tached to this place, and it is not unlikely that the confider-
able additions he made tothe palace, gave rife to the tradi-
tion of his having been its founder. But it was in the
reign of Henry ILI. that Clarendon attained the zenith of
its glory. Its buildings were much enlarged and improved
by that prince, who befides held his court oftener, and with
greater {plendour here, than any of his predeceflors. Ed-
ward LI. fummoned a parliament to meet here in 1317 5 but
the diflention which then prevailed between the king and his
barons prevented its aflembling. During this prince’s
reign Clarendon was difafforefted, at leaft it was then firft de-
nominated the park of Clarendon. In 1357, when the
plague raged in London, and in many of the principal towns

in England, Edward III. and his two royal prifoners, the
kings of France and Scotland, pafled the fummer months at
this palace. From that period no mention is made of Cla-
rendon till the reign of Edward VI., when the whole do-
main was granted to William Herbert, earl of Pembroke,
for his own and his fon’s life. While the latter held it, we
are informed by Nichols in his ‘ Progrefles of Queen Eliza-
beth,” that her inajefty was entertained at the Lodge, and
enjoyed the pleafure of hunting in the park. After this

event, another chafm occurs in the hittory of this place; but »

in 1665 we find it mentioned as granted to George Monk,
duke of Albemarle, by king Charles 11. At that time
the fuperficial contents of the whole park or domain were
eftimated at 4300 acres. Monk bequeathed it to his coufin
Granville, earl of Bath, from whofe heirs it was purchafed
by Benjamin Bathurtt, efq. anceftor to the prefent proprietor,
Frederick Hervey Bathurft, efq. whofe feat, called Claren-
don Lodge, itands about a mile from the palace. This once
magnificent edifice, uow completely in ruins, occupied an
eminence overlooking a narrow vale on its north-weftern
fide ; and feems, from the extent of its prefent remains, to
have covered a large {pace of greund. One lofty wall, which
appears to have been the end wall of fome large room, is the
only part of the ftru€ture ftanding, but numerous found-
ations of other walls may yet be traced. The whole is fur-
rounded by a large fofle and vallum, which inclofes between
fixty and feventy acres.
Chlorus’s camp, or Figbury-Ring, is fituated to the north
of Clarendon park, ona hillnear the Roman road from Old
Sarum to Winchefter. This intrenchment is circular in its
form, and is environed by adouble ditch and rampart. The
principal entrance opens towards the eaft, and is defended
by two {mall outworks. The country fituated to the north
and north-eatt of this encampment is interfected in various
dire€&tions by banks and ditches, fome of which feem to form
inclofures, while others run out in irregular lines, without
any apparent conneétion with eachother. Several groups of
barrows are feen near thefe ditches, and at one point are
fome appearances indieating the {cite of a Britifh village.
Ivy church, fituated on the fouth-eaft fide of Clarendon,
was formerly the fcite of a priory dedicated tothe Blefled
Virgin. This houfe was founded and endowed by king
Henry II. for four canons, and fubfequently rofe to opu-
lence and diftinétion by the munificence of his faccallte
The monks here were the fpiritual attendants at the royal
chapel in Clarendon palace. Ivy church now forms part of
the manor of Alderbury, or Oldbury, the property of lord
Radnor. Eaftward from it ftands the village of Farley,
the birth-place of the celebrated fir Stephen Fox, anceftor
to the prefent earl of Ichefter and lord Halland.
Longford caftle, the feat and property of the earl of
Radnor, is fituated about three miles to the fouth-eaft of
Salifbury, on the banks of the river Avon, which flows
through the park in a clear, rapid, and broad itream. The
houfe was erected in 1591, by fir Thomas Gorges and his
lady, on the fcite of a more ancient manfien, id to have
been built by Walter Walerm, lord of Longford, in the
reign of Richard 1. It is a triangular ftruéture, in imita-
tion of the noted Catholic monogram of the Trinity, with
a court in the centre, and around tewer at eachangle. ‘The
external ‘walls are compofed of ftone and flint ; and the prin-
cipal front was formerly adorned with a great profufion of
architectural ornaments, all in ftone; fuch as columns, pi-+
lafters, fculptured friezes, baluftrades, caryatides, &c.
This curious building was formerly furrounded by a deep
moat, and from the views of it, drawn by Thacker, the
grounds appear to have been bedecked with fifh-ponds,
parterres,

SAL

parterres, clipt hedges, and terraces. All thefe, however,
have long been {wept away, and the caftle itfelf is deftined
to be demolifhed, and a much larger edifice raifed in its
ftead. This manfion contains a very extenfive and valuable
colleétion of pictures, many of them by the firft matters.
Here is alfo a fteel chair, remarkable for the great labour
and ingenuity difplayed in its execution. It was made by
Thomas Rukers, at the city of Augfburg, in the year 1575,
and confifts of more than 130 compartments, occupied by
groups of figures, reprefenting a feries of events in the an-
nals of the Roman empire, from the landing of /Eneas in
Italy to the reign of Rodolphus IT.

For an account of Old Sarum and Wilton Houfe, fee
O/d Sarum and WILTon. .

Antiquitates Sarifburienfes, or the Antiquities of Old
and New Sarum, &c. 8vo. 1777. This was written by
the Rev. Edward Ledwich. The Hiltory and Antiquities
of the Cathedral Church of Salifbury, &c. 8vo. 1723. A
Defeription of that admirable Structure the Cathedral Church
of Salifbury, &c. 4to. 1787. Beauties of England and
Wales, vol. xv. Wiltthire, 8vo. 1814. The Hiitory and
Antiquities of the Cathedral Church of Salifbury, illuttrated
with engraved Plans, Seftions, and Details; ato. 1815, by
John Britton, F.S.A.

Saxispury, a fertile diftri@ of North Carolina, which
comprehends the counties of Rockingham, Guilford, Mont-

mery, Stokes, Surry, Iredell, Rowan, Cabarras, and

ecklenburg ; bounded N. by Virginia, and S. by South
Carolina. Iron ore is found here, which fupplies the works
that have been eftablifhed for the manufacture of this metal ;
tobacco is alfo cultivated, and is of good quality, and many
of the planters are wealthy.—Alfo, the capital of the
above dilitri&, which is a poft-town, fituated in Rowan
county, on the N.W. fide of Cane creek, about five miles
from its junétion with Yadkin river ; containing a court-houfe,
gaol, and about 70 houfes. It is fituated in a fine country,
120 miles W. of Fayetteville. In its neighbourhood is a fub-
terraneous well, which has been lately difcovered, and is
reckoned a great natural curiofity. N. lat. 35° 47... W.
long. 80° 17'.—Alfo, a townfhip of Effex county, Maffa-
chufetts, divided into two parifhes. The moft flourifhing
part of the town is a point of land formed by the junétion
of Merrimack and Powow rivers; 4 miles N. of. Newbury
port, and 46 N.E. of Bofton. It was incorporated in 1640,
and contains 2047 inhabitants.—Alfo, a pott-town of Ver-
mont, on Otter creek, in Addifon county. It contains
709 inhabitants.—Alfo, a confiderable agricultural town-
thip in Hillfborough county, New Heapihives fituated on
the W. fide of Merrimack river, at the mouth of Black-
water river, and ‘oppofite to Canterbury ; ten or twelve
miles N. of Concord. It was incorporated in 1768, and
contains 1913 inhabitants.—Alfo, a poft-town in the north-
wefternmott townthip of Conneéticut and Litchfield county.
Here are feveral forges, iron-works, and a paper-mill. It
contains 2321 inhabitants.—Alfo, a town of Delaware, in
Newcaftle county, on the N. fide of Duck creek, on the
5. line of the county ; 12 miles N.W. of Dover.—Alfo,
two townfhips in Pennfylvania, one in Lancafter county,
containing 1841, and the other in Northampton county, con-
taining 933 inhabitants.—Alfo, a poft-town of Maryland,
in Somerfet county, between the two principal branches of
Wicomico river. It contains about 45 hotifes, and an epif-
copal church, and carries on a confiderable leather trade ;
Room entry, 163 miles 8. by W. of Philadelphia. —
Alfo, a fmall poft-town of Virginia ; 26 miles from Alexan-
dria.—Alfo, an ifland at the W. end of Hudfon’s ftrait, E. of
Nottingham ifland. N. lat. 63° 35'. W. long. 76° 27’.

SAL

Satispury Point, forms the N. fide of the mouth of
Merrimack river, or Newbury harbour, in the Maflachufetts.
N. lat. 42° 49'. W. long. 70° 54!.

SALIsBuRY Sound, a bay on the W. coaft of America.
N. lat. 57° 30'. W. long. 136°.

SALISERAT, a town of Grand Bucharia, the ancient
refidence of the khans of Zagatai: 60 miles E.S.E. of
Termed. ‘

SALISSO, im Anctent Geography, a place of Gaul,
marked in the Itinerary of Antonine in Germania prima,
on the route from Treves to Strafburg ; f{uppofed by D’An-
ville to be Sultzobach. ;

SALISUOLO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
Trevifan ; 7 miles N.E. of Trevigio.~

SALIVA, in Phyfrology, the fluid fecreted by the fali-
vary glands, and poured by their ducts into the mouth, for
the purpofe of moiftening the food while it undergoes
mattication. In common language it is confidered as fyno-
nimous with /pitile ; which is a compound fluid, confifting
of the limpid water fecreted by the falivary glands, and
mucus, which is furnifhed by a different clais of glands.
See Decrurtition, in which article the chemical compofi-
tion of this fluid is confidered.

The fermentative power afcribed to the faliva by Boer-
haave and Hoffman, has been fufficiently afcertained by the
later experiments of fir John Pringle and Dr. Macbride.
The former, in the Appendix to his Obfervations on the
Difeafes of the Army, has given the refult of feveral ex-
periments made to afcertain the effects of the faliva in di-
gettion.

By adding a fmall portion of it to fome raw beef, he re-
marked that this mixture putrefied flower than another
which had no faliva init ; from whence he infers its antifep-
tic nature. '

Another experiment made to afcertain the fermentative
power of faliva was this: he took two drachms of frefh
meat, the fame quantity of bread, and to thefe added as
much faliva as he fuppofed neceilary to digeftion. This
mixture being beat in a mortar, was put into a clofe phial,
and fet in the furnace, where it remained about two days,
with {carcely any vifible fermentation ; but on the third day
this a¢tion became manifeft. The bread and flefh were then
found rifen in the water, a fedirnent forming, and bubbles
of air continually mounting. In fhort, the fermentation
was complete, being diftinguifhed by a vinous fmell, as in
ordinary working raced The action continued about
twice as long as when no faliva was ufed ; it was likewife
much more moderate, and generated air with little tumult.
When the fermentation entirely ceafed, the mixture had a
pure acid talte ; and, what was equally remarkable, had no
putrid {mell during the whole procefs.

From thefe experiments the doétor concludes, that if the
faliva is well prepared, is in a fufficient quantity, and well
mixed with the aliment, it is qualified for refilting putre-
faction, preventing immoderate fermentation, flatulence, and
acidity inthe prime vie. But if the faliva is deficient, un-
found, or not well mixed with what is fwallowed, the ali-
ment will firit putrefy, then grow acid, and in that action fer-
ment f{trougly, and generate much air in the ftomach and
bowels.

Accordingly, in furfeits, or upon fwallowing without due
mattication ; when meats are eat tough and fat, or with
farinaceous fubltances unfermented ; or, when by any acci-
dent the faliva is vitiated, too fcanty, or not intimately
mixed with the food, the fermentation becomes tumultuous,
the ttomach {wells with air; aud this extraordinary commo-
tion being attended with an unufual heat, brings on that

Aa 2 vneafinels

SAL

uneafinefs called the heart-burn, and occafions that exceffive
fournefs of the ftomach, by which the teeth are not only
fet on edge, but the throat excoriated. This lait, how-
ever, only happens when the ftomach is relaxed, or any wife
difabled from conveying the whole aliment into the inte(tines ;
for what is left having time to undergo a complete ferment-
ation, is thereby changed into a harfh fort of vinegar.

Since one great ufe of faliva is to moderate fermentation,
it is probable, that fuch fubftances as refemble it moit in
this quality, will prove the beft ftomachics, whenever that
humour fails. Of this clafs are acids, wine, fpirits, and
bitters ; but as all thefe retard as well as moderate fer-
mentation, they may be frequently lefs proper than fome of
the antifcorbutics, as horfe-radifh, muftard, and garden
feurvy-grafs, which, at the fame time that they moderate,
retard fermentation but little. As to aromatics, however
affifting they may be in digeftion by their heat and ftimulus,
they promife lefs of a carminative quality than either the
bitters or antifcorbutics ; inafmuch as they are more dif-
pofed to increafe than to moderate fermentation, and confe-
quently to produce air inftead of {uppreffing it.

Dr. Macbride, in his Experimental Effays, eflay firft and
fecond, gives an account of feveral experiments in which fer-
mentation was produced in different alimentary mixtures, by
the addition of faliva, which difcovered no figns of ferment-
ation without it. See Dicestion.

M. Gattaldy, in a thefis on the faliva, obferves, that it
takes its name from the falt it contains 3 which falt he will
have to be partly a yolatile acid, and partly alkalious. He
adds, that it contains fome oleaginous parts, and a little
earth. By being compounded of fo many different kinds of
parts, it becomes a diflolvent proper for all the different kinds
of food on which we live. Its natural and laudable {tate is,
to be a little more vifcid than common water, and much lefs
fo than milk ; and it is preferved in this {tate by the appli-
cation of the fpirits, and of the particles of air which infi-
nuate into it.

According to all appearance, the faliva is derived from the
blood of the arteries ; part of the arterial blood, brought to
the falival glands, ferves to feed them; another part is re-
turned into the veins, and continues the circulation; and a
third part, which is the ferum, receiving a fub-acid quality
from them, is there converted into faliva. Some authors
have imagined that the nervous juice contributed to the com-
pofition of the faliva; and the rather, becaufe larger and
more numerous twigs of nerves are communicated to thefe
glands than to moft other parts, which yet have a more ex-
quifite feeling than thefe; but Dr. Nuck has refuted this
opinion, by feveral experiments.

Too great an excretion of faliva, Boerhaave obferves,
diforders the firft digeftion ; and hence caufes thirft, drynefs,
a black bile, and, finally, confumption, and atrophy. On
the contrary, if no faliva be difcharged into the mouth, or if
only lefs than ordinary, it fpoils both the manducation of
the food, and its tafte, {wallowing, and digeftion ; and,
withal, occafions thirft.

SALIVARIS, in Botany, a name given by fome authors
to the pellitory of Spain, or pyrethrum of the fhops, from
its quality of draining a large quantity of the faliva into the
mouth by its great heat and acrimony. ;

SALIVARY Duds and Glands, in Anatomy. The latter
are the glandular bodies which fecrete the faliva, and the
former the tubes by which this fecretion is conveyed into the
mouths. Sce DeGciutition.

Sauivary Fi/lula, in Surgery, implies an opening, or
{mall ulcer, on the fide of the face, Bicharginf the faliva
almoft continually ; but in larger quantity when the pa-

SAL

tient is malticating, or converfing ; and it is the confequence
of wounds, ulceration, or floughing, extending to the pa-
rotid gland, or its excretory duét.

The difficulty of healing falivary fiftule of the parotid
duct, ought to make us very circum{peét in the performance
of operations on the cheeks. Richerand once cut out of
a gentleman’s cheek an atheromatous tumour, the bafe of
which was adherent to this duct, and had he not ufed the
precaution of drawing the fielling outward with a hook
after the requifite divifion of the fkin, he might have
wounded the duét, and occafioned a falivary fiftula. Nofo-
graphie Chirurgicale, tom. ili. p. 278. edit. 2.

A falivary filtula is not merely a great deformity, it is an
annoying, and even a ferious complaint. During a meal
the faliva will flow out fo abundantly, that the patient can
hardly keep his clothes dry ; and it is faid that, in the fhort
{pace of a quarter of an hour, two ounces of this fluid have
been difcharged. What is worfe, the daily lofs of a fecre-
tion, fo highly ufefal in the funétion of digeltion, may in=
duce a train of extremely unpleafant fymptoms, lofs of
appetite, indigeftion, weaknefs, and emaciation.

A falivary fiftula, like every other one, depending upon
a breach of continuity in an excretory tube, is not likely
to heal while the fecretion is allowed to continue to pais
through the external opening. Preventing this circumftance
for a certain time, is the leading principle on which molt of
the common plans of treatment are founded.

When a wound of the parotid du& is recent, the moft
judicious practice is to endeavour to unite the wound by
the firft intention, in the hope that one part of the tube may
coalefce with the other, or rather in the expectation of ac-
curately uniting the more external part of the wound, while
the infide of the cut may remain free for the paflage of the
faliva into the mouth. There can be little doubt that in the
generality of cafes the cure is effeéted on the latter principle,
the anterior portion of the duét becoming obliterated. The
twifted future is the moft likely means of accomplifhing an
exa&t and prompt union of the fkin.

The application of cauftic to the fiftula has been fome-
times tried with fuccefs. The efchar, being more or lefs
thick, ftops the farther efcape of the faliva. Deficcating
caultics, {uch as the argenti nitras, ought to be preferred,
becaufe the efchar produced by them is more dry and folid,
and is longer in becoming detached. But, it mutt be owned
that, in adopting this plan, there is fome rifk of feeing the
fiftula recur after the feparation of the flough. The lafs of
fubftance then renders the cure more difficult, and fhould this
defirable event be fulfilled, a large disfiguring fear will
continue on the middle of the cheek. Cauttics, indeed, are
not likely to anfwer in thefe cafes, unlefs the outward aper-
ture be very {mall, and the faliva have fome other fiftulous
channel, by which it can get into the mouth.

Compreffion is another common practice for the cure of
falivary filtule ; but it is employed in various ways, and on
different principles. Some practitioners are advocates for
applying a graduated comprefs to a part of the parotid duct
betwixt the fittula and the gland; others are in fayour of
making the compreffion a& only upon the glanditfelf.

With regard to the firft of thefe methods, the evident
principle of cure in it is to prevent the faliva, for a certain
time, from paffing out of the filtula, in which circumftance
the opening will be likely to heal. The method feems parti+
eta rational, and we have no doubt that, with a little
care.and fkill, it would frequently be fuccefsful. The in-
convenience of the practice 1s, that it is apt to give rife to a
painful cedematous enlargement of the parotid gland, in
confequence of the temporary retention of the {aliva in “ F

ut

es eee ee

SAL

bnt it fhould be remembered that fuch {welling is always
difperfed after the fiftula is healed, and the compreffion re
moved. Whatever may be the objections to preflure for the
cure of fiftule of the parotid du€, none can be urged
againit it in cafes where the fiftula proceeds from the gland,
as in thefe it is allowed to prove completely effectual.

The fecond mode of employing compreffion is entirely
different from the preceding ; it was firit praétifed by De-
fault, and confifts in making fuch preffure on the parotid

land as to produce an atrophy of it, and a ceffation of the

alivary fecretion on this fide of the face. Default ufed to
lay compreffes over the parotid gland, and bind them on the
part with a roller, enjoining the patient to live entirely on
liquid food, and avoid talking. The bandage was tightened
anew every day. A continuance of this plan a certain time
caufed the gland to wafte away ; its funtion was abolifhed ;
no more faliva paffed into the du, and the fiftulous opening
healed. It might, 2 priori, be fuppofed that this method
would be apt to induce diforder in the digeftive organs, by
leffening the quantity of faliva fecreted; but, if we can
credit Bichat, there is no caufe for fuch apprehenfion, as the
reft of the falivary glands make up the deficiency of the fe-
cretion by an increafe of their own funétion. CEuvres de
Default, tom. ii. p. 218—z20.

Another method of curing falivary fiftule is to introduce
a probe, or feton, fo as to render the continuation of the
parotid du& pervious again. Some cafes have been cured
by eftablifhing an internal fiftula, or a channel for the faliva
onthe infide of the cheek. Of all the plans, this is the moft
ancient, and it has been confidered as the beit by feveral dif-
tinguifhed furgeons, Chefelden, Monro, B. Bell, Default, &c.

The latter furgeon practifed it fuccefsfully on a woman
whofe parotid duét was fo clofed at its termination in the

_ mouth, that the {malleft probe could not be got iato it.

He perforated the cheek from without inwards, with an
hydrocele-trocar, which he direéted obliquely downwards
and inwards, in order that the artificial channel might imitate,
in a certain degree, the natural one, and correfpond with
the glandular portion of the du@. A thread was then con-
veyed into the month through the cannula, the ftilette
having been withdrawn; a fmall feton was faftened to the
thread, and pulled back into the new channel; but not fo
far as to intervene betwixt the lips of the external wound,
in whieh Default merely left the fingle thread. This was
fixed on the cheek with a bit of {ticking plafter. The wound
was dreffed with lint, and the feton was renewed every day,
being enlarged by the addition of a few threads each time.
Merely the fingle thread was apparent externally, lyin
under the adhefve platter, betwixt the lips of the voane
All confiderable motion of the jaw was forbidden, and the
pit was permitted to take only liquid nourifhment for a
ong time. On the forty-fourth day the feton was fup-
preffed, and the fingle thread, which had been left in the
part, was taken out on the fiftieth. The {mall outer open-
ing was then touched with cauftic, and it foon healed. In
three months the cure was complete.

The foregoing treatment is defcribed as being at leaft as
efficacious as compreflion. It requires, like this other
method, that the jaw fhould be kept almoft motionlefs. If
it be true, that notwithftanding the continual paflage of the
faliva through the artificial opening, the new channel has a
tendency fo be effaced, yet it mutt be acknowledged that the
difficulty of exercifing an invariable compreflion on parts fo
ane as the cheeks, is quite as great an inconvenience to
be alleged again{t the excellence of preffure, Richerand
maintains that this obfervation ftands good, whether the
compreflion be made with a roller and graduated comprefs,

SAL

or with particular machines, conftruéted with {prings, and
which aét by their elaftic property.

Finally, it is to be noticed that falivary filtule, after re-
fifting 2 long while all the efforts of furgery, fometimes get
well of themfelves. Richerand has witnefled two {pontaneous
cures in young ferofulous fubjeéts, a confiderable time after
the argenti nitras had been repeatedly applied in vain. It
may happen, after a falivary fiftula is apparently cured, that
the {mall fear may break out again. The parotid du@
fhould, in this cafe, be examined with a probe ; for probably
the relapfe is owing to this tube having become contraéted.
In one cafe of this fort, profeffor Dubois introduced a probe
at the orifice on the infide of the cheek, and difcovered a
foreign body near the fiftula. It was a fifh-bone,- he ex-
tracted it, and a cure foon followed.

The praétice of the fame furgeon furnifhes us with an in-
ftance of a falivary fiftula, caufed by ulceration of the fub-
maxillary gland, and cured by perforating the inferior
parietes of the mouth. The new paflage was kept diluted
a certain time ; the faliva took its courfe through it ; and
the fiftula healed, Richerand, Nofographie Chir. tom. iii.
p- 280—282.

Sarivary Glands, Difeafed. See Ranuta.

SALIVAS, in Geography, atown of South America, in
the kingdom of New Granada.

SALIVATION, Satrivartio, in Medicine, a promoting
of the flux of faliva, by means of medicines; chiefly by
mercury.

The chief ufe of falivation is in difeafes belonging to the
glands, and the membrana adipofa, and principally in the
cure of the venereal difeafe ; though it is fometimes alfo ufed
in epidemic cafes.

The body is prepared for falivation by a copious and conti-
nued ufe of attenuating, diluting, foftening decoétions; as of
{cabious, pellitory, china, farfaparilla, faifafras, and fanders.

Salivation is either partial or univerfal. By the firft, only
the humours of fome part of the body are to be difcharged ;
as in catarrhs, tooth-ache, &c. By the fecond, the whole
mafs of blood is to be purged.

The firft is raifed either by a flow continued chewing of
fome tenacious matter, as mattich, wax, or myrth; ef-
pecially if other fharp things be mixed with them, as py-
rethrum, ginger, or pepper; or by drawing in fharp irri-
tating vapours, as thofe of tobacco, rofemary, thyme, mar-
joram, &c. .

The latter 1s effeéted by the aétion of fuch medicines as
create fome flight but conitant naufea; as ftibium not quite
fixed, nor yet quite emetic ; a little common vitriol, &c.; but
chiefly by fuch as diffolve all the parts of the mafs of blood,
turn them into lympha, and thus caufe a ptyalifm ; fuch are
crude quickfilver, cinnabar, a folution of quickfilver in
aqua-fortis, white and red precipitate, turbith mineral, {weet
fublimate of mercury, &c.

Sarivation, Mercurial, has been a very ufual method ot
cure ; efpecially in the venereal, {crofulous, and hypochon-
driac cafes: in effeét, it proves the fureft remedy, yet dif-
covered, for the Gallic ate though the difcovery of it,
as that of moft other remedies, was owing to chance. Jac.
at a phyfician of Bologna, having read in Avicenna, and
Melve, two Arab authors, that mercury, applied externally,
was proper for the lepra, and fome kinds of puttules, par-
ticularly the fcabies, or itch, had a mind to try it in ay
itch: a falivation was, hereupon, unexpectedly raifed, and
the patient was unexpectedly cured, not only of his itch, but
of his pox. The fame method he afterwards ufed for the pox
itfelf; and, meeting with great fuccefs therein, others were
induced to follow him ; and thus it acquired a very i

anc

SAL

and diftinguifhed reputation. But this method has been of
late lefs commonly ufed, becaufe the advantages of mercury
have been obtained by ufing it as an alterative, without the
trouble and danger which attend this mode of promoting an
evacuation by it. However, venereal maladies of long
ftanding, and fuch as have arifen to a great height, or have
affe€ted the bones, require a full ptyalifm. In thele cafes,
the difeafe has been fubdued for atime by the alterative
method, but afterwards broken out afrefh, and been com-
pletely cured by falivation ; and, on the other hand, fome
cutaneous foulneffes, after refitting falivation, have yielded
to an alterative courfe.

There are two manners of applying mercury to raife a
falivation ; the one external, or in the way of unétion, by
mixing it up with fome unguent, and then rubbing it on the
joints, &c. This is, in general, beit done by rubbing a
proper quantity of the unguentum ceruleum every night,
or every other night, on the thighs. The falivation fhould
be raifed gradually, and fubfide as flowly: the patient
fhould be prepared by a {pare diet fora few days, by bleed-
ing, and by ufing the warm bath two or three times before
the operation; and during the progrefs of it, his ftrength
fhould be fupported with plenty of light but nourifhing diet.
A pint of gruel, or a decoétion of mallows and liquorice in
milk and water, almond emulfion, and barley-water, with
gum arabic diffolved in it, may be repeatedly given every
two or three hours; andif he is faint, he may take, occa-
fionally, a little wine whey, maced ale, or mulled wine. A
woman that expects the menfes fhould defer the operation till
they fettle. The other method is internal, where the mer-
cury istaken at the mouth.

In each cafe, the mercury infinuates itfelf into the mafs
of blood; and mixing with the venereal poifon, the two
bodies, thus locked together, are drawn, with the ferofity,
into the falival glands, where they are feparated and dif-
charged ; as finding the pores of thofe glands proportioned
to their figures, and proper to receive them.

Dr. Quincy will have the internal to be much the fafer
and better method. The mineral globules, he thinks, being
intimately combined with falts, in the preparations given in-
wardly, will, by the irritation thereof, be eafily and fully
thrown off by the fecretory organs, till the blood 1s quite dif-
charged of its load: whereas, in mercurial fri€tions, it is
poffible fome of the heavy particles may be left lodged in the
interftices of the fibres, or cells of the bones. Add to this,
that, by computing the proportion of mercury in all the dofes
neceflary to promote a fpitting, internally, and the weight
of the fame mineral ufed when it is done by unétion; the
quantity ufed in the latter cafe far exceeds that in the former :
confequently, the ill effects apprehended from that dangerous
medicine mult needs be more fenfible in the one cafe than in
the other.

The external application, therefore, is only to be allowed
of, where either the cafe requires the violence of fuch a ma-
agement ; or outward ulcers and tumours require a particular
cure by liniments. Thus Quincy.

For the belt method of adminiftering mercury, and its
ufe, fee Lures Venerca.

But a learned French phyfician, M. Chicoyneau, chan-
cellor of the univerfity of Montpellier, has done fome dif-
credit to the praétice of falivating in any manner, and that
in a little treatife ; where he endeavours to prove, that the
falivation itfelf contributes nothing to the cure, but is rather
prejudicial to it; that the falutary effeéts of the mercury
are independent of any evacuation at all; and that it a&s
purely as a f{pecific. It is without reafon, therefore, he
urges, that venereal patients are put to the torture of a fali-

4

SAL

f

vation; fince the full effet of the medicine may be had —
without carrying matters to that extremity. The falivation

is only an accident to the cure ; which is effe€tually obtained

by a mercurial unguent rubbed on the joints in fuch quanti-

ties, and at fuch intervals, as not to raife any falivation.

He fupports the whole by the experience of forty or fifty

cures, wrought in one year, by this new method. The

fame method, it feems, has been tried alfo in England,

and with fuccefs; as appears from a tranflation of Chicoy.

neau’s piece, fince publifhed, with notes, by an Englifh
phyfician.

It has been obferved, that ill confequences have refulted
from the fudden ftopping of falivations ; for the removal of ©
which Dr. Silvefter recommends a renewed falivation ; either
by pills with guaiacum, to be taken morning and evenin
with one grain of calomel in each dofe, and to be wate
down with a draught of warm decoétion of the woods, or,
in more obftinate cafes, by rubbing a drachm of the ung.
cer. fortius upon the legs and thighs twice a day, for th
days, which is fufficient to produce a gentle falivation. See
a recital of the cafes to which this method was applicd, in
London Med. Obf. and Inq. vol. iii. art. 24.

SALIUNCA, in Ancient Geography, atown of Hifpania,
in the interior of the country of the Autrigoni. Ptolemy.

SALIX, in Botany, the willow, fallow and ofier us,
has been fo called from remote antiquity. Et a 8
have derived the word from /alio, to arife or {pring up,
conceiving it to allude to the quicknefs of growth in thefe
plants. Its Greek fynonym, Ir, acknowledges a paralle
derivation, ‘¢ from tas, to go, becaufe it grows faft.’?
Hence we cannot but prefer {uch an explanation to ¢
De Theis, who, though he often looks with great advanta
beyond the bounds of the learned languages, proves on the
prefent occafion lefs fatisfactory, in deducing Salix from the —
Celtic /a/, near, and /is, water; however applicable fuch a
fenfe may be to the ordinary fituation of the willow tribe.
Linn. Gen. 514. Schreb. 674. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 653.
Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 352. Sm.
Fl. Brit. 1039. Purfh 608. Juff. 408. Tourn. t. 364.
Lamarck Illuitr.t. 802. Gertn. t. go.—Clafs and order,
Dioecia Diandria. Nat. Ord. Amentacee, Linn. Juff.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Catkin oblong, imbricated on all
fides, compofed of fingle-flowered, oblong, flat, bluntifh,
{preading {cales, and accompanied by a few involucral leaves
from the bud. Cor. Petals none. Neétary a {mall cylin-
drical, abrupt, honey-bearing gland, at the inner fide of the
flower, fometimes double. Stam. Filaments two, rarely
more, itraight, thread-fhaped, longer than the calyx-fcales ;
anthers two-lobed, with four cells.

Female, Cal. Catkin and fcales as in the male. Cor.
Petals none. Neétary as in the male, but often {maller.
Pift. Germen fuperior, often ftalked, ovate, tapering into a
{tyle’various in length, moftly exceeding the calyx-feale ;
{tigmas two, notched, erect. Peric. Capfule ovate-awl-
fhaped, of one cell and two concave, finally revolute, valves,
each crowned with half the ftyle. Sceds numerous, ovate,
minute, crowned with fimple, filky, copious hairs.

Ob{. Some {pecies have three, five, or even more, ftamens,
of unequal length. In a few the few filaments are more or
lefs combined, and occafiunally even the anthers are united.
Very rarely one or two male flowers have been obferved in
a female catkin; feen. 49. 8. hermaphroditica is the only
known f{pecies with united flowers. Linnus obferves that
the report of individual willows changing their fex, and
being one year male, another female, is a fiction. We be-
lieve the organs of impregnation are occafionally liable to
morbid appearances, from infeéts or fome other caufe, which

may

‘may have given rife to fuch an opinion.

SALIX.

If however we
are right in our conje€iures relating to the firlt {pecies, fee
below, thefe organs are capable of a fomewhat fimilar me-
tamorpholis. i

Eff, Ch. Male, Calyx the feales of a catkin. Petals
none. NeGtary a gland, at the bafe of the ftamens within.
Stamens one to five.

Female, Calyx and neétary like the male. Petals none.
Stigmas two. Capfule fuperior, of one celland two valves.
Seeds downy.

The fpecies of this vaft, important, and moit natural
genus are all woody, from one inch to fifty feet in height,
natives of temperate or very cold climates, and generally of
a wet foil. Leaves deciduous, italked, fimple, and undivided,
almott always alternate. Stipulas in pairs at the bafe of the
footftalks, various according to the age of the tree, or lux-
uriance of the branch. Catkins from the fame, or a dif-
ferent, bud, green or yellowifh. The wood, being of

nick growth, is commonly light, foft and white, though
ufeful for feveral purpofes. The pliant twigs are mott valu-
able in an economical point of view ; efpecially of fuch as, for
their length and peculiar tenacity, are termed ofiers, and cul-
tivated for all the different forts of bafket-work. The bark
of feveral fpecies is aftringent, and ufeful for tanning, as well
as for medical purpofes. All grow with great facility from
cuttings, and it is a common opinion that they rarely pro-
pagate themfelves by feed; but we have for many years
witnefled the contrary. We can alfo contradict another
common opinion, taken up by botaniits who found a diffi-
culty in difcriminating the {pecies, that they frequently ge-
nerate mule varieties. In a garden where, for 20 years,
almoft every Britifh Willow, and many foreign ones, have
been cultivated together, under our infpe&tion, and where
abundance of feedling plants have come up every feafon;
though many of thefe have been purpofely preferved for exa-
mination, no mule plant, nor even any variety, has occurred.
The greateft difference of afpeét indeed, and the ftrangett
diverfities of fhape and fize, in the foliage and ftipulas, are
feen, according to the treatment of each individual, with
refpeé& to pruning, watering, ftarving, felling, and allowing
young fhoots to grow from an old root.

In order to become acquainted with the fpecies of this
intricate genus, it is neceffary to obferve them continually,
but more efpecially at three different periods; in flower ;
in early Bar adic: their capfules are ripening, and their
ftipulas in perfeétion; and laftly, when their leaves have
attained their full fize and confiftency.

Linnzus, in his Fora Lapponica, was the firft botanift
who beftowed much attention on the various fpecies of Salix.
That work is the foundation of our knowledge, more efpe-
cially of the alpine ones; to which alfo Lightfoot, in his
Flora Scotica, paid confiderable regard. But the latter la-
boured at the fubje& with hefitation and miltruft, from an
opinion of the {pecies being confounded by crofs impregna-
tion. This author, and his contemporary Hudfon, al
therefore enumerated hardly a fourth part of the native
Willows of our ifland. The fubjeé was firft taken up,
with vigour and effet, by the fate James Crowe, efq.
F.L.S., of Lakenham near Norwich, a moft excellent
Britifh botanift, who, in the courfe of his agricultural pur-
fuits, foon difcovered that thofe who made ufe of thefe

for economical purpofes, were often baffled in their
intentions, for want of knowing one from another, and that
botanifts were little lefs in the dark. Profeflor Hoffmann,
of Gottingen, had indeed illuftrated and delineated fome in
a manner that left hardly any thing to be wifhed; but his
admirable work was extended fo far only as to ferve as a

model of inquiry, not as a complete inftruétor. Mr. Crowe,
therefore, after colleGting into his garden, a fpot moft fa-
vourably fituated for the purpofe, every wild as well as cul-
tivated Willow that he could poflibly obtain, laboured,
with the writer of this, for many fucceffive years, in ftudy-
ing their appearances and difcriminative chara@ters. Hence
the Britifh {pecies have been much more fully explained in
the Flora Britannica and Englifh Botany than in any pre-
ceding work of the kind, either at home or abroad. Some,
neverthelefs, {till remain for further inquiry, and the fubje&
is at this time purfuing by Mr. George Anderfon, F.L.S.,
who has added feveral new {pecies to the Britith lift, and has
efpecially improved our knowledge of the American kinds,
as may be feen in Mr. Purfh’s Flora of North America.
Thefe laft have remained almott entirely undetermined, till
ten of them were defined and defcribed by the Rev. Dr.
Muhlenberg, in a paper publifhed by Willdenow at Berlin,
and tranflated into Englifh in Sims and Konig’s Annals of
Botany, v. 2. 62.

The number of fpecies of Salix, in the fecond edition of
the Sp. Plant. of Linnzus, amounts to no more than 315
and in the 14th edition of his Sy/?. Veg. to 33 ; while in the
Fil. Brit. 45 are defcribed, and that number is augmented
to 56 in the Engli/b Botany. The Flora of Purth contains
37 North American fpecies, many of which, however, are
common to that country and our own. Willdenow in his
Sp. Pl. has finally reckoned up in all 116 fpecies of Salix,
with a hint at the end that many more remain undetermined
in the cold parts of the globe. This laft remark is autho-
rized by feveral figures of this genus, in the Flora Danica
and other works, which, as far as any thing can be judged
therefrom, appear not referrible to any known fpecies. _

No very fatisfa&tory principle of arrangement of the va-
rious fpecies has, as yet, been fuggefted. Linnzus diftri-
buted them by the leaves being {mooth or otherwife, fer-
rated or entire ; and this method is followed by Willdenow,
as well as in the F/. Brit.; not without a fuggeftion in the
latter work, that more natural aflemblages of {pecies might
probably be founded on the germen being feffile or ftalked,
the comparative length of the ityle, and the divifions of the
ftigma. Mr. Anderfon has introduced a new principle, de-
rived from the leaves being either revolute, or folded flat, in
the buds; and by this we fhould gladly have profited, had
our information refpecting the whole genus been fufficient.
This not being the cafe, we mutt {till follow the original ar-
rangement ; and that we may not perplex, what we cannot
at prefent much improve, we fhall, for the convenience of
our readers, take Willdenow as our general guide for the
diftribution of the {pecies, as well as for the fubdivifions of
the genus. Ina very few inftances only, it is neceflary to
fwerve from his order, where, for want of being acquainted
with fome particular fpecies, he has placed them at too
great a diltance from their natural allies.

Se&. 1. Adult leaves fmooth, ferrated.

‘1. S. hermaphroditica. United-flowered Willow. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 1442. Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 304. Fl. Suec. ed. 2.
345-—Leaves finely and obtufely ferrated, fmooth. Sta-
mens two, in the fame flower with the piitil.—Native of
Sweden, in the neighbourhood of Upfal, but very rare.
Linn. The Linnwan fpecimen of this fpecies, which is all
we have ever feen, bears a great refemblance to the well-
known pentandra hereafter defcribed, but Liuneus fays the
trees are really diftinét. We perceive a clear difference in
the flamens, which are certainly but two, and always ac-
companying the pifil. Mention is made in the FU. Suec.
that in the year 1754, all the Jlamens were abortive, their
rudiments being feflile on each fide of the acfary, as if ~_

a

SALIX.

had been three glands of that defcription. The germen is
lanceolate and {moeth, nearly feffile. Stigmas recurved, in
two obtufe fegments. In both editions ef the Sp. Plant.
Linnzus remarks that this plant ‘* agrees with S. pentandra
in having fraooth eaves, with obtufe glandular ferratures,
convolute, yellowifh, moftly fix from each bud; as.well as
villous catkins ; and in being of the fame fize and habit. It
differs, however, from that in having pale reddifh, not
purplifh, branches; the veins on the upper furface of the
feaves funk, not elevated ; and prominent glands at the bafe
of the foot/lalks. It flowers earlier, and bears more abun-
dant galls, than S. friandra.”? We do not find the colour
of the branches, nor the appearance of the veins, to be trufted,
for Ehrhart’s f{pecimens of indubitable pees gathered
at Upfal, accord precifely in thofe refpects with the her-
maphroditica. The glands at the bafe of the footfialks are
likewife evident in both, as well as in our Englith {pecimens
of pentandra, though lefs univerfal or confpicuous in the
latter, they being, in fact, variable in all. We are there-
fore much difpofed to believe, that this famous §. hermaphro-
ditica, which no botanift but Linneus has obferved, is really
a variety of that dioecious Upfal one with five or more /la-
mens, which Ehrhart has given, in his collections of dried
{pecimens, for pentandra, and which, after all, may be the
fame with the Linnzan one, and with our Britifh tree that
bears the fame name, varying in the colour of its twigs; for
on the moft accurate {crutiny, we can find no other dif-
ference, though we can trace, in the fpecimens of Linnzus,
circumitarces which led him to indicate the diitin@tions
above. The fubje& under confideration has excited fo
much curiofity among botanilts, that it is hoped this long
difcuffion will not be thought fuperfluous, as it may nearly
fettle the queftion. See the next {pecies.

2. S. Hoppeana. Androgynous Willow. Willd. n. 2.—
‘* Leaves lanceolate, tapering at each end, ferrated; glau-
cous beneath. Catkins accompanying the leaves, triandrous,
polygamous. Germens ftalked, oblong-lanceolate, {mooth.
Stigmas feffile.”,—Found near Saltfburg in Bavaria, by
Mr. Hoppe, who fent it to Willdenow. Leaves dark
green above. Stipulas half-heart-fhaped, glaucous beneath,
ferrated at the outer margin. atkins female in their upper
part, male below; fometimes perfeétly dioecious. Scales
oblong, obtufe, hairy. Stamens three, rather longer than
the fcales. Germen on a long ftalk. Stigmas two, emar-
ginate, fpreading. Willd. The above account confirms
the poffibility of fuch a change as we have imagined in the
flowers of the firft f{pecies.

3. S.triandra. Long-leaved 'Triandrous Willow. Linn.

Sp. Pl. 1442. Willd. n. 3. Fl. Brit.n. 7. Engl. Bot.
t. 1435. ‘Tr. of L. Soc. vy. 6. 118. Curt. Lond. fafe. 6.
t. 72. Hoffm. Sal. v. 1. 45. t. 9, 10, and 23. f. 2. (S.

folio amygdalino utrinque aurito, corticem abjiciens; Raii
Syn. 448.)—Leaves linear-oblong, ferrated, fmooth; ra-
ther unequally floping at the bafe. Catkins accompanying
the leaves, triandrous. Germen {talked, ovate, compreffed,
fmooth. Stigmas nearly feffile—Native of moift woods
and hedges, in various parts of Europe, flowering in April
or May, and frequently again in Auguft. It grows to a
large tree, the bark {caling off annually, like that of a plane-
tree ; but this is the cafe with fome others. In general this
{pecies is cultivated as an Ofier, being cut down every year,
its tough, pliable, and durable rods being extremely va-
luable. The bafket-makers diftinguifh feveral varieties, dif-
fering in the darker hue, and ftraightnefs, of their leaves,
as well as in fecundity of growth. Some of them might
prove, on clofe examination, diftiné& fpecies, perhaps not
all natives of Britain, for the cultivators are accultomed to

import new Ofiers frequently. The catkins are cylindrical,
with hairy buff-coloured feales, and yellow flamens. Nee-
tary very obtufe. Leaves of a fine green, rather glaucous
beneath ; their length from two to four inches. Evot/alks
abrupt at the bafe, not decurrent.

4- S. lanceolata. Sharp-leaved Triandrous Willow. Engl.
Bot. t. 1436.—Leaves lanceolate, tapering toward each
end, ferrated, fmooth. Footftalks decurrent. Catkins
accompanying the leaves, triandrous. Germen ftalked,
oblong, conftri€ted, fmooth.—Native of Suffex, and per-
haps other parts of England. Mr. Woollgar of Lewes i
forms us it is cultivated there, and well known by the wae
ket-makers, who do not efteem it fo much as the latt, the
rods when peeled being apt to fplit in working; but they
are very good for brown hampers, crates, &c. When not
cut as an Ofier, this fpecies forms a {mall ¢ree, calting its
bark like triandra, and flowering in April or May.
leaves are much longer than the foregoing, more pointed and
tapering, as well as the /fipulas ; but the moft ftriking dit
tinGtion is feen in the footfalks running down the branch in
a point. There are frequently two minute notches, or
auricles, at the bafe of each leaf,

5. S. undulata. Wavy Triandrous Willow. Willd.
n. 4. Ehrh. Beitr. v. 6. 101. Arb. 108.—Leaves lanceo-
late, pointed, obtufe at the bafe, fmooth, wavy, and fer-
rated. Footftalks decurrent. Cztkins accompanying the
leaves, triandrous. Germen ftalked, elliptic-oblong. Style
elongated.—Feund about rivers in Hanover, and other parts
of Germany. Leaves two or three inches long, differing
from the laft in being rounded at the bafe, and from ¢riandra
in their decurrent footfalks. The germen is fhorter and
more elliptical than in either. Ehrhart, like Willdenow,
defcribes that part as pubefcent ; but we can difcern no fuch

chara&ter in his own {pecimens, though ales are clothed —
Pp g :

with long hairs.
of this {pecies.
6. S. Villarfiana. Dauphiny Triandrous Willow. Willd.
n. 5. (S.triandra; Villars Dauph. v. 3. 762.)—* Leaves
elliptical, roundifh at the bafe, ferrated, pointed ; glaucous-
white beneath. Catkins accompanying the leaves, trian-
drous. Germen italked, ovate, fmooth. Stigmas feffile.”
—Native of the banks of rivers in Dauphiny, flowering in
March or April. A /brub, five or fix bet high; the bark
of its trunk greyifh, that of the branches mixed with black ;
the young fhoots of a violet black. Leaves an inch or
inch and half long, rigid; dark green and fhining above ;
{now-white beneath; their bafe rounded and equal; the
margin fharply ferrated. Stipulas large, half-heart-fhaped,
obtufe, toothed, Catkins long, yellow. Villars. Willd.
7. S. amygdalina. Alsat eave Willow. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 1443. Willd. n. 6. Fl. Brit. n. 8. Engl. Bot, t. 1936.
Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 6. 119. (S. folio auriculato fplendente,
flexilis ; Raii Syn. 448. Cant. 144.)—Leaves ovate, unequal
at the bafe, ferrated, {mooth. Catkins accompanying the
leaves, triandrous. Germen ftalked, oyate, compreffed,
fmooth. Stigmas nearly feffile. Young branches furrowed.
—Native of marfhes, and the banks of rivers, in Sweden
and various parts of Britain, flowering in April or ys i
Mr. Curtis confounds this with ¢riandra, from which the
{trongly furrowed /hoots, and the broad rounded bafe of the
leaves, not to mention the broader fipulas, which are variable,
at once diftinguifh it. As an ofier it is more valued in Suf-
fex, than in Norfolk. When allowed to grow, it forms a
{mall ¢ree, cafting its bark, and often producing a fummer
crop of ss Scales of the catkins obovate, nny
8. S. Humboldtiana. Peruvian Long-leaved Willow,
Willd. n. 8.—Leaves linear, pointed, finely ferrated, {mooth,
7 Catking

We know nothing of the qualities or ufes

.

nf

— ee

—_—

# .

SALIX.

Catkins accompanying the leaves. Stamens about fix. Ger-
men ftalked, roundifh-ovate, fmooth. Stigmas feflile-—Ob-
ferved by the diftinguifhed travellers Humboldt and Bon-
pland, growing wild in Peru, and cultivated in various parts
of South America. Our fpecimens were gathered by Com-
merfon at Rio della Plata. The branches are round, of a
fhining brown; filky when young. caves three or four
inches, or more, in length, two lines in breadth, fmooth
and green on both fides, except the mb, which in a young
ftate is hairy, like the footffalks. Stipulas {mall or obfolete,
roundifh. The catkins appear to come out with the foliage,
ftanding at the ends of the young fhoots, and are long, cy-
lindrical, their feales and common flalks clothed with white
woolly hairs. Stamens ufually, as far as we can judge, about
five or fix, yellow. Female catkins longer than the male,
the numerous, {mooth, almoft globofe, germens giving them
the appearance of long bunches of fome kind of berries.
Stigmas feffile, fhort and thick, notched.

g. S. tetrafperma. Four-feeded Willow. Roxb. Coro-
mand. v. 1. 66.t.97. Willd. n. 9. Ait. n. 6.—Leaves
elliptic-lanceolate, pointed, finely ferrated, fmooth; glau-
cous beneath. Catkins following the leaves. Stamens about
fix, deflexed. Germen ftalked, ovate, fmooth. Style elon-

ted.—Native of the banks of rivulets, and moift places,

among the mountains of Hindooftan, flowering in the
cold feafon, according to Dr. Roxburgh, who obferves that
it is the only willow he has found in India. The ¢runk is
ere&, but fhort, as thick as a man’s body, bearing a very
large branching head, with twiggy branches. Leaves from
two to four inches long, of a broad lanceolate figure, on
fhort ftalks. Catkins from fhort lateral branches ; the males
about three inches in length, the females half as long.
Scales {preading. Stamens from fix to eight, deflexed. Ger-
men on avery long ftalk. Style nearly as long as the germen.
Na undivided. Cap/ule ovate, containing but four

5.

10. S. Ehrhartiana. Wexandrous German Willow. (S.
hexandra; Ebrh. Arb. 140.)—Leaves lanceolate, pointed,
finely ferrated, {mooth, green on both fides. Catkins ac-
companying the leaves. Stamens about fix, erect.—Native
of Hanover. Ehrhart. ‘This appears to us a very diftin&
fpecies, though not taken up by Willdenow. The jvot/lalks
are decurrent, or rather fupported by a projeétion of the
branch, as in /anceolata, n. 4; but they are more tapering
at the bafe than even in that fpecies, and their under fide 1s
green, not at all glaucous. Footfla/ks glandular at the
Upper part. Svipulas {carcely any in our fpecimen. Male
catkins, which are all we have feen, hardly above an inch
long, on downy ftalks, at the ends of young lateral
branches; their common ftalks alfo downy, but the ovate
Seales appear to be {mooth, except perhaps at the bafe.
Stamens long, yellow, about fix ; poflibly more or lefs oc-
eafionally.—The narrow fhape of the /eaves abundantly dif-
tinguifhes this fpecies from all other European ones that
have more than two or three flamens, nor does their habit or
appearance refemble the foliage of any other known to us.

11. S. aigra. Dark American Willow. Willd. n. 10.
Purhh n. 26. Muhlenb. in Sims and Konig’s Ann. of Bot.
v. 2. 65. t. 5. f. 5. (S. caroliniana; Michaux Boreali-Amer.
¥. 2. 226.) — Leaves ovato-lanceolate, pointed, ferrated, green
on both fides, {mooth, with a downy rib and footitalk.
Catkins accompanying the leaves, villous. Stamens about
five, bearded at the Bale. Germen ftalked, ovato-lanceo-
late, fmooth. Stigmas divided, the length of the ftyle.—On
the banks of rivers, from Pennfylvania to Virginia, Howering
in May. A éree, about twenty feet high, with a blackith
bark. Branches pale yellow, {moovh, very brittle at the

Vou. XXXI.

bafe; downy when young. Leaves, in our fpecimens from
Dr. Muhlenberg, by no means of a narrow lanceolate figure,
nor acute at the bafe, but rather ovate in that part; their
ferratures fmall, blunt and fhallow. F ootfialks of moderate
length, thickly clothed, like the midrib of the leaf, on the
upper fide more efpecially, with white cottony down. Svi-
pulas rounded, toothed, fmooth. Catkins various in fize,
on downy ftalks; their /cales very woolly. Stamens from
three to fix, ere€&t, yellow. Germen flender, quite {mooth,
as well as its ftalk. Style fhort. Stigmas divided, not, as
Muhlenberg fays, the /fy/e, either in this or any of his
{pecies ; this excellent obferver having accidentally ufed one
term for the other throughout.

12. S. pentandra. Sweet, or Bay-leaved, Willow. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 1442. Willd. n. 1. Fi. Brit. n. 10. Engl. Bot.
t. 1805. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 6. 120. Ehrh. Arb. 48.
P]. Off. 309. Dickf. H. Sicc. fafc. 3. 15. (S. folio laureo,
feu lato glabro odorato; Raii Syn. 449. )—Leaves elliptic-
lanceolate or ovate, pointed, crenate, glandular, {mooth.
Footitalks glandular at the top. Catkins following the
leaves. Stamens five or more, hairy. Germen ovate, fmooth,
nearly feffile.—Native of {tony banks of rivers, and moun-
tainous bogs, in various parts of Europe; frequent in the
north of England and fouth of Scotland, flowering in June
and July, when the leaves are fully formed. It is often cul-
tivated for ornament, being a rather {mall ¢ree, beautiful in
its broad fhining foliage, and grateful for its balfamic fcent.
The yellow male catkins alfo are fragrant, and very hand-
fome, with their long tufted yellow /famens, from five to
nine in each flower. Stipulas {mall or none. Footflalks with
many glands about their upper part. here is alfo a gland
at each notch of the /eaves, exuding a yellow balfam, which
marks the whole outline of each leaf, when placed between
papers, and fmells like the {weet bay-tree. The fcales of
the catkins are hairy, like the flamens ; but the germen is
quite {mooth. S¥igmas deeply divided, the length of the
Style. The reader will find remarks relative to Ehrhart’s
fynonym, under the firft {pecies.

13. S. tindoria. Dyers’ Willow. (S. pentandra 6; Linn,
Fl. Suec. 346; exclufive probably of the reference to Van
Royen. }—Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, pointed, crenate, glan-
dular, {mooth, Footftalks naked. Catkins following the
leaves. Stamens five? Germen ftalked, ovato-lanceolate,
fmooth.—Native of Sweden. Our learned friend Dr. Adam
Afzelius firtt pointed out this to us, as.a diftinét fpecies
from the lait, though not noticed, even as a variety, except
in Fl. Suec. We have only feen the female plant, in the
Linnzan herbarium. The aves are not half the fize of the
foregoing, and much lefs ovate. They are ufed in Scania
for dyeing yellow; where alfo the young twigs ferve to
bind thatch. The foot/flalks have no glands. ‘The long {talks
of the more flender and elongated germens alfo afford a clear
{pecific diftinétion. We prefume the number of /lamens to
be as Linnxus defined them in the original {pecies.

14. S. nigricans. Dark Broad-leaved Willow. Sm. Tr.

of Linn. Soc. v. 6. 120. Fil. Brit. n. 11. Engl. Bot.
t.1213. Willd. n.12. (S. phylicifolia 8; Linn. Sp. Pl.
1442. Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 291. t. 8. f. c.)—Leaves elliptic-

lanceolate, acute, crenate, {mooth; glaucous beneath. Cat-
kins before the leaves. Germen (talked, lanceolate, downy.
—Native of fens, thickets, and ofier-grounds in England, as
well as Lapland, flowering with us in April, before the
leaves come out. ‘This is rather a large /brud than a tree,
having many irregular, brittle, dark-coloured branches, of
no economical uf the young ones downy. Leaves three
inches long and one broad, crenate throughout ; dark press
and (moat above, turning black in drying; veiny, fome-

. b times

& a

SALIX.

times a little downy when young, at the back. Svipulas
large, obliquely heart-fhaped, ferrated, {mooth, veiny. Cat-
Zins hardly abuve an inch long, thick. Scales obovate, nar-
row, hairy, brown in their upper part. Stamens two, {well-
ing upwards, with fmall yellow anthers, each of two dif-
tinét lobes. Capfules, feen by us on the Linnzan fpecimen
only, lanceolate, brown, downy, each on a fhort partial
italk.

15. S. phylicifolia. Tea-leaved Willow. Lion. Sp. Pl.
1442. Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 291. t. 8. fd. Willd. n. 11.
Fl. Brit. n. 14. Engl. Bot. t. 1958. Tr. of Linn. Soe.
v. 6. 123. (S. radicans; Fl. Brit. n. 20. Willd. n. 43.)—
Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, with wavy ferratures, {mooth ;
glaucous beneath. Stipulas fomewhat lunate, glandular on
the infide.. Germen ftalked, filky. Style longer than the
ftigmas.—Native of Lapland, as well as of Scotland. The
Rey. Dr. Stuart firft gathered it in Breadalbane. This is
a low trailing ¢ree, or rather buf, whofe long branches take
root as they extend on all fides. The young fqwigs are
fmooth; purplifh or brown. Leaves not much {preading,
on fhort /falks, two or three inches long, {mooth, harfh,
bitter, varioufly crenate or ferrated, the ferratures remark-
ably undulated, and their interftices reflexed; upper fide
dark and fhining. Stipulas (mall. Catkins appearing with
the leaves, but from feparate buds, ftalked, cylindrical, lax.
Scales linear, filky at the back. Germen on a longith ftalk,
ovato-lanceolate, filky: Style fmooth. Stigmas {mall, emar-

inate. We fee no reafon to think the S. appendiculata of
Villars, cited by Willdenow, belongs to this. Villars in-
deed refers with doubt to the Linnzan philicifolia, but de-
{cribes his own plant as having grey powdery branches, and
downy leaves; charaéters quite foreign to the fpecies under
confideration ; except that very flight clofe-prefled pubef-
cence, common to the under fide of the leaves in almoft
every willow when young, and which proves an obttacle
fometimes to their clear {pecific definition.

16. S. Wulfeniana. Wouolfenian Willow. Willd. n. 14.
(S. phylicefolia ; Wulfen in Jacq. Coll. v. 2. 139. Hott.
Syo. 526; excluding the references to Linnzus. )—Leaves
obovate, bluntifh, ferrated, {mooth ; glaucous beneath. Cat-
kins denfe, with fringed fcales. Germen ftalked, awl-fhaped,
nearly fmooth. Style longer than the ftigmas-——Found by
Wulfen, in valleys among ibe mountains of Carinthia, flower-
ing early in May ; fometimes in July. We have been favour-
ed with authentic fpecimens from profeffor von Jacquin, jun.
which prove very diftin@ from the real phylicifolia. ‘The
Jorul is at firft diffufe, but in time rifes to the height of a
man. Leaves hardly above an inch long, generally of a
broad, roundish, and obtufe form; fometimes elliptic-ob-
long, and more acute; their ferratures fhallow and blunt.
Footflalks of a moderate proportion, {mooth and naked.
Stipulas none in an early ftate, but Wulfen fays they appear
afterwards, of an ovate, acute, or roundifh fhape. Catkins
accompanying the leaves, cylindrical, thick, obtufe, about
an inch long, on fhort downy ftalks. Scales fhortifh, obo-
vate, fmooth at the back. Stamens two, hairy below.
Germen on a Short ftalk, flightly downy in an early
ftate.

17. S. filefaca. Silefian Willow. Willd. n. 15.—* Leaves
elliptical, acute at each end, fmooth, ferrated, green on
both fides; midrib, footftalks, as well as young foliage,
downy. Catkins before the leaves. Germen ovato-lanceo-
late, Does Aalked, fmooth.??—Native of the hills of Silefia.
Branches dark brown. Leaves two inches, or more, in
length, entire at the bafe; their rib mott downy beneath ;
the young ones white at the back. Stipulas large, half-heart-
fhaped, ferrated. Female catkins two inches long. Scales

obtufe, fringed. Germen on a very long, moftly hairy, ftalk.
Style elongated. Stigmas divided. Willdenow. .
18. S. Pontederana. Pontederian Willow. Willd. n. 16.
(S. Pontederz ; Villars Dauph. v. 3. 766. t. 50. f. 8. Bel-
lardi Append. ad Fl. Pedem. 45. S. pumila alpina nigri-
cans, folio oleagino ferrato; Ponted. Compend. 148. j—
“ Leaves elliptical, acute, ferrated, fmooth; obtufe at the
bafe ; glaucous beneath; midrib, footftalks, as well as
young foliage, hairy. Germen oblong, downy.””—Gathered
by Villars, in the moft elevated woods of the Grande Char-
treufe, as well as in other parts of Dauphiny ; by Dr, Bel-

lardi near the lake on mount Cenis; and by Pontedera, iE

his fynonym be rightly applied, (of which we feel no very
confident affurance, Villars being feldom happy in that de-
partment,) in a moft romantic part of the north fide of
mount Baldus, on the confines of perpetual fnow. Wi
have feen no fpecimen. Villars compares the plant to his
daphnoides, our cinerea, far remote from the tribe we a a
{cribing. He fays it is two or three feet high, and refembles
a little laurel. Leaves broad, hard and firm, a little downy
beneath, not at all vifcid ; their teeth retangular and diftant,
Female catkins from one to two inches long. Willdenow,
who had a dried {pecimen, defcribes the young aves downy
and white. Stipulas {mall, lanceolate, fomewhat ferrated.
Catkins coming before the leaves, with lanceolate hairy
fags Germen nearly feflile. Style fhort, divided. Stigmas
cloven.

19. S. bicolor. Shining Dark-green Willow. Ehrh.
Arb. 118. Willd. n. 76. Fl. Brit. n. 12. Engl. Bot.
t. 1806. (S. laurina; Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 6. 122.
Willd. n. 17. Ait. n. 10.)—Leaves elliptical, acute,
waved, and flichtly ferrated, nearly fmooth ; glaicodenes
neath. Footftalks dilated at the bafe. Catkins before the
leaves. Germen {talked, lanceolate, filky.—Not unfre-
quent in woods in Norfolk. Ehrhart gathered his plant
in Friefland. The /fems, when young, are ere&t, and wand-
like, of a dark mahogany colour, fcarcely downy, of but
little pliability or tenacity, each in a few years becoming a
{mall tree. Leaves nearly upright, efpecially on youn
plants, three or four inches long, flightly filky beneat
when young only; their upper furface of a dark fhining
green. Footflalks thick, remarkably broad, or triangular,
at the bale. Svipulas {mall, half-heart-fhaped, ferrated.
Catkins an inch long, the female ones foon becoming twice
that length. Scales obovate, clothed with long white filk
hairs. Svamens yellow. Stalk of the germen full half the
length of the feale. Sty/e fmooth, about equal to the
Jfligmas, which are notched, but rot divided—The moft
careful comparifon has fatisfied us of the identity of Ehr-
hart’s plant and our’s, notwithitanding ‘the different opi-
nion of Willdenow, who had not then feen the latter;
neither had the editors of the Hort. Kew. who copy
Willdenow, feen that of Ehrhart. Poflibly this fpecies
might be better placed among the Sallow tribe, where
Willdenow has introduced it, as dicolor ; and yet the pubef-
cence of its /eaves is more flight than in feveral of the pre-
fent fection. :

20. S. tenuifolia. Thin-leaved Willow. Sm. in Linn,
Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 292. t. 8. fe. Fl. Brit. n. 18. Engl.
Bot. t. 2186. Willd. n. 18.—Leaves elliptical, acute,
ferrated, fmoothith ; glaucous beneath. Stipulas {mall or
none. Catkins hairy. Capfules feffile, very fmooth. Na-
tive of Lapland and Scotland ; as well as of the rocky banks
of the river, above the bridge, at Kirkby Lonfdale, Wett-
moreland, flowering in May and June. Stem buthy, rifing

ii a garden to a {mall tree. Young branches very flightly
downy. Leaves rather pointed, from one and a half to aia
inches

SALIX.

inches long, and one broad, with {hallow ferratures; be-
fprinkled when young with fine clofe-prefled hairs 3 bright
green above; glaucous and whitifh beneath, reticulated
with veins; their fubftance thin and pliant, at leaft at the
flowering feafon; the rib fometimes hairy. Stipulas {mall,
fomewhat falcate, ferrated, fmooth ; often wanting ; largelt
in the cultivated plant. Male catkins yellowifh, about an
inch long, with very hairy, elliptic-oblong {cales. Stamens
two, fmooth. Female catkins finally one and a half inch
long, Cap/ules fefiile, ovato-lanceolate, {mooth. Style lon-
ger than the fligmas, which are notched, and rather thick.
A more downy variety, as we prefume it, is found with
the above at Kirkby Lonfdale.

21. S. Amaniana. Amanian Willow. Willd. n, 19.
(S. myrfinites ; Hoffm. Sal. v. 1. 71. t..17, 18, 19, and
24. f. 2.)—‘ Leaves oblong-elliptical, acute, ferrated,
fmooth ; glaucous beneath. Footitalks elongated, downy.
Stipulas ovate, toothed, permanent. Catkins before the
leaves. Germen lanceolate, f{mooth.’?—Native of the Saltf-
burg and Carinthian alps.—A tree with brown branches,
downy when young. Javes an inch, or inch aad half,
long, dark green and fhining above ; {mooth and glaucous
beneath ; the young ones with downy veins. Catkins about
an inch long, with elliptical, obtufe, hairy fcales. Cap-
Jules ovato-lanceolate, on fhort ftalks. Style about the
length of the notched fiigmas. We have feen no fpecimens,
but on the authority of Willdenow, we refer to this fpecies
the myrfinites of Hoffmann; though his figures do not in
every point anfwer, and we have always thought they re-
prefented our prunifolia.

22. S. haflata. Halberd-leaved Willow. Linn. Sp. PI.
1443. Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 293. t. 8. f. 9, Willd. n. 20.
Ait. n. 12.—Leaves ovate, acute, ferrated, undulated,
erackling, {mooth ; heart-fhaped at the bafe ; glaucous be-
neath. Stipulas unequally heart-fhaped, longer than the
broad footitalks. Catkins very woolly. Germen lancco-
late, fmooth, on a fhort ftalk.—Native of the woods and
mountains of Lapland. Metirs. Lee and Kennedy are faid
to have firlt brought it into this country, about the year
1780. It flowers in April or May, and rifes to a fmall,
fpreading, not lofty, tree. Branches blackifh, hairy when
very young only. eaves three inches long, and about
half as wide, of a rigid, harfh, but not coriaceous, texture,
greyith-green, tharply ferrated, wavy, copioufly veined ;
on fhort, thick fla/ks, broad at the bafe. Stipulas often an
inch long, of the texture and hue of the leaves, and equally

anent. Cathins thick, their {cales clothed with very

g woolly hairs, which envelope, and partly conceal, the
germen and flyle. The latter is twice or thrice the length
of the fligmas, which are obtufe, fcarcely notched. We
have feen no male flowers.

23. S. malifolia. Apple-leaved Willow. Fl. Brit. n. 19.
Engl. Bot. t. 1617. Willd. n. 44.—Leaves elliptic-ob-
long, toothed, waved, thin and crackling, very {mooth.
Stipulas heart-fhaped, about the length of the footitalk.
Catkins very woolly, Germen lanceolate, {mooth, on a
fhort ftalk.—Native of England. Found by Mr. Crowe
in fome part of Norfolk or Suffolk. It flowers in April,
and is nearly akin to the latt {pecies, though of {maller fize,
being a {preading /brub, but three or four feet high. The
leaves differ materially from the Aaflata, in their narrower
more pape | form; their toothed, rather than ferrated,
margin ; and much {maller fipulas. The foliage, at a {mall
diftance, would certainly be taken rather for that of an
apple-tree, than a willow. The female catkins, all we have
feen, refemble the laft in every refpeét, except being
fomewhat {maller.—Sometimes the aver vary, on the fame

tree, in being elongated and contraéted, inftead of rounded,
at the bafe. The ¢wigs are crooked, brittle, of no ufe.

24. S. ferrulata. Serrated Lapland Willow. Willd. n. 21.
( S. haftata; Fl. Dan. t. 1238.’?)—* Leaves ovate, acute,
ferrated, {mooth; glaucous beneath. Footitalks very fhort,
fmooth. Stipulas ovate, ferrated, permanent. Catkins
accompanying the leaves. Germen lanceolate, nearly fef-
file.’—Gathered by Mr. Wahlenberg in Lapland.—Will-
denow defcribes this as very much akin to haflata, but the
whole habit different, and the eaves much {mailer, hardly
an inch long, not roundifh-ovate, nor at all heart-fhaped, but
ovate, or ovato-lanceolate ; bright green above. Svipulas
twice the length of the very fhort dilated footftalks. Male
catkins an inch long, tapering at each end. — Filaments
white. Anthers purple. Scales roundifh, brown, hairy at
the edge. Female catkins two inches in length. Scales
lanceolate, obtufe, fringed. Germen {mooth. ' Style fhort,
divided. Stigmas cloven. We have a plant from Switzer-
land, under the name of S$. Arbu/cula, to which it bears no
refemblance, that accords in moitt refpects with the above
chara¢ters ; but the famens are altogether yellow, and the
Sle, greatly elongated, even thrice the length of the
JSligmas.

25. S. difcolor. American Bafket Willow. Muhlenb.
in Sims and Konig’s Ann. of Bot. v. 2. 62. t. 5. f. 1.
Willd. n. 22. Purfh n. 20.—Leaves ovato-lanceolate,
{mooth, bluntly ferrated; glaucous beneath. Catkins be-
fore the leaves. Scales fhort, rounded, hairy. Germen
awl-fhaped, filky, ona ftalk thrice the length of the fcale.—
In low grounds, and on the banks of rivers, common from
New England to Carolina, flowering in April; the moft
common in ufe for bafket-making. Purfb. The definition
of this author, particularly what reeards ‘the bluntifh
leaves, oblong feales, and nearly feffile germen,’? does not
accord either with Dr. Muhlenberg’s account, or with
{pecimens fent by the latter. By thefe therefore we are
guided in faying the /em is rather fhrubby than arboreous,
with tough brown twigs, downy when young. Leaves
acute at each end, rather more than two inches long ; entire
at the bafe; unequally and often diftantly, as well as
bluntly, ferrated; dark green above ; very glaucous and
blueifh beneath; their midrib reddifh. Catkins downy,
about an inch long. Stamens two, with red anthers, finally
yellow. Style the length of the figmas, which are fome-
times deeply divided. Muhlenberg by miftake, as in other
places, fays * flylus /ubquadrifidus.””

26. S. prinoides, Winter-berry-leaved Willow. Purfh
n. 19.—* Leaves oval-oblong, acute, with dittant wavy
ferratures, {mooth ; glaucous beneath. Stipulas half-heart-
fhaped, deeply toothed. Catkins villous, before the leaves.
Germen ttalked, ovate, pointed, filky. Style elongated.
Stigmas cloyen.”?—On the banks of rivers, from Pennfyl-
vamla to Virginia, flowering in March and April. Middle-
fized. Refembles S. difcolor. Purfb. Pollibly Dr. Muh-
lenberg may have confounded this among the {pecimens
above-mentioned, as he appears not to have beh sea it
from the laft {pecies.—Thofe who can compare the two in
their native country, mutt correét our account of the former,
if wrong.

27. S. anguflata. Taper-leaved American Willow. Purfe
n. 21.— Leaves lanceolate, acute, very long, gradually
tapering at the bafe, finely ferrated, quite {mooth ; {carcely
paler beneath, Stipulas half-heart-fhaped. Catkins before
the leaves, ereét, {moothith. Germen {lalked, ovate, {mooth,
Style divided, Stigmas two-lobed,”’—In fhady woods, on
the banks of rivers, in New York and Pennfylvania ; flower-
ing in March or April. It refembles S. prinoides. Purfb.

Bb 2 28. S.

SALIX.

28. S. petiolaris. Dark long-leaved Willow. Sm. Tr.
of Linn. Soc. v. 6. 122. Fl. Brit. n. 13. Engl. Bot.
t. 1147. Willd. n. 23. Purfh n. 31. Ait. n. 13,—
Leaves lanceolate, ferrated, fmooth; glaucous beneath ;
fomewhat unequal at the bafe. Stipulas lunate, toothed.
Catkins lax. Germen italked, ovate, filky. Stigmas fef-
file, divided.—Common in f{wamps, and on the borders of
rivers, in North America, flowering in April. Purfh. The
late Mr. Crowe thought it had been communicated to him
by Mr. Dickfon, as a Britifh fpecies ; hence it found a plaee
in the F/. Brit. and Engl. Bot. from whence Mr. Purfh
thinks it ought to be excluded. This willow is a fmall
{preading ¢ree, with flender, flexible, fmooth, purple or
dark-brown éranches. Leaves four or five inches long, and
when full-grown almoft an inch broad, ferrated throughout,
on long flender ffa/ks. They turn black in drying, and
haye a {trong {mell when bruifed. The very young /eaves
have an elegant rufty hue, and are often a little hairy under-
neath. Svipulas {mall. Female catkins, the only ones we
have feen, fearcely an inch long, ftalked. Scales {mall,
obtufe, often notched, black and hairy.

29. S. myricoides. Candleberry-myrtle Willow. Muh-
Ienb. in Sims and Kon. Ann. of Bot. v. 2. 63. t. 5. f. 2.
Willd. n. 24. Purfh a. 18. Ait. n. 14.—Leaves ovato-
lanceolate, bluntly ferrated, fmooth, acute; glaucous be-
neath ; glandular at the bafe. Stipulas ovate, with glan-
dular ferratures. Catkins woolly. Germen lanceolate,
fmooth ; its ftalk longer than the fcale. Style the length
of the divided ftigmas.—In wet meadows and woods, from
New England to Virginia, flowering in April. Purfo. A
Jbrub, from fix to nine feet high. Branches {mooth, green,
purplith when young. eaves about four inches long, and
one broad» Foot/falks much thicker and fhorter than in
the preceding. Svipulas rather lunate. Catkins about one
and a half inch long; their ftalk remarkably woolly, as
well as the {mall /cales.

30. S. cordata. WHeart-leaved American Willow. Muh-
kenb. in Sims and Kon. Ann. of Bot. v. 2. 64. t. 5. f. 3.
Willd. n. 25. Purfh n. 29.—Leaves ovato-lanceolate, fer-
rated, {mooth; paler beneath; heart-fhaped at the bafe.
Stipulas rounded, finely toothed. Catkins accompanying
the leaves, moftly triandrous. Scales lanceolate, woolly.
Germen ftalked, lanceolate, fmooth. Style the length of
the divided {tigmas.—In low and {wampy grounds, on the
banks of rivers, from New York to Virginia, flowering in
April or May. A very elegant fpecies, fix or eight feet
high. Purfb. Branches green, {mooth, brittle at the bot-
tom. Leaves about three inches long, of a light green,
which they retain when dried; furnifhed at the bafe with
a, fometimes deep, notch, where the fhort foot/lalk is in-
ferted. Stipulas often longer than the footitalk. Catkins
about an inch long.

31. S. rigida. Stiff-leaved American Willow. Muh-
lenb. in Sims and Kon. Ann. of Bot. v. 2. 64. t. 5. f. 4.
Willd. n. 26. Purth n. 28. (S. cordata; Michaux
Boreali-Amer. v. 2. 225.) — Leaves elliptic-lanceolate,
rigid, {mooth, fharply ferrated ; the two loweft ferratures
elongated. Footftalks hairy. Stipulas dilated, rounded,
with glandular ferratures. Catkins accompanying the
leaves, moftly triandrous. Scales woolly. Germen lan-
ceolate, {mooth, on a long ftalk. Style the length of the
divided ftigmas. In fwamps and hedges, from New Eng-
land to Virginia, flowering in April or May. Branches

nm, red towards the cents younger ones pubefcent. It
is very tough, and much ufed by the hafket-makere. Pur/b.

32. S. lucida. Shining American Willow. Muhlenb.
in Sims and Kon. Ann. of Bot. v. 2. 66. t. 5. f. 7.

Willd. n. 27. Purth n. 27.—Leaves ovate, taper-pomted,
{mooth, fhining, with glandular ferratures, moft crowded
at the bafe. Stipulas toothed. Catkins accompanying the
leaves, moftly triandrous. Scales hairy at the bafe ; obtufe,
ferrated and fmooth at the end. Germen ftalked, lanceo-
late-awlfhaped, fmooth. Style divided. Stigmas obtufe.
In low grounds, about f{prings, from New York to Vir-
ginia, flowering the middle of May. A very {mooth and
handfome fpecies, with yellowifh-brown branches. Some-
times it grows to a tree, but is more generally a fhrub, It
approaches §. amygdalina, n. 7. Purfb. Leaves on young
fhoots, are as broad as thofe of pentandra, n. 12, with fin-
gularly long flender points, and numerous crowded ftalked
glands at the infertion of the footftalks. Before expanfion
the /eaves are covered with coarfe, filky, tawny hair. Cat-
Kins villous, fhort, fomewhat ovate, with white obtufe /cales
ferrated at the end, hairy at the bafe.

33- S. violacea. Violet-coloured Willow. Andr. Repof.

t. 581. (S. acutifolia; Willd. n. 28.)—Leaves linear-
lanceolate, acute, fmooth, with blunt unequal ferratures ;
tapering at the bafe ; glaucous beneath. Branches covered”
with a violet deciduous powder. Catkins before the leaves,
elliptical, very hairy.—Native of the neighbourhood of the
Cafpian fea. Introduced from Ruffia, by Mr. John Bell,
about the year 1798, but omitted in Hort. Kew. It flowers
in April, and is very peculiar and beautiful in its appear-
ance, from the violet twigs, covered with bloom like a plum.
Thefe are of quick growth, and faid to be valuable for their
toughnefs. The /eaves are four or five inches long, on
young fhoots, with large half-ovate, pointed, ferrated
Jtipulas. Male catkins feflile, leaflefs, about an inch long ;
their /cales clothed with long filky hairs. Stamens two,
with yellow anthers. Willdenow’s name is fo inexpreffive,
that we could not but prefer one with an appropriate
meaning.

34. S. japonica. Japan ‘Willow. Thunb. Jap. 24.
Willd. n. 29. (Rju, vulgo Aujaki; Kempf. Am. Exot.
go8.) —<“* Leaves ferrated, fmooth, lanceolate; glaucous
beneath; young ones villous. Twigs pendulous.”’—Native
of Japan, about Nagafaki, and other places, flowering in
March. A middle-fized tree. Branches round, zigzag,
ereét, grey, fmooth, with numerous alternate fubdivifions.
Leaves alternate; ftalked, pointed, a finger’s length, fpread-
ing; green on the upper fide. Footfa/ks a line in length.
Flowers from the fame bud with the leaves. Thunb. The
above definition of the /eaves is not fufficient to diitinguifh
this Willow from 15 or 20 others. We have therefore, in
fo meagre a ftock of information, gladly borfowed, from
resin the character of the pendulous éavigs. \

35. S. vitellina. Yellow Willow, or Golden Ofier.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 1442. Willd. n. 30. Purth n. 33. Fl.
Brit. n. 16. Engl. Bot. t. 1389. Hoffm. Sal. v. 1. 57-
t. 11, 12, and 24. f. 1. Ehrh. Arb. 78.—Leaves lanceo-
late, acute, with cartilaginous ferratures ; {mooth above ;
glaucous and fomewhat filky beneath. Stipulas {mall and
deciduous ; fmooth on their infide. Germen feffile, ovato-
lanceolate, {mooth. Stigmas nearly feflile, two-lobed.—
Native of Germany, Switzerland, France, and England.
So generally cultivated with us, for ornament in low fituations,
that one can hardly fay when it is truly wild ; but Mr. Crowe
found it undoubtedly fo, in rough low pattures, at Oving-
ton, near Watton, Norfolk. Ye Purth fays it is common
by road fides, and about plantations, in North America,
though introduced from Europe. This is a handfome free,
of amoderate height, flowering in April er May, when the
foliage appears. OTe pendent golden ¢wigs readily diftin-
guifh the plant. The /eaves are narrow, er, bss

errated ;

SALIX.

ferrated; filky when young. Stipulas rarely feen. Catkins
yellow, tapering, with wrinkled hairy /cales. Stamens two,
rarely three. NeGary of two or three notched feales.
Perhaps this ought to be ranged near the alba, at the end
of the genus, as being doubtlefs akin to that, though not,
as Haller thought, the fame {pecies. Its leaves however are
fmooth, except, as is the cafe with almoit all the genus, a
portion of filky or woolly hairs before they fully expand.

36. S. ambigua. Ambiguous Willow. Purfh n. 34.—
ss Leaves lanceolate, pointed, {mooth, green on both fides,
with glandular ferratures. Catkins accompanying the
leaves. Neétary double, rather large ; its lobes lanceolate,
fmooth, toothed at the fummmit. The terminal flowers trian-
drous.”’—In low grounds of New York and New Jerfey,
flowering in April. Refembles the preceding in leaves and
habit, and in frutification the following. Purfb.

37. S. decipiens. White Welfh, or Varnifhed, Willow.
Hoffm. Sal. v. 2.9. t.31. Fl. Germ. v. 1. 343. Engl.
Bot. t.1937- Purfh n.35. Winch Bot. Guide v. 1.90.
Ait. n. (S. fragilis; Ehrh. Arb. 88. Pl. Off. 319.) —
Leaves lanceolate, pointed, ferrated, very {mooth. Foot-
ftalks fomewhat glandular. Germen tapering, ftalked.
Ne@ary of the male double. Floral leaves dilated and
bluntith. Branches {mooth, highly polifhed.—Native of
Sweden, Germany, and England, flowering in May. Mr.
T. F. For‘ter obferved it wild near Tunbridge ; Mr. Wool-

in many moift hedges round Lewes; and Mr. Winch in
orthumberland and Durham. Mr. Purfh noticed it by
road fidez, and about plantations, in North America, having
been introduced from Europe. Ehrhart and Willdenow,
like fome other botanifts, confounded this very diftin& {pecies
with S. fragilis ; becaufe perhaps of the brittlenefs of its
branches, at the bafe; efpecially in fpring. The decipiens
is a handfome free, readily known by the very {mooth, clay-
coloured Jark of its lalt-year’s fhoots, fhining as if highly
varnifhed. Young twigs often ftained beautifully with
erimfon. Leaves very much like S. Rufelliana, hereafter
defcribed, but moftly {maller; and thofe of the fhort
flowering branches differ widely from that fpecies, being
obtufe, almoft obovate, all except the upper one recurved.
Catkins accompanying the leaves, cylindrical; their /cales
elliptic-oblong, eniely clothed with fhort hairs. Stamens
two, veryrarelythree. This fpecies is cultivated in feveral
ofier-grounds of Norfolk, Cambridgefhire, and Suffex, pro-
ducing good rods for bafket-work, but the plants require to
be frequently renewed, old roots, according to Mr. Wool-
gar’sremarks about Lewes, producing but fhort fhoots.

38. S. fragilis. Crack Willow. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1443.
Willd. n. 31. FI. Brit. n. 17, excluding the reference to
Hoffmann. Engl. Bot. t. 1807. (S. folio longo latoque
{plendente, fragilis; Raii Syn. 448.)—Leaves ovato-lan-
ceolate, pointed, ferrated throughout, very {mooth. Foot-
ftalks glandular. Germen ovate, nearly feflile. Male
flowers with an abortive germen.—Native of Sweden, Ger-
ove and England. With us it is not unfrequent, in low
marfhy grounds, about the banks of rivers, flowering in
May. ‘This is a large bufhy tree, known by the crooked
pofition of its branches. Thefe when of a year’s growth
are extremaly brittle at their bafe, in the f{pring, flarting
from the trunk on the flighteft blow, whence the name ori-
ces but the fame thing is obfervable in S. decipiens, and

{mooth-leaved {pecies befides. Leaves four or five
inches long, and one and a half broad, of a dark fhining
oa fomewhat paler beneath, rounded, or ovate, towards
the bafe when fully grown; their ferratures numerous, uni-
form.and regular, a little incurved, glandular, but {carcely
vifeid. Stipulas half-heart-fhaped, toothed. Male catkins

yellow, two inches and a half long, with elliptic-oblong
Seales, clothed with fhort hairs. Stamens two or three, fome-
times five, {mooth, with a rounded glandular neéary, and
the incurved rudiment of a germen. Female catgins rather
longer, greener, with longer /cales. Neary fimple. Germen
f{mooth, ovato-lanceolate. S'¥y/e very fhort. Stigmas cloven
to the bafe, narrow. The bark of this fpecies, as well as
of triandra, alba, and penfandra, has been ufed as a cheap
fubftitute for Cinchona, in the treatment of intermittent
fevers ; fome fay with confiderable fuccefs. The foilowing
is probably better than any of them, and its having been
generally confounded with fragilis, may perhaps account
for a contrariety of reports and opinions refpeCting the
latter.

39. S. Rufflliana. Bedford Willow. Fl, Brit. n. 9.
Engl. Bot. t. 1808. Willd. n. 7. Ait. n. 5.— Leaves
lanceolate, tapering at each end, ferrated throughout, very
{mooth. Footitalks glandular. Germen tapering, ftalked,
longer than the fcales.—Native of wet meadows, and ofier-
holts, throughout the midland and fouthern counties of
England, flowering in April or May. It was firft made
known for its valuable economical properties, by the name
of the Leicefterfhire or Difhley Willow. The late duke of
Bedford brought it much into notice, for its tall handfome
rapid growth; and the bark was found by the late Mr.
Biggin, an able practical chemiit, to cgme next to that of
the oak, in tanning qualities. The woed alfois more ufeful
than that of any other willow. When thefe valuable pro-
perties were firtt promulgated, and cuttings of the plant
diftributed to all who enquired for them, many perfons
flighted the information, becaufe they had known the plant
previoufly as fragilis, though they had never difcovered its
merits. It became therefore neceflary to afcertain the dif-
ferences between the two. The prefent duke of Bedford,
who found his diftinguifhed brother’s difcoveries, and his
own liberality, baffled by the above doubts, was folicitous
to have them removed. ‘The Rev. Dr. Abbot was one of
the firft botanifts who fucceeded in this attempt, and we
truft there can never be any more difficulties on the fubje&.
The whole hue of S. Rufelliana is lighter than that of fra-
gilis, efpecially the /eaves, which are alfo more firm, nar-
rower, tapering at the bafe; their ferratures more coarfe
and irregular, and the midrib confiderably ftouter. The
glands on the footftalks fometimes become leaflets. ‘The
germen is longer, more tapering, with a longer {talk and
file. Wehave not feen the male catkins. Both {pecies
have fomething of a glaucous hue on the backs of their
leaves, but the prefent rather the moft. Our S. Lhrhartiana,
n. 10, bears a confiderable affinity to the f{pecies before us ;
but its eaves are much {maller, more elliptic-lanceolate, with
finer clofer ferratures. The fine downinefs of the ftalk of
its catkins is fimilar, but their /ca/es are fhorter and rounder.
We thould be glad to compare the living plants. Analogy
would lead us to fuppofe our Ruffelliana has {carcely more
than two or three flamens. It mutt be obferved that this
valuable {pecies may be known, even in winter, from the
Jragilis, by its much more handfome and flraight mode of
growth ; inftead of the branches decullating each other, or
being fet on obliquely, in the very unfightly manner of that
tree.

40. S. precox. Early Double-budded Willow. Willd.
Ne 32. 5. bigemmis; Hoffm. Germ. ann. 1791. 343+
Roth. Germ. v. 2. 506.)—* Leaves broadly lanceolate,
pointed, {mooth, with glandular ferratures ; glaucous be-
neath. TFootttalks flightly hairy, without glands. Cathkin
before the leaves.. Germen feflile, ovate, fmooth., Style
clongated.’’—Native of various parts of Germany, Swit-

zerland,

” ué - — ”
: ; .

€

SALIX.

zerland, Italy, and the fouth of France, about the banks
of rivers. Willdenow. A tree, with brown branches, very
brittle (we prefume at the bafe) ; fomewhat hairy when
young. eaves an inch and a half or two inches long; of
a fhining green above ; the young ones whitifh and downy.
Stipulas fall, lanceolate, ferrated. Buds thick, fometimes
two, as it were, together. Cavkins refembling thofe of
S. caprea; the male an inch, the female an inch and a half,
in length. Scales lanceolate, villous. Sty/e thread-fhaped.
Sui four, thick. Catkin when in fruit four inches long,
befet with naked cap/ules, on hort ttalks. Willd.

41. S. longifolia. Long-leaved Diftant-toothed Willow.
Mubhlenb. in Sims and Kon. Ann. of Bot. v. 2. 66. t. 5.
f.6. Willd. n. 33. Purfh n. 22.—Leaves linear, pointed
at each end, very diftantly toothed, fmooth, green on both
fides. Stipulas Janceolate, toothed. Catkins following the
leaves, with rounded fcales, fomewhat hairy. Stamens two,
bearded at the bafe.—Gathered on the banks of the Sufque-
hannah, flowering in July, by the Rev. Dr. Muhlenberg,
from whom we have fpecimens. A_ forub, not above two
feet high, with brown branches, pale when young. The
leaves, tive or fix inches long, and not half an inch wide,
with {mall fharp teeth a quarter of an inch, or further,
afunder, clearly mark this fpecies. The flowering branches
fometimes bear broader and fhorter foliage. We have feen
but one unexpanded catkin, in which the /cales are peculiarly
fhort and rounded, moft hairy withinfide.

42. S. babylonica. Weeping Willow. Linn. Sp. Pl.
1443. Willd. n. 34. Purfh n. 23. Ait. n. 17. (Garb
Arabum; Rauw. It. 183. t. 26, copied in Dalech. ap-
pend. 30.)—Leaves lanceolate, taper-pointed, fharply fer-
rated, {mooth; glaucous beneath. Stipulas half-ovate,
taper-pointed, revolute. Catkins naked, accompanying the
leaves. Germens ovate, feffile, fmooth. Branches pendu-
lous.—Native of the Eaft. Linnzus, adopting the idea of
Rauwolf, happily named this elegant fpecies in allufion to
the 137th pfalm. It has long been cultivated throughout
Europe, as well as in America, for the fake of its beauty,
but it is a reproach to publifhing botanifts, that we have no
figure of this tree, except the very imperfeét, and indeed
faulty, ones above quoted. Moft people plant the Weeping
Willow about waters, over which its drooping form. has an
appropriate and very picturefque effe&. But it thrives belt
in a dry gravelly foil, where it is lefs apt to {plit or decay ;
and will bear even the atmofphere of London without in-
jury. Its firft fhoots, and tender leaves, indeed too often
fuffer from an unfavourable {pring in this climate, but the
tree is never killed by any froft. As the dranches droop,
the catkins afcesd in a recurved manner. The male plant is
unknown to botanifts.

S. capenfis, Thunb. Fl. Cap. v. 1. 139, feems too nearly
related to this.

43- S. Houftouniana. Houftounian Willow. Purfhn. 24.—
« Leaves linear-lanceolate, acute, very finely ferrated, {mooth,
fhining, and green on both fides. Stipulas none. Catkins
accompanying the leaves, cylindrical, villous. Scales
ovate, acute. Stamens three to five, bearded half way up.”
—In Virginia and Carolina. Common in gardens under the
name of triflis, which belongs to a very different f{pecies,
hereafter defcribed. Branches extremely brittle at their
bale. Purfh.

. S. falcata. Sickle-leaved Willow. Purfh n. 25.—

“ ie very long, linear-lanceolate, clofely ferrated ; ta-

pering gradually, and fomewhat falcate, upwards ; acute at.

the bafe; fmooth on both fides: the young ones filky.

Stipulas crefcent-fhaped, toothed, deflexed.’?—On the banks

of rivers, from Pennfylvania to Virginia A very {mooth
7

fpecies, with very flender brown branches. Purfb. Flowers
not yet obferved, . :

45- S. fubferrata. Wild Egyptian Willow. Willd. n. 35.
(S. fafsaf belledi ; Forfk. Cat. Pl. Egypt. 76.)—* Leaves
lanceolate, pointed at each end, very {mooth ; glandular at
the bafe ; minutely ferrated at the extremity.””—Native of
Egypt, where it is known by the name retained by Forikall,
equivalent to Wild Willow. He fpeaks of it as impatient
of cold, Wiildenow, who had feen a dried fpecimen, with-
out frutification, thus defcribes the plant. * Branches’
round, green, fmooth. Leaves very like thofe of S. baby-
Jonica, four inches long, green ‘on both fides ; entire or fome-
what wavy in the margin ; obfcurely ferrated at the point ;
furnifhed at the bafe, on the upper fide, with many glands,
various in number and diftribution, often fcattered over part
of the foot/lalé ; which is otherwife {mooth, and four lines in
length. Stipulas ronndifh, half-heart-fhaped, very blunt,
glandular at the edge.”? Willd. wer

46. S. purpurea. Bitter Purple Willow. Linn. Sp. Pl.
1444. Willd. n. 36. Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 6. 113.
Fl. Brit. n. 1. Engl. Bot. t. 1388. (S.monandra; Ar-
duin. Mem. 1. 67. t. 11. Ehrh. Arb. 58.)—Decumbent.
Stamen one. Leaves obovato-lanceolate, ferrated, fmooth ;
narrow at the bafe. Stigmas very fhort, ovate, nearly feffile.
—Native of Germany, Italy and England, in meadows and
about rivers, flowering in March. We have known it for
35 years paft in the meadows oppofite King-itreet, Norwich,
truly wild, though fparingly. Few botanifts, either here or
abroad, are acquainted with this Willow. Linnzus always
cultivated it with attention, though he fays, in Fl. Suec, it
was recently naturalized in the fouth of Scania, from the
banks of the Rhine, whereit is frequent. He celebrates the
excellence and durability of the twigs, for binding thatch,
and making bafkets, adding that the live plant is extremely
valuable for hedges. We are certain of his being the fame
as our’s.
never becomes a free, but is rather a {preading, partly decum-
bent, /Zrub, conf{picuous for the rich glaucous purple of its
{mooth fhining twigs. The /aves, though frequently al-
ternate, are very often oppofite, two or three inches long,
contraéted and entire at the bafe; of a deep glaucous green
above ; more glaucous beneath. oot/alks {mooth, rather
fhort. in ser none. Catkins often oppofite, denfe and
exaétly cylindrical, about an inch long, and fcarcely more
than a line in diameter; their /ca/es obtufe, hairy, black
half way down. Stamen always fimple, with a tawny,
double, or four-lobed, anther. Germen felfile, fmall, rather
longer than the fcale, elliptical, broad, filky. Style hardly
any. Stigmas thick, furrowed, undivided. Capj/ule ovate,
{mall, filky. The bark and leaves are very bitter. Curtjs,
and many other botanifts, have confounded this elegant and

very diflin&t fpecies with the following. Mr. Crowe firft_

adverted to the {mall fize of its catkins.

47. S. Helix. Rofe Willow. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1444.
Willd. n. 37. Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 6. 114. Fl. Brit.
n. 2. Engl. Bot.t. 1343. Dalech. Hift. 2797. f 2. (S.
monandra; Hoffm. Sal. v. 1. 18. t. 1. f. ae t. yofe t
t. 23. f. 1. Curt. Lond. fafc. 6. t. 71.) —Ereét. Stamen
one. Leaves mottly oppofite, oblong-lanceolats, pointed,
flightly ferrated, {mooth, linear at the bafe. Style nearly as
long as the linear divided ftigmas.—Common in watery
places throughout Europe, flowering about the end of
March, or beginning of April. This is a {mall, flender,
upright free, altogether of a lighter hue than the laft, with

ale, yellowifh, or purplifh afh-coloured, branches, which are
Cia {mooth, tough, ufeful for many purpofes. Leaves,
as well as catkins, often oppofite and alternate on the ae
plant,

The S. purpurea, though five or fix feet high,

_——

SALIX.

plant. Stipulas none; except oceafionally on very luxuriant
yoeng fhoots, where they are either lanceolate, or unequally
heart-fhaped. Carkins longer, and full twice as thick, as
the laft, by which the two fpecies, when in flower, are at
once diftinguifhed. The germen too is larger, more ovate ;
and the /fy/e is very perceptibly elongated. Stamen like that
of purpurea. Rofe-like expanfions, permanent through the
winter, caufed by the attack of an infe&, are frequent at the
ends of the branches.

48. S. Lambertiana. Boyton Willow. Fi. Brit. n. 3.
Engl. Bot. t. 1359. Willd. n. 38. Purfh n. 14.—Ereét.
Stamen one. Leaves obovato-lanceolate, acute, ferrated,
fmooth; rounded at the bafe. Stipulas none. Stigmas
very fhort, ovate, notched, obtufe.—Firtt remarked by A. B.
Lambert, efq. near his refidence at Boyton, Wilts. We
have fince met with the fame about the Thames, as well as
near Icklingham, Suffolk, and by the river fide at Norwich,
towards Heigham. It always grows on the banks of rivers,
flowering very early in April. Mr. Purfh {peaks of this
Willow as occurring in North America, about rivers and in
willow-grounds, having been introduced from Europe, and
being cultivated, on account of its exceeding tough branches,
for making bafkets. It is lefs generally known in England
for this purpofe, though perhaps inferior to few others.
The plant is allied to the two lait, with which it agrees in
having frequently oppofite /eaves and catkins, monandrous

lowers, and a yellow inner bark. But the /eaves are very
differently fhaped, much broader, and rounded at the bafe.
The young growing branches and foliage refemble thefe of a
honeyfuckle, in their glaucous purplifh hue, and are more or
lefs downy. We could never tind /ipulas upon any fpeci-
men, in any ftate of growth. The catkins, at leaft the female
ones, are not above half fo large as thofe of 8. Helix, and the
Jfigmas effentially differ, in their fhort rounded form, with
hardly any /fyle.
» 49. S. Forbiana. Fine Bafket Ofier. Fl. Brit. n. 4.
Engl. Bot. t.1344. Willd. n. 39. (S. filla; Sm. Tr. of
Linn. Soc. v. 6. 115 ; but not of Hoffmann.) —Ere@. Sta-
men one. Leaves alternate, with {mall itipulas, lanceolate,
acute, with fhallow ferratures, fmooth ; rounded at the bafe ;
Taucous beneath. Style nearly as long as the linear divided
iligmas. —This feems to be unknown out of England. It
grows wild in many parts of Cambridgefhire, flowering in
‘April, and is highly efteemed in that neighbourhood for
the finer kinds of bafket-work. The caves are alternate,
rarely almoft oppofite, of a dark green above, and thickly,
though not deeply or acutely, ferrated ; their form bears the
fame refemblance to the laft, that Helix and purpurea do to
each other, Thefe /eaves turn ufually very phhekiy drying.
Stipulas fmall, lanceolate, ferrated, glaucous, often want-
ing. Female catkins {eflile, fo very like in all their parts,
efpecially the fligmas, to Helix, that they can {carcely be
dittin uifhed 3 but the aves are zbundantly different ; and
the fuperior quality of the twigs renders this Salix well
worthy of attention. The thick catkins, and acute divided
Sligmas, prevent its being confounded with §. Lambertiana.
¢ have never feen the entirely male plant, but in two or
three inflances have found a flower or two furnithed with a
amen as well as piflil, which has fortunately ferved to afcer-
tain that this {pecies agrees precifely with the three la{t, in
having a fimple filament ; not a divided one like Hoffmann’s
5. fi for which we had originally, for want of {pecimens,
taken it. See the following. Linnaus might sa. have
imagined that the plant we are defcribing had been originally
engendered between the male Lambertiana and female Helix ;
but we'are not difpofed to give into fuch fancies, which tend
to overthrow all certainty of {pecies, and even of genera,

and which we do not find permanently. confirmed, by any
one example that can actually be traced.

50. S. rubra. Green-leaved Ofier. Hudf. Angl. 428.
Willd. n. 40. FI. Brit.n. 5. Engl. Bot.t. 1145. Tr. of
Linn. Soc. y. 6.116. (S. fifla; Hoffm. Sal. v. 1. 61. t. 135
14. Willd. Arb. 337. Ehrh. Arb. 29. 5S. virefcens;
Villars Dauph. v. 3. 785. t. 51. f. 30.) —Stamens com-
bined below. Leaves linear-lanceolate, elongated, acute,
f{mooth, with fhallow ferratures; green on both fides.—
Native of Germany, France, and England, flowering in
April, before the leaves appear. It is one of the moft va-
luable ofiers, and much cultivated in Cambridgefhire. We
have received the male plant from that county, by the
favoer of the Rev. Mr. Holmes, fince the publication of Fl.
Brit. and are now enabled to affert, what was there, from
analogy only, conjectured, that the /lamens are monadelphous.
German {pecimens alfo prove the fa of Hoffmann to be our
plant, long previoufly named rubra by Hudfon, in allufion
to the colour of its twigs, which however are rather tawny
than red. When left to itfelf, this rifes into a {mall tree,
with long, upright, fmooth, polifhed branches. Leaves three
or four inches long, grafs-green on both fides, and fmooth
except when quite young; their margins befet with very
fhallow tooth-like ferratures. Stipulas linear-lanceolate,
toothed, rarely prefent. Carkins {effile, an inch and ‘half
long when fully expanded. Scales elliptical, emarginate,
brown, hairy. Stamens two, more or lefs combined in their
lower part. Anthers orange-coloured. Neéary oblong,
obtufe. Germen feffile, ovate, filky. Styles feflile, ovate,
undivided. ;

51. S. Croweana. Broad-leaved Monadelphous Willow.
Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 6.117. Fl. Brit. n. 6. Engl. Bot.
t.1146. Willd. n. 41.—Stamens combined below. Leaves
elliptical, flightly ferrated, quite {mooth ; glaucous beneath.
—Difcovered by Mr. Crowe, at Cranberry Fen, in the parifla
of Eaft Winch, and in other parts of Norfolk, flowering in
April or May. A female plant, agreeing in every uther refpect
with Mr. Crowe’s, which are male, was fent, by Mr. Winch,
from Waredale and Teefdale in Durham. This Willow, the
only difcovered one with united flamens and broad eaves,
forms an irregular fpreading ¢ree, or rather bu/h, fix feet
high, of no known economical ufe, with fhort, brittle,
fmooth, yellow or purplith, divaricated branches. Leaves
alternate, hardly an inch and half long ;_ bright fhining green
above ; glaucous and veiny beneath; their points m ma-
turity reflexed, and often f{plit. Svipulas {mall, rounded,
toothed. Catkins before the leaves, lateral, feflile, oval, an
inch long, with fhort, ovate, brown, hairy /cales, and two
long yellow flamens, more or lefs combined, with orange an-
thers. Germen lanceolate, filky, nearly -feffile, with an
elongated /lyle. The numerous male catkins render this plant
ornamental when in bloffom, nor is the foliage deftitute of
beauty. We have chofen it to commemorate the finder, whofe
attention to this difficult genus has richly earned fuch an
honour. A {prig of this Willow, along with the Crowra,
(fee that article,) is carved on his monument in the church
of his own manor at Lakenham, near Norwich; where his
living colleétion of Salices is {till ge ae ag

52. S. divaricata. Spreading-branched Willow. Pall,
Rofl. vy. 1. p. 2. 80. Willd. n. 42.—* Stem diffufe, diva-
ricated. Leaves ovato-lanceolate, {mooth, with wavy fer-
ratures.—Gathered by Mr. Sokolof, on Sachondo, the mott
lofty fummit of the alps of Dauria, nor has it been met with
elfewhere. Pallas. It grows among granite rocks, over
which it fpreads ina proltrate form. Stem as thick as the
finger, very much divided and forked from its origin, with
fhort, rigid, deprefled, yellowifh-brown branches. Leaves
crowded

€

ae al

@

SALIX.

crowded about the ends of the fhoots; in fome fpe-
cimens lanceolate and nearly entire; in others ovato-
lanceolate, coarfely ferrated, the ferratures fomewhat wavy
and obtufe; both fides are quite {mooth. There are no
SAtipulas. Female catkins nearly feffile among the leaves,
hardly aninchlong. Pallas fays this fpecies very nearly ap-
proaches the phylicifolia of Linnzus; fee n. 15 ; but of the
latter he probably knew nothing more than the figure in
Fl. Lapp. nor is his own defcription of the divaricata fuffi-
cient to convey any precife information of its character or
affinities; for the capfules of all « difcharge denfe tufts of
down,”’ and we fhould have preferred fome account of their
fhape, furface, or infertion.

§3- S. rhamnifolia. Buckthorn-leaved Willow. Pall. Rofl.
v. t.p. 2.84. Willd. n.45. (S. pumila, foliis ovalibus,
obfeuré ferratis, utrinque levibus, inferné glaucis ; Gmel.
Sib. v. 1. t. 35. f. A.) — Leaves obovate, flightly ferrated,
fmooth, glaucous beneath. Branches procumbent. Cat-
kins lax. Capfules turbinate.’’—Native of mountain bogs,
and ftony banks of rivers, in Siberia. Tevigs fcarcely a
foot long, flender, flexible, yellowifh or brown. Leaves
firm and rigid, an inch or inch and half long, moft tapering
atthe bafe. Catkins, when in fruit, above an inch long, of
about fifteen rather large, fhort, turbinate, loofely difpofed,
capfules.

54. S. Starkeana. Marfh Silefian Willow. Willd. n. 46.
— Leaves elliptical, nearly orbicular, {mooth ; fomewhat
ferrated in the middle; rather glaucous beneath. Catkins
after the leaves. Capfules ovato-lanceolate, ftalked, downy.”
—Found in the bogs of Silefia by the Rev. Mr. Starke.
Branches yellowith-brown. Leaves an inch and half long,
very obtufe, moltly entire, fometimes diftantly ferrated
about the middle or bafe; bright green on the upper fide ;
alittle hairy beneath when young. © Stipulas {mall, ovate,
toothed. Male catkins four lines long, cylindrical, flender,
with lanceolate hairy /cales, long white flaments, and round-
ith yellow anthers. Female ones aninch, or finally more, in
length. Germen lanceolate, with a fhort divided Style, and
cloven fligmas. Stalk of the capfule very long.

55- S. prunifolia. Plum-leaved Willow. Fl. Brit. n. 22.
Engl. Bot. t. 1361. Willd. n. 47. (S. myrfinites ;
Lightf. Scot 599. )—Leaves ovate, ferrated, naked ; {mooth
and even above; glaucous beneath. Branches rather
downy. Capfules ovate, filky. Style as long as the ftig-
mas. Native of the Highland mountains of Scotland,
flowering in April or May. This is a bufhy /brud, often
three feet high, and generally ere€t, with copious, fpread-
ing, fubdivided branches, of a brown hue, clothed with ex-
tremely fhort, curved, but prominent, fine down, not filky
clofe-prefled hairs. Leaves an inch long, or rather more,
broadly ovate, flat, bluntly pointed, ferrated throughout ;
quite {mooth, green and fhining, without any prominent veins,
on the upper fide; glaucous, veiny, when young flightly filky,
beneath. Svipulas very minute, half-ovate, convex, notched,
frequently wanting. Cathins lateral, ere&, cylindrical, not
an inch long. Scales brown, almott orbicular, very hairy or
filky. Neéary oblong. Germen feffile, ovate, filky.
Style elongated, full as long as the fligmas, which are blunt,
and deeply divided. This is certainly what Lightfoot took
for myrfinites, and we had confidered it as Hoffmann’s; but
the latter is referred by Willdenow to another {pecies; fee
Amaniana, nv. 21.

"56. S. vacciniifolia. Bilberry-leaved Willow. Engl.
Bot. t. 2341. (S. prunifolie varietas; Fl. Brit. 1055. 8S.
myrtilloides ; Donn. Cant. ed. 5. 231.)—Leaves ovate, fer-
rated ; fmooth and even above ; glaucous and filky beneath.
Germen ovate, filky. Style as long as the ftigmas, Stems

3

decumbent.—Native of Scotland, more efpecially in the
fouth, aceording to Mr. G. Anderfon, to whom we are
obliged for pointing out its difference from the lait. Its
mode of growth is‘ more humble, partly procumbent, and
the whole plant fmaller, with flender dranches, more or lefs
downy. Leaves of a much narrower fhape, and always con-
fiderably more filky at the back. Catkins much the fame as
thofe of prunifolia, thicker than in the following, from
which moreover the even upper furface of the /eaves eflen-
tially diftinguifhes the prefent plant ; which may be myrtil-
Ioides of Villars, but is not that of Linnzus. a
57. S.venulofa. Veiny-leaved Willow. Fl. Brit. n. 23.

Engl. Bot. t. 1362. (S. formofa; Willd. n. 51? fee n. 62.)
—Leaves ovate, ferrated, naked ; reticulated with promi-
nent veins above: rather glaucous beneath. Germenellip-
tical, filky. Style very fhort.—Native of feveral parts of |
the Highlands of Scotland ; ene) in our gardens like
the two lait, either late in April, or early in May. The fize
and habit of this fpecies, as well as the /ipu/as, clofely ac-
cord with prunifolia ; but the /eaves are clearly and effen-
tially diltinguifhed by the prominent veiny reticulations of
their upper furface, ftrongeft toward the margin, and
apparent in a dry, as well as frefh, ftate: the under fide is
ufnally lefs glaucous than in prunifolia ; catkins more flender,
with ovate obtufe /cales ; germen {maller, elliptical rather
than ovate, more filky, with a fhorter/lyk. Their figmas
agree. Willdenow fufpeéts this may be the fame with his
formofa, but he had not compared them, and our’s is fo
good a fpecies, that we cannot leave it in any uncertainty.
Thofe who may have an opportunity of comparing both,
may fettle the queftion. It muft be obferved that the a
Sule of venulofa becomes ovate as it ripens, when alfo the
JSyle is more elongated. :

58. S. Weigeliana. Weigelian Willow. Willd. n. 48.—
« Leaves elliptical, acute, {mooth ; rather glaucous beneath ;
toothed at the fummit; entire at the bafe. Germen 4
long, clothed with filky hairs. Style elongated.”*—Foun
on the mountains of Silefia. Branches brown. Leaves an
inch and a half, or more, in length, toothed in their upper
half; fhining and bright green above; paler, and, the younger
ones efpecially, fomewhat glaucous, beneath, though quite
{mooth. Stipulas {mall, narrow-lanceolate, nearly entire.
Female catkins an inch long, finally an inch and a half, with
lanceolate hairy /cales. Style divided half way down. Stig-
mas deeply divided. Willdenow. j :

59. S. myrfinites. Green Whortle-leaved Willow. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 1445. Fl: Lapp. ed. 2: 293. t. 8.8 fot. 7.8. 6.
Willd. n. 49. Purfh n. 36. Fl. Brit.n. 21.- Engl. Bot.
t. 1360. Fl. Dan. t. 1054. Hoffm. Sal. v. 1. 71. t. 18,
and poffibly 17.—Leaves-elliptical, ferrated, froth, veiny,
polifhed on both fides. Young branches hairy. Germen
awl-fhaped, clothed with filky hairs. Style as long as the
cloven ttigmas.—Native of the mountains of Lapland,
Scotland and Switzerland, as well as of Labrador, flowerin
in April, May, or June. A little iturdy upright forud, wi
numerous fhort thick branches, hairy, not filky, when
young. Leaves of a deep dull green, but polifhed on both
fides, of a rigid crackling texture when full grown, and re-
matkable for remaining frequently through the winter, in a
withered difleéted condition ; the young ones are a little
filky.. Stipulas {mooth, ferrated, fpreading, often
large. Catkins terminal, purplith, fhort, thic _and obtufe.
Scales obovate. Ne@ary notched. Anthers blucith. Capfule
tapering, or nearly cylindrical, downy, though lefs filk n
the germen. Style thick. Stigmas divaricated, obtufe, at
length deeply divided. Some Britifh writers have miftaken
this for the Linnean retu/a. Pkg P

SALIX.

60. S. Dickfoniana. Broad-leaved Mountain Willow.
Engl. Bot. t. 1390. Willd. n. 88. Ait. n.49. (S. myr-
tilloides ; Fl. Brit. n. 25, excluding the fynonym. )—Leaves
elliptical, acute, flightly toothed, fmooth. Young branches
very fmooth. atkins ovate, fhort, ere&t. Germen

~ ftalked, ovate, filky. Stigmas ovate, obtufe, nearly feffile.—

Gathered by Mr. Dickfon, on the mountains of Scotland.
This was fuppofed to be the myrtilloides of Linnzus, not-
withftanding its toothed “aves, till it bloflomed, and
proved, in that ftate, very diftin€&. Nor is the difference
in the caves lefs conftant, for thofe of the myrtilloides,
fee n. 79, are always entire, and fomewhat revolute.
Our Dick/oniana is a{mall, upright, branched /rué, about
a foot high, flowering in April, quite fmooth in all its
branches, leaves, and flalks. Stipulas very minute. Leaves
an inch and half, or two inches, long, flat, with fhallow
glandular teeth, or ferratures ; even, and bright green, above ;
glaucous, finely veined, beneath. Foot/lalks fhort and thick.
Female catkins nearly feifile, attended by two or three {mall
floral leaves, ereét, ovate, very fhort. Scales dark pur-
plifh-brown, notched, hairy. NeGary as long as the ftalk
of the germen, which is about half the length of the
germen itfelf. Style very fhort. Stigmas thick, yellow,
notched. Thefe catkins refemble thofe of ro/marinifolia
hereafter defcribed, in the third feétion, in fhape and
colour, but differ in being ereét, not recurved.

Willdenow, miftaking /mooth for downy, in our defcrip-
tion of the aves, has widely mifplaced the prefent {pecies.

61. S. Waldfleiniana. Walditeinian Willow. Willd.
n. 50.—** Leaves obovate-elliptical, {mooth, rather acute ;
ferrated in the middle ; fhining above ; fomewhat glaucous
beneath. Germen lanceolate, filky. Young branches
{mooth.”—Found on the Croatian alps. Very nearly akin
to the laft, but differing in its {mooth branches ; leaves
glaucous beneath, remotely ferrated in the middle part
anys anthers yellow; and perfe@tly feffile germens. Will-

au.

62. S. formofa. Elegant Willow. Willd. n. 51. (S.
glauca; Willd. Arb. 338. SS. alpina; Scop. Carn. ed. 2.
¥. 2. 255. t. 61?)—* Leaves oblong, acute, fmooth on
both fides, fringed; ferrated in the middle ; fhining, and
reticulated with veins, above; glaucous bencath. Cap-
fules lanceolate, filky.’’—Native of the Swifs and Carin-
thian alps. Branches reddifh-brown. eaves an inch or
more in length, a little contra¢ted at the bafe, finely fringed
at the edge; the young ones very filky beneath; (which
two chara¢ters are not found in our wenulofa, n. 57.) Sti-

las extremely minute. Female catkins hardly an inch
ong ; wich lanceolate, fringed /cales. Germens villous, with
white filky hairs. Style fhort, cloven, as well as the fligmas.
Willdenow. ;

63. S. carinata. Folded-leaved Willow. FI. Brit. n. 24.
Engl. Bot. t. 1363. Willd. n. 52.—Leaves ovate, finely
toothed, fmooth, minutely veined, folded fo as to form a
keel. Germens ovate, downy.—Communicated from the
Highlands of Scotland, by Mr. Dickfon, and the Rev. Dr.
Stuart. It flowers in April, and is related to our pruni-
Solia and venulofa, though larger and more upright, with
elongated, flraight, a fmooth young branches. Leaves
oem more elliptical, remarkably recurved and fharply
keeled, fo that the two fides approach each other, and the
leaf cannot be prefled flat. The under furface is paler,
opaque, in fome degree glaucous; filky at the very earliett

iod only. On the old branches, a fort of tooth is ob-
ervable, where each foot/lalk had flood. Stipulas very
minute. Cathins {mall, with roundith hairy feales, not
half fo long as the {eflile, ovate, filky germen. Nedary

Vou, XXX.

abrupt, nearly as long as the feale. Style fhort. Stigmas
ovate, thick, and fhort, finally notched. We know no-
thing of the male plant.

64. S. corufcans. Glittering Willow. Willd. n. 53.
(S. Arbufcula; Jacq. Auftr. v. 5. 4. t. 408.)—Leaves
ovate-elliptical, acute, ferrated, fmooth; tapering at the
bafe; fhining above; glaucous beneath; the lower ferra-
tures glandular. Capfules ovato-lanceolate, {mooth.—Na-
tive of the alps of Germany, flowering in June. Svem irre-
gularly branched, partly diffufe, partly ere&. Leaves an
inch or more in length. Male catkins near an inch long,
female more. Scales obovate, fringed with long hairs.
Stamens two, yellow, a little hairy. Germen ovato-lanceo-
late, fmooth. Sty/e elongated, fplit nearly half way down,
Stigmas blunt, notched. Willdenow conceives this to be
very nearly related to fenuifoa. We cannot judge with
certainty, for want of fpecimens of Jacquin’s plant ; but

they appear different.
65. S. Arbufcula. Little Tree Willow. Linn. FI.
Pl. 1445.5. Willd.

Lapp. ed. 2. 297. t. 8. f. m. Sp.

n. 54? Fl. Brit. n. 15. Engl. Bot. t. 1366.— Leaves
lanceolate, acute, very obfcurely toothed, fmooth; rather
glaucous beneath; moftly without ftipulas. Branches
downy. Catkins ovate, ere&t. Germen ovato-lanceolate,
filky, italked. Gathered by Mr. Dickfon, in the High-
lands of Scotland. We have carefully determined it to be
the genuine frie of Linnezus, but dare not anfwer for
all Willdenow’s fynonyms, fearcely any {pecies being lefs
underftood. The /lem is ere&t, flender, about a foot high,
naked below, like a little tree; the branches {preading,
downy. Leaves on very fhort ftalks, moderately {preading,
liable to vary greatly in breadth, flat, finely veined, ap-
pearing entire till they are accurately examined, when they
prove to be obfoletely toothed, as Linnzus rightly fays in
Fl. Lapp. When young they are filky; but when full
grown they become {mooth, except a few hairs beneath.
No flipulas ave to be found in general; though, when the
fhrub 1s cut down, the young luxuriant radical fhoots bear
broad ovate /eaves, accompanied by fuch appendages, of
a fmall fize, lanceolate and flat. ‘che catkins are eel;
nearly feffile, of a peculiarly fhort ovate figure, with ob-
long, purplifh, notched, hairy /cales. Stigmas broad, ovate,
tawny, ona very fhort fy/e. This is moft naturally allied
to rofmarinifolia, except the adult /eaves being {mooth, and
the catkins ere&t. Willdenow defcribes two /lyles, and a
{mooth germen, fo that his plant can hardly be our’s.

66. S. herbacea. Lealt Willow. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1445.
Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 294. t. 8 f. 4. t. 7. f. 3, 4. Willd.
n. 55. Purfhn. 37. Fl. Brit. n. 26. Engl. Bot. t. 1907.
BE Dan. t.rry.” Hotim: Sale v.21." 74. ts 20. {%.
n. 1649; Hall. Hifl. v. 2. 309.)—Leaves orbicular, fer-
rated, reticulated with veins; very {mooth and fhining on
both fides. Capfules ovato-lanceolate, {mooth.—Native of
the fummits of the loftieft hills throughout Europe, in a
micaceous foil, blofloming in June, and ripening its cap-
fules in Auguft. This 1s perhaps the leaft of all rus,
the flems, though truly woody, perennial, and often branched,
being but an inch or two high. . The woody creeping roots
are of great extent, running deep among the crevices of
the 6 a Leaves on hort ftalks, bright green, as nearly
orbicular as pofflible, rather rigid, deciduous, various in
fize, occafionally emarginate, without /lipulas. Male cat-
kins yellow, terminal, tlalked, half an inch long. Scales
roundith, hairy. MNe@ary double. Stamens two, diftiné,
{mooth. Female catkins of fewer flowers ; Willdenow fays
of about five, but we generally find more. Scales more
oblong, and fmooth. Nefary double. Germen nearly

Ce feffile,

iy
ie

9°
SALIX.

feffile, {mooth, with a fhort fly, and {mall deeply cloven

Sligmas. »
67. S. arbutifolia. Arbutus-leayednwallow. Willd.
n. 56. (S. n. 1646; Hall. Hift. v. 2. 308. §. pumila,

folio utrinque glabro; Bauh. Hift.v. 1. p.2. 217. “S.
dubia; Suter. Helvet. v..2. 283.’?)— Leaves lanceolate,
acute, obfcurely ferrated, {mooth and fhining on both fides;
reticulated with veins beneath. Germen lanceolate, hairy.
Style elongated. Stigmas deeply divided.”—Native of
mount Pilat in Switzerland, and the alps of Savoy. Stem
diffufe, with dark brown Jranches. Leaves about four lines
long, very finely ferrated, on fhort ttalks. Female catkins

lindrical, near an inch in length, with oblong, obtufe,
brown, hairy fcales. Willdenow fays he received this under
the name of S. arbutifolia of Afzelius ; but that it differs
widely from what Pallas has fo denominated in Fl. Roff.
v. I. p. 2- 79, which latter he durft not adopt, becaufe
of its imperfeét defcription. He moft truly adds, that
* almoit all Pallas’s Salices are deubtful.”” That great
botanift, though fo many of this genus muft have fallen in
his way, paid no juft attention, either to their true diftinc-
tive characters or fynonyms; nor can any one underitand
them without repeatedly watching the fame individual

lant.

68. S. berberifolia. Barberry-leaved Willow. Pall.
Rofl. v.. 1. p. 2. 84. t. 82. It. v. 3. append. .7509.
t. K,k.f.7. Willd. n. 57. (S. pumila, foliis denfe con-
geltis, oyalibus, criftatis; Gmel. Sib. v. 1. 161. t. 35. f. 3.)
—Leaves obovate, bluntifh, with deep tooth-like ferratures ;
fmooth, fhining, ribbed, and reticulated with veins, on both
fides. Capfules ovate, fmooth.—Gathered on the loftieft,
rocky, {nowy mountains of Dauria, by Pallas, from whofe
herbarium we have been favoured by Mr. W. Borrer with
afpecimen. Here at leaft we come to a clearly diftinG,
and very curious, fpecies. The /fems are branched and dif-
fufe. Leaves not much above half an inch long, italked,
fo deeply toothed as to be almoit pinnatifid, and very
happily compared to thofe of the Barberry. Pallas fays
they are permanent, (we prefume like thofe of myr/inites,)
and that fome remain green under the {now. Catkins ter-
minal, flender, as long as the leaves, with villous /cales.
Stamens two or three. Cap/ules few, rather large.

Sect. 2. Adult leaves entire, nearly /mooth.

69. S. Kitaibeliana. Kitaibelian Willow. Willd. n. 58.
—‘ Leaves obovato-lanceolate, entire, emarginate, {mooth ;
fhining above. Catkins cylindrical, many-flowered. Scales
fhorter than the ovato-lanceolate {mooth germen.—Sént by
Kitaibel from the Carpathian alps, named retufa with a
doubt. Willdenow efeems it abundantly diltinét, the
leaves being many times larger, always emarginate ; female
catkins of numerous flowers ; /cales but ene-third the length
of the germen; and capfules on long talks. The germens
and /cales are {mooth, except a few hairs at the end cf
the latter. Style of 2 middling length, divided. Stigmas
cloven.

70. S. retufa. Blunt-leaved Willow. Linn. Sp. Pl.
1445. Willd. n. 59, Ait. n. 35. (S. n. 1648; Hall.
Hitt. v. 2. 309. S. pufilla humilis; Camer. Epit. 108.
S. alpina minima repens, retufo ferpilli folio lucido; Bocc.
Muf. v. 1. 18. t. 1.)—Leaves obovate, entire, fmooth ;
fhining above. Female catkins oblong, of few flowers.
Scales the length of the oblong fmooth germen.—Native
of the alps of Germany, Switzerland, France, and Italy,
but not of Britain, or the north of Europe. The main
flems are woody, deprefied, crecping, branched, often of
great thicknefs, throwing up many fhort, fmooth, leafy
branches, which are likewife ‘partly decumbent. “Leaves

ftalked, various in fize and breadth, but ufually from half
an inch to an inch long, and from one to four lines broad ;
quite entire ; abrupt, or even emarginate at the extremity ;
tapering at the bafe; furnifhed with one rib, and mam
itraight parallel veins. Catkins lax; the males diandrous,
yellow, with elliptic-oblong, flightly hairy cals ; female
of about cight or ten flowers. Cap/ule large, nearly feffile,
ovate, fmooth, The fyle, which 1s’ fhort, and undivided,
remains at the extremity of one of the valves, and a
the cap/ule becomes quite ripe, its ftalk is fomewhat
elongated. na

71. S. ferpyllifolia. Thyme-leaved Willow. Seop.
Carn. ed. 2. v. 2. 255. t. 61. Willd. n. 60.—* Leaves
ovate, or ovato-lanceolate. acute, entire, {mooth; fhinin
above. Catkins oblong, of few flowers. Capfules ellip-
tical, {mooth. Stigmas feffile.”—Native of the alps of
France, Italy, Switzerland, and Carniola. “We cannot .
precifely refer any of our numerous alpine {pecimens, col-
leéted with confiderable attention and labour, to this fpe-
cies ; which Willdenow fays differs from retufa, in having
leaves but one-third fo large, and always acute; /eales of
the female catkin, whilft in flower, longer than the germen,
though afterwards but one-third its length; /y/e tione,
which is of a middling length in the foregoing ; and, finally,
the germen Sbiaigellipeical not contraéted at the upper
part. It muft be confefled, that Scopoli’s figure throw
no great light on the fubjeé&.

72. §. cordifolia. Heart-leaved Labrador * Willow.
Purfh n. 10.—*¢ Stem deprefled: Leaves oval, rather
acute, entire, reticulated with veins; heart-fhaped at the
bafe ; fmooth above; pale, with a hairy rib and margin,
beneath. Stipulas © half-heart-fhaped.’’—Native of La-
brador. Cultivated by Mr. G. Anderfon. In’ general
habit it refembles S. myrfinites. Purfb.

73. S. foliolofa. Many-leaved Willow. Afzel. in Linn.
Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 295. Willd. n. 61. (S. alpina, ‘myrti_
folio; Rudb. Lapp. 99. S. Arbufcula 8; Linn, Sp. Pl.
1445.) — Leaves elliptic-obovate, entire, fomewhat. pomted,

f{mooth, glaucous beneath. Germen lanceolate, filky, on

a long italk. soem nearly feffile, deeply divided.—
Native of fandy fields in the wild part of Lapland, but
rare. Linneus. Scarcely a foot high, with much of the
appearance of ¢enuifolia, n. 20, but the leaves are not an
inch long, moftly, if not quite, entire, thin and almoft
pellucid; green above; glaucous beneath; they are per-
feétly fmooth, except fome downinefs on the midrib ‘ina
young ftate. atkins from fhort lateral branches, fhort,
thick, many-flowered. Scales elliptic-oblong, yellow, nearl

fmooth, fcarcely longer than the filky {talks of the ftill
more filky germens. Nothing can be more diftin& from §.
Arbufiula.

74. S. mucronata. Pointed Cape Willow. Thunb.
Prodr. 6. Fl. Cap. v. 1. 140. Willd. n. 62.— Leaves
entire, fmooth, oblong, pointed; glaucous beneath.?—
Gathered at the Cape of Good Hope by Thunberg, whofe
fpecific charaéter is far from fuflicient. His expreffion of
« foliis integris’” may poflibly mean that the /eaves are not
quite entire, and if fo, this fpecies be Ae not be pro-
perly placed here. "The /lem is fix feet high. — Leaves at
moft an inch in length. Carkins downy.

75. S. reticulata, Wrinkled Willow. Linn. Sp. PI.
1446. Fil.’ Lapp. ed. 2. 296. t. 8: te A te Gs te Kees
Willd. n. 63. Purfh'n. 7. Fi. Brit! mn. 27. Engl. Bor.
t. 1908." Fi. Dan. t. 212. | Hoffm. Sal. v. 2. 3. ae
27. (S. n. 1650; Hall. Hilt. v. 2. 309. S. puthila,
folio rotundo; Bauh. Hitt. v..1. p. 2. 217; not wm 1, #2.
as copied by Willdenow from Linnwus.)—Leaves orbicular,

12 fomewhat

——

EP Oe

SALIX.

fomewhat elliptical, obtufe, entire, coriaceous, {mooth,
with reticulated veins; glaucous beneath. Stigmas nearly
feffile. Capfule fhasgy.—Native of all the loftieit moun-
tains of Europe, as well as of Labrador, Newfoundland,
and the north-weft coaft of America; bloffoming in June
and July, after the foliage has attained its full fize. It
occurs in the mountainous parts of Wales and Yorkfhire,
as well as in Scotland; and is one of our moft elegant
alpine plants. The roofs are thick and woody. The /fems
cling clofe to the rocks, branching over them, and form-
ing a carpet or tapeitry, often feveral feet in diameter.
Leaves three from each bud, on long ftalks, beautifully and
copioufly veined, from one to two inches wide, convex, fome-
what revolute ; glaucous-green above ; white, with brownifh
or pink veins, beneath. Catéin folitary from the fame bud,
terminal, ftalked, cylindrical, denfe, many-flowered, red-
dith. Scales obovate, woolly. Ne@ary, in the female at
leaft, of four ereét, awl-fhaped, blunt glands. Germen and
capfule ovate, feffile, cottony. Stigmas deeply divided, with
hardly any /lyle.

76. S. wveflita. Silky reticulated Willow. Purth n. 8.
—* Leaves nearly orbicular, entire, reticulated with veins ;
fmooth above; filky with long clofe-prefled hairs beneath.
Stipulas none. Catkins ftalked, linear, filky. Germen
feffile, oyate, villous. Style deeply divided. Stigmas
cloven.”—Native of Labrador, flowering in June. A
very elegant fpecies, refembling the preceding. Fur/h.

77- S. Uva urfi. _ Bear-berry-leaved Willow. Purfh
n. g.— Stem deprefied. Leaves {patulate-obovate, ob-
tufe, entire, fmooth; fhining above; glandular at the mar-

in beneath. Stipulasnone. Catkinslax. Scales oblong,

i - Germen ftalked, ovate, fmooth. Style deeply
divided. Stigmas two-lobed.’’—Native of Labrador.
Flowering in April or May. Cultivated by Mr. G. An-
derfen. A beautiful little {pecies, with all the appearance
of Arbutus Uva urfi, in habit, as well as in the form of its
leaves. Purfb.

78. S. pedicellaris. Long-italked Willow. Purfh n. 13.
—* Stem ere&. Branches fmooth. Leaves obovato-lan-
ceolate, acute, entire, {mooth. Stipulas none. Catkins
-ftalked, very {mooth. Scales oblong, fearcely hairy. Ger-
men ovate-oblong, fmooth; its ftalk twice as long as the
feale. Stigmas feffile, divided.—Found on the Catfkill
mountains, New York, flowering in April. This
“elegant and fingular {pecies,” brought by Mr. Purth
from America, flowered in Mr. Andetfon’s garden. We
have feen no fpecimen. The /eaves are green on both
fides.
79. 5. myrtilloides. Myrtle-leaved Willow. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 1446. FJ. Lapp. ed. 2. 295. t. 8. fi, & Ait.
n. 37 ?—Leaves ovate, entire, bluntifh, {mooth; glaucous
beneath. Germen ovato-lanceolate, {mooth; its ftalk
longer than the fcale.—Native of {pongy bogs in Lapland
and Siberia. A /brub about a foot high, ereét, like a little
tree; its upper branches purplith, 4 a ee at the ex-
tremity, {mooth. Leaves when full-grown near an ineh
long, green above, very {mooth and even, with reticulated
veins; the margin flightly reflexed. SF cotflalks a line in
length, occafionally hairy. Stifulas none. Female catkins
terminating the fhorter lateral branches, about an inch long,
obtufe, lax in their lower part; their ftalks either quite
imooth, or flightly hairy. Scales yellowith, elliptical, more
or lefs bearded with white hairs. Germen ovate and quite
{mooth at the bafe, elongated, bluntifh, and occafionally
appoaslated, not hairy or downy, at the fummit, its {talk
mooth, often much Sogiaed than the feale. Style the length
of the {mall divided fligmas. The only male cathin we have

feen is about an inch long, flender, yellow, apparently di-
androus. When the fecond edition of the Fl. Lapponica
was publifhed, we judged:S. cefia of Villars, by its eaves,
to be the fame with this. But having in 1802 received from
the author a more complete {pecimen, his plant proves very
diitin@. See the following. We prefume it mufl be the
Lapland one that fir J. Banks brought from Iceland, in
1772, though the {pecific character in Hort, Kew. taken
from Wiildenow, evidently, by the downy capfules, belongs
to the cefia. 8. myrtilloides of Villars, from himfelf, is dif-
ferent from both, having flrongly ferrated eaves. We can-
not well determine it. Seen. 56.

So. S. cefia. Grey Bilberry Willow. Villars Dauph.
v. 3- 768. t. 50. f. 11. (S. myrtilloides; Willd. n. 64.)
—-Leaves elliptical, pointed, entire, fmooth; glaucous be-
neath. Germen lanceolate, filky, ftalked.—Found ‘by
Villars on the mountain of Lautaret in Dauphiny, about
the banks of rivers, and no where elfe. We have from him
a female fpecimen only. He defcribes the plant as three or
four feet high, with branches and deaves fo much refembling
his monandra, (which feems te be our Helix,) that he at firft
conceived it a mere variety, till he faw the fruCtification.
In faé&, the /eaves feem to be fometimes nearly oppofite, as
in Helix. ‘Their fhape, however, is widely different, ellip-
tical or ovate, not an inch long, and nearly approaching the
lait-defcribed, only rather more pointed. Female catkins
very diftinét from the laft, and fo nearly according with
thofe of the Linnzan {pecimen of foliolofa, n. 73, that we
have been inclined to think them the fame; but the /eaves
do not agree. Thefe catkins, of cefia, are denfely cylin-
drical, many-flowered, with a hairy ftalk, and elliptical
bearded /cales, rather longer than the downy ftalks which
fupport the very white, filky germens. Style and fligmas
fmall, {mooth. Cap/ules ovate, purplifh, filky, forming a
denfe clufter about an inchlong. Thefe {mall alpine Wil.
lows are fo difficult, and fo little underftood, that we have
been anxious to throw all poffible light upon them, and yet
we feel the imperfeétion of all we can do.

81. S. integra. Entire-leaved Japan Willow. Thunb.
Jap. 24. Willd. n. 65.—** Leaves entire, fmooth, linear-
oblong, obtufe.””—Gathered by Thunberg, in Japan. He
defcribes the /lems as round, long, afh-coloured, and {mooth.
Leaves feveral from each bud, feffile, entire, {mooth on both
fides, fpreading, half an inch, or more, (we prefume,) in
breadth. lowers from the fame buds. ‘This defcription
is infufficient to give any correct idea of the fpecies. The
expreflion foliis integris is changed by Willdenow to tnteger-
rimis, no doubt juitly ; for every Willow has folia integra,
that is, undivided leaves. Botaniits of the Linnzan {chool,
however, are now and then accuftomed to ufe folia integra,
for leaves that are nearly entire, or /udbintegerrima, and pol-
fibly Thunberg has this meaning. If fo, the f{pecies in
quettion is wrongly placed in this {eétion.

Se. 3. Leaves villous.

82. S. aegyptiaca. Calaf, or Egyptian Willow. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 1444. Willd. n. 66, excluding the references to
Pallas and Gmelin. (Calaf et Ban; Alpit. /Egypt. 61.
t. 62.) —Leaves fomewhat toothed, elliptic-oblong, veiny ;
fmoothith above ; glaucous, and more or lefs hairy, beneath.
Stipulas half-heart-fhaped. Branches, fmooth, Catkins
feffile, leaflefs, very hairy.—Native of Egypt, from whence
Haflelquitt fent fpecimens to Linneus. Alpinus deferibes
it as a {mall free, growing in moilt places, ‘The branches
are angular, furrowed, glaucous; {mooth, except their
youngelt extremities. Leaves on rather fhort talks, broad
at the bafe, without glands, ufually three or inches
long, and nearly two broad, acute, rather diltantly tooth d;

foul

Cc 2 fuurce)y

SALIX.

Tearcely ferrated; rounded at the bafe; glaucous, denfely
downy when young, and always more or lefs hairy, beneath.
Sfpulas very evident on young fhoots, though Linnzus fays
they are wanting. Catkins numerous, an inch or inch and
half long, thick, crowded, alternate, from very large,
{mooth, brown duds, on the leaflefs upper part of the leafy
branches. We have only the males, which are diandrous,
the very denfe {traight hairs of their /cales reaching to the
ends of the famens. The Egyptians procure from the cat-
kins, by diltillation, a cordial water, efteemed antipefti-
lential. Arn infufion or decodtion of the fame is faid to have
fimilar qualities.

83. S. ferotina. Late Willow. Pall. Roff. v. 1. p. 2.
77. It. v.3. 759. t. N,n. (S.n.19; Gmel. Sib. v. 1.
163. S.capreay; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1448.)—Leaves elliptic-
lanceolate, entire; rather downy above; filky beneath.
Stipulas lanceolate. atkins feffile, leaflefs, very hairy.
Germens ftalked, filky.—Abundant in the fandy iflands and
fhallows in the fouthern part of the Wolga, not expanding
its catkins or leaves till the beginning of June. In dry
ground it becomes a free, but is otherwife fhrubby, fix feet
high, with brittle, grey or yellowifh, twigs, {mooth, ex-
cept when very young. Leaves quite entire, revolute in the
bud, often above a fpan long. Stipulas fmall. Catkins
from much fmaller buds than the preceding, with which
Willdenow has incautioufly been led to combine it, appa-
rently becaufe Pallas has, in his Flora Roffica, hinted their
probable affinity. No two fpecies can be more diftiné.
Linnzus has erroneoufly made the prefent a variety of his
caprea, a {pecies diftinguilhed by its broad ferrated /eaves,
and ovate germens, which in the prefent are lanceolate.
Willdenow himfelf has defcribed it as diftin@, by the name
of S. Gmeliniana, Sp. Pl. v. 4. 709.

84. S. glauca. Glaucous Mountain Willow. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 1446. Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 299. t. 8. f. p. t. 7. f. 5,
excluding the reference co Villars. Willd. n. 67. Engl.
Bot. t.1810. (S.n. 1642; Hall. Hift. v. 2. 307. t. 14.)
—Leaves nearly entire, elliptic-lanceolate ; even and nearly
{mooth above; woolly beneath. Footftalks decurrent.
Germen feffile, ovate, woolly.—Native of the mountains of
Lapland, Switzerland, and Scotland, flowering in May.
An elegant /brub, ere&t, two or three feet high, diftin-
guithed by the fine, glaucous-green, even and {mooth upper
furface of its Jeaves, and their fnowy, denfe down beneath.
When young, their under fide is beautifully fatiny. Cat-
fins very hairy, cylindrical, lateral, ufually accompanied by
two leaves.

85. S. Stuartiana. Shaggy Mountain Willow. Engl.
Bot. t. 2586. (S. arenaria mafculina; Fl. Brit. 1059.
Engl. Bot. v. 26. 1809.)—Leaves nearly entire, lanceolate,
acute; fhaggy above; denfely filky beneath. Stigmas ca-

pillary, deeply divided. Style as long as the germen.—
Gathered by the Rev. Dr. Stuart, and fince by Mr. Borrer,
in Breadalbane. It flowers in May or June. This has

been confounded with §. arenaria and lapponum, hereafter
deferibed; but the /eaves are fmaller than either, more
fhaggy on both fides, and very different in appearance from
the eh while the long flender fyle and fligmas abun-
dantly diftinguifh it from the latter.

86. S. cancfeens. Hoary Willow. Willd. n. 68.—
* Leaves oblong-lanceolate, acute; fomewhat ferrated in
the middle; fmooth and fhining above ; white and downy
beneath. Capfules ovate, downy.’’—Defcribed from a fe-
male dried fpecimen by Willdenow, who was unacquainted
with its native country. The branches are brown, fomewhat
downy when young. Leaves two or three inches long ; the
young ones hoary on the upper fide, Female catkins an

9

inch long, cylindrical. Cap/wles ovate, feffile, downy. We
know nothing that anfwers to this defcription.

87. S. falviefolia. Sage-leaved Willow. Willd. n. 60.
—‘* Leaves oblong-lanceolate, acute, flightly and diftantly
toothed in the middle; hoary above; downy, with rugged
veins, beneath. Stipulas half-heart-fhaped, acute, entire.”
—Gathered by Linck in Portugal. Branches dark brown;
downy when young. Leaves tapering at the bafe, two
inches long. Svipulas rather large. Walldenow.

88. S. danata. Woolly Lapland Willow. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 1446. Fl. Lapp. ed.2. 302. t. 8. fix. t. 7. f. 7
(S. caprea; Fl. Dan. t. 245.) @. S. deprefla; Linn. Fh
Suee. ed: 2: ‘352. ©FL wiapp. ed.'2. 297.'t: 8. tome
Leaves roundifh-ovate, acute, entire ; fhaggy on both fides ;
hoary beneath. Capfules feflile, {mooth. Style four times
as long as the blunt divided ftigmas.—Plentiful on the al-
pine mountains of Lapland, rarely in the woody parts.
Linnaeus. A {mall tree, whofe ‘aves, in a wild ftate, are
hardly above an inch long, denfely clothed with extremely
foft fhaggy down, which, in dried f{pecimens at leaft, fome-
times acquires a beautiful tinge of lemon-colour. Female
catkins unufually large and thick; two or three inches long,
of numerous flowers. Scales more or lefs hairy, or filky.
Germen ovate, fometimes a little woolly, but in the original
{pecimen quite fmooth, ovate, bearing a flender Sryle, al-
mott half its own length, with blunt, deeply divided, figmas.
Linnzus aflerts his depreffa, which we have been occafionally
inclined to think a good fpecies, is but a cultivated variety
of this; which indeed is confirmed by a garden fpecimen of
Janata, whofe leaves are two inches long, with elongated
footflalks, and approach thofe of depreffa in fize and appear-
ance. Both are very different from our cotinifolia, N. 120.

89. S. lapponum. Common Lapland Willow. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 1447. Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 300. t. 8. f. #. Willd.
n. 72. (8. fericea; Villars Dauph. v. 3. 782. t. 51. f. 27.
Willd. n. 70. S. n. 1643; Hall. Hift. v. 2. 307. S.
arenaria; Fl. Dan. t. 197.)—Leaves lanceolate, entire,
bluntifh ; clothed on both fides with long filky hairs. Ger-
men feffile, very woolly. Style about the length of the
deeply feparated, cloven, blunt ttigmas.—Extremely com-
mon in all the vallies among the Lapland alps, and frequent
alfo in the woods. Linn. We have the fame from Swit-
zerland and Dauphiny, afcertained as the plant of the
authors above quoted ; fo that we are enabled very much to
clear up the fynonymy of this fine fpecies, not hitherto de-
tected in Britain. It is faid in Lapland to form a free, as
tallas aman. Villars defcribes it as a trailing /orub, with
a thick, crooked flem. The branches are reddish, filky only
when young. Leaves two or three inches long, and one
broad, clothed with peculiarly delicate and filky fhag:
hairs, on both fides ; the under fide glaucous, with a reddifh
rib. Catkins ttalked, cylindrical ; the males yellow, filky,
about an inch long; the females twice that length, rather
lax, much more flender than in S. Janata, and effentially
diftinguifhed by their peculiarly woolly germens. The fyle
is fo enveloped in this wool, that we can hardly determine
its precife length, but it feems even fhorter than the /igmaz,
the latter being remarkably long.

go. S. arenaria. Downy Mountain Willow. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 1447. Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 298. t. 8. f. 0, Willd.
n. 73. Fi. Brit.n. 28. Engl. Bot. t. 1809. (S.lapportum ;
Lightf. Scot. 604. S.n.20; Gmel. Sib. v. 1. 164. t. 36.
f. 1. S. helvetica; Villars ee v. 3. 783. )—Leaves nearly
entire, ovate, acute; reticulated and fomewhat down
above ; veiny, and denfely woolly, beneath. Germen fef-
file, very woolly. Style about the length of the deeply
feparated, linear, divided ftigmas.—Native of the Lapland

woods,

SALIX.

woods, and of the Scottifh, German, Swifs, Italian, and
French alps, flowering in May. The /remis ftout, bufhy, two
or three feet high ; with reddifh-brown twigs, finely downy
when young. Leaves about aninch and half long, and half
as wide, entire, or flightly waved, fomewhat revolute; dark
green above, reticulated with funk veins; white with cot-
tony deprefled down, the veins prominent, beneath. Foot-

alks rather longer in proportion thanin §. glauca, broad at
the bafe, and not decurrent. Stipules none. Flowering
buds large, gibbous. Male catkins ovate, foon becoming
cylindrical, an inch long, their /cales clothed with copious,
long, filky hairs. Stamens two, fmooth. Female catkins
twice as long, rather flender though denfe. Cap/ules nearly
feffile, ovate, woolly. Style and fligmas flender. We are
now enabled to remove a doubt exprefled in Engl. Bot.
p- 2586; for the exotic fpecimen ceferibed as arenaria,
at p. 1809 of that work, is really fuch, and not S. Stuarti-
ana. 8. arenaria may always be known from all its near
relations, by the reticulations of the /eaves, and their ovate

ar §. obovata. Obovate Labrador Willow. Purfh
n. 11.—* Stem diffufe. Leaves obovate, obtufe, entire ;
fmooth above ; clothed with filky hairs beneath. Stipulas
none. Catkins feffile. Scales obovate; black and hairy at
the end.”?—Native of Labrador, and of the north-welt coait
of America, floweringin May. Allied to S. erenaria, and
fomewhat inclined to be upright. Stamens two. Pur/b.

gz. S. planifolia. Flat-leaved Labrador Willow. Purth
n. £2.— Stem afcending, divaricated; branches fmooth.
Leaves oblong-lanceolate, very fmooth, flat, f{preading ;
acute at each end; minutely ferrated in the middle ; paler
beneath. Stipulas none.’’—Native of Labrador. Seen by
Mr.Purh in Mr. Anderfon’s garden, without flowers. “ This
caged fpecies diftinguifhes itfelf at firft fight by its remark-
able plain and patent /aves. It is inclined to rife from the
ground on a fingle low fem.” ei

93- S. ee Auricled Willow. Fl. Dan.
t. 1056. uld. n. 74.—* Leaves ovate-oblong, entire, vil-
lous; fomewhat downy beneath. Stipulas lanceolate, per-
manent, oblong, entire. Germen oblong-lanceolate, downy.
Stigmas feflile.””—Native of Finmark. The aves are not
at all thining beneath; in a young ftate they are downy in
that part; when full-grown hoary. Cap/ules downy. Will-

94- S. cinerea. Grey Willow. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1449.
Fl. Suec. ed. 2. 353. Fi. Lapp. ed. 2. 296, exclufive of
Villars’sfynonym. Willd. n.75. F’ Brit. n.34. Engl.
Bot. t. 1897. (S. daphnoides; Villars Dauph. v. 3. 765.
t. 50. f. 7; bad.)—Stemere&. Lower leaves entire; up-
per more or lefs ferrated, obovato-lanceolate ; reticulated
with veins, glaucous and downy beneath. Stipulas half-
heart-fha ferrated. Germen lanceolate, flalked, filky.
Style as ng 2 the blunt ftigmas.—Native of moift marfhy
woods, in Lapland, Sweden, England, and France., We
have it from Norfolk, Surrey, and other places, and have
compared our fpecimens carefully with thofe of Linnweus
and Villars. A living plant from the Cambridge garden has
furnifhed us with female flowers. This isa fall crooked
tree, of no particular ufe, blofloming in April, before the
leaves appear. It is molt allied to S. aquatica hereafter
deferibed, but differs in the greater firmnefs and thicknefs
of its leaves, and larger cathins. The flem is more ere& and
arboreous, the germen more flender, and the /yle longer.
Willdenow’s defcription differs in fome points from our

t.
95. S. Jacquiniana. Brown Auftrian Willow. Willd.
a. 77- (5S. Jacquini; Hoft. Syn. 529. 8. fulca; Jacq. Aultr.

v. 5. 4. t. 409.)—* Leaves elliptical, entire, tapering at
each end, polifhed; the veins beneath, as well as the margin,
hairy. Germen elliptical, downy. Style elongated.””—
Native of the Auftrian alps, flowering in May. The raot
is very long, thick and woody. Stems diffufe ; the young
branches downy. Leaves ufually near an inch in length,
fringed with long hairs ; reticulated with veins beneath.
Footftalks rather fhort. Stipulas large, oblong, ferrated to-
wards the extremity, reticulated, according to Willdenow ;
though Jacquin neither figures nor mentions them. Male
catkins italked, elliptical, yellow, diandrous, not an inch long ;
female longer, on longer ftalks, ere&t, brown, rather lax.
Germen feffile, clothed with clofe hairs. Very different from
S. fefca of Linnzus and FI. Brit.

96. S. Mublenbergiana. Brown American Willow. Willd.
n. 78. Purfh n. 3. (S. triftis; Muhlenb. in Sims and
Kon. Ann. of Bot. v. 2. 68. t.5.f.9. S. alpina; Walt.
Carol. 243.) —‘ Leaves lanceolate, fharpifh, nearly entire,
downy, revolute; veiny and rugofe beneath. Stipulas lan-
ceolate, deciduous. Scales of the catkins oblong, fringed.
Germen ovato-lanccolate, filky, italked. Style fhort. Stig-
mas divided.” —In dry fhady woods, from New York to
Virginia, flowering in April. From three to five feet high 5
the branches greenifh-yellow, with black dots. Anthers
purple; yellow when burft. Scales white, tipped with red,
giving the catkins a very pleafing appearance. Pur/h.

g7- S. trifis. Narrow-leaved American Willow. Ait.
n. 41. Willd. n. 79. Purfh n. 4.—“ Leaves linear-lanceo-
late, entire, revolute, acute at each end; fmoothifh above ;
rugged with veins, and downy, beneath. Stipulas none.
Catkins before the leaves, oblong.’’—In dry fandy woods,
from New Jerfey to Carolina, flowering in March or April.
Approaches near to the preceding. Pur/b. Introduced at
Kew by Mr. William Young, in 1765.

98. S. argentea. Silky Sand Willow. Fi. Brit. n. 29.
Engl. Bot. t. 1364. Willd. n. 80. (S. arenaria ; Lightf.
Scot. 604. SS. lanata; Roth. Germ. v. 1. 418. 2. p. 2.
513. S. pumila, foliis utrinque candicantibus et lanuginofis;
Dill. in Raii Syn. 447.t. 19. f. 3.) —Leaves entire, elliptical,
fomewhat revolute, with a recurved point ; rather downy
above ; filky and fhining beneath, as well as the branches.
Germen ftalked, ovato-lanceolate, filky. Style fhorter
than the ftigmas.—Native of fandy ground in Germany
and England. With us it occurs chiefly among loofe
blowing fand on the fea-fhore, flowering in May, before
the leaves come out. The /lems are moftly fpreading, but in
fheltered {pots will rife to the height of four or five feet.
The aves are about an inch long, and two-thirds as broad,
confpicuous for the filvery brilliancy of their under furface,
and rivalling fome of the moft beautiful Cape fhrubs in that
particular. The upper fide of the full-grown “eaves is
finally {mooth. Stipulas variable in fize, flat, ovate, entire,
filky. Footflalks rather thort. Catkins at firft feffile and
naked, appearing before the foliage, cylindrical, obtufe,
an inch long. Stamens two, yellow, {mooth. Scales songs
narrow at obtufe, hairy, tipped with black. tr avid
finally {mooth, on very long italks. Extremely different
from S. arenaria, n. 90, to which Linneus referred the fy-
nonym of Dillenius, and thus mifled Britifh writers.

99. S. recurvata. Drooping-flowered American Willow.
Purth n. ¢.— Leaves obovato-lanceolate, acute, {mooth,
entire ; Aes at the margin; glaucous beneath; the

oung ones filky. Stipulas none. Catkins before the
eae recurved, Germen ovate, filky, fomewhat ftalked,
the length of the hairs of the fcales. Style very fhort.
Stigmas divided.”’—In fhady woods, among the mountains
of New Jerfey and Pennfylvania, flowering in April. 7

ow

SALIX:

low pret branches brown, {mooth; buds yellow. . Scales
of the catkins tipped with black. Pur/h.

100. S. repens. Creeping Dwart Willow. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 1447. Willd. n. 81. Fi. Brit. n. 32. Engl. Bot.
t. 183. Purfhn. 6. faa deprefla; Hoffm. Sal. v. 1. 63.
t. 15, 16.)—Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, ftraight, fomewhat
pointed, nearly entire ; almoft naked above ; glaucous and
filky beneath. Germen ftalked, ovate, downy. Stem de-
preffed.—Found copioufly ov fandy heaths in Sweden, Ger-
many, France and Britain, flowering in March or April, two
or three weeks earlier than any other of our dwarf Willows.
Mr. Purfh faw fpecimens, in the Banktian herbarium,. from
Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, which he referred to this
fpecies. The fems are creeping, moltly proftrate and en-
tangled, fome of the flowering branches only being occa-
fionally upright. Leaves ufually quite entire, but we have
feen them {paringly toothed, in luxuriant garden {pecimens.
Stipulas none. Catkins before the leaves, fhort, obovate ;
their /cales obovate, reddifh, enveloped in long white hairs.
Stamens {mooth, with yellow anthers. Germen moderately
ftalked. Style the length of the blunt divided fligmas. Cap-
fale {mooth when ripe, its valves very much revolute. The
leaves vary in fize, and the whole plant is more or lefs brown,
according to its expofure. Willdenow refers Ehrhart’s
polymorpha, Arb. 49, to this fpecies; fee proffrata,
Nn. 105.

for. S. fufca. Brownifh Dwarf Willow. Linn. Sp.
Pl..1447. Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 299.t.8.f.r. Fl. Suec..ed. 2.
351. Willd. ».82. Fl. Brit.n. 31. Engl. Bot. t. 1960.
—Leaves elliptic-oblong, acute, ftraight, flat, with a few
ee an teeth ; glaucous and filky beneath. Footttalks

ender. Stem erect, much branched. Stipulas none,—
Native of moift mountainous heaths in Lapland, Sweden,
Germany, and the north of Britain, flowering in April or
May. ‘This differs from the laft in its upright, bufhy, not
creeping, flem; with copious dark branches, hoary when
young. The /eaves are more toothed, with rather longer
flalks. Buds large, ovate, red and fhining. Male catkins
ovate, fhort, and denfe, with dark-brown, hairy, obtufe
Seales. Neary ovate, brown. Anthers red before they burit.
We have never obtained certain fpecimens of the female
plant. Linnzus certainly confounded fome other fpecies
with this, which led him to defcribe the fem as creeping.

102. S. parvifolia. Small-leaved Dwarf Willow. Engl.
Bot. t. 1961. Ait. n. 43.—Leaves elliptical, nearly entire,
with recurved points; glaucous and filky beneath. Stem
decumbent. Stipulas ovate, entire. —Gathered by Mr.
Crowe at Eaft Winch, and Wrongay fen, Norfolk. After
having cultivated it for many years, we have no doubt of
the fpecies being perfeétly diftin&. Yet we have not received
from other parts of Europe any {pecimens agreeing here-
with. It flowers at the end of April, or beginning of
May. The /fem is much branched, entangled, decumbent,
with wand-like twigs, twelve or eighteen inches long, either
{preading obliquely, or procumbent, denfely clothed with
innumerable leaves, round, thickifh, hairy or filky. Leaves
fpreading or recurved, about half an inch long, broadly
elliptical, on very broad and fhort fla/ks; the margin flightly
revolute, either quite entire, and marked here and there
with a minute glandular tooth ; the upper furface of a dull
lightith green, paler than in either of the two laft, ad nearly
fmooth. Buds large, ovate, filky. Stipulas ufually prefent,
but fmall, hairy, tipped with a red gland. Female catkins
before the leaves, feffile, ovate, denfe, yellowifh. Germen
ovate, on alongifh ftalk, filky. Style very fhort. Cap/ule
nearly fmooth. Living f{pecimens of this plant, fhut up
for two or three daysin a tin box, acquire an intolerably fetid

fifh-like {cent, which we have obferved in no other Willow
except the following.

103. S. adjcendens. Afcending Dwarf Willow. Engl.
Bot. t. 1962. Ait. n. 44.—Leaves elliptic-oblong, fome-
what ferrated, with recurved points ; glaucous and filky be-
neath. Stem afcending. Stipulas ovate, ferrated.—Native
of moift heathy fandy places, in Norfolk and other parts
of England, flowering in May. About twice as large as
the laft, with lefs crowded /eaves, not fo ftrikin y recurved.
The flem is creeping and low, with long, ftraight, obliquely
afcending, twigs. Female catkins and flowers much like
the laft, and the {mell of the plant is fimilar. Male catkins
ovate, feflile, yellow ; their /cales edged with brown, and
fringed with hairs. i

104. S. Schraderiana. Schraderian Willow. Willd.
n. 83. (S. difcolor; Schrad. Hort. Gotting. MSS.) —
Leaves elliptical, acute, finely downy on both fides; glau-
cous beneath ; flightly ferrated towards the point. Stipulas
very {mall. Catkins rather before the leaves, ovate, hairy.
—Native of Germany. A much {touter more upright plant
than feveral of the preceding, approaching in habit, and
fize of leaves, to S. Croweana and bicolor ; fee n. 51 and 1g.
But the foliage is always more or lefs clothed, on both fides,
with filky hairs, and the two famens are diftin&. The
footflalks are flender, elongated, fometimes with two minute
Aes Ae Slipulas, or in their {tead a pair of glands, at the

afe. ‘

105. S. profrata. Prottrate Dwarf Willow. Fl. Brit.
n. 30. Engl. Bot. t. 1959. Willd. n. 84. © (S. poly-
morpha; Ehrh. Arb. 49 ?)—Leaves elliptical, acute, con-
vex, rarely toothed ; glaucous, rugged and filky beneath.
Stem proftrate. Branches elongated, ftraight. Germen
ftalked, ovate, filky. Style fhorter than the ftigmas.—
Native of Scotland, according to Mr. Dickfon, flowerin
in May or June. Mr. E; Forfter found the fame near Hig!
Beech, on Epping foreft ; and profeflor Willdenow men-
tions it as. growing alfo in Silefia. LEhrhart’s polymorpha
was gathered at Hanover; but this latt is confid as
doubtful, at Jeaft, if not certainly different ; fee n, 100.
‘The fems of our plant form an entangled mat, moft of the
branches being very long, tough, ftraight, and flender,
{preading very widely, clofe to the onal a few fhort ones
only ftanding ere&t. All are leafy, round, finely down
when young. eaves rather diftant, an inch long, aki
above, on fhortifh thick falés, accompanied by a pair of
glands, rarely two {mall /fipulas, as in the lait. Catkins
ovate, obtufe, denfe, filky; the parts of the female ones
much agreeing with parvifolia, adfcendens, &c.

106. S. hirfuta. Hairy Cape Willow. Thunb. Prodr. 6.
Fl. Cap. v. 1. 141. Willd. n. 85.—** Leaves entire, ovate,
pointed, without ftipulas, hairy on both fides. Stamens
five or fix. Gathered at the Cape of Good Hope by
Thunberg. A tree, fix feet high, with a rugged, purplifh,
{mooth bark. Branches ere&t, wand-like. Leaves on the
extreme fhoots, hardly an inch long, on very fhort ftalks,
obovate, obtufe with a point, clothed on both fides with
white hairs. Cat&ins cylindrical, fhorter than the leaves ;
their /eales woolly. Thunb.

107. S. pyrenaica. Pyrenean Willow. Gouan. Illuttr.
77, excluding the fynonyms. Willd. n. 86.—Leaves ellip-
tical, entire, acute at each end, reticulated with veins ;
glaucous beneath ; molt hairy at the margin. _Germen fome-
what ftalked, ovato-lanceolate, villous. Style the length of
the deeply divided ftigmas. Very plentiful on the Pyrenean
mountains, near perpetual {now. Gouan. We have a
{pecimen from himfelf, and another from M. de St. Amans 5
the latter named glauca; but we know not whether this ele-

gant

SALIX.

“gant naturalift has noticed it, as fuch, in any of his writings.
‘The flems are quite proftrate, branched, fmooth. Leaves
full an inch’ long, and nearly half an inch wide; bright
gréen and fhining above ; remarkably woolly about the
margin, which gives them a peculiar and charatteriltic afpe@.
‘When young they are very hairy all over. Foot/falks bread,
channelled, rather fhort, fmooth, yellowifh, without /ipulas.
Female catkins two inches long, flender, rather lax, on leafy
fialks. Scales linear-obovate, long, fringed with copious
long hairs. Germens extending rather beyond the feales,
clothed with fimilar hairs. Srigmas long, linear. This is
a diftin€ and well-marked fpecies, but Gouan has much
perplexed its fynonyms, and poffibly confounded different
things in his defeription, of which therefore we have made
no ufe in our’s. ,

108. S. incubacea. Trailing Willow. Linn. Sp. Pl.
1447. Fl. Suec. ed. 2.351. Willd. n. 89. Ait. n. 50.
(S. angtitifolia ; Wulf. in Jacq. Coll. v. 3. 48. S. pumila
anguftifolia prima; Cluf. Hift. v. 1. 85, 86. S. pumila
altera; Dod. Pempt. 844. Chamzitea, five Salix pumila ;
Ger. Em. 1391.)—Leaves lanceolate, poinied, ftraight,
fomewhat elliptical, entire, convex ; {mooth above; glau-
cous and filky beneath. Catkins oval, erect. Germen
‘ftalked, lanceolate, tapering, filky. Style the length of
‘the ftigmas.—Native of moift fandy ground in Germany,
Sweden, and Switzerland. This is one of the moft difficult
fpecies to underftand or define. Linnzus having defcribed
it with ovate acute /fipulas, not vifible in any fpecimens that
we could refer to incubacez, nor in his own herbarium, has
always caufed fome uncertainty in our opinion. His fpe-
cimen, moreover, though named and numbered by himfelf,
is not one of thofe authentic ones, either gathered in Sweden,
or deferibed in the firft edition of Sp. Pl. Willdenow
however, without any communication with us, underftands
the fpecies as we do, as appears by his referring to it Wulfen’s
angilflifolia, which we alfo have ever confidered as a narrow-
‘Teaved variety of the Linnzan incubacea. The leaves vary
indeed from a line to half an inch in width, and from an inch
to an inch and a half in length. They are ftraight; filvery
beneath when young, though far lefs fo than in argentea,
n. 98. The flems are moitly creeping and decumbent, but
this chara¢ter varies. Female catkins but half the length of
the males. Cap/fules light reddifh-brown, downy, taper-

inted. The reft of the charaéters may be found in our

boi definition. We have never met with an Englifh
pecimen of this Willow.
oe gta iar Rofemary-leaved Willow. Linn.
> - 1448. — FI. Suec. ed. 2. 352. Willd. n. go.
urfa n. 15. Fi. Brit. n. 33. Engl. Bot. t. 1365.
Ehbrh. Arb. 119. (S. pumila, rhamni fecundi Clufii folio ;
Dill. in Raii Syn. 447. S. humilis repens anguttifolia ;
Lob. Ic. v. 2. 137.)—Leaves lincar-lanceolate, pointed,
ftraight, entire ; ify beneath. Stem ereét. Stipulas
upright, flat. Catkins recurved. Germen {ftalked, lan-
ceolate, filky.—Native of moift fandy or turfy places, in
Sweden, Germany, and the northern parts of Britain,
flowering in April. Mr. Purhh, finding it likewife “in wet
‘meadows and mountain fwamps,’ from Pennfylvania to
Carolina,” prefumes that it has been imported from thence
‘nto England. Our fpecimens however accord exaétly with
the Finland ones of Linnzus, and the German one of
Ebrhart ; fo that it feems common to both quarters of the
world, The Jem forms an elegant buth, a yard high. The
heaves, fometimes accompanied by very confpicuous
Piper, iitinguifh it from moft, but the hort recurved fe-
€ are, as far as we know, abfolutely peculiar to
this fpecies, (the following one excepted,) as was firlt

pointed out in Engl. Bot. Willdenow jultly notices the
near relationfhip of this {pecies to the laft, which evinces
his knowledge of both ; but we do not find that difference
which he indicates in the length of their /fy/es.

110. S.fufcata. Sooty-branched Willow.- Purfh n. 16.
—* Leaves obovato-lanceolate, acute, fomewhat ferrated ;
glaucous beneath; downy when young. Stipulas minute.
Catkins drooping. Scales obtufe, fearcely hairy on the
infide. Germen fomewhat ftalked, ovate, filky. Stigmas
feffile, two-lobed.”—In low overflowed grounds, on the
banks of rivers, from New York to Pennfylvania, flowering
in Marchor April. Branches of the preceding year covered
with a dark brown, or black, tomentum. © Purfh. As the
adult /eaves are {aid to be {mooth, this {pecies ought perhaps
to have found a place in the firft feGion; but Mr. Purth
having inferted it next to rofmarinifolia, we have followed
his example, particularly on account of the drooping catkins.
We have feen no f{pecimen.

11. S. riparia. Mountain-river Willow. Willd. n. gr.
(S. rofmarinifolia ; Hoft. Syn. 529. S. viminalis ; Villars
Dauph. v. 3. 785.)—** Leaves linear-lanceolate, with fmall
glandular teeth; entire at the bafe; clothed with clofe-
prefled hairs above ; downy, and rugged with veins, beneath.
Germen ovate, {mooth.’’—Native of the fandy banks of
rivers, in the mountainous parts of Auftria, Hungary,
Dauphiny, and the Tyrol. The fynonyms depend on the
authority of Willdenow, who defcribes this {pecies as a
JSbrub, fix feet high, with dark brown dranches, downy when
young. Leaves two inches long, pointed ; green above,
with a hoarinefs from the depreffed hairs; {now-white be-
neath, like the footfalks. Stipulas obfolete. Catkins before
the leaves; the males yellow, an inch long ; females brown,
an inch andahalf. Svy/e fhort, divided. Stigmas brownifh-
purple, rather thick.

112. S. anguflifolia. Narrow-leaved Cafpian Willow.
Willd. n. 92. (8. cafpica; Pall. Rofl. v. 1. p. 2. 74?)
— Leaves linear, very narrow, without ftipulas, nearly en-
tire; ovate at the bafe; hoary above; filky beneath.”—
Native of the» country near the Cafpian fea. Branches
round, brown; filky when young. Leaves an inch and a
half or two inches long, hardly a hne broad ; fometimes fur-
nifhed with a few feattered very diftant glandular teeth ;
the upper fide hoary with deprefled hairs. Foot/a/ks dilated,
fmooth. Pallas’s plant is faid to be {mooth, otherwife his
defcription agrees exa€tly with the above. Willdenow.

113. Mg Ath-coloured American Willow. Willd.
n. 93. Purfh n. 30. (S. fericea ; Muhlenb. in Sims and
Kon. Ann. of Bot. v. 2. 67. t..5. f. 8.)—Leaves lanceo-
late, pointed, ferrated; fmooth above; glaucousand filky
beneath. Stipulas linear, deflexed, deciduous. Catkins
before the leaves. Scales hairy. Germen {talked, oblong,
filky. Stigmas nearly {effile. In low overflowed grounds,
from Pennfylvania to Virginia, flowering in April. About
eight feet high. Branches greenifh-purple, very brittle at
the bafe. Purfh. Leaves two inches and a half long ; three-
quarters of an inch wide; veiny, the rib downy on the
upper fide. Catkins naked, half an inch or more in length,
hairy, with black /eales. Anthers finally black.

114. S. ambigua. Ambiguous Hannoverian Willow.
Ehrh. Arb, 109. Willd. n. 94. — Leaves elliptical,
rounded at cach end, with a recurved point ; finely aoa
above ; denfcly filky, and veiny, beneath ; flightly ferrated
at the extremity. Stipulas half-heart-fhaped. Catkins
elliptical. — Native of Hanover. A fmall /brud, with
brown downy branches. Leaves about an inch long, rigid,
fomewhat revolute and thick-edyed, for the molt part entire,
oa Short, thick, downy flalks; the upper fide green, and

apparently

SALIX.

apparently {mooth, but proving on minute infpetion finely
downy ; the under clothed with fhaggy filky hairs. Buds
thick, two-edged. Stipulas rather {mall, toothed ; filky
beneath. Male catkins naked, yellow, hairy, above half an
inch long. ‘This feems to us very diftin& ; though akin to
the Sallow tribe.

115. S. /pathulata. Spatulate Willow. Willd. n. 95.—
“* Leaves lanceolate-obovate, with arecurved point ; ferrated
at the end ; clothed with depreffed hairs above; rugged,
veiny, and downy beneath. Stipulas lanceolate.’’— Native
of Germany. A /orub five feet high, with brown downy
branches. Leaves an inch or an inch and a half long, fome-
what fpatulate; of a hoary green above; covered with
hoary, or fomewhat filky, down beneath. Stipulas half the
length of the footflalks. Male catkins before the leaves,
cylindrical, halt an inch long. Willdenow.

116. S. uliginof2z. Bog Willow. Willd. Enum. 1007.
—** Leaves obovate, with a recurved point ; with wavy fer-
ratures at the end; green and downy above; hoary and
fhaggy, with rugged veins, beneath. Stipulas half-heart-
fhaped, toothed. Capfules lanceolate, ftalked. Stigmas
nearly feffile.’’—Native of marfhy fituations in Enrope.
s¢ This is ufually taken for a variety of the following, but
it differs in having a confiderably taller fm, with larger
leaves, whofe ferratures are undulated.””?—Willdenow, whofe
remarks wehere adopt, without havirig any means of judg-
ing for ourfelves, fays the {pecific chara@er he has given for
aurita, in his Sp. Pl., belongs to the prefent plant. In his
Enumeratio Hort. Berol. he defcribes aurita as only two feet
high. Hence we conjeéture that his x/iginofa may be our
aurita, and his aurita our variety 8 of the latter. In this
uncertainty we fhall defcribe that fpecies as we underfland
it, from long and repeated obfervations.

117- S. aurita. Round-eared, or Trailing, Sallow.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 1446. Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 303. t. 8. f. y.
Willd. n. 96. Enum. 1007? Fl. Brit. n. 35. Engl. Bot.
t. 1487. Ehrh. Arb. 39. Hoffm. Sal. v. 1. 3o. t. 22.
f. 1. (S. caprea3; Hudf. 430.)—8 S. caprea pumila,
folio fubrotundo, fubtus incano; Dill. in Raii Syn. 450.

Leaves fomewhat ferrated, obovate, obtufe, with a {mall
hooked point ; hairy and reticulated with veins on both
fides. Stipulas various. Stigmas nearly feffile—Abundant
in rather moift upland woods, and more efpecially in the
thickets or hedges of mountainous countries, in Britain and
other parts of Europe; flowering in April or May, when
the leaves are juft budding. This forub varies in height from
two to five feet, but is generally in all its parts about half
the fize of the following, and is readily known by the great
ruggednefs, convexity, and crifped borders of the ‘aves,
which are of a dull green, very hairy, but not hoary ; the
under fide paler, and flightly glaucous. The branches fhoot
horizontally amongft Si a bubhes, to a great extent, whence
the Norfolk name of Trailing Sallow, communicated by
Mr. Crowe. Stipulas often very large, concealing the foot-
Alalks, roundith, convex, cut and toothed. Catkins about an
inch long, nearly feffile, naked, elliptical, rather hairy.
Stamens two. Germen ftalked, ovate, or ovato-lanceolate,
with two thick feffile figmas, as ufual in the Sallows, which
agree too nearly in all the parts of fructification, except the
comparative fize of their catkins, to afford fpecific charac-
ters from thence. The variety, as we judge it, isa {mall,
lefs {preading, bufh, with blunt leaves, about half an inch,
or fomewhat more, in length.

118. S. aquatica. Water Sallow.
Engl. Bot. t. 1437. Willd. n.97. (S. capreaa; Hudf.
Angl. 429. S. cinerea; With. 54. Relh. Cantab. 387.
S. aurita; Hoffm, Sal. v. 1. t. 5. f. g.)—Leaves flightly

Fl. Brit. n. 36.

ferrated, obovate-elliptical, downy, flat ; rather glaucous
beneath. Stipulas rounded, toothed, ftigmas dearly feffile.
—Common in wet hedges and woods, about ponds and the
banks of rivers, in England and Germany, flowering in
April. It is larger than the lait, often rifing to a {mall
tree. The saves are larger, more pliant, and Ess rugged,
not fo flrongly ferrated ; their under fide glaucous ; both
fides more or lefs covered with fhort hairs or down, often
rufty. Catkins almott twice the fize of aurita, nearly cylin-
drical, with brown-tipped hairy /ca/es, as in that, ee the
parts of fruétification nearly fimilar. Mr. Dillwyn and
Mr. J. Woods have found, near London, a ftrangely meta-
morphofed variety, in whofe female catkins the ftalks of
fome of the germens are yrcatly elongated, and fuch ger-
mens themfelves diminifhed into bodies that look like anthers.
Some of them bear aétual anthers. Could it be fuch a mon-
{ter as this which caufed the idea alluded to by Linnzus,
(after the generic charaéter,) of Willows having been thought
to change their fexes? We have never examined pe a
f{pecimen in a living {tate, nor do we pretend to under-
{tand it. :

119. S. oleifolia. Olive-leaved Willow. Fl. Brit. n. 37.
Engl. Bot. t. 1402. Willd. n. 98.—lLeaves obovato-lan-
ceolate, flat, rather rigid, minutely indented, aeute ; under-
neath glaucous and hairy. Stipulas fmall, notched. Cat-
kins elliptical —Common in hedges and coppices in Norfolk,
and other parts of Britain, flowering in March, being one
of the earlieft of our native Willows. We cannot clearly
refer to this any fynonyms of authors; moft botanilts
having, as we conceive, negleéted it as a form of the Common
Sallow, S.caprea. Thefe two fpecies indeed agree, as they
differ from all others of Britifh growth, in the great fize of
their fower-buds and catkins, by which they may always be
known. The catkins of the oleifolia are an inch and a half
long, and very thick, quite oval; their duds twice as thick as
thofe of aquatica. But the /eaves of the f{pecies before us
differ totally from the round, pliant, ftrongly ferrated, |
downy foliage of the caprea, being ere&t, rigid or coriaceous,
oblong, and rather rufty or hairy than downy. Stipulas
rounded, vaulted or reflexed, often cloven.

120. S. cotinifolia. Quince-leaved Willow. FI. Brit.
n. 38. Engl. Bot.t.1403. Willd. n.gg. (S. fpadicea ;
Villars Dauph. v. 3. 777, from the author.)—Leaves ellip-
tical, almoft circular, flightly toothed ; downy, with reétan-
gular veins, beneath. Style as long as the notched ttig-
mas.—Found by Mr. Dickfon in the north ; by Mr. Crowe
in Norfelk ; and by M. Villars in Dauphiny. It flowers in
April, and is very remarkable for its round /eaves, much re-
fembling thofe of a quince-tree. The /fem is from three’
to fix or eight feet high, with {preading, finely downy, vel-
vety branches. Leaves on thick hairy falls, {preading, thick
and firm, nearly an inch and a half long, flat, fight
though regularly toothed, tipped with a {mall point ; dull
green above, with little, flat, fcattered hairs ; pale or glaucous
and downy beneath. They aflume a lead-coloured hue in
drying. Stipulas {mall, rounded. Female catkins about half
an inch long, ovate, with fhort, blunt, black, hairy /ea/es.
Neéary fhort, obtufe. Germen on a fhort ftalk, ovate,
downy. Style and /ligmas very different from the true Sallows,
the /ligmas being linear, with a blunt notched termination,
and the /ly/e equal to them in length.

121. S. hirta. Hairy-branched Willow. Engl. Bot.
t. 1404. Willd.n. 87. Ait. n. 48.—Leaves elliptic-heart-
fhaped, pointed, finely notched, downy on both fides. Stipulas
half-heart-fhaped, flat, toothed, nearly fmooth. Branc (
hairy.—Found by Mr. Crowe in Norfolk. A {mall tree, blof
foming in April, or early in May, moft allied to the two Taft

fpecies.

SALIX.

fpecies. The branches are thick, remarkably hairy, with
crowded, prominent, horizontal, not depreffed, pubefcence.
Leaves two incheslong, of a broad, elliptical form, tipped
with a {mali point; their bafe more or lefs heart-fhaped,
being ufually cut away, as it were, up to the firft pair of
tranfverfe veins. The edges are furnifhed with numerous
fhallow notches, rather than teeth or ferratures; the upper
fide is of adullifh green; the under pale or glaucous, with a
very hairy rib, and fine downy veins. FF votpialks rather long
and ftout, very hairy. Stipulas large, rounded, nearly
fmooth, ftrongly contrafted, in this laft refpeét, with the
rough branches. We have feen male catkins only, which are
yellowith, feffile, an inch or more in length, coming before
the foliage, and compofed of blackifh, lanceolate, hairy
feales. Ne@ary pitcher-fhaped. Stamens two, diftin&, {mooth,
{welling upwards, twice the length of the fcales. The
eaves turn very black in drying.

122. S. rupefris. Silky Rock Willow. Donn. Cant.
ed. 5. 231. Engl. Bot. t. 2342.—Leaves obovate, ferrated,
fiat, even, filky on both fides. Stipulas hairy. Branches
minutely downy. Germen ftalked, awl-fhaped, filky.
Style as long as the undivided ftigmas.—Gathered by Mr.
W. Borrer, on the rocks of Craig Challoch and Mael
Ghyrdy in the highlands of Scotland. We have it alfo
from Mr. G. Anderfon. This is a trailing or depreifed
Jirub, and, as far as we are able to judge, very diftinét
from allthe foregoing. It flowers in April. The branches
are covered with fimilar pubefcence tothofe of S. Airta, but
finer and fhorter. The whole p/ant turns black, like that
fpecies, indrying. The /eaves are about an inch long, acute
at each end, veiny, but not wrinkled, with fine fhallow fer-
ratures; their under fide efpecially filky, and rather glau-
cous. Stipulas {mall, ovate, acute, hairy, often wanting.
Catkins ovate and thick, hardly an inch long, accompanied
by {mall ieaves, which are very {mooth on their upper fur-
face; the female ones foon elongated and cylindrical.
Scales obovate, hairy ; their upper half black. Stamens
two, thread-fhaped, {mooth. Ne@ary papillary. Style
cloven, at leait as long as the thick undivided fligmas.

123. S. Anderfoniana. Green Mountain Sallow. Engl.
Bot. t. 2343.—Leaves elliptic-oblong, acute, finely notched,
lightly downy ; paler beneath. Stipulas half-ovate, nearly
fmooth. Branches minutely downy. Germen ftalked,
fmooth. Style as long as the cloven ftigmas.—Found in
Breadalbane, and various other parts of Scotland, flowering
in May. We are obliged to the liberal and intelligent
friend, with whofe name we have infcribed this {pecies, for
living {pecimens. It forms a confiderable bu/h, or {mall tree.
The branéhes, green the firft year, are afterwards of a footy
brown: at “ue times clothed with denfe, fhort, curved
down. Leaves on fhortifh down fialks, an inch, or inch
and half, long, flat, of a bright pleafant grafs-green,
more or lefs downy on both fides, efpecially the mb and
veins, with fhort hairs ; the very young onesfilky. Stipulas
{mall, toothed, at length vaulted. Female catkins (we are
unacquainted with the male) fhort, ovate, with entirely
black hairy feales ; the floral leaves almoft as long as the
cathin; ner does the length of the latter, even when dif-
charging ite feeds, much exceed an inch. Germen on a
longith {mooth ftalk, ovate, taper-pointed, round, quite
fmooth and naked, a very rare circumftance among the
tribe of Salices, to which this {pecies is moft nearly x wry
jan awl-thaped, divided half way down, as are alfo the

igmas.
124. 8. Forfleriana. Glaucous Mountain Sallow. Engl,
+ t. 2344.—Leaves elliptic-obovate, acute, notched,
ly i le glaucous beneath, Stipulas vaulted,
ol. XXXII,

Branches minutely downy. Germen ftalked, filky. Style
longer than the thick undivided ftigmas.—Not rare in Scot-
land, from whence Mr. Forfter of Clapton long ago cb-
tained it, and fupplied us with {pecimens as well as livin
plants; by repeated attention to which we have quite Gee
fied ourfelves of the diftinétnefs of the fpecies. It flowers
in April or May, and is a larger /brud than the laft, with
larger firmer ‘eaves, though fhining above, and glaucous be-
neath ; in drying they aflume a purplifh-black tint. Their
pubefcence is extremely flight, except on the midrib and
footftalks, where it is denfe, though very fhort. Svipular
toothed, rather hairy. Female catkins an inch long when in
bloffom, afterwards twice as much, but their floral leaves do
not exceed thofe of the laft. Germen ovate, tapering, with
a longifh {mooth flyle, reprefented rather too fhort in Engl.
Bot.

125. S. /phacelata. Withered-pointed Willow, or Sallow.
Fl. Brit. n. 39. Engl. Bot. t. 2333. Willd. n. 100. Ait.
n.56. (S. lanata; Lightf. Scot. 602. S. caprez varietas 5
Hoffm. Sal. v. 1. 28.t. 5. f. 4. t. 21. f. d.)—Leaves entire,
elliptical, acute, even ; downy on both fides ; fomewhat
withered at the point. Stipulas obfolete. Germen lanceo-
late, filky, on a long hairy ftalk. Stigmas nearly feffile.—
Native of the mountains of Scotland; and, according to
Willdenow, of Carinthia. We have, moreover, fpecimens.

athered by the late Mr. Davall, in the road from Orbe, in
Saitzeckind, to Montcherand. Linnzus had this plant in
his herbarium; we know not from whence, confounded with
S.caprea. From that fpecies it, neverthelefs, eflentially dif
fers, being lefs arboreous ; its aves but one and a half, or
tavo inches, long, almoft always perfetly entire, thin and
delicate, not at all rugofe; their points often remarkably
blafted, as it were; their upper furface finally becoming
{mooth towards the end: Stipulas {mall or none. Catkins
cylindrical and elongated ; not fhort, thick andtumid. Nec-
tary ftalked, comprefled. Germen regularly tapering up-
ward, at length nearly fmooth. Stigmas undivided, or
flightly notched. This feems to be rather a mountain fpe-
cies, flowering in April or May. We have never feen it

living.

126. S. caprea. Great Round-leaved Sallow. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 1448, a. Willd. n. 101. Fi. Brit. n. 40. Engl.
Bot. t. 1488. Hoffm. Sal. v. 1. 25. t. 3. f. 1, 2. te 21.
f. a, b, c. Ehrh. Arb. 98.—Leaves ovate, pointed, fer-
rated, waved; downy beneath. Stipulas fomewhat crefcent-
fhaped. Germen ovate, downy, on a long hairy ftalk.
Stigmas undivided, nearly feflile, Common throughout
Europe, in rather dry than wet hedges, thickets and groyes,
bloffoming in April, before the leaves unfold. This {pecies
grows to the fize of a moderate tree, with fpreading, brown
or purplifh, minutely downy ranches. Leaves two or three
it long, and half as broad, acute, with wavy ferratures ;
their under fide rugofe, and white, with cottony down.
Catkins thicker and ante than thofe of any other Britifh
willow, except perhaps oleifolia; the males yellow, fra-
grant after rain, abounding with honey, as Hoffmann re+
marks. Scales brown, hairy. Germen on a long ttalk.
Capfule turgid. The wood and branches of this tree are
particularly ufeful for making hurdles. The dard is bitter
and aftringent, fuppofed to poffefs a portion of the virtues
of Peruvian bark ; and certainly good for tanning,

127. S. chryfanthos, Golden-Howered Norway Willow.
Fl, Dan. t. 1057, Willd, n. 102.—Leaves elliptical, acute
at each end, entire, downy on both fides, Stipulas ovate,
entire, Style divided to the bafe.—Native of Finmark, aa
well as of the Norway alps. The branches appear by the
Flora Danica, all we have to guide us, to be thick and

Dd crooked;

SALIX.

crooked ; /caves near three inches long, quite entire, hoary
and downy. Male and female catkins thick, an inch and
half long, their fales clothed with long, fhining, golden-
coloured hairs. Stamens two, tawny. Germen nearly fef-
file, cylindrical. Sty/g much longer than the divided /figmas,
and very remarkable, if correétly delineated, for being itfelf
divided to the very bafe.

128. S. fagifolia. Beech-leaved Willow. ‘ Waldft. and
Kitaib. Pl. Rar. Hung.”? Willd. n. 103.—* Leaves ovate-
elliptical, with a glandular point, ferrated ; entire at the
bafe ; fmooth above; hairy at the veins beneath.—Native
of the Croatian alps.— Branches brown; downy when young.
Leaves an inch and half long; dark green above; pale,
and reticulated with hairy veins, beneath; the whole under
fidé hairy when young. Svipulas kidney-fhaped, with glan-
dular teeth. Catkins not obferved. Willdenow.

129. S. acuminata. Long-leaved Sallovwr. Mill. Did.
ed. 8. n. 14. Fl. Brit. n. 41. Engl. Bot. t.1434. Willd.
m. 104. Hoffm. Sal. v. 1. 39. t. 6. f. 1,2. (S. caprea
latifolia; Ger. Em. 1390.)—Leaves lanceolate-oblong,
pointed, waved, flightly toothed ; downy beneath. Stipulas
kidney-fhaped. Germen ovate, filky. Style the length of
the linear ftigmas.—Native of woods and hedges in England
and Germany, preferring a rather moifter fituation than S.
caprea, of which it was formerly thought a variety, though
they are doubtlefs as diftin& as moft {pecies of any genus
whatever. S. acuminata is a tree of confiderable fize,
flowering early in April. Branches downy when young.
Leaves ttalked, three or four inches long, lanceolate, acute,
often dilated a little above the middle ; the margin varioufly
waved, with fhallow ferratures, moft copious towards the
point ; the {maller the /aves, the more they are commonly
undulated or rugofe; the upper furface is fmooth and
green ; the under finely and clofely downy, with parallel,
curved, often reddifh, veins. Stipulas half-ovate when young ;
afterwards curved and kidney-fhaped, toothed. Catkins
longer, and not half fo thick, as in caprea. Scales brown,
hairy, fometimes obtufe. Stamens two, yellow. Ne@ary
oblong, abrupt. Germen on a long ftalk. We have two
varieties, one a larger, more freely growing, tree than the
other, with much larger and lefs crumpled, /eaves, but we
could never afcertain a corre&t fpecific difference between
them.
130. S. conifera. Cone-bearing Willow. ‘‘ Wangenh.
Amer. 123. t. 31. f. 72.” Willd. n. 105, Arb. 347.
Muhlenb. in Sims and Kon. Ann. of Bot. v. 2. 67. Purth
n. 17. (S. longiroftris; Michaux Boreali-Amer. v. 2. 226.)
—* Leaves oblong-lanceolate, acute, diftantly ferrated ;
fmooth above ; flat and downy beneath. Stipulas lunate,
fomewhat toothed. Germen ftalked, lanceolate, filky.~ Style
elongated, divided. Stigmas deeply cloven.””—In fhady
woods, on a gravelly dry foil, from New York to Carolina,
flowering in April. The cone-like excrefcence at the ends
of the branches, occafioned by an infeét, is not unfrequent
alfo on §. prinoides and other {pecies. Purfh. The branches
are brown; downy when young. Leaves with minute,
fharp, diftant ferratures; entire at the bafe; dark green
above ; flat, not rugged with veins, beneath, and late in
autumn becoming almoft fmooth on that fide likewife.
Footfalks long. Stipulas of a middle fize, fometimes entire.
Cathins before the leaves, with lanceolate, extremely villous,
Seales. Stigmas four, cylindrical. Willdenow.

131. S. brio Blunt-leaved Lapland Willow. Willd.
n. 106. (S. foliis oblongis, fubtis villofis; inferioribus
crenatis; fuperioribus integris ; Linn. Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 301.
t.8.f.u. S.capreaf; Sp. Pl. 1448. S&S. olee fylvettris
folio, alpina; Rudb. Lapp. 99.)—Leaves oblong-lanceo-

2

late; wedge-fhaped at the bafe; finely villous on both
fides ; glaucous beneath ; the upper ones acute and entire ;
the lower bluntifh, diftantly toothed.—Frequent in the
woods and on the mountains of Lapland. Linneus. A
flender /brub, not unfrequently arborefcent. Young branches
flender, clothed with long filky down. Leaves rather
more than two inches long, three-quarters of an inch wide;
green, fhining, flightly downy, above, with many curved
parallel veins ; glaucous, not more downy, beneath. Foot-
flalks downy. i is very remarkable, that, contrary to the
nature of moft Willows, the lower blunter aves of each
branch are furnifhed with minute diftant teeth, or thallow
ferratures ; while the upper and pointed ones are quite
entire. No good botanift ever made a greater miltake
than Dillenius, when on infpe&ting the plates of the Fl.
Lapponica, before publication, he took the leaf of this
{pecies for that of S. Helix, and thought the teeth were
hairs. The writer of the prefent article, in his edition of
the laft-mentioned work, perceived, by the original Lapland
{fpecimen, that this was a diftiné fpecies from caprea, and
on this ground Willdenow, though without mentioning
him, has adopted and named it as above.—Except the
prs of the /eaves, it comes nearer to S. /apponum than any
other.

132. S. cinerafcens. Afhy Portuguefe Willow. Link.
MSS.” Willd. n. 107.—‘ Leaves oblong-obovate, pointed,
ferrated ; hoary with downbeneath. Capfules ftalked, lan-
ceolate, downy. Stigmas feflile.”,—Native of marfhes in
Portugal. Branches round, brown; downy when young.
Leaves two inches or more in length; green and flightly
downy, finally almoft naked, and fhining, above ; reticulated
with veins beneath. Male catkins four lines in length;
female half an inch. Scales oblong, villous. Stigmas
broadifh, cloven. Stipulas large, lunate, toothed. Will-
denow.

133. S. pedicellata. Stalked Barbary Sallow. Desfont.
Atlant. v. 2. 362. Willd. n. 108.—* Leaves lanceolate,
rugofe; downy beneath. Capfules ftalked, fmooth.”—
Found about rivers at Sbiba, in the kingdom of Tunis.
Akin to S. caprea. Leaves obovate-oblong ; rugofe and
naked on the upper fide; grey and downy beneath. Stalk
of the capfule about one line and a half long. Desfentaines.
Smoothnefs of the cap/ule is fo rare in the ilies of S. caprea,
that we cannot doubt the diftinétnefs of this {pecies.

134. S. viminalis. Common Ofier. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1448.
Willd. n.10g.. Purfhn.1. Fl. Brit. n. 44 Engl. Bot.
t. 1898. Hoffm. Sal. v. 1. 22. t. 2. f. 15 2. te 5. fe 2
t. 21. f. ef; g- Ehrh. Arb. 69 ?—Leaves linear, inclining
to lanceolate, very long, pointed, entire, fomewhat wavy ;
filky beneath. Branches ftraight and flender. Germen
feffile. Style as long as the undivided linear ftigmas.—
Native of the banks of rivers, and marfhy pools, in the
north of Europe, flowering in April or May, before the
leaves come out. This fpecies is beft known in its culti-
vated ftate, being valuable for its ample produce of very
long ftraight, flender, tough and flexible, filky branches.
When allowed to grow, it forms a confiderable tree. The
leaves are longer than in any other fpecies, meafurin
from fix to eight inches, though only about half an ine
wide ; their upper furface is green, {mooth and fhining;
the under beautifully filvery. Foot/lalkés half an inch long.
Stipulas {mall, linear-lanceolate, fometimes toothed, often
wanting. Catkins from diftin& buds, cylindrical, feffile.
Scales rounded, brown, hairy. Neary ovate. Stamens
diftin&, {mooth. Germen ovato-lanceolate. Style project-
ing much beyond the hairs of the feales. Stigmas about
the length of the ityle, linear, acute, undivided, as =

efiaes

EE

i ae

SALIX.

defines them, and as they are reprefented in Engl. Bot. as
well as in Hoffmann. So likewife we find them on an
authentic fpecimen from Gottingen, whofe capfules are,
neverthelefs, nearly ripe. But on Ehrhart’s own f{pecimen,
Arb. n. 69, in full flower, the figmas, equally linear, are all
divided nearly to the bafe. We are unable to folve this
difficulty. Ehrhart’s muit furely be another {pecies ;_per-
haps the Velvet Ofier, much talked of, but concerning
which we could never obtain any certain information. Mr.
Crowe at firft received under that name S. mollifima, FI.
Brit. n. 43, which proved indeed anfwerable to the name
in the foftnefs of its foliage, but totally worthlefs as an
Qfier. He fubfequently acquired from fome ofier-ground,
as the true Velvet Ofier, what none of us could diftinguifh,
either in appearance, charaCters, or quality, from the com-
mon kind. See our account of the following fpecies.

135. S. mollifima. Silky-leaved Willow. Ehrh. Beitr.
v.6. ror. Arb. 79. Willd. n. 110? Hoffm. Germ. 343.
Fl. Brit. n. 43. Engl. Bot. t. 1509. (S. Smithiana ;
Willd. Enum. 1008.)—Leaves lanceolate, pointed, obfo-
letely crenate ; whitifh and filky beneath. Stipulas cref-
cent-fhaped, minute. Stigmas linear, deeply divided, about
the length of the ityle.—Native of Hanover, and we pre-
fume of England. Mr. Crewe obtained it from an ofier-
ground near Bury, Suffolk, by the name of Velvet Ofer,
as above-mentioned, but it proved deficient in every ufeful
property. This fpecies flowers in April or May, before
the leaves appear. The dranches are ere&t, wand-like, red-
difh; downy when young. Leaves on fhortifh downy
ftalks, three or four inches long, fomewhat rounded at the
bafe, thin and pliable; green and fmooth, or minutely
downy, above; filky and very foft beneath, with a ftrong
reddifh rib, and curved veins; the margin very flightly
or diftantly crenate ; fometimes minutely toothed. Stipulas
narrow, hairy, toothed. Female catkins on fhort ftalks,
accompanied by a few lanceolate filky floral leaves, cylin-
drical, from an inch to an inch and half long. Hairs of
the /cales extending as far as the bafe of the /fyle, which is
rather fhort, with linear deeply divided fligmas. The cat-
fins in Ebrhart’s own fpecimen, as eelliss in another
from the late Dr. Noehden, are more lax and hairy than
in our’s, and their ffy/es are full as long as the ffigmas,
which our’s are not. In both the fligmas are deeply
divided, often to the very bafe, though Ehrhart defines his
as undivided. Here therefore the fame difficulty occurs as
in his viminalis. How are thefe things to be reconciled ?
Willdenow, after firlt referring our Englifh mollifima to
his own holofericea, fee n. 137, has in his Enumeratio made
it a diftin& {pecies, by the name of Smithiana. We have not
as yet found certain grounds for changing our original
opinion, nor do we dare to decide this point, without com-
paring living {pecimens, in various {tages of growth.

136. S. flipularis. Auricled Ofier. FI. Brit. n. 42.
Engl. Bot. t. 1214. Willd. n. 111.—Leaves lanceolate,
aw obfeurely crenate ; downy beneath. Stipulas half-

-haped, very large. Neétary cylindrical. Stigmas
linear, undivided, longer than the fhyleina Native of Suf-
folk. Mr. Crowe met with it in ofier-grounds near Bury,
where it was nearly an ufelefs intruder. This bloffoms in
March, before almoft every other Willow. The flem is
fomewhat arborefcent, with long, ere&t, brown, foft and
downy branches. Leaves about five or fix inches in length,
and one in breadth, rounded at the bafe ; green and {mooth
above ; white beneath, with a pale rib, and many curved
parallel veins. Stipulas very remarkable, ftalked, pointed,
wavy, toothed or cut at the bafe, often an inch lony. Cat-

Mins large, thick, hairy. Neary long and fender, Stamens

diftin&. Germen ovate, downy, not quite feffile. Stigmas
remarkably long and {preading. A diitin@ {pecies, whofe
large coarfe habit, and great /fipulas, mark it ftrongly. We
have, from our late highly valued friend Dr. Noehden, a
Hannoverian {pecimen marked §. velutina of Ehrhart, a
name of which we find no traces. This agrees very nearly
with our /fipularis, and indeed feems to be the fame.

137. S. holofericea. Downy Ofier. Willd. n. 112, ex-
cluding the fynonym.—* Leaves lanceolate, pointed ; finely
toothed in the upper part; {moothifh above; rugged with
veins, and very foftly downy, beneath. Capfules lanceo-
late, downy. Stigmas feffile, ovate, obtufe.’’—Native of
Germany, about the banks of the Danube. Branches
brown; downy when young. Leaves two or three inches
long, minutely toothed from the middle to the fummit.
Footftalks downy, dilated at the bafe Stipules {mall, lunate,
toothed. Female catkins before the leaves, an inch long.
Germen lanceolate, villous or downy. Stigmas two, ovate,
(we prefume undivided). Wéalldenow. This mutt be abun-
dantly different from our molli/fima.

138. S. candida. Cotton Willow. Willd. n. 113.
Purfh n. 2.. (S. tomentofa; Schrad. Hort. Gotting.
MSS.)—Leaves linear-lanceolate, pointed, revolute, ob-
{curely toothed ; downy above; fnow-white and cotteny
beneath. Stipulas lanceolate, about the length of the foot-
ftalk. Scales of the catkins with hairs as a as the fta-
mens.—Native of dry fhady woods, from New York to
Pennfylvania, flowering in April or May. Pur/h. With
us it fowers in March, or even February. We have long
cultivated this fpecies, and find it next akin to ffipularis,
though undoubtedly diftinét. The /fem is bufhy, about a
yard high. eaves long, narrow, very cottony and white,
as are the young branches. Male catkins an inch long, their
yellowifh flamens not extending beyond the filky itraight
hairs of the /cales. Sometimes the /eaves are nearly naked
above, and then appear of a deep green.

139. S. Fliggeana. Fluggean Willow. Willd. n. 114.
(S. oleefolia; Villars Dauph. v. 3. 784. t. 51. f 28.)—
‘* Leaves, oblong-lanceolate, acute at each end, nearly en-
tire, without ftipulas; {moothifh above; downy beneath.
Germen ovato-lanceolate, filky.”?—Native of woods in
Dauphiny. Villars fays it ferves as a ftock for grafting: §.
vitellina wpon, a purpofe which appears altogether fuper-
fluous, for the witellina, like every other Salix, grows from
cuttings, withcut any uncertainty. The runt is ten or
twelve feet high. eaves an inch, or inch and half, long,
fomewhat revolute. Branches very brittle. We have feen
no {pecimen.

140. S. alba. Common White Willow. Linn. Sp. Pl.
1449. Willd. n. 116. Purfh n. 32. Fi. Brit. n. 45.
Engl. Bot. t. 2430. Hoffm. Sal. v. 1. q1. t. 7, 8. © (Sa-
lix ; Camer. Epit. 107. Ger. Em. 1389.)—Leaves ellip-
tic-lanceolate, acute, ferrated, permanently filky on both
fides; the loweft ferratures glandular. Stamens hairy.
Stigmas deeply cloven.—Native of low wet commons, and
about the banks of rivers, in moft parts of Europe, from
whence, according to Mr. Purfh, it was carried to America.
It blofioms in May, and rifes gradually to a tall tree, with
a thick dark, full of fiffures, good for tanning, as well as a
remedy for agues, The branches are {preading, and in
fome degree drooping ; filky when young. Leaves filvery
and grey, with clofe-prefled filky hairs, moft abundant on
the under fide, and permanent on both. Stipulas roundifh
or oblong, fmall, often wanting. Male catkins yellow, with
oblong, rather see i Seales, and a double nedary. Stamens
hairy below; female catkins green. Germen ovate, fellile,
{mooth. Stigmas {preading, with a very fhort //yle.

Ddz 141. S.

SALIX.

141. S. carulea. Blue Willow. Engl. Bot. t. 2431.
Ait. n. 64. (S. albz varietas; Fl. Brit. 1072.)—Leaves
lanceolate, taper-pointed, ferrated ; the under fide at length
almoft naked; the loweft ferratures glandular. Stigmas
deeply cloven.—Native of Suffolk, and probably other
parts of England, flowering in May. Mr. Crowe was of
opinion that this is the S. alba of moit perfons, efpecially in
the north of England, as their fragilis is our Ruffelliana.
We have long been anxious to find a fpecific diftinétion be-
tween this valuable tree and the common a/ba, but ‘have
only to offer the deciduous nature of the filky hairs that
clothe the under fide of the /eaves ; which very circumftance
may arife from the more rapid growth or dilatation of the
foliage. The flipulas are very variable. The /eaves are
confpicuous for a more blue colour than the a/ba, and the
whole free is handfomer. Its rapidity of growth is beyond
all comparifon with a/ba, and exceeds even that of os
fiana, n. 39. A cutting planted by Mr. Browne at Hether-
fet, near Norwich, became in ten years a tree thirty-five
feet high, and five feet two inches in girth; having been
blown down at that age in 1800. The wood and bark are
at leaft equal in value to thofe ofthe laft, of which, if not
a fpecies of itfelf, the Blue Willow muft be deemed a moft
important variety.

For S. Gmehniana, Willd. n. 115, fee ferotina, n. 83,
which is the very fame plant.

We have thus increafed Willdenow’s lft of fpecies from
116 to 141, though we have found it neceflary to difcard a
few of his number. If any fhould ftill prove hereafter to
be defcribed twice over, thofe who are beft qualified to
judge, will be the leaft ready to cenfure us, for any fuch
errors, in fo intricate a fubject of inquiry. S.

Saxrx, in Gardening, contains plants of the deciduous
tree aquatic kind, of which the fpecies cultivated are, the
long-leaved three-ttamened willow (S. triandra); the bay-
leaved willow (S. pentandra); the broad-leaved three-
ftamened willow (S. amygdalina); the yellow willow (S.
vitellina) ; the halberd-leaved willow (S. ha{tata); the crack
willow (S. fragilis); the weeping willow (S. babylonica) ;
the bitter purple willow (S. purpurea); the rofe willow (S.
helix); the bafket ofier (S. fila); the green ofier (S. rubra) ;
the round-leaved fallow (S. caprea); the cinereous-leaved
fallow (S. cinerea); the white willow(S. alb2); and the ofier
(S. viminalis).

The firft fort may be admitted into ornamental plant-
ations, the male catkins being very numerous, of a bright
yellow colour, and of an agreeable fcent. The male tree
fhould, on this account, be preferred for ornament, and alfo
becaufe the females quickly fhed their catkins, and make a
litter. Mr. Curtis alfo remarks, that it is not ufual for
willows to flower both in fpring and autumn; but he has
frequently found this f{pecies to do fo. It is alfo very ufeful
for bafket-makers.

In the third fort, the fhoots are ufed by bafket-makers ;
the wood is white and very tough. The cotton will make
ordinary paper, and may ferve fome of the purpofes of
genuine cotton; the bark may be ufed in dyeing, and medi-
cinally in agues.

In regard to the feventh fert, the editor of Miller’s Dic-
tionary remarks, that in N° 6817, Aug. 25 to 27, 1801,
of the St. James’s Chronicle, there was the following para-
graph, but on what authority he is not acquainted: «* The
amous and admired weeping willow, planted by Pope,
which has lately been felled to the ground, came from Spain,
inclofing a prefent to the late lady Suffolk. Mr. Pope was
in company when the covering was taken off: he obferved

that the pieces of {tick appeared as if they had fome vegeta-

tion; and added, perhaps they may produce fomething we
have not in England. Under this idea he planted one of
them in his garden, and it produced the willow tree, that
has given birth to fo many others.”

"The tenth fort with us is cultivated in the fens, and pre-
ferred to all other willows or ofiers for bafket-work.

Of the fifteenth fort there is a vaft number of varieties
in cultivation, for the ufes of the bafket-maker. Evelyn
has enumerated three vulgar forts: one of little worth, bein
brittle, and very much refembliag the fallow, with reddi
twigs, and more greenifh and rounder leaves; a fecond,
called perch, of limber and green twigs, having a very flender
leaf; the third totally like the fecond, only the twigs not
altogether fo green, but yellowifh. This is the very beft,
he fays, for ufe, tough and hardy. The moft ufual names
applied to them by bafket-makers about London are the
hard gelfter, the horfe gelfter, whyning or fhrivelled geliter,
black gelfter, in which Suffolk abounds; then the gold-
ftones, the hard and foft, brittle and worft of all the gold-
{tones ; the fharp and flender-topped yellow goldftone ; the
fine goldftone ; then there is the yellow ofier, the green
ofier, the {nake or fpeckled ofier, fwallow-tail, and Spaniard..
To thefe, the editor of Miller’s Dictionary fays, may be
added the Flanders willow, which will arrive to be a lar,
tree: with thefe coopers tie their hoops, to keep them bent.
Laftly, the white fwallow, ufed for green work ; and if of
the tougheft fort, to make quarter can-hoops. It is fur-
ther fuggefted, that innumerable varieties are cultivated in
the ofier-grounds, for the bafket-makers; and the fame fre-
quently under different names, in different places, fo that it
would be difficult, and of little ufe, to enumerate them ;
but that the Dutch and wire ofiers are efteemed about
London. The true velvet ofier, which is a valuable fort,
has, it is faid, been made out to be diftin& from the qvi-
minalis. .

Method of Culture.—All the plants are capable of being
readily increafed by cuttings of the young fhoots of one or
two years old, in lengths of half a yard, or two or three
feet ; and thofe of feveral years’ growth, in truncheons or
fets, of from three or four to five or fix feet long, according
to the purpofes for which they are defigned, which ftrike
root mott readily in low moift foils. The proper feafon for
planting them out is any time in open weather, from the
beginning of autumn till March; but the early autumn and
{pring months are the belt, according as the foil may be
more moift. In the planting, a long iron-fhod dibble is
ufed for the fmaller cuttings, and an iron crow for making
holes for the larger fets, or holes may be made with a fpade
for very large long pole-cuttings; though fome ufe no in-
ftrument in planting the fmaller cuttings, but fharpen the
ends of them, and thruft them into the ground, efpecially
in foft land. But as this method is apt to force off the
bark from the lower part of the cutting, it is beft to cut the
bottom of each cutting even, and plant them with fome in-
ftrument in the above manner. Thefe fets are planted for
different purpofes; as for ornament, for timber trees, to
form ofier-grounds, to cut for poles, for pollards for lop-
ping, &c.

In cafes where they are intended to be raifed for timber,
the large growin eed fuch as the white-yellow, and
purple, or red willows, &c. fhould be chofen, taking cut-
tings of the flrong young fhoots, which fhould be planted
at once where they are to remain, in any low marfhy, or
rather moilt fituation, where they grow with great rapidity.
The ground fhould be prepared by proper digging, or
ploughing, as may be mott convenient, and then a quantity
of cuttings of the {trong young fhoots, of one or two years’

growth,

|
)

SALIX.

growth, cut to half a yard or two-feet lengths, fhould be
provided and planted in rows, only fix feet afunder, and
three or four diftant in the rows, that they may draw each
other up faft in growth; and allow for gradual thinning,
each cutting being inferted two parts of three into the
ground. They foon emit roots, and fhoot ftrongly at top
in {pring and fummer ; but to have them run up with clean
fiems for full ftandards, all fhould be cleared away but one
of the ftrongeft leading fhoots for a ftem, which fhould be
fuffered to run up at full length in its future growth. After
a few years, when the trees approach one another, they
fhould be thinned for poles, &c.; repeating the thinning a
few years afterwards, according as the branches of the dif-
ferent trees interfere, leaving them at la{t about twelve or
fifteen feet afunder, to attain their full growth. In this
way they draw each other up very expeditioufly, with
itraight handfome ftems, to forty or fifty feet in height, or
more ; and in twenty or thirty years become fit to fell as
timber.

But when they are intended to form ofier-grounds for low
ftools, for producing twigs annually for the bafket-makers,
they fhould be planted in rows two or three feet afunder,
and be always kept to low {tools a foot high, in order to
force out a more plentiful annual crop of twigs and rods,
proper for ufe, in one fummer’s growth. For this purpofe,
waite boggy land on the fides of large rivers are the moft
proper, both in refpeét to the foil, and the conveyance of
the wands. And thefe fituations fhould be dug over, or
ploughed, for the reception of the ofiers: then, in the pro-
per feafon, as above, a fufficient quantity of ofier-fets of
different forts, in cuttings of the one or two years old
fhoots, fhould be formed into two feet or two feet and half
lengths, planting them in lines two feet and a half diltance,
inferting each cutting from ten or twelve to fifteen inches
into the ground, leaving the reft out to form the ftool; and
let them be two feet and a half diftant in each row. Hav-
ing thus formed the plantation, the cuttings will root firmly
in the {pring, and fhoot at top tolerably robs in fummer,
each {tool generally throwing out feveral fhoots, of an ere&
growth. During the firft fummer, all large weeds fhould
be kept down, that the ftools may have full {cope to pro-
duce the firft thoots as {trong as poffible, which, by the end
of autumn, will probably be advanced fome confiderable
length; and if much wanted, may be cut in the following
winter or fpring. But for full plantations, they fhould
generally be fuffered to continue their growth for two ycars,
till the {tools are firmly rooted, and become ftrong ; then be
cut down with all the tops clofe to the heads of the ftools,
which ferve for poles, &c. Next year the ftools fhoot out
ftrong 2 numerous crop of twigs and rods, fit for cutting
for the bafket-makers in the winter following ; and the {tools
fill remaining, continue to furnifh an annual crop, fit for
cutting every winter. The twigs, when cut, fhould be
forted in fizes, tied in bundles, and {tacked up for ufe.

And where they are intended to be cut for poles, the
plantations of ftools may be made in any walte watery fitua-
tions, as along the fides of brooks, rivers, watery ditches,
and other fimilar fituations ; to cut every three, ieee five,
or fix years, according to the purpofes for which they may
be employed. In forming them, a quantity of fets, of two
years old fhoots, in cuttings about two feet and a half long,
fhould be provided, and planted in rows a yard afunder,
introducing each cutting two parts of three into the ground.
They readily grow, and each fends out feveral ereét thoots,
which, in three or four years, will become large poles fit to
be cut for ufe. Large cuttings or truncheons, three or
four feet long, may likewife be thruft down along the fides

of rivers, brooks, ditches, &c. which will often take roots
and fhoot out ftrongly at top for poles.

Alfo when they are defigned ror pollard ftandards to cut
over for poles, for hurdles, &c. as well as for fuel, every
fifth, fixth, or feventh year, the fets or cuttings may be
obtained in plenty from the loppings of any old pollard
willows, &c. choofing the large ftraight poles, cut from
about feven or eight to nine or ten-feet lengths, which fhould
be planted either with an iron crow, or {ome other fimilar
implement, forced into the ground to make wide holes, two
feet or two and a half deep, for their reception ; or, if the
ground be ftubborn, the holes fhould be dug with a {pade
to that depth, planting one fet in each hole, placing them
from a foot and half at leaft to two feet and half in the
ground, leaving fix, feven, or eight above for the ftem.
Thefe fets, though fo large and long, if planted in moitft
places, readily ftrike root, and fhoot out at top, the fol-
lowing {pring and fummer, into many ereé branches, which,
after four or five years’ growth, become fit to lop for
poles, &c. The trees thus continue to afford a lopping as
above, or may be fuffered to grow larger, according to the
purpofes for which the loppings may be wanted.

Likewife, when they are for the purpofe of forming
hedges quickly, either as fences, blinds, or fhelter, cut-
tings, either of ftrong young fhoots, formed in two or
three-feet lengths, and planted in a row half a foot afunder,
and twelve to fifteen or eighteen inches deep, may be em-
ployed; or large truncheons of: feveral years growth, cut
into fets, two, three, four, or five feet long, or more, be
ufed. In either cafe, when the fets have made the firft
year’s fhoot, the fhoots may be plafhed together in winter,
both to ftiflen the hedge, and give it a thicker form; and
afterwards be kept regular, by clipping it annually, or fuf-
fered to take its own natural growth. See PLAsuiNc.

But, in order to form a willow-hedge as quickly as pof-
fible, large ftraight fets of five or fix feet long may be ufed,
planting them chequer-ways, placing each fet half a yard in
the ground, leaving three or four feet above; which being
arranged acrofs one another in the above manner, and ranged
all ofan equal height, they at once form a good firm fence.
And where a f{peedy fence is wanted, by way of blird or
fhelter, a quantity of loppings, five, fix, or feven feet long,
well furnifhed with lateral branches to the bottom, may be
provided, and planted in a deepifh trench, pretty clofe to-
gether, which foon grow, and form a fort of fence im-
mediately.

When they are for twigs for garden ufes, a moift fituation
fhould be chofen, and a quantity of the moft pliant kind of
ofier-fets, or cuttings of the young fhoots, half a yard or
two feet long, fhould be provided and planted in rows, two
parts of three into the ground. ‘They grow freely, and fur-
nifh plenty of twigs every year, managing them as thofe in
the ofier plantations.

The neceffary after-culture, in all thefe cafes, is princi-
pally the keeping down large weeds the firft and fecond
years after planting ; but which is more particularly necef-
fary in the plantations of young low cuttings, till they are
a little advanced in their growth.

In all cafes, when they are intended for nurfery collec-
tions, all the different forts fhould be kept, being raifed
from young cuttings of a year or two old, in half-yard or
two-feet lengths, and planted in rows, two or three feet
afunder, to grow till wanted for ufe.

It may be noticed, that fome of thefe forts of willows
may be ufed with good effect, as ornamental trees, on the
fides of ponds or other places, efpecially the white, yellow,
purple, {weet, almond-leayed, and weeping kinds, being

3 difpofed

SAL

difpofed thialy in large out-plantations ; but the Babylonian
or weeping willow, for its curious pendulous growth, de-
mands attention in a particular manner, and fhould be dif-
pofed fingly, or detached, both by the fide of water, and
in {pacious openings of grafs-ground; alfo near grottos,
cafcades, caves, ruins, &c. Some of the forts may alfo be
ufed in mixture with other trees in ornamental plantations,
with good effect, when introduced in a {paring manner.
See OstEr.

Sawix Fragilis, or Crack Willow, in the Materia Medica,
is 2 fpecies of willow, that grows in hedges and about the
banks of rivers in feveral parts of England, and may be
eafily diftinguifhed from other {pecies by the readinefs with
which it breaks at the year’s fhoot laft made, upon being
flightly ftruck with the finger. The bark of its branches
manifeits a confiderable degree of bitternefs to the talte, and
is alfo aitringent ; hence it has been thought a good fubtti-
tute for the Peruvian bark, and upon trial was found to ftop
the paroxy{ms of intermittents. It is likewife recommended
in other cafes requiring tonic or aftringéent remedies. The
bark of feveral other {pecies of falix poffeffes fimilar quali-
ties, and particularly that of the S. alba and S. pentandria,
both of which are recommended in the foreign pharmaco-
peias. Dr. Woodville is of opinion, that the bark of the
S.,triandria is more effectual than that of any other of this
us at leaft its fenfible qualities give it a decided pre-
erence.

Water extracts the virtues of willow-bark, and affords a
decoétion of a reddifh colour; which is precipitated by a
folution of ifinglafs, the carbonates of potafs and of am-
monia, and alfo by lime-water, the precipitate of which is
at firft blue and afterwards buff-coloured; and the preci-
pitate procured by fulphate of iron is a dark green precipi-
tate. The watery extract is reddifh, has a bitter tafte, is
brittle, and does not deliquefce. Digefted in alcohol this
bark affords a greenifh-yellow tin@ture, which water renders
turbid. When evaporated, the extract is of a bright yel-
low colour, bitter, melting at a moderate heat, and emitting
an aromatic odour. The conftituents, therefore, of white
willow bark, and probably thofe of the other two fpecies,
viz. 5. fragilis and S. caprea, are tannin, bitter refin, ex-
trative, and gluten.

Thefe barks may be given either in fubftance, or in the
form of decoétion. The dofe of the powdered bark may
be from 3fs to 3j, combined with aromatics, myrrh, or the
cinchona bark, according to circumftances. Woody. Med.
Bot.

SALIVE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Cote d’Or; 12 miles N.W. of Is-fur-
Tille.

SALKAEYV, a {mall ifland of Ruffia, in the Frozen
ocean. N. lat. 73°30’. E.long. 112° 14!.

SALLA, a name given to a part of the mountain of Sr.
Gothard; which fee.

Satta, La, a town of Naples, in Principato Citra; 43
miles E.S.E. of Salerno.

SALLAD, Satan, or Sallet, a difh of eatable herbs,
ordinarily accompanying roaft meat; compofed chiefly of
crude frefh herbage, feafoned with falt, oil, and vinegar.

Menage derives the word from the Latin /a/ata, of /al,
falt ; others from falcedo ; Du-Cange from /algama, which
is ufed in Aufonius and Columella in the fame fenfe.

Some add muttard, hard eggs, and fugar; others, pep-
per, and other f{pices, with orange-peel, faffron, &c. See
SALap Herbs.

SALLAGNAG, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Creufe ; 9 miles W. of Gueret.

SAL

SALLAGOUSA, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Eaftern Pyrenées ; 6 miles W.S.W. of Mont-
louis. ;

SALLANCHES. See Sarancue.

SALLAND, or Savans, a diftri@ or bailiwick of
Holland, in the department of Overiffel, containing feveral
towns and villages, among which are Deventer, Campen, and

wol.

SALLARTINE, atown of France, in the department
of the Vendée; g miles S.W. of La Garnache.

SALLE, or Sette, in Ancient Geography, a place of
Pannonia, 31 miles from Sabaria, on the route from Peeto-
vione to Carnuntum. Itin. Anton.

Satie, La, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Gard; 6 miles N.W. of St. Hypolite.

SALLE pres Vibiers, La, a town of France, in the-de-
partment of the Mayne and Loire; 4 miles W. of Vibiers.

SALLEE, or Saté, a fea-port of Africa, on the At-
lantic, in the kingdom of Fez and province of Benihaffes.
It is fituated at the mouth of the river Sallee, which is
formed by the union of the two fmaller rivers, the Bure-
greb and the Gueroo. The river of Sallee was formerly a
port capable of receiving large fhips, but the fand has now
{fo choaked up the entrance, that fhips of 200 tons cannot
enter it till their guns and ballait are taken out. This town
was taken in the year 1261, by Don Alphonfo X., king of
Caitile ; but it was retaken immediately after by the king of
Fez. It-isa walled town, and has a battery of cenecteyotte
pieces of cannon, which commands the road, and a redoubt,
which defends the entrance of theriver. To the north we
perceive the walls and ruins of a {mall inhabited town, which
Muley Ifhmael caufed to be built for the families of his
black foldiers. On the fouth fide of the river Sallee is
Rabat ; which fee. The road of Sallee is only to be fre-
quented in the fine feafon, from the beginning of April to
the end of September. When the wind blows from the
S.S.W., which feldom happens but in winter, this road is
no longer fafe: fhips being expofed to be driven out to fea,
and the fhifting of the fands of the bar rendering any com-
munication with the town extremely difficult. The beft an-
chorage is on the S. fide of the river next Rabat, and the
fhip fhould be moored between the tower of the mofque and
that called Haffen, having the latter to the north. Great
attention fhould be paid to the cables, as many anchors have
been here loft. Sallee is faid to centain about 16,000 in-
habitants, moft of whom are defcendants of the Moors who
formerly occupied Spain; 42 miles W. of Mequinez. N.
lat. 34° 3’. W. long. 6° 40’. Chenier’s Morocco, vol. i.

SALLEEOLAKIT, a fmall ifland in the Eait Indian
fea, near the S.W. coait of Mindanao. N. lat. 6°42’. E.
long. 121° 25/.

SALLEN, a lake of Pruffia, in Natangen, near Bofen ;
52 miles S.S.E. of Konighberg.

SALLENGZE, ea, pr, in Biogr ) an
ingenious writer, was born at the Hague in 1694. e was
educated at Leyden, after which he became ar advocate.
He died in 1723. He wrote the “ Hiltory of Montmaur,’”
in two vols. r2mo.; ‘ Memoirs of Literature,’? two vols. ;
“Novus Thefaurus Antiquitatum Romaagorum,” three vols,
fol.; and “ An Effay on the Hittory of the United Pro-
vinces.”’

SALLENT, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Aragon;
13 miles N. of Jaca

SALLERO, a fmall ifland in the North fea, near the
coat of Lapland. N. lat. 69° 20°.

SALLERUP, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Skonen ; 20 miles E. of Lund.

SALLES,

ee

SAE

SALLES, a town of France, in the department of the
Tarn; 12 miles N.N.E. of Gaillac.—Alfo, a town of
France, in the department of the Gard; 6 miles N. of
Alais.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the
Charente; 5 miles S. of Cognac.

SALLES-CURAN. See SALeEs-cURAN.

SALLI, a town of Hindooftan, in Dowlatabad; 13
miles W.S.W. of Kondur.

SALLIAN, or SaL.ien, 2 town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Schiryan, on the left bank of the Kur, near the
Cafpian fea. This town is opulent, and is celebrated for
its extenfive fifhery; it is, correctly fpeaking, only a col-
leGtion of villages, which owe their profperity to the fifhery,
principally carried on by Ruffiag fubjeéts. This fifhery is
faid to produce annually about 50,000 filver rubles. The
furrounding diitri& is inhabited by a mixture ‘of Perfians
and Tartars, with a few Armenians. The principal article
of its commerce is falt ; go miles S. of Sckamachie.

SALLIES, a town of France, in the department of the
Upper Garonne; g miles E. of St. Gaudens.

Sawiies. See Saris. é

SALLIS, or Satis, in Ancient Geography, a village of
Idumea, whither the Jews retired after having been defeated
by the Romans in the plains of Afcalon.

SALLIUS Lapis, in Natural Hiflory, a name by which
Ludovicus Dulcis, and fome other writers of his time, have
mifcalled the lapis famius of the ancients. That author
defcribes it as being heavy, white, and brittle, and gives it
the fame virtues with the lapis famius of Pliny.

SALLO, Denys pz, in Biography, lord of La Coudraye,
a man of letters, and the founder of modern periodical cri-
ticifm, was born at Paris in 1626, of a noble family, ori-
ginally from Poitou. He was educated to the law, and was
admitted a counfellor of the parliament of Paris in 1652.
He had a great paffion for reading, efpecially on curious
and uncommon fubjects, in proof of which the following
faéts have been adduced. When cardinal Chigi was legate
in France, and doubts had arifen concerning his right of
tee M. Sallo drew up a treatife «De Legatis.’’

court being afterwards in doubt whether Maria-Therefa
ought to be denominated of Auttria or Spain, he was ap-
plied to on the occafion, and wrote a learned tra& “¢ On
Names.”” He compofed another “ On Seals,’’: and other
fimilar pieces, which have not been made public. In 1664
he projeéted the “ Journal des Savans,’’? which he began to
blifh under the name of Sieur d’Hedouville. He had
eral coadjutors in this work, and it began in a free ftyle
of criticifm, which excited the loud complaints of fome cele-
brated authors, who, by an undue influence, caufed the work
to be fupprefled after the appearance of the 13th number.
Sallo then transferred the editorfhip to the abbe Gallois,
who contented himfelf with extra€ts of books, without ven-
turing upon any opinions of their merits. It afterwards
pafled into the hands of the abbé de la Roque, and the
prefident Coufin, and was finally committed to a body of
men of letters, appointed by the chancellor. It was the
forerunner, or indeed the parent, of all the literary journals
which have fince appeared in Italy, Germany, Holland, and
England, which, with all their defects, have certainly con-
tributed much to the diffufion of knowledge and juft prin-
ciples of tafte. Sallo died at Paris in 1669, at the age
forty-three.

SALLOOR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Cicacole ; 45 miles W. of Cicacole.

SALLOORGAUT, a fortrefs of Hindooltan, in the
circar of Cicacole ; 38 miles W. of Cicacole.

SAL

SALLOW, in Botany, a term fometimes ufed for the
willow. See Sauix.

SALLUMEA, in Geography, a town of the Birman
empire, on the left bank of the Ava; 25 miles N. of
Raynangong.

SALLUST, Caius Crispus Sattustius, in Biogra-
phy, acelebrated Roman hiftorian, was born about the year
85 B.C. in the country of the Sabines. He was educated
at Rome, and was not lefs diftinguifhed for his licentioufnefs
than for his talents. It is recorded of him, that being de-
teted in an adulterous intercourfe, he was a€tually fcourged
by the hand of Milo, and obliged to pay a fine before he
obtained his difmiffion. His extravagance and debauchery
caufed him to be expunged fromthe lift of fenators by the
cenfors Appius Claudius and Calpurnius Pifo. He was
afterwards reftored by Julius Cefar, promoted to the digni-
ties of queftor and pretor, and nominated to the government
of Numidia. In this high office he enriched himfelf fo
much by pillage and rapine, that on his return to Rome he
was enabled to build himfelf a magnificent villa, with ex-
tenfive gardens, on the Quirinal Hill, which even {till retain
the name of Salluft. He married Terentia, the divorced
wife of Cicero, and from this circumitance, it has been faid
by fome, arofe an everlafting hatred between the orator and
the hiftorian ; though, according to others, this enmity was
oceafioned by the defence which Cicero undertook to make
for Milo in the cafe of Clodius. Salluft died in the 5rit
year of his age, in the year 35 before the Chriftian era.
The vices of this man deferve a peculiar ftigma, on account
of their contraft with the rigid morality contained in his
writings, which might lead the incautious reader to take
him for a Cato. But while the man and the ftatefman mutt
be ever held in contempt and abhorrence, the author has al-
ways been regarded as one of the ornaments of the age and
country in which he flourifhed. He had compofed a hiftory
of the Roman republic, from the death of Sylla to Cati-
line’s confpiracy : of this nothing remains but a few frag-
ments. His only compofitions that have come to modern
times, in a ftate of tolerable perfection, are the hiftory of Cati-
line’s confpiracy, and of the wars of Jugurtha, king of Nu-
midia. In thefe works, which have met with uniform ap-
plaufe, the author is greatly admired for the elegance, the
vigour, and the animation of his fentences: he every where
auplays a wonderful knowledge of the human heart, and
paints with a moft mafterly hand the caufes that gave rife to
the great events which he relates. No one was better ac-
quainted with the vices that prevailed in Italy, from his
own practice of many of them; and no one feems to have
been more fevere again{t the follies of the age, and even
thofe failings of which he net only {tood guilty in the face
of the world, but mutt have ftood felf-condemned. His
defcriptions are elegantly correét, and his harangues are
nervous and animated, and, apparently, extremely well
adapted to the charaéter and different purfuits of the great
men in whofe mouths they are placed. By the moderns it is
agreed that the concife energy of the Latin language is no
where difplayed to more perfection than in the exilting works
of Salluit, in which there is great fkill fhewn in fketching
the characters that come under his notice. By his contem-
poraries his ftyle was criticifed for an affe€tation of the ufe
of old~words, and an occafional obfeurity, produced by the
boldnefs of figure and excefs of brevity. nba oer
this defeét, if it were a defeét, his reputation ttood very high
in Rome: Martial calls him « primus in Romana hiftoria ;”
and Tacitus fpeaks of him as “ rerum Romanarum floren-
tiffimus auétor.’? Quintilian compares him to the Greek
Thucydides.

Though

SAL

Though faithful in every other refpeé, he has not painted
the character of Cicero with all the fidelity and accuracy
which the reader claims from the hiftorian; and in pafling
over in filence many aétions which refleé& the greateft honour
on the firit hufband of Terentia, the rival of Cicero has dif-
Sear himfelf, and rendered his compofitions in fome re-

pects fufpicious. There are preferved alfo, under the name

of Salluft, two orations to Czfar, “« De Republica Ordi-
nanda,’”’ and two declamations again{t Catiline and Cicero.
The authenticity of the orations is doubtful, and the de-
clamations are, by the beft imformed critics, decided to be
fpurious. Of this author the editions have been numerous,
but the molt efteemed are thofe of Gronovius, cum. not. var.
Lug. B. 1690; of Waffle, Cantab. 1710; of Havercamp,
Amiter. 1742 ; and of Edinburgh, 1755. There are other
perfons noted in Roman hiftory of the fame name: of whom
one was a nephew of the hiftorian, by whom he was adopted.
He is faid to have imitated the moderation of Mzcenas,
and to have remained fatisfied with the dignity of a Roman
knight, when he could have made himfelf powerful by the
favour of Auguttus and of his fucceffor Tiberius. Horace
dedicated one of his odes to him. Secundus Promotus Sal-
luftius was a native of Gaul, and the intimate friend of the
emperor Julian. He is remarkable for his integrity, and the
foundnefs of his counfels. He was prefeét of Gaul. There
is another ‘ Secundus,’”? fometimes confounded with Pro-
motus, who was alfo a favourite of Julian, who made him
prefect of the Ealt. He conciliated the good graces of the
Romans by the purity of his morals, and the excellence of
his religious principles. After the death of Jovian he was
univerfally named by the officers of the Roman empire to
fucceed to the imperial throne, but he declined the honour,
pleading old age, and its attendant infirmities, as his excufe,
The Romans would have invetted his fon with the imperial
purple, but the father very wifely oppofed fo dangerous a
fituation for the young man, faying that he had not ex-
perience to fupport the dignity to which they would have
elevated him.

SALLUVII, in Ancient Geography, a people of Gallia
Narbonnenfis, whofe capital was Aque Sextiz. Thefe people
are the fame with the Salians: they were anciently enemies
of the Romans: but in the year of Rome 629 the conful
M. Fulvius repulfed their enterprifes, and their chief Teu-
tomal, in the year 631, was defeated by C. Sextius Calvinus,
who was the conful that founded Aqua Sextie. Pliny.

SALLY, in Geography, a town of Virginia, on the
James river; 92 miles W. of Richmond.

SALLy, in Archite@ure, from the French faillie, is what
we more ufually call projedure.

Satty, in the Military Art, the fecret ifluing out of the
befieged from their town, or fort, and fudden falling upon
the befiegers to cut them off, nail their cannon, hinder the
progrefs of their approaches, deftroy their works, &c.

We fay, to make a fally, to repulfe a fally, &c.

To cut off a fally, is to get between thofe who made it and
the town.

SALLyY-Ports, or Poflern Gates, in Fortification, are thofe
under-ground paflages, which lead from the inner works to
the outer ones; fuch as fromthe higher flank to the lower,
orto the tenailles, or the communication from the middle of
the curtain to the rayelin. In each place of arms there
are two fally-ports, z, z, (Plate V. Fortification, fig. 6.)
which are ten or twelve feet wide, for the troops to fally out.
In time of a fiege they are fhut up with barriers or gates.
See Posrern,

SAaLty-Port, in Ship-Building, is the port in a fire-fhip
next abaft the fire-room bulk-head ; it is larger than the other

SAL

ports, and to which the train leads from whence it is fet op

re.

SALLYCOTE, in Geography, a town of the ftate of
Georgia ; 95 miles W. of Tugeloo.

SALM, a town of France, inthe department of the Fo-
refts, late capital of a county infulated in the duchy of
Luxemburg, on the borders of Liege; deriving its name
from a caftle now in ruins; 11 miles $.S.E. of Spa.—
—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Lower
Rhine, late capital of a country of the fame name, infulated
in the dominions of France, and called « the upper county
of Salm,” in contradiitin@tion to the Salm above-mentioned ;
24 miles W.S.W. of Strafburg.—Alfo, a river of France,
which runs into the Mofelle, near Numagen, 8 miles below
Treves.—Alfo, a river of Stiria, which ruas into the
Moehr, near Ernhaufen.

SALMA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arabia De-
ferta, to the eaft of Idicara, a town that was fituated on the
Perfian gulf. Ptol.—Alfo, the name of two townsof Ara-
bia Felix, according to Ptolemy.

i SALMA, in Geography, a lake of Naples; 4 miles W. of
ari.

SALMACIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Mi-
nor, in Caria. Steph. Byz.—Alfo, a fountain in Caria.

SALMAISE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Cote d’Or; 18 miles N.W. of Dijon.

SALMANSHAVEN, a bay of the North fea, onthe
coaft of Norway ; 100 miles N. of Bergen.

SALMANSWEILER, a princely abbey of Germany,
on a river which runs into the lake of Conftance, founded in
the beginning of the twelfth century, and foon after made
imperial. In 1802 it was given to the margrave of Baden ;
9 miles N.N.E. of Conttance.

SALMANTICA, Satamanca, in Ancient Geography,
a confiderable town of Hifpania, in Lufitania, towards the
fouth-eatt, in the country of the Vettones. Ptol. Hannibal
gained pofleflion of this town in the year of Rome 534.
At the fecond fiege of this town by Hannibal, the inha-
bitants were compelled to abandon it, and to carry with them
only their garments; upon which the women took occafion
to conceal, each of them, a fword, which they fuppofed
might be of future ufe to their hufbands. When Hannibal
devoted the town to the pillage of his Carthaginian foldiers,
he committed the cuftody of his prifoners to fome Numidian
troops. As thefe guards were deprived of the benefits of
pillage, they were a ee in their care of the prifoners ;
of which negligence the women availed themfelves, by giving
arms to their hufbands ; who, having maflacred the Numi-
dians, efcaped into the mountains. Hannibal afterwards
reftored them to theirtown. See SALAMANCA.

SALMASIA, in Botany, named by Schreber in ho-
nour of Claudius Salmafius, or Saumaife, the celebrated
adverfary of Milton, a native of France, who lived early in
the 17th century. He was one of the profeflors of the
Leyden univerfity, and author of feveral critical tra&s on
natural hiftory. (See Satmasrus.)—Schreb. 201. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 1.1502. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. (Tachibota 5
Aubl. Guian. v. 1.287. Juff. 295. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 208.)
—Clafs and order, Pentandria Trigynia, Nat. Ord. Cifii,
Juff. .

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, deeply
cloven into five, oblong, acute, permanent fegments. Cor.
Petals five, oblong, unguiculated, as long as the calyx, in-
ferted into the receptacle. Stam. Filaments five, capillary,
the length of the corolla, inferted into the receptacle ; an-
thers roundifh. Pi. Germen fuperior, triangular ; {tylenone ;
Rtigmas three. Peric. Capfule triangular, of three cells and

, SAL

three valves; partitions contrary to the valves. Seeds" 1u-
merous, f{mall.

Eff. Ch. Calyx deeply five-cleft. Petals five. Style
none. Capfule of three cells and three valves, many-
feeded. : ! ;

1. S. racemofa. Willd. (Tachibota-guianenfis ; Aubl.
Guian. t. 112.)—Native of woods in Guiana, where it
flowers and bears fruit in OGober.—A /brub feven or eight
feet high, with numerous round, hairy, ruity-coloured
branches. Leavesalternate, nearly feffile, oblong, pointed,
entire, fmooth. S#ipu/as linear, hairy, deciduous. Flowers
white, on hairy ftalks, in long, axillary, and terminal
clufters. ‘

Its Caribbean name is Umbetachibote.

SALMASIUS, or Saumaise, CLAupE, in Biography,
a learned writer, was born at Saumur in the year 1588.
He received the elementary part of his education under his
father, and afterwards ftudied at Paris and Heidelberg. He
fucceeded Scaliger as profeflor of hiftory at Leyden.
Richelieu offered him a confiderable penfion on condition of
his fettlins in France, which Salmafius refufed. The king,
however, conferred upon him confiderable honours, and
made him counfellor of ftate. In 1649 he wrote a de-
fence of Charles I. of England, to which Milton replied.
(See his article.) In the following year he went to Sweden,
on an invitation from queen Chriftina. He died at Spa in
1653. His principal works are “ Hiitorie Augufte Scrip-
tores Sex ;”’ “ De modo Ufurarum ;”’ “ Differtatio de Fo-
nore trepezetico, in tres libros divifo;” “* De Re militari
Romanorum ;’’ “De Helleniftica;”’ and he was the editor of
feveral ancient authors, as Florus, Polyhiftor, Simplicius on
Epictetus, &c. :

Though violent as a controverfialift, Salmafius was, in
private life, extremely mild and unafluming. His mind was
a vaft magazine of multifarious knowledge, laid up by the
help of memory and application, but crude, inexa&t, and
tittle adorned by tafte or judgment. There was fcarcely any
topic of learned difcuffion in which he did not engage, and
he contributed to the illuftration of numerous works of an-
tiquit . Moft of the great fcholars of his time {peak of him
with high commendation, though he had alfo many enemies
and detraétors, whom he provoked by that arrogance and
propenfity to abufe which has been but too common among
critics’ One of Salmafius’s biographers, Sorbiere, has thus
deferibed his literary charaéter. ‘ It isimpoffible to difpute
his opinions,” (the Englifh have almoft uniformly thought

i +) in the {malleft degree, without being called a
blockhead or an idiot ; and an antagonift muft lay his ac-
count with receiving’ from him a thoufand infults, which
rather fall upon the perfon, than defend the point in queftion.
For thefe forty years that he has been fetting the prefs to
work, nothing has fallen from his pen but inveétives,
fparingly mixed with folid: knowledge. He has con{truéted
no work with lime and fand by which pofterity will be be-

- He cannot live without illuftrious enemies, and
without fome quarrel upon his hands; and it does not fuffice
him to have difarmed his man, and obtained from him ufual
fatisfaction, he muft trample him if the dirt, and disfigure
him. His latinity runs away with him. He is unwilling
that all the foul language which he has learnt fhould be loft,
and he finds it more eafy to produce from the ftores of his me-
mory the reproachful terms which he has colleéted from an-
cient authors, than delicate raillery and found argument
from any other fource.”” Salmafius compofed with rapidity,
and is faid never to have revifed what he ad written. This
we believe is no uncommon cafe with eager difputants, and
Yeatly writers, who are, however, willing enough to have

Vor. XXXI.

SAL

their compofitions revifed by others, and thus avail themfelves
of indultry which they do not themielves poflefs. The
abundance of matter that occurred to him while engaged on
any fubje&, led him perpetually into digreffions, and to for-
get what he had advanced, and even plunged him into contra-
diétions, fo that he has been defcribed as a receptacle of
erudition rather than an able difpenfer of it.

SALMAST, in Geography. See Srtmas.

SALME, atown of Pertia, in the province of Trak ;
30 miles E.N.E. of Kirmanfhaw, or Kermanfhee, which is
a flourifhing town, containing about 12,000 houfes, and
lying in the extremity of a fine plain, through which runs
the river Karaiu. This town (Kirmanfhaw) is adorned
with many gardens, has 14 hummums, or public baths,
and four mofques, and yields a revenue of 15,000 tomauns
a-year. ;

SALMEDINA, atown ef South America, in the pro-
vince of Darien; 5 miles N. of Porto Bello.

SALMEGGIARE, Ital. to fing pfalms.

SALMERANGES, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the Puy de Dome; 4 miles N.E. of
Billom.

SALMERON, Atrnonsus, in Biography, a learned
Jefuit, was born at Toledo, and ftudied at Paris. He was
one of the firft and moit zealous difciples of Loyola; and
gained confiderable reputation at the council of Trent. He
contributed to the eftablifhment of a college at Naples,
where he died in 1585. He was a voluminous writer, and
left, among other things, ‘¢ Commentaries on the Scriptures,””
in 8 vols. fol.

SALMI, Ital., the plural of /a/mo, a pfalm; as ¢ Salmi
vefpertini,”? pfalms for the evening fervice ; ‘¢ Salmi domi-
nicale,”’ pfalms for Sunday ; ** Salmi pafleggiati,’’ the title
of a {mall book which we procured in Italy, that was pub-
lifhed at Rome, 1615, by Francefe Severi Perugino, a
finger in the papal.chapel, and dedicated to cardinal Bor-
ghefi. This publication fhews to what excefs the rage of
gracing, even in the moft folemn melodies of the church,
was carried before there were any dravura airs, or florid
finging in the mufical drama or opera, which is accufed of
all the corruptions of modern mufic. The book is very
neatly engraved on copper-plates, and contains fuch fafhion-
able graces and embellifhments for every kind of voice as
were then allowed to be ufed even in the pontifical chapel,
when the ecclefiaftical tunes were fung in parts. This book
contains paflages in notes tied twice, and often three times,
that would be too rapid and difficult for many opera fingers
now of the firft abilities, and fuch as mufical methodiits,
from their abfurdity and impropriety, would with good rea-
fon call Lenocinia of the church of Rome.

SALMIA, in Geography, atown of Pruffia, in the pro-
vince of Ermeland ; 6 miles S.E. of Frauenburg. :

SALMIECH, a town of France, inthe department of
the Aveiron ; 10 miles S. of Rhodez or Rodes.

SALMIS, a town of Norwegian Lapland ; 108 miles
S.W. of Wardhuys.—Alfo, a town of Ruflia, in the go-
vernment of Viborg, onthe lake Ladoga; 20 miles NW.
of Olonctz.

SALMISCH, a river cf Ruffia, which runs into the
Sakmarah, 16 miles N. of Orenburg.

SALMO, the Salmon, in Ichthyology, a genus of fithes
of the order Abdominales. ‘The generic charaéter, as given
by Gmelin, is as follows, The Fead is {mooth and com-
preffed, with a large mouth; the lips are {mall; the tongue
white, cartilaginous, moveable ; the eyes are moderate, la-
teral ; teeth in the jaws and on the tongue; the gill-mem-
brane is from four to twelve-rayed, but the cover has three

ne lamina ;

SALMO.

laminz ; the body is long, covered with rounded and very
finely ftriate fcales ; the back is conyex ; the lateral line 1s
ftraight, nearer.the back ; the hind-moft dorfal fin is flefhy,
without rays; the ventral fins have many rays. :

The falmon is a very peculiar kind of fifh. It is bred in
rivers, but goes every year from thence into the fea ; and at
a certain feafon of the fame year it always returns up into
the frefh water again ; and what is remarkable, is, that
fo far as obfervation has been able to trace them at any time,
the fame fhoals of falmon always return into the fame river
out of which they fwam, not into any other; fo that the
people who live on the falmon fifhery are not afraid for
their rivers being cleared, by all the fifh in them going down
into the fea, for they know that they will all return up to
them again at a proper time. When the falmon has once
entered a frefh river, he always {wims up againft the ftream,
and is, therefore, obferved to fwim as deep or as near the
bottom as poflible; and, on the contrary, when they are
going down the fame river intothe fea, they are always feen
{wimming near the furface. The reafon of this is, that in
going up they are to fwim againft the current, which al-
ways runs much fwifter at the furface than deeper ; and
when they are going down, they get to the furface, where
the force of the current alone is fufficient to carry them, and
they have little or no trouble in puthing themfelves on.

Salmon will often go a hundred leagues up in the large
rivers, {pringing with furprifing agility over cataracts many
feet high; but Mr. Pennant contradiéts the vulgar opinion
of their taking their tail in their mouth when they attempt
to leap ; and thus the people at this vaft diftance from the
mouth have the pleafure of taking a fifh that isin part of the
fea kind. It is alfo remarkable, that the rivers which moft
abound with falmon do not make the feas about their
mouths any more abound with them than others; particu-
larly the harbour of Breft affords no falmon; though the
river Chateaulin, which difcharges itfelf into it, 1s. the
richeft falmon river in France. Another fingularity, in re-
gard to the falmon, is their fwimming up the rivers toge-
ther in fuch vaft numbers. It is to be allowed, indeed, that
herrings, mackarel, and many other fifh, do in the fame
manner appear on the coatts at certain feafons in prodigious
numbers.

Salmon do not equally frequent all rivers, though they
may feem to us equally proper for their reception. There
are two rivers which open themfelves into the harbour of
Breit, very near one another ; the one of thefe is famous for
the quantity of falmon in it, and the great advantage of the
fifhery ; the other never has any of thefe fifth init. It moft
probably is owing to their finding plenty of food, and pro-
per places for the depofiting their fpawn in the one of thofe
rivers, and not in the other, that makes this regular choice.

Molft of the fifhes of this genus are found in rapid {tony
rivers,’ and are impatient of foul water; a few of them in-
habit the fea, but get into rivers oncea year, for the pur-
pofe of depofiting their {pawn in’ beds of gravel: for this
purpofe they will furmount any difficulties, afcend many
hundred miles up the ftreams, force themfelyes againlt the
mott rapid waters, and {pring with amazing agility over any
thing that happens to impede their progrefs, even to the
height of feveral feet ; after {pawning, they return to the
Sespoor and lean ; they feed on other fifhes, and vary much
i eir colour ; thie flefh, as is well known, and generally
allowed, is very excellent: the vent is near the tail.

»This genus is feparated into four diitiné divifions.
1. finto thofe genera whofe body is variegated: 2. Thofe
whofe dorfal and anal fins are oppofite to elt other: 3. Thofe
which have {carcely any teeth, or which at leaft are barely

difcernible: and 4. Thofe whofe gill-membrane has not
more than four rays. In thefe feveral fubdivifions there are
enumerated in Gmelin’s edition of Linnzus about fifty-five
{pecies, of which feveral are inhabitants of our own feas and
rivers, and others are mentioned by Dr. Shaw. ,

A. Body variegated.

Species.

* SaLAR, or Common Salmon. This fpecies is charac-
terized by the upper jaw extending beyond thelower. The
head is wedged and {mall; the front and cheeks black ;
the eyes are {mall, the iris is filvery, yellow at the corners ;
teeth in both jaws fharp, and between them are other move-
able and lefler ones ; the end of the lower jaw in the full
grown male turns up into an obtufe hook ; the palate has
two fharp rows of teeth; the tongue alfo has from fix to
eight recurved teeth ; the gill-membrane is yellow or white ;
the peétoral fins yellow at the bafe, above they are blueith ;
the ventral and anal yellow ; the tail is femilunar; the firft
dorfal fin is cinereous, f{potted, the flefhy one and lateral
line black. : ‘ Ms

The common falmon inhabits chiefly the northern feas,
and afcends rivers annually in large fhoals, for the purpofe
of fpawning: it fwims near the furface, but during ftorms
it finks to the bottom : it is faid to be fearful of any thing
ved, but is attra¢ted by any thing white; it grows, when
young, very rapidly, and fometimes reaches to fix feet long ;
it feeds on fifhes, worms, and divers infeéts ; the body above
is blackifh, the fides blueish ; beneath it is filvery, fome-
times with blackifh coloured fpots ; the fcales are deciduous,
and the flesh red.

This fifh is to be found all over the north of Europe and
Afia, from Britain to Kamtfchatka, but never ventures into
the warm latitudes. It has been met with on the coafts of
Greenland, and lias been feen in fome of the rivers’ of
France, but none have been caught fo far fouth as the Me-
diterranean. As it is a fea-fifh, it is only found in thofe
rivers and lakes which communicate with the fea. The an-
cient Grecians never extended their empire to the ocean, and
of courfe they were unacquainted with the falmon; their
language, accordingly, has no word that correfponds with
the fifh. The Romans, however, were well acquainted
with the falmon, and our Englifh word is borrowed from
their /almo; itis fuppofed by etymologilts to be derived
from /alio, to leap, which motion, as we have feen, is cha-
ra€teriftic of this fifh. The Romans diftinguifhed thefe fifh
by different names, according to their age, as Jalmones, fa-
riones, and falares.’ |The inhabitants of the north of Eng-
land name falmon of the firft year /melts ; of the fecond,
Jprods ; of the third, morts ; of the fourth, fork-tails ; and of
the fifth, Aalf-ffbes ; and in the fixth year the animal attains
its full fize. : :

The long migrations of the falmon at or jut before the
{pawning feafon, is the moft extraordinary part of their
hiftory. It annually mounts, as we have obferved, lon
rivers, tillit meets with a bed fitted for depofiting the feeds
ofa future family. It eafily makes its way againit not only
the moft rapid currents, but will leap up cataracts. The
manner of depofiting their {pawn, after they have performed
their journey, is very curious. When a proper place is fe-
leéted for the purpofe, the male and female unite in digging a
pit eighteen inches ey a into which the former ejuks is
milt, and the latter her {pawn; the place they carefully cover
over by means of their tails, and in this {tate the {pawn lies
buried from December till {pring, if not dilturbed by violent
floods, while the parent fifhes have gone back to the fea to

obtain

SALMO.

obtain from. the waters of the ocean recruited ftrength, and
‘a new fupply of flefh ; for after fpawning they become ex-
ceffively lean, andexhauited. It is when they firft leave the
fea that they are plump and vigorous; and fuch as are in
that condition have a number of infects adhering to them
above the gills, like lice plundering upon thofe who are already
poor and miferable. . About the end of March, the ova be-
gin to exclude the young falmon, which find their way up-
wards in almoft incredible numbers ; they remain in the frefh
waters till the arrival of the floods occafioned by the rains,
or the melting of the fnows, by which they are {wept
down into the fea. In. June, the young falmon begin to
appear again in the rivers, and increafe with amazing rapi-
dity in fize, fo that in two or three months they will weigh
eight or nine pounds. For an account of the falmon
fifhery, we refer to the articles Satmon Fifhery, and
Fisnery. To what is given in that place we may fubjoin
the following method, mentioned by Mir. Bingley. « A
perfon of the name of Graham, who farms the fea-coait
fifhery at Whitehaven, has adopted a. fuccefsful mode of
taking falmon, which he denominates falmon-hunting. When
the tide is out, and the fifh are left in fhallow waters, inter-
cepted by fand-banks, near the mouth of the river; or
when they are found in any inlets up the fhore, where the
water is not more than from one foot to four feet in depth,
the place where they lie is to be difcovered by their agita-
tion of the pool. This man, armed with a three-pointed
barbed fpear, having a fhaft fifteen feet in length, mounts
his horfe, and plunges, at a fwift trot or moderate gallop,
belly deep into the water. He makes ready his {pear with
both hands; when he overtakes the falmon, he lets go one
hand, and with the other ftrikes the fpear, with almoit un-
erring aim, into the fifh ; then by aturn of the hand he raifes
the m to the furface of the water, turns the horfe’s
head to the fhore, and runs the falmon on dry land without
difmounting.”” This perfon fays, that by the mode juit de-
{cribed he En killed between forty and fifty fith in a day ;
but he regards ten as fully adequate to the labour of the
horfe and horfeman. In the inteftinal canal of falmon is
often found a {pecies of tenia, fometimes three feet long, and
Dr. Bloch mentions, that ina fpecimen which had been dead
three weeks, he found one of thefe worms ttill living.

ScuiereRMULLERI. The fpecifie character. of this fifh
is, that the lower jaw is the longer, and that the body is
marked with black {pots. The head is pointed; the iris
of a filvery yellow ; the palate and tongue toothed; the
lateral line is black, in the middle of the body ; the fins
brown, mixed with blue ; the ventral fin has an appendage ;
and the tail is forked.

* Extiox, or Grey Salmon, has an even tail, and the body
is marked with cinereous {pots. The head is more floping,
and fhorter, than the common falmon ; the body above the
lateral line is of a dee y» with purplifh Dis belly
filvery. It is found in European feas; is lefs than the
falmon, and the fleth paler; but, like the other, it afcends
rivers. :

*Trutta; Salmon Trout, or Bull Trout. This
fpecies has a body marked with black fpots, encircled witli
brown ; the pectoral fin is diftinguifhed with its fix dots.
The head of this fith ig fmall and wedged; the nofe and
front are black; the » Ba violet-yellow ; the eyes are
fmall; the iris is of a yellowith filvery tint ; the jaws are
equal; the teeth are fharp, and a little curved ; the palate

three rows of teeth ; and the tongue from ten to twelve
teeth, in two rows; the fins are ‘compofed of branched
rays, cinereous ; the caudal and flefhy dorfal ones black ; the
latter, and the firft dorfal one, are {potted ; the tail is broad,

and fighty bifid. This is a native of the Eurupean feas,
and, like the falmon, afcends rivers periodically. It feldom
exceeds two feet long ; above it is of a dufky colour, with
a glofs of blue and green; the fides are violet, beneath
they are white ; it feeds on {mall fifhes, infe&ts, and worms ;
the flefh, as is well known, is of a pale red, and excellent.

There 1s a variety which has its firft dorfal fin {potted ;
the tail is black, and much forked: this is called the white
trout. It migrates from the fea, chiefly into the Eff, in
Cumberland; it feldom exceeds a foot long; the body
above is mixed with black, dufky, and filvery ; beneath the
lateral line it is of an exquifite filvery whitenefs ; the firft
dorfal fin is {potted with black.

Fario; Common Trout. The trout is an inhabitant
of clear and cold ftreams and lakes in moft parts of Europe,
and admits of confiderable variety as to the tinge both of
its ground-colour and f{pots. Its general length is from fix
to fifteen or fixteen inches, and its colour yellowifh-grey,
darker or browner on the back, and marked on the fides
by feveral rather diftant, round, bright-red fpots, each fur-
rounded by a tinge of pale-blue grey. Sometimes the
ground-colour of the body is a purplifh-grey ; the red {pots
much larger, more or lefs mixed with black ; and the belly
of a white or filvery caft; the fins are of a pale purplifh-
brown; the dorfal fin marked with feveral darker {pots ;
the head is rather larger in proportion than that of the
falmon ; the fcales fmall, and the lateral line ftraight. The
female fifh is of a brighter and more beautiful appearance
than the male.

Mr. Pennant informs us, that in the lake Llyndivi in
South Wales, are trouts marked with red and black {pots
as large as fixpences; and others unfpotted, and of a red-
difh hue, fometimes weighing nearly ten pounds ; but thefe
latter are faid to be bad-tafted.

In general the trout prefers clear, cold, and brifkly-
running waters, with a {trong or gravelly bottom. It {wims
with rapidity, and, like the falmon, {prings occafionally.to
a very confiderable height, in order to furmount any obitacle
in its courfe. It lives on worms, fmall fithes, fhell-fifh, and
aquatic infeéts, and is particularly delighted with May-flies
(ephemerx), as well as with phryganee, gnats, and their
larve. It generally fpawns in September, or, in the colder
parts ot Europe, in Oétober ; and at thofe times gets among
the roots of trees, ftones, &c. in order to depoiit its eggs,
which are obferved to be far lefs numerous than thofe of
other river-fith, Yet the trout, as Bloch obferves, is a fith
that admits of very confiderable increafe ; owing, no doubt,
to the circumiftance of moft of the voracious kind of fifhes
avoiding waters of fo cold a nature as thofe which trouts
delight to inhabit ; and their increafe would be {till greater,
were they not themfelyes of a yoracious difpofition, fre-
quently preying even on each other,

The excellence of the trout as an article of food is too well
known to require particular notice. In this refpet, how-
ever, aS in other fifhes, thofe are moft efteemed which are
natives of the cleareft waters.

The ttomach of this fifh is uncommonly ftrong and thick ;
but this circumftance is obferved to be no where fo remark-
able as in thofe found in fome of the. Irith lakes, and par-
ticularly in thofe of the county of Galway. Thefe are
called gillaroo-trouts: on the moft accurate examination,
however, it does not appear that they are {pecifjcally dif-
ferent from the common trout; but by living much on
fhell-fith, and {wallowing {mall {tones at the fame time, their
ftomachs acguire a much greater degree of thicknefs, and a
kind of mufcular appearance, fo as to refemble a fort of
gizzard,

Ee z Mr.

SALMO.

Mr. Pennant obferves, that it is a matter of furprife that
the trout, though fo common a fifh, fhould appear to be
unnoticed by the ancients, except Aufonius, who is fup-
pofed to have intended it by the name of falar. He men-
tions it, however, merely on account of its beauty, and
without any thing relative to its quality as a food.

ErytTurinus. The body of this fihh is marked with
fearlet {pots ; the jaws are equal. It is found chiefly in
rivers and lakes of Siberia, is about two feet long, and
very fat; the flefh is red and tender; the body is roundifh
and comprefled; above it is brown; beneath fcarlet; the
fore-part is of a reddifh-white.

Gepentt. The head of this fpecies is fmall, and the
body is {potted with red. It inhabits the feas of Northern
Europe. The body is long and flender ; it is about 18
inches long, filvery ; above brownifh; the fpots are fur-
rounded with a white ring. :

Hucno. This is of an oblong fhape, the palate has two
lines of teeth; the trunk and fins, except the pectoral, are
{potted with black. Jt is full 30 inches long, and inhabits
the Northern lakes and rivers; its back 1s brown; the
fides and belly are white.

* Lacusrris, the Lake Trout, has a forked tail;
the body is marked with ‘minute black fpots; and the
belly with a longitudinal groove. It inhabits the Northern
lakes, and grows to a vatt fize.

* Carrio, or Gilt Charr, has a palate with five
rows of teeth, which is its fpecific charaéter. It is found
in the rivers of England and Switzerland, and is a very
{mall fifh. ‘

Axpinus; Red Charr. © The back of this fifh is black ;
the fides of a pale blue} the belly is orange. This f{pecies
is called by Linnzus the Alpine charr ; its conftant refidence
is inthe lakes of the high mountainous parts of Europe.
Some few are found in certain lakes in Wales, and in Loch
Inch in Scotland, from which laft it is faid to migrate into
the Spey to fpawn. It feldom ventures into any running
ftream; its principal refort is in the cold lakes of the
Lapland Alps, where it is fed by the larve of gnats that
infeft thofe regions. The Laplanders, in their long migra-
tions to the diftant lakes during fummer, find a ready and
luxurious repatt on thefe fifhes; which to them are ex-
tremely palatable. The largeft and moft beautiful charrs
are found in the lake of Winander Mere, in Weftmoreland,
and in this refort we meet not merely with the red, but with
the gilt, and the cafe charr. The figure of the charr is
more flender and lengthened than the trout. The colour
of the back is of an olive-green, variegated with {pots of
a dufky white, and others of a dull yellow. The belly is
of a pale red, approaching, in the female, to white. The
whole body is covered with very minute {cales.

SALVELINUS; Salvelin Trout. Length about twelve
inches ; fhape refembling that of the falmon, but rather
more flender; colour of the back dark brownith-blue; of
the fides filvery, marked with pretty numerous, moderately
diftant, {mall, round, red {pots, which are fometimes fur-
rounded with a pale margin; belly red or orange-colour ;
pectoral, ventral, arid anal fins the fame, but with the two
firft rays white ; dorfal and caudal fin blueifh-brown ; adi-
pofe fin {mall, pale, and tipped with brown; fcales rather
{mall than large; lateral line ftraight; tail moderately
bifurcated; both jaws of equal length; irides filvery.
Native of mountainous lakes in feveral parts of Germany,
and of feveral of the rivers in Siberia, and in fome of the
lakes of our own country, as thofe of Weltmoreland, &c.
As in others of this genus, thofe which inhabit the cleareft
and coldeft waters are obferved to be of the richeft colours.

It is a fith of great delicacy of flavour, and much eiteemed

as afood. . «

Satmarinus. The back of this fith is tawny, with
yellow fpots; the tail is forked. It inhabits the cold
itony rivers of Italy, and refembles the lait.

Umpira. The lateral lines being turned up, and the
tail forked, conftitute the {pecific character of this ith. It
is found in the lakes of Switzerland and Italy ; weighs
from one to two pounds; the body above is greenifh ;
beneath it is whitifh ; the fcales are very {mall and thin;
the flefh is tender, and it turns red in the drefling.

ArcGentinus. The body of this fpecies is marked with
a longitudinal filvery ftripe ; the anal fin is very long ; and
it is found on the coaft; and in the rivers of Brafil.

Taimen. This fifh is of a brownifh colour, with nume-
rous darker fpots; the tail is forked. It inhabits thofe
rivers that empty themfelves into the Frozen ocean. The
body is round, and comprefled towards the tail, a little
filvery at the fides ; beneath it is white; it is half a yard
long ; the flefh is very white. '

Netma. Silvery white; head very long; the lower
jaw much longer. It inhabits the larger rivers in Siberia ;
Is two yards long ; and the feales are large. :

Lenox. Thisis ofa pale gold colour, with afew brown
{pots ; above it is reddifh, beneath yellowifh. It inhabits
the rapid and {tony rivers of the mountains of Siberia, and
is chiefly found near water-falls; about a yard long; the
body is broad and thick ; and the flefh is white.

Kounpscua. Silvery, with white dots ; the tail is forked.
It inhabits the bays of the Artic feas, and does not afcend
rivers: it is two feet long ; it refembles the eriox, exe
that the tail is forked; the body above and beneath is
marked with a lateral line, which is blueifh.

Arcticus. Silvery, with four rows of brown dots and
fine lines on each fide; the tail is forked. It inhabits the
ftony rivulets running into the Artic fea: it is not longer
than one’s finger, and refembles a young thymallus or
grayling. é ;

SraGcnauis. Above it is brownifh; beneath white ; the
body is roundifh, and the upper jaw the longer. It inhabits
the remoter mountainous rivers of Greenland: it is about
feventeen inches long ; the body long, growing flender to-
wards the tail, and not fpotted: the flefh is white.

Rivatts. This is elongated and brown ; but the belly
is reddifh and the head obtufe. It inhabits the muddy rivers
and ftagnant lakes of Greenland, is about fix inches long, and
refembles the S. carpio, but is longer and more flender, and
the head ismore obtufe : it feeds on infeéts.

Srra@mu. The dorfal and ventral fins of this fifh are
edged with white. It inhabits the muddy waters of Den-
mark. :

Lerrcuint. The upper jaw is a little prominent ; the
back is brown; the fides are marked with fmall ocellate
fpots, furrounded with reddifh ; the belly is of the colour of
flame. It inhabits the ftony rivers of Ruflia and Siberia :
it refembles S. alpinus ; is eight inches long; the fcales are
{mall ; the flefh reddifh, and very firm.

B. Dorfal and Anal Fins oppofite.

* Epervanus ; Smelt. Of this fpecies there appear to be
two varieties : one not exceeding the length of three or four
inches; the other arriving at the general length of fix, eight,
or nine inches, and fometimes even to twelve or thirteen.
The larger variety feems to be that fo frequently feen about
the Britifh coafts, and which is diftinguifhed by Dr. Bloch
under the name of eperlano-marinus, or fea-fmelt. Thefe
fifhes are found about our coafts throughout the whole year,

9 and

— —— sn a ee eee

a a

SALMO.

and rarely go to any great diftance from the fhores, except
when they afcend rivers, either about or at fome time before
the fpawning feafon. © It is obferved by Mr. Pennant, that
in the river Thames and in the Dee, they are taken in great
abundance’ in November, December, and January ; but in
other rivers not till February, fpawning in the months of
March and April. ‘The {melt is a very elegant fifh ; its
form beautifully taper ; the fkin thin, and the whole body,
but particularly the head, femi-tranfparent ; the colour of
the back is whitifh, with a caft of green, beneath which it is
varied with blue, and then fucceeds the beautiful filvery
glofs cf the abdomen ; the feales are {mall, and eafily rub-
bed off; the eyes are filvery ; the under jaw longer than
the upper; in front of the upper are four large teeth,
thofe in the fides of the jaws being {mall ; the tail 1s forked.
This fifh is 2n inhabitant of the European feas ; it has ge-
nerally a peculiar odour, which in thofe of Britifh growth is
commonly compared to that of acucumber, but by fome to
that of a violet. .

Saurus. The rays of the anal fin are ten in number.
It is found in various parts of Europe, but net in this

country.
C. Teeth hardly vifible, if any.

Micratorius. The jaws of this fifh are nearly equal ;
the dorfal fin istwelve-rayed. It inhabits Baikal, in Siberia,
from which it afcends the rivers that empty themfelves into
it for the purpofe of fpawning. It is from fourteen inches
to two feet long: the body is alittle comprefled, filvery, and
above grey. * :

Lavaretus; Gwiniad. The upper jaw of this fith is
the longer : the dorfai fin is fourteen-rayed. There is how-
ever a variety with a broader body and nafiform {nout, called
the /averet. This f{pecies is faid to conftitute an intermediate
tribe between the trout and the herring, and, like the latter,
it dies the inftant it is taken from the water. It is nearly a
foot long, and has two fins upon the back; the firft is
about three inches from the fnout, and is fupported by
thirteen rays; the fecond, which is placed near the tail, is
thick, fat, and altogether without rays. It is this fin which
Willoughby affumes as the generic charaéter of all fifhes of
the trout kind. This fifh, like the charr, is of an alpine na-
ture; and inhabits the lakes of the mountainous parts of
Europe. It was introduced from France into Scotland by
the unfertunate queen Mary. The gwiniad is a gregarious
fifth: it fwims near the furface in along column, with a
leader, and approaches the fhores in vaft fhoals in fummer
and ing, when it is taken for food. In fome of the
German lakes it is caught in vaft abundance, and falted for
fale. The fiehh is of itfelf infipid, and will not keep with-
out falt.

Pipscutan. The upper jaw is the longer of the two ;
the back gibbous; the dorfal rays are thirteen. .There
is a yo it with a broader body, and with fourteen anal
rays, called muchfan. It inhabits the Oby, is two {pans long,
and refembles the laft.

Scnokuk. The upper jaw of this {pecies is the longer ;
the head is fmall ; the dorfal fin angular on the hind part,
and twelve-rayed. It is a native of the Oby, is two feet
long, and very much refembles the S.lavaretus, but is larger

a little broader, the head is lefs and comprefled ; the
fnout is rather obtufe, rounded, with obfolete tubercles ;
ventral fins with fhort appendages. :

Nasus. The upper jaw is the longer ; the head is thick ;
the dorfal -« are twelve. It inhabits the Oby, is about
eighteen inches long; is thaped like the gwiniad, but is
broader and thicker; the rat are large.

Mutteri. Jaws without teeth, the lower are the longer.

Avtrumnatis. The lower jaw is the longer, dorfal fin
is eleven-rayed. This fifh inhabits the Frozen fea, and af-
cends periodically, in vaft fhoals, the rivers which empty
themfelves into'it: it is eighteen inches long; the body 1s
fat, compreffed, coated with large filvery {cales : it dies the
inftant it is taken from the water.

Axsuta. The jaws of this fpecies are without teeth,
the lower is the longer: the fecond lamina of the gill-covers
are {cimitar-fhaped. It inhabits divers parts of Europe ;
is about fix inches long: the body is of a greenifh-brown,
filvery at the fides; the fcales are imbricate, entire, round-
ifh, {potted with black.

PeLep. This is without teeth: there are ten rays in
the dorfal fin. Itisa native of the northern parts of Ruffia ;
is about eighteen inches long; the body is fat ; the back
blueifh ; the fides and belly white ; the head is dotted with
brown. It is very nearly allied to the S. albula.

* Tuyma.ius; Grayling Salmon. This elegant {pecies
grows to the length of about eighteen inches, and is an in-
habitant of the clearer and colder kind of rivers in many
parts of Europe and Afia, particularly fuch as flow through
mountainous countries. In England it is found in the
rivers of Derbythire ; in fome of thofe of the North ; in the
Tame, near Ludlow; in the Lug and other ftreams, near
Leominiter ; and in the river near Chriftchurch, in Hamp-
fhire. In Lapland it is faid to be very common, where the
natives make ufe of its inteftines inftead of rennet, in pre-
paring the cheefe which they make from the milk of the
rein-deer.

The fhape of the grayling refembles that of the trout,
but it is rather more flender ; itscolour is a beautiful filvery-
grey, with numerous longitudinal deeper ftripes, difpofed
according to the rows of fcales, which are of a moderately
large fize ; the head, lower fins, and tail, are of a brownifh
or rufous caft ; the dorfal fin, which is deeper and broader
than in the reft of the genus, is of a pale violet colour,
croffed by feveral dufky bars; the adipofe fin is very {mall,
and the tail forked. The largeft Englith grayling recorded
by Mr. Pennant was taken at Ludlow, and meafured above
half a yard in length, its weight being four pounds eight
ounces ; the general fize of the Britifh fpecimens being far
fhort of this meafure.

The grayling, fays Mr. Pennant, is a voracious fifh, rifing
freely to the fly, and will very eagerlv take a bait; it isa
very fwift f{wimmer, difappearing like the tranfient paflage
of a fhadow, from whence, perhaps, is derived its ancient
name of umbra. It is faid to be a fifh of very quick growth,
feeding on water-infeéts, the {maller kind of tettacea, and the
roe of other fifhes, as well as on the fmaller fithes themfelves 5
its {tomach is fo ftrong as to feel almoit cartilaginous. It
{pawne in April and May, the full-grown ova being nearly
of the fize of peas. The grayling is much efteemed for the
delicacy of its flefh, which is white, firm, and of a fine fla-
your, and is confidered as in the higheft feafon in the depth
of winter. ,

Marna. Upper jaw truncate. It inhabits the lakes
of Northern Europe: it is above two feet long, is very fer-
tile, and lives in deep waters, except in {pawning-time, and
in the fpring, when it rifes to the furface in fearch of tef-
taceous animals; it is the prey of rapacious fifhes, and water-
fowl; the body above is blackifh, the fides blueifh, inclining
to yellow beneath ; the belly is white ; the flefh is white and
excellent.

Mananuta. The lower jaw of this is the longer:
there are fourteen rays in the anal fin. It inhabits the lakes
of Nérthern Europe ; is from fix to ten inches long : it ie

gregarious,

SALMO.

gregarious, and covered with filvery ; the fcales are deci-
duous ; the body is filvery ; the back blueifh: it is a very
fertile fifh: like the lait the flefh is white, and very well
tafted.

WartManni. Blue, upper jaw truncate. It inhabits
the alpine lakes of Switzerland; is feventeen inches long ;
is very fertile, and feeds on worms, infeéts, herbs, anda fort
of fponge ; the body is whitifh towards the belly ; the {cales
are very large; the flefh is excellent.

Oxyrincuus. Upper jaw is the longer, and conic. It
inhabits the Atlantic ocean. /

Vimsa. The flefhy fin is flightly ferrate.
the rivers of Sweden.

‘Levucicutuys. The upper jaw of thisis very broad, en-
tire, and fhorter; the lower afeedirs tubereculate at the
end. Inhabits the Cafpian fea; is three feet long; the
body is oblong, a little compreffed, {potted with black,
above it is blackifh; the fcales are roundifh, {mooth aad
filvery.

It inhabits

D. Gill-membrane with not more than four Rays.

Dentex. This is of a filvery hue, with brown and
whitifh lines above ;. the fins are whitifh ; the lower half of
the tailisred. Itinhabits the Nile and Siberia.

GasteropeLecus. The ventral and flefhy fins are very
fmall. A variety has yellow fins. This fpecies inhabits
Carolina, Amboyna, Surinam, and India; the body is com-
prefled, very {mall, filvery, with a fteel glofs.

Gisezosus. Black, gibbous, compreffed, the anal fin has
fifty rays. Itis found at Surinam.

Notatus. This fpecies has a black fpot on each fide
near the gill-covers. This is alfo found at Surinam; the
body is oblong, with a black {pot above the lateral line ; it
refembles the

BimacuLatus, of which the body iscomprefled, with two
{pots ; the anal fin is thirty-two-rayed. It inhabits South

America.

ImmacuLatus. The body is without fpots; the anal
fin is twelve-rayed. An inhabitant of America.

Farens. The rays of the dorfal and anal fins are twelve.

It inhabits Carolina; the body is oval, alittle pointed, and
of ablackifh-afh colour.

Cyprinoipes. The firft rays of the dorfal fin are long,
and fetaceous. It is found in Surinam; the body is of a
{now-white. .

Nixtoricus. The body of this is white ; all the fins are
yellowifh. It inhabits the Nile.

fEcyptius. The back is greenifh; teeth in the lower
jaw are large. It inhabits, as its name imports, Egypt ;
the tail is fcaly at the bafe.

PutveruLentus. The fins are apparently flightly dufted ;
the lateral line defcending. It is an inhabitant of Ame-
rica.

Ruomseus. The belly is ferrate; the anal and caudal
fins are black at the bafe and edge. It inhabits Surinam ;
the body is comprefled, rather oval, but f{ubangular on the
back, anda little gibbous from the nape to the dorfal fin; it
is of a grey or yellowifh-filvery colour ; towards the back
brownifh : it is faid to bite off the legs of ducks.

Axsostomus. The fpecific character of this is, that
the mouth is fimous. It inhabits South America and

Idia.

Satmutus. The famlet is, according to Pennant, the
Jeaft of the Britifh {pecies of this genus, and is frequently
feen in the river Wye, inthe upper part of the Severn, and in
the rivérs that run into it, in the north of England, and in
Wales. It is by feveral imagined to be the fry of the fal-

mon; but*Mr. Pennant diffents from this opinion for the
following reafons : firft, it is well known that the falmon-fry
never continue in frefh water the whole year, but, as numerous
as they appear on their firft efcape from the {pawn, all vanith
on the firft vernal flood that happens, which {weeps them
into the fea, and leaves fcarcely one behind ; fecondly, the
eee of falmon-fry is fo quick and fo confiderable, as
uddenly to exceed the bulk of the largeft famlet ; for ex-
ample, the fry that have quitted the frefh water in {pring,
not larger than gudgeons, return into it again a foot or more
in length ; thirdly, the falmon obtains a confiderable bulk
before it begins to breed; the famlets, on the contrary, are
found both male and female of their common fize, and are
readily diftinguifhed by being furnifhed with either the hard
or foft roes; fourthly, they are found in the frefh waters
all times of the year, and even at feafons when the falmon-
fry have gained a confiderable fize. It is well known
that. at Shrewfbury (where they are called Samfons,) they
are found in fuch quantities in the month of September,
that a fkilful angler, in a coracle, will take with a fly from
twelve to fixteendozenina’day. They {pawn in November
and December, at which time thofe of the Severn pufh
up towards the head of that river, quitting the {maller brooks,
and return into them again when they have done fpawning.
They have a general refemblance to the trout, and mutt there-
fore be defcribed comparatively. 28
The head is proportionally narrower, and the mouth
fmaller ; the body deeper ; the length feldom more than fix
or feven inches, or at moft about eight and a half; the pec-
toral fins have generally but one large black fpot, though
fometimes a fingle {mall one attends it; whereas the peCtoral
fins of the trout are more numeroufly marked; the fpurious
or fat fin on the back is néver tipped with red, nor are the

edges of the anal fin white ; the fpots on the body are fewer, -

and not fo bright; the body is allo marked from back to
fides with fix or feven large blueifh bars; but this Mr.
Pennant allows to be not a certain character, asthe fame is
fometimes obferved in. young trouts ; laltly, the tail of the
famlet is much more forked than that of the trout. “The
famlet is very frequent in the rivers of Scotland, where it is
called the parr. It is alfo common in the Wye, and is there
known by the title of fkirling or lafpring. %
Groenvtanpicus; Greenland Salmon. Length about
feven inches, which it very rarely exceeds ; fhape lengthened,
contracting fomewhat fuddenly towards the tail; dorfal fin
placed in the middle of the back ; fins rather large for the fize
of the fifth; fcales {mall ; tail forked; colour pale green, witha
tinge of brown above ; abdomen and fides filvery ; in the male
fifh, juft above the lateral line, isa rough fafcia, befet with
minute pyramidal fcales, {tanding upright like the pile of a
fhag. The ufe of this villous line is highly fingular,. fince
it is affirmed that while the fifh is {wimming, and even when
thrown on fhore, two, three, or even as many as ten will
adhere, as if glued'together, by means of this pile, info-
much that if one is taken, the reft are alfo taken up at the
fame time. This {pecies {warms off the coalts of Greenland,
Iceland, and Newfoundland, and is faid to be one of the chief
fupports of the Greenlanders. The inhabitants of Iceland
are faid to dry great quantities of it, in order to ferve as a
winter food for their cattle, whofe flefh is apt to acquire an
oily flavour in confequence. This fith lives at fea the greatett
part of the year; but in April, May, June, and*July,
comes in incredible fhoals into the bays, where immenfe mul-
titudes are taken in nets, and afterwards dried on the rocks.
When trefh they are by fome faid to have the fmell of a
cucumber, though others affirm the {cent is highly unplea-
fant. They feed on {mall crabs and other marine infects, 7
3 we

a

a ee ee

;

SAL

well as on the fmaller fuci and conferve, on which they are
alfo obferved to depofit their ova.

Salmon are cured in this manner ; they are firft {plit, and
rubbed with fine falt; and after lying in pickle in great tubs
or refervoirs for fix weeks, are packed up with layers of
coarfe brown Spanifh {alt in calks, fix of which make a ton.
Thefe are exported to Leghorn and Venice at the price of
twelve or thirteen pounds ger ton, but formerly from fixteen
to twenty-four: pounds each. For a farther account of
falmon, fee Salmon FisHery. : ,

SALMODIA, “Ital. pfalm-fingiag. Sometimes bad
mufic and bad finging are called-/a/modia, in derifion; com-
paring them to the vulgar mutic and finging in parochial
churches.

SALMON, Tuomas, in Biography, author of “An
Effay to the Advancement of Mutick, by cafting away the
Perplexity of different Cliffs ; and uniting all Sorts of Mufick,;
Lute, Viols, Violins, Organ, Harpfichord, Voice, &c.
in one univerfal Charaéter, by Thomas Salmon, A. M.
of Trinity College, Oxford,” London, 167z. This book

G in every part of the f{cale being on the firlt line, 2 on the
firft fpace, b on the fecond line, &c. the letters preceding
each feptenary implying bafs, mean, treble, fupreme.

This innocent and ingenious propofal was treated by
Lock, in a pamphlet entitled ‘ Obfervations on alate Book
called an Effay, &c.” not only with contempt, but obloquy
and unbridled abufe. There is a portrait of Lock in the
mufic-fchool at Oxford, by the countenance of which,
without Lavater’s affiftance, or adverting to his treatment
of Salmon, and the afperity of his other writings, we are
imprefied with more than a fufpicion of his ungentlenefs and
want of urbanity. Several French writers on mulic have
done Salmon the honour of approving his plan fo far as to
wifh to make it their own, and to pafs for its inventors.
And though the plan for abolifhing the clef has been criti-
cifed by fubfequent French writers, the plagiarifts feem never
to have been detefted. Indeed the TeboEl have frequently
difputed among themfelves the invention. And fo late as
January 1766, a propofal was publifhed in the Journal de
Paris, for adopting the fingle clef as a new difcovery.

Satmon, Francis, a learned Frenchman, who flourifhed
in the laft century, was defcended from an opulent family,
and born at Parisin 1677. Attached from his earlielt years
to a ftudious life, he acquired confiderable {kill in the learned
languages, particularly in thofe in which the {criptures of
the Old and New Teftament are written, and became a very
able divine, as well as intimately converfant with the fathers
and the councils. Inthe year 1702 he was created doétor of
divinity by the faculty of the Sorbonne, and afterwards, on ac-
count of his great knowledge of books, received the appoint-
ment of librarian to their fociety. He died fuddenly at Chail-
lot, near Paris, at the age of fixty, in the year 1736. It is
mentioned very much to his praife, that young men ever
found in him an able and affeétionate advifer, who liberally

SAL

is well written, and, though very illiberally treated by. Lock,
Playford, and fome other profeffors, contains nothing that
is either abfurd or impracticable ; nor could we difcover any
folid obje¢tion to its doétrines being adopted, befides the effeét
it would have upon old mufic, by foon rendering it unintelligi-
ble. At prefent the tenor clef alone is thought an infuperable
difficulty in our country, by dilettanti performers on the
harpfichord ; but if Salmon’s fimple and eafy mufical alpha-
bet were chiefly in ufe, the bafs clef would hkewife be foon
rendered as obfolete and difficult as the tenor; fo that two
parts or clefs out of three, in prefent ufe, would become un-
intelligible. The author’s plan was fimply this: inftead of
the eight or nine clefs that were then in ufe, as,

to exprefs the whole fcale of founds on the five lines and
{paces in this fimple manner :

oS

communicated to them his knowledge, and took great pleafure
in direGting them to fuch books as were beit adapted to the
refpective fubjeéts they were purfuing. As an author he is
known by “ A Treatife on the Study of the Councils and
their Colleétions, with Obfervations on the Authors who
have written on the Subjeé&t, and on the Choice of their
Editions,” 1724. This work, which was replete with eru-
dition, was favourably received by the learned world, and
tranflated into Latin, which was printed at Leipfic in 1729.
M. Salmon intended to have given a fupplement to “ Father
Labbe’s ColleG@ion of Councils,’ and had made confider-
able progrefs in it when death put a {top to his labours.
M. Salmon alfo had projeéted an ‘Index Sorbonicus,’’ or
alphabetical library, in which was to be given, under the
names of the refpeétive authors, their acts, lives, chroni-
cles, hiftories, books, treatifes, bulls, &c. difperfed through
a valt number of mifcellaneous colleétions. In this tafk he
was aflitted by four do&tors of the Sorbonne, but the only
fruit of their labours, as far as the public was concerned, were
a “ Confpeétus’? of the work, and “ Epiftola plurium e
Societate ad illuftrium Marchionem Scipionem Maffeium,
de Ratione Indicis Sorbonicis, feu Bibliothece quam
adornant.””

Satmon, Tuomas, an Englifh hiftorian and general writer,
of whofe perfonal hiftory nothing is known, except that he
died in 1743. He was concerned in writing the “Great Uni-
verfal Dictionary :’”? he compiled likewife a work entitled
“ The prefent State of all Nations ;’”? and he was author of
what was, at one time, a very popular work, entitled “« A
Geographical Grammar,” the plan of which was afterwards
‘abptat by Guthrie. Salmon was author likewife of the
“ Chronological Hiflory of England,’ in two vols. 8vo.
and of an “Examination of Burnet’s Hiftory of his own
Times.”?

SALMON,

SAL

Satson, in Jththyology. See SArMo.

Satmon-Peel, the name of a fifth found in great plenty
in the rivers of Wales, agreeing in the colour of its flefh,
and perhaps in kind, with the common falmon.

SALMON-Seww/2, aname fometimes ufed for the young fry
of falmon.

Satmon-Pife, in our Old Writers, an engine to catch fal-
mon, or fuch like fifh.

Satmon-Fifberies, in Rural Economy, thofe which are
deftined to the preferving and taking of falmon. The fitu-
ations to which fifheries of this kind are chiefly confined, are
thofe of narrow feas, fhoal eftuaries, and bays of the fea, and
the mouths of thofe rivers which communicate with it.
The falmon-fifheries of this ifland, and thofe of Ireland, are
of very great national importance, as furnifhing a con{tant
and copious fource and fupply of human food. They may
be faid with propriety to rank next to that of the cultiva-
tion of land in utility in thisintention. The writer of the
work on “ Landed Property”’ has remarked, that they have,
indeed, one advantage over every other internal produce—
their increafe does not leflen other articles of human futte-
nance. The falmon does not prey on the produce of the foil ;
nor does it owe its fize, and nutritive qualities, to the
deftru@tion of its compatriot tribes. It leaves its native
river at an early ftate of growth; and going even naturalifts
know not whither, returns of ample magnitude, and rich
in human nourifhment; expofing itfelf in the narrowett
ftreams ; asif nature intended it as a fpecial boon to the
human fpecies. In every ftage of favagenefs and civiliza-
tion, it is conceived, the falmon mult have been confidered
as a valuable benefaétion to this country. ;

At the prefent period the falmon-fifheries of this ifland,
as well, perhaps, as thofe of Ireland, are likewife of high
intereft and value as the private property of individuals,
efpecially thofe in the more northern parts of this country.
And it is by no means improbable, but that thofe in the
more fouthern diftriéts of the kingdom, may admit of very
great improvement by proper attention and management.

The falmon in its young as well as more advanced ttate of
rowth has numerous enemies to contend with. In its early
fate fifhes of prey, fuch as the pike and trouts of fize, are
highly deftru€tive of it. They, therefore, as well as any
others that may be injurious in the fame way, fhould con-
{tantly be confidered as vermin in rivers down which famlets
are to pafs, and be treated accordingly. The hern is equally
deftruétive of the young falmon, particularly in the higher
branches of rivers; and though it may fometimes have
been nurfed up in places for amufemert, fhould now be
every where near this fort of fifheries deftroyed, as it is
thought that the cormorant might be more wifely propa-
ap and proteéted, as being infinitely lefs deftruétive of
refh-water fifb.

‘The otter is another well-known enemy of fifh; but he
is fuppofed to be more deftruétive to the pom falmon,
than to thofe which are in their young ftate. e, too, fhould
confequently be banifhed from the borders of all falmon
rivers.

But a fort of vermin, fays the above writer, which is
more injurious and deftruétive to the youre falmon, than all
thefe, is the angler; who, during minor floods, while they
are attempting to make their efcape downward to the fea,
takes and counts his vidtims by the fcore. The net-fifher
is ftill more mifchievous: but the miller moft of all; who
takes them, in his mill-traps, locks, and bafkets, at once, by
the bufhel or the fack, The night prowling fifher with his
light, is alfo a prodigious enemy to the falmon in the nar-
row ftreams and branches of rivers in fome places. All

SAL

thefe fhould, of courfe, be obviated as much as poffible in a
well-managed falmon-fifhery, as well as in any other that
may be found to exitt. worn

Should the notion that falmon return to their native rivers
prove well founded, and the whole of a falmon river belong
tothe fame proprietor, the crime and mifchief of deftroying
young falmon become perfe@ly of the fame nature, as that
of deitroying the young of agricultural animals. It con-
fequently, it is contended, behoves thofe who have the
fuperintendance of falmon-fifheries,. no matter whether
they are entire or joint properties, to fee that the one is
aac with the fame zeal and afliduity as that of the
other. :
Allowing, therefore, that the individual falmon which
are bred in any certain river, inftinGively return again to the
fame from the fea, where they have been for food and to
fuit their particular economy ; the moft evident and effectual
means of improvement in any particular river, would feém
to be thofe of permitting a fufficient number of grown fal-
mon to fo freely up to the /pawning grounds; proteding
them well while there ; and carefully guarding the infant
fhoal, in their paflage and progrefs from thence to the ocean.
On the fuppofition of this pronenefs in falmon to come back
to their native rivers, the taking of fuch vaft numbers of the
young fifh, on their return, in the latter end of the year, in a
feaward dire€tion, is alfo contended by fome to be fuch a
watteful and improvident deftruétion of the fpecies, as to
loudly call for fome effe€tual remedy, as the late alarming
deficiencies in the falmon-fifheries of fome rivers. and other
places, may thereby be in fome degree guarded againft and
prevented. . It has been afcertained on good authority, that
at this feafon, on fome rivers the quantity taken in one week
has not been lefs than a thoufand, and in others not below
half that number; while in many more the quantities may
have been ftill greater, in the fame fpace of time. In fome
cafes it has indeed been fo great, as for the young falmon-
fry, or gravellers, to be given even to the hogs. The
high weirs which are formed acrofs the lower parts of rivers
in many inftances are highly prejudicial to falmon-fifheries,
by hindering the grown fifh from getting up to the fhallow
parts of them above, in order to produce their young.
This is the cafe at prefent with the falmon-fifhery of
the Lane near Lancafter, and the fame was the cafe until
lately with that of the Ribble, near Prefton, in the fame
county, which is now lowered in confequence of a judicial
decifion. : %

Some particulars in refpe& to the methods of taking the
grown falmon, that are praétifed in different cafes, may be
noticed in this place, but the whole detail would far exceed
our limits. In all fituations where falmon fifheries exift,
there are moftly men who are accuftomed to the bufinefs in
every cafe of the ordinary kind. ’ :

In mott fituations to which this fort of fifheries is
reftrited, and which have been pointed out above, the
falmons moftly ftay fome length of time, more or lefs, as is
perhaps directed by their different ftates of forwardnefs in
regard to {pawning ; and it is here where the various devices
for taking them are had recourfe to. x

In the fifhery of this nature in the widely extended
fhallow eftuary, ufually denominated Solway-frith, which
divides the county of Cumberland from that of Dumfries,
there are two of the different interefting methods which are
there practifed, the writer of a late work on rural fubjects
fays, which deferve particular attention. He remarks that,
befides the open channels which are worn by the ftreams of
the Efk, the Eden, and the other rivers and brooks which
empty themfelves into the above common eftuary, the ve

°

4

S.A E

of which its bafe is conitituted and compofed, and which are
left dry at low water, are formed into ridges and vallies by
the tides and tempeftuous weather. The lower ends of thefe
vallies, or falfe channels, are wide and deep ; opening down-
ward towards the fea, their upper.ends growing narrower,
and fhallower, until they clofe in points at the tops of the
fand-banks. As the tide flows upward, the falmon, either
in fearch of their food, or the channel of the river to which
they are.deftined, enter thefe vallies, {trips of water, or lakes.
But finding, on the turn of the tide, that their paflage
further upward is itopped, they naturally return again with
it into the deep water, where they remain until the next fuc-
céeding tide. The manorial and other proprietors of thefe
fand-banks, it is faid, having difcovered this faét in their
general habits and economy, have, from time immemorial,
it is underitood, run lines of nets, during the fifhing feafon,
acrofs the lower ends of thefe ftrips, lakes, or vallies, half a
mile or more, perhaps, in width ; which being fufpended in
fuch a manner as to be lifted from the furface of the ground,
by the current of the tide ftream, in flowing upward, the
fifh find no impediment or difficulty in pafling underneath
them, up into the lakes, channels, or {trips of water. How-
ever, on the tides ebbing or turning, their lower edges fall
down clofe to the furface of the fand, and thus effeCtually
prevent and fecure them fromareturn. They are, of courfe,
left dry, or in fhallow water, fo as to beeafily taken by the
fifhermen. 7

The other ufual method which is had recourfe to in the
fame fifhery traét, for the taking of this fort of fifh, is that
founded on a well-known habit of falmon, when they firlt
make the land, and enter into the narrow feas and eftuaries,
of keeping much to, and along the fhores; the reafon of
which is a matter of no confequence, whether it be that of
enabling them to hit with greater certainty their native
rivers and ftreams; that of rubbing off the vermin, with
which, in general, they are more or lefs infefted, when they
return from the ocean; the being in fearch of their proper
and particular food; or any other.

This mode of fifhing for, and taking falmon, if not an in-
vention of modern date, has, it is faid, been recently raifed
to its prefent ftate of perfection by an expert and enter-
prifing falmon fifher and farmer in the vicinity of the little
town of Annon; who has turned it to very great profit and
advantage. Ata fhort diftance below the mouth of the
river of the fame name, it is {tated that he has run out a long
line of a fort of tall net fence, which extends feveral hundred
yards, and in fomewhat an oblique direétion from the line of
the fhore, with which it makes an acute angle, and clofes in
with, at the upper end ; thus forming in effet, it is obferved,
an artificial lake or plot of water, as it were ; one fide of
which isthe beach, the other the net fence. The lower end
is, it is noticed, ingenioufly guarded with nets of a more
trap-like conttruétion than thofe which are in ufe for natural
lakes and bays ; in which the fifh are found to lie more quietly
until the turn of the tide, orits becoming ebb. It is added
that in this immenfe trap or contrivance, great quantities,
not only of falmon, but of cod, ling, foals, and other
forts of white fifh are taken and fecured. And that no
place in the whole ifland is known, where /ea fifhing for the
taking of falmon can be ftudied and entered into the nature
of, with fo much profit and advantage, as on the fhores and
banks of this diftriét in the fouth-weft of Scotland.

Something of this method is alfo practifed on a {mall feale
in the taking, or catching as it is called, of this fort of fith,
near the extenfive bay of pee on the coalts or fhores
of Silverdale, and other places in the northern parts of Lan-

Vou. XXX1.

SAL

cafhire. In the vait tra& of the fands caufed by the fea in
thele parts, there are {ome large channels, and a number of
{maller ones, formed by the ftreams of the main rivers, and
thofe of the little rivulets, that abound with falmon and flat
fifth of other kinds, acrofs which nets of a fomewhat fimilar
kind are fet, and the fifh taken during the ebb of the tides
by the fifhermen. Somewhat the fame plan may likewife be
purfued in the taking cf them in a number of other’ fea
diftri&s in the fame part of the kingdom. In the very
extenfive fea fifheries of this defcription, too, in the northern
parts of Scotland, there is fomething of the fame nature
prevailing in the praétice of taking the falmon by the fifher-
men, but they likewife have recourfe to the method of
{pearing them, or ftriking them with an inftrument of the
{pear kind, made for the purpofe, while they are in the water,
which readily fecures them, and at which the fifhermen are
particularly dextrous and expert.

In the river fifhing for falmon, the bufinefs is principally
done either by the locks and other contrivances in the weirs
of them, or with the feine, or long draft net, the con-
ftru€tion and application of which are now very generally |
underftood. It is confequently only neceflary to remark, in
regard to them, the above writer fays, that in rivers which
are liable to frequent and great changes in the depth and
itrength of current, on account of tides and floods, it is
defirable and proper to have nets of different textures, or
widths of mefhes, as well as of different depths; as one of
the formation which is beit fuited to the ordinary ftate of
the water, and to the fize of the fifh which frequent it, as
falmon peels, trouts, mullets, and other {mall-fized fifh,
which are in fome rivers ufually taken with the falmon ; and
another with more depth, and wider mefhes, to be employed
during high water, and in ftrong currents, when the larger
falmon feldom fail to haften upward ; as the fame ftrength
of hands which is able to draw a clofe fhallow net, can work
a deeper one with larger mefhes. And in wide rivers with
flat fhores, a variety, of nets is thought to be required, of
different lengths and depths, fo as to {uit every height and
width of the water in them.

The {almon fifheries in the northern parts of Scotland are
of very great importance, where, befides thofe upon the
ocean and the different arms of the fea, they are met with
onthe numerous lochs, lakes, and rivers which have a com-
munication with it, The writer of the agricultural account
of the Invernefs diftri@, in the above traét of country,
{tates, that the falmon-fifhing, or fifhery on the river Lochy,
which is a joint property, rents at 270/. a-year. That, on
the river Morer, falmon are alfo taken, but turn to little
account, in confequence of the difficulty of preferving, and
conveying them to more populous diltriéts, probably from
the want of proper falt and better roads. Lochnefs, and the
various waters that flow into it, are faid to afford falmon.
In the lake they are ftated to be caught by the feine ; but
in the rivers the fifhes are difturbed by the floating of
timber down them, and, of courfe, fewer are taken. At the
houfe of Invermorifton, the manner of taking this fifh is
noticed as fingular. It is this: about a quarter of a mile
above the houfe the river flows, it is faid, in a narrow chafm,
between two projeéting rocks. ‘The fifherman feats himfelf
on acliff of this rock, right over the cafeade, with a {pear
in his hand, which has a line fixed to the upper end of the
fhaft, fimilar to the practice of fifhing for whales with har-
poons. Whenever the falmon makes a {pring to gain the
afcent and throw itfelf over the cataraét, the rpear-man
{trikes the fifh, and lets the fhaft go, holding only by the
line, until the fifh has exhaulted his ftrength ; then the {pear

F f

and

SAL

and the fith together are thrown afhore by the ftream, and
taken out at the lower fide of the pool. They are taken,
in this way, in fuch numbers, that eighteen have been
killed in this place before breakfait. At Killin, in Perth-
fhire, and upon the river Urchay, in Argylefhire, falmon have
alfo, it is faid, been caught in fimilar circumitances, and
with equal peril to the fifherman or the perfon employed in
the bubinefe

It is added that the falmon fifhing or fifhery at Beauly, in
the firft of the above diftrits, lets for 1260/. a-year. And
that, on the river Nefs, the fifhing within the then preceding
eleven years, had mfen in value from 200/. to 1200/. a-year.
More than fix years having elapfed fince that period, it is
now probably higher. This is alfo a joint-property. Loch
Inch has likewife a {mall falmon fifhery, but it is not let. In
fome of thefe falmon fifheries there are other forts of fith of
the flounder and different flat kinds. And herrings vifit
other lochs and friths. In that of Murray they are often
taken in creat numbers ; befides the white fifh, which are fre-
quently Found as far out as Tarbetnefs, and caught by dif-
ferent numbers of boats of two proprietors, as well as by
fome fifhermen in a village near the place. . The fifhing of
herrings and for white fifh upon the weft coaft of this diftri@
is, as well as that for falmon, of inconceivable importance in
a national point of view.

The falmon fifhing on the river Tay, and its branches, in
the county of Perth, is now alfo of great importance, and
has been brought to a perfeGtion which formerly was not
thought of, by the exertions of Mr. Richardfon of that
diftri&t, who ftates that the valuable part of the falmon
fifhing on that river is from the influx of the Ifla, down to
Newburgh on the fouth, and Errol on the north fide of it.
The annual rent of the fifhings or fifheries on this {pace was,
in 1795, feven thoufand pounds, or nearly that fum; of
which lord Gray, as principal heritor, draws two thoufand
five hundred and fixty pounds. And above the Ifla, on the
courfe of the fame river up to the loch of the fame name, and
upon the Tumble which joins it, there are fcattered fifhings
belonging to different proprietors, to the amount of two or
three hundred pounds a-year. ‘The annual rents do not,
however, bear proportion to the quantity of fifh that is
taken ; asin {mall fifhings more fifh are taken in proportion
than in thofe of greater confequence. The charge of fifhine
mutt be paid before any thing can go as rent ; after this the
benefit of the catch is fuppofed to accrue to the pro-
prietors. From the above places, on the different fides of
the Tay, down to the town of Dundee, the fifhings are
inconfiderable, not more than one hundred pounds of yearly
rent. From the laft-named town to the mouth of the river,
including both fides, the yearly rents may amount to from
three hundred and fifty to four hundred pounds,

The greater part of the falmon taken in thefe fifhings was
formerly, it is faid, falted and fent to foreign markets.
But within the laft forty or fifty years, the produce has been
conveyed to London in a pickled ftate, that is boiled and

referved in vinegar, and then packed in {mall wooden
veflels called kits. During that period a part was alfo fent
raw to the above city, put up with ftraw in boxes.

But a few years fince a method was difcovered and advifed
of packing and preferviny the raw fifhin ice, in which ttate
almoft all the falmon that are taken in the above river before
and during the month of May, are fent to this metropolis.
The application of this difeovery, in this diftri€t, was firit
owing to Mr. Dempiter ; and the benefit of it is very great,
not only to the whole fifhery on the river Tay, but to the
falmon trade in general,

‘ | , a

SAL

Nothing new has lately been difcovered in the method of
fifhing in thefe cafes, except fuch as have been already fug-
ge{ted in regard to the nets, and the manner of ufing them
in different fituations and circumitances of the rivers, &c.

The opinion that the number of falmon on the Tay has,
for many years pa{t, been on the decreafe, feems to be well
founded ; for though the numbers taken may vary much in
different feafons, without differing greatly in the fucceedin
years, the average of the lait nineteen, it is contended, wi
be found far fhort of the preceding nineteen. This is at-
tempted to be accounted for much in the fame manner which
has been noticed above, in regard to preferving the fith while
in their young ftate.

The lake fifheries of the northern parts of the kingdom
are but of fmall extent, and only of little confequence, ex-
cept where charr abound. They are principally confined
to one mountainous diftri&t towards the north, and their
improvements hitherto have been few and of a trifling
nature. ;

There are fifheries, however, of other kinds in feveral dif-
triéts on the more fouthern borders of the fea, that are highly
valuable and important. Thofe of Cornwall, Devonfhire,

and fome other parts, furnifh a va{t quantity of fifth of dif.

ferent kinds. Brixham, a dependency of the port of Dart-
mouth, inthe latter of the above counties, has not lefs than
one hundred fail of veffels, of the boat kind, employed in
the fifheries, which are now made larger than formerly, fo as
to contain about eighty quarters of culm of fixteen up-
heaped bufhels each. The fifh-markets of the metropolis,
Bath, and Briftol, are thereby fupplied to a confiderable
extent. Inthe fummer feafon fometimes, when the overflow
is likely to occafion a glut, the whiting, flounders, thorn-
backs, gurnet, and others, are faid to be firft cleaned, and
then well wafhed in falt-water ; and afterwards gently falted
and dried in the fun. Thus prepared, they are obferved to
make an excellent relifh, and are called éuckhorn, being
always greatly in demand for the ufe of the navy, during
war, and along the French coait in the time of peace,
moftly fellmg from ros. to 16s. the hundred fifth, in pro-
portion to the fize and quality.. The herring and pilchard
fifheries of thefe parts are likewife extenfive. But both the
falmon and the herring which ufed to frequent the fame
fhores and rivers in fome initances, efpecially in the above
diftri@, have now much forfaken them, though the former
are remembered by fome perfons to have been formerly fo
abundant that farm fervants demanded to have them onl
twice a week as food. The chief haunts of the latter fort o
fith are now the fouthern coatts of this county, of Dorfet-
fhire, and Cornwall.

The Irifh falmon fifheries are equally produétive and
abundant with thofe of England and Scotland. ‘

By proper regulations im regard to the duties and fupplies
of falt, the fifheries of this kingdom would probably be
vaftly increafed. See Fisnery.

SALMon Cove, in Geography, a cove or harbour in Ob-
fervatory inlet, on the W. coaft of America, fo called from
the abundance of that fifh found by Capt. Vancouver. N.
lat. 55° 20’. E. long. 230° 21’.

Satmon Creek, a Fnall itream, which rifes near a branch
of Fith creek, and enters Oneida lake.

Saumon Creek, Big, a river of Upper Canada, which
runs into lake Ontario, between the townfhips of Cramaki
and Haldimand.

Satmon Fall, a name given to Pifcataqua river from its
head to the lower falls of Berwick. See Piscaraqua.

Saumon Falls, a catara&t in Saco river, on the line be-

tween

iTS Wiech rs Soe

SAL

tween the ftates of Maine and New Hampfhire; 20 miles
above Saco falls.

Saxon Point lies on the E. coaft of the ifland of New-_
foundland, and N.E. of Clarence point, which is the N.E.
entrance into Conception bay. _

Satmon River, a confiderable ftream, which, running
N., difcharges its waters into lake Ontario, It 1s navigable
two miles, has abundance of fifh, and 15 miles from its mouth
has a perpendicular fall of 106 feet.— Alfa, a river of New
Brunfwick, which runs into the St. John, N. lat. 47°.
W. long. 67° 32'.—Alfo, a river of Canada, which runs
into the Pickoouagamis, N. lat. 48° 30'. W. long. 73°

of.
: SALMONA, in Ancient Geography, a place in the
35th ftation of the Ifraelites, where they encamped after
leaving mount Hor.

Satmowna, a river of Gaul, now Salm.—Alfo, a town
of Triphylia, .N. of the river Alpheus and near that of
Enipeus. See Virgil, 1. vi. v. 581.—Alfo, a city and fea-

rt in the ifle of Crete. Adts, xxvii. 7.

SALMOR, in Geography, a town of France, in the

artment of the Stura; 8 miles E. of Savigliano.

SALMULUS, in Ichthyology, the name of a {mall fifh
of the truttaceous kind, called in Englifh a famkt. See
SaLmo.

SALMUNSTER, in Geography, a town of Weftphalia,
in the bifhopric of Fulda; 25 miles S.W. of Fulda.

SALMUNTI, in Ancient Geography, a maritime town
of Afia, in which Alexander affiited at the games of the
theatre. Arrian places it in Caramania, and Diodorus
Siculus on the Erythrean fea.

SALMYDESSUS, a town and port of Thrace, upon
the coait of the Euxine fea, in the weitern part, to the
north of Byfantium, and towards the extremity of mount
Rhodope. Ptolemy calls it Almydiffus, and Pliny Hal-
mydeflus. D’Anville fuppofes that it is the prefent Midjah.
—Alfo, a river that paffed by the fame town.—Alfo, a

of the Euxine fea.

SALO, Xaton, a river of Hifpania Citerior, which
almoft encompailed the town of Bilbilis.

Sato, in Geography, a town ef Italy, in the department
of the Benaco, fituated at the foot of a mountain, near
lake*Garda, and containing 5000 inhabitants, who carry on
a good trade; 14 miles N.E. of Brefcia.—Alfo, a town
of Sweden, in the government of Ulea; 4 miles S. of
Braheftad.—Alfo, a town of Sweden, in the government
of Abo; 26 miles S.E. of Abo.—Alfo, a town of South
Americz, in the province of Tucuman; 100 miles S.E. of

Rioja.

r ad Bay, « bay on the N. coaft of the ifland of Java.
S. lat. 6° 58’. E. long. 112° 36.

SALOBRENNA, a town of Spain, in the province
of Grenada, near the coaft of the Mediterranean, with a
ftrong caftle, in which the Moorifh kings formerly kept
their treafure. The trade of the inhabitants in fugar and
fith is confiderable ; four miles W. of Motril.

SALOMBO, a clutter of {mall iflands in the Eaft Indian
ocean. S. lat. 5°30/. E. long. 113° 15/.

SALOMON Istanps. See Sotomon //lands.

SALOMONIA, in Botany, named by Loureiro, after
king Solomon, whofe botanical fame re(ts on the authority
of the Holy Scriptures:—Loureir. Cochinch. 14.—Clais
and order, Monandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. uncertain,
but it has been fuggelted by fir J. E, Smith, fimply from
the defeription of Lourciro, that it thould be po bo to
the Acanthi of Juflieu, near Juflicia.

* Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, comprefied, cloven

SAL

into five, awl-fhaped, fhort, nearly equal, rather {pread-
ing fegments. Cor. of one petal, its tube cylindrical, fplit
longitudinally on one fide ; limb fhort, divided into three,
rounded, ereét fegments, the middle one longer, hooded,
Stam. Filament one, thread-fhaped, fhort, placed on the
middle fegment of the limb, and about the fama length ;
anther ovate, incumbent, covered by the hood of the feg.
ment. Pi. Germen fuperior, roundish, comprefied ; ftyle
inflexed, {welling in the middle, fhorter than the itamen ;
itigma thickifh. ~Peric. Pouch comprefled, two-lobed,
rough, of two cells. Seeds folitary, nearly ovate, com-
preifed.

Eff. Ch. Calyx five-cleft, inferior. Limb of the co-
rolla three-cleft. Capfule of two cells. Seeds folitary.

1. S. cantonenfis. LLoureir.—Found on watte ground
in the neighbourhood of Cantoa.—* Stem herbaceous, an-
nual, fix inches high, ereét, furrowed, much branched.
Leaves heart-fhaped, pointed, entire, fmooth, feattcred on
fhort ftalks. Flowers violet-coloured, in fimple, erect, ter-
minal /pikes.”?

SALON, or Satoon, in Architedure, a grand, lofty,
{pacious fort of hall, vaulted at top, and ufually compre-
hending two ftories, with two ranges of windows.

The falon is a grand room in the middle of a building,
or at the head of the gallery, &c. Its faces, or fides, are
all to have a fymmetry with each other; and as it ufually
takes up the height of two ftories, its ceiling, Daviler ob-
ferves, fhould be made with a moderate {weep.

The falon is a ftate-room; it is much ufed in the pa-
laces in Izaly, and from thence the mode came to us.
Ambafladors and other great vifitors are ufually received
in the falon.

It is fometimes built {quare, fometimes round or oval,
domesisnes odtagonal, as at Marly, and {ometimes in other
corms.

To find the fuperficies of a falon, find its breadth by ap-
plying a ftring clofe to it acrofs the furface; find alfo its
length by meafuring along the middle of it, quite round
the room ; and then multiply thefe refults together for the
furface. To find its folid content, multiply the area of a
tran{verfe fection by the compafs taken round the middle
part; fubtract this produét from the whole vacuity of the
room, fuppofing the walls to go upright all the height to
the flat ceiling: and the difference will be the anfwer.
Hutton’s Menfuration, p. 626.

SALon, in Geography, «town of France, in the de-
partment of the Mouths of the Rhone, and chief place of
a canton, in the diftriét of Aix; 18 miles W.N.W. of
Aix. The place contains 5300, and the canton 13,450
inhabitants, on a territory of 275 kiliometres, in 8 com-
munes. N. lat. 43° 38'. E. long. 5° 10.

SALONA, a town of European Turkey, in the pro-
vince of Livadia, fituated on a river, which runs into a bay
of the gulf of Lepanto. It was anciently called « Am.
phifla.””, The inhabitants are partly Greeks, and partly
Turks, and it is the {ee of a bifhop, fuflragan of Athens ;
22 miles N.W. of Livadia. N. lat. 38° 48'. E. long.
22° 31’. The gulf of Salona is a bay N. of the gulf of
Lepanto ; 20 miles W. of Livadia.

SALONA, a fea-port of Dalmatia, fituated in a fmall
bay of the Adriatic. This town was deftroyed by Au-
gultus, and rebuilt by Tiberius, who fent hither a Roman
colony, and made it the capital of Ilyricum. It was alfo
the rendezvous of the Roman fleet, and famous for its
purple dye, and for its manufaéture of helmets, coats of
mail, and other armour, It was the retreat of the emperor
Diocletian ; but it is now much reduced; 6 miles N. of

Ff 2 Spalatro,

SAL

Spalatro. So late as the 16th century, the remains of a
theatre, and a confufed profpeé&t of broken arches and
marble columns, continued to atteft the ancient {plendour
of Salona. About fix or feven miles from the city, Dio-
cletian conftruéted a magnificent palace, with a view of the
abdication’ of the empire; and for this purpofe he feleGted

a {pot which united all that could contribute either to°

health or luxury. This palace, though mentioned by Con-
ftantine with contempt, covered an extent of ground con-
fifting of between nine and ten Englifh acres. The form
was quadrangular, flanked with fixteen towers. Two of
the fides were near fix hundred, and the other two near
feven hundred feet in length. ‘The whole was conitructed
of a beautiful free-flone, extracted from the neighbouring
quarries of Trau or Tragutium, and very little inferior to
marble itfelf. Four ftreets, interfecting each other at night
angles, divided the feveral parts of this great edifice, and
the approach to the principal apastment was from a very
{tately entrance, which is {till denominated the Golden Gate.
The approach was terminated by a periftylium of granite
columns, on one fide of which we difcover the fquare
temple of AEfculapius, on the other the oftagon temple
ef Jupiter. The latter of thofe deities Diocletian revered
as the patron of his fortunes, the former as the protector
of his health. By comparing the prefent remains with the
precepts of Vitruvius, the feveral parts of the building,
the baths, bed-chamber, the atrium, the bafilica, and the
Cyzicene, Corinthian, and Egyptian halls, have been de-
f{cribed with fome degree of precifion, or at leaft of pro-
bability. Their forms were various, their proportions jutt,
but they were all attended with two imperfections, very
repugnant to our modern notions of tafte and conveniency.
Thefe ftately rooms had neither windows nor«chimnies.
They were lighted from the top (for the building feems to
have confifted of no more-than one ftory), and they received
their heat by the help of pipes that were conveyed along
the walls. The range of principal apartments was pro-
tected towards the fouth-weit, by a portico of five hundred
and feventeen feet long, which muft have formed a very
nobie and delightful walk, when the beauties of painting
and fculpture were added to thofe of the profpeé. Out
of the ruins of this magnificent edifice have {prung the
village of Afpalathus, and long afterwards the provinsial
town of Spalatro; which fee. N. lat. 43° 26'. E. long.
16° 44!.

SALONI, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Bithynia. :

SALONIKI, in Geography, a fea-port town of Eu-
ropean Turkey, and the molt confiderable place in the pro-
vince of Macedonia, is fituated on a gulf to which it gives
name. It was formerly called Halia and Therma; but
Caffander, who rebuilt it, gave it the name of his wife
*¢ Theffalonica,’? who was the filter of Alexander the
Great. Its convenient fituation for trade has fecured.to it
the favourable notice of the feveral conquerors of Mace-
donia. It is alfo dittinguifhed by feveral curious remains
of antiquity, fuch as triumphal arches, one of which, in
honour of the emperor Antoninus, is now almott entire, and
churches of extraordinary beauty, now conyerted into

Turkifh mofques, and of thefe that of St. Demetrius con- *

filts of one church erected over another, and is ornamented
by more than 1000 pillars of jafper, porphyry, &c. With-
out the city are many antique fragments with infcriptions,
and here are alfo found many ancient coins. This town is
the refidence of a Turkifh pacha, and alfo of a Catholic
and Greek archbifhop. In the year 1313 it was fold to
the Venetians, who were about eight years afterwards dif-

5

SAL

poffefled of it by Amurath II.; 272 miles W. of Con-
ftantinople. N. lat. 40° 40!. E. long. 23°. See Tuerssa-
LONICA.

SALOP. See SHrewseury.

SALOPAR, a town of the ifland of Ceylon; 18 miles
N.N.W. of Trincomalee.

SALORANI, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Braclaw, onthe Bog; 12 miles E. of Koniecpole.

SALORI, a town of the ifland of Sardinia; 20 miles
W. of Cagliari. ?

SALORNAY, a town of France, in the department
of the Saéne and Loire, on the river Guye; 16 miles
N.W. of Macor. ' Nae

SALOUN, atown of Perfia, in the province of Mazan-
deran, on the Cafpian fea; 20 miles N.W. of Amol.

SALOWACKI, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea.
N. lat. 3°50’. E.long. 131° 38!.

SALPA, in Zoology, a genus of the Vermes Mollufca
clafs and order. The generic chara¢ter is as follows: the
body is loofe, nayant, gelatinous, tubular, and open at
each extremity: the inteitine is placed obliquely. The
animals of this genus are of a gregarious nature, and often
adhere together; they {wim with great facility, and have
the power af contracting or Opening at pleafure the cayi-
ties at the extremities. There are ai {pecies, inhabit-
ants, for the molt part, of the Mediterranean, feparated into
two divifions, viz. into thofe which are furnifhed with an
appendage ; and thofe which are without the terminal ap-
pendage.

The divifion A, furnifhed with an appendage, contains
four

Species.

Maxma. The body of this fpecies has a fmall ap-
pendage at each extremity. All the fpecies in this divifion
are inhabitants of the Mediterranean. The colcur of the
maxima is hyaline, with a blueith cait, about a {pan long,
fomewhat quadrangular, with a dull teftaceous {pot at the
lower end; the lower appendage is {ubulate, the upper conic.

Prxnata. The {pecific charatter of this is, that it has
a terminal mouth; the back is marked with a yellow and
white line, and the abdomen has two reddifh-white lines.
The body is about two inches long, nearly triangular, hya-
line, with an opaque line on the back ; the appendage re-
fembles a fin, excepting that it is rather triangular.

Democratica. Body fafciate, and prickly behind. It
inhabits the Mediterranean in large groups, and fwim-
ming confufedly in all dire€lions; about an inch long.
The body is oval, truncate beforé, and ending in about
eight {pines behind, with a blueifh nucleus at the bafe, or
a radiate circle.

Mucronata. Mouth lateral ; the front is marked with
a hyaline {pine placed on the right fide, and another at the
tail placed on the left fide; the nucleus or {pot behind is
oblong and blue. It is about an inch long, rather oblong
and ovate, and pointed behind.

The divilion B, without the terminal appendage, con-
tains feven }

Species.

Puncrata. Mouth nearly terminal; back dotted with
red, and mucronate behind; the tail is projecting. This
and the two following are natives of the Mediterranean.
The body is an inch and half long; hyaline, with bands
fearcely vilible on the abdomen; it has a nucleus or {pot
near the tail, opaque, and yellowifh-ferruginous. _

Conraeratra. ‘Che mouth of this {pecies is terminal H

an

SAL

and the back gibbous. The body is not more than an inch
long; it is aay quadrangular, hyaline, foft, with a
globular nucleus behind the gibbofity of the back, is
opaque, and of a reddifh-brown, with a pellucid line pro-
ceeding from it. ! :

Fascrata. This is ovate-oblong ; the mouth is termi-

nal; the abdomen fafciate; inteftine filiform, incurved
above the nucleus or fpot. The body is an inch and
half long, hyaline, with five bands on the abdomen; the
fpot is marginal, opaque, and ferruginous. :
” Srpuo. Seubpinial obtufe, hyaline, with a reddifh~
brown fpet: in the front are two {mall tubes, the tips of
which are perforated and red. This is a native of the
Red fea. ‘The body is not an inch long; it is affixed by
its hafe to ftones or fponge; the fpot is near the bafe,
globular and opaque ; the inteftine is blueifh-brown.

Avricana. This fpecies js fubtriangular tranf{verfely,
with ten ftriz ; the mouth is terminal; the bafe has a gib-
bofity, and three fpots. It inhabits the northern fhores of
Africa, and is about an inch and half long. The body
is hyaline, the firlt {pot is opaque, brown, and globular,
the reft whitifh and almoft pellucid.

Sotrraria. This is hyaline, oval; the mouth is termi-
fal, with a blue tube; the vent is lateral and blue. This
is found in the Red fea, adhering to weeds, grafs,-&c. It
is lefs than the lait, and the body depreffed; the {pot near
the middle at the bafe is globular, and of a pale reddifh-
brown. -

Potycratica. Mouth placed beneath the upper ex-
tremity ; the front and tail truncate. It is found in the
Mediterranean. The body is about an inch and half long;
the abdomen is marked with five tranfverfe bands; the
nucleus is globular and brown. i

Sava, in Ichthyology, a {pecies of Sparus, which fee.

SALPE, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Capitanata,
near the fize of the ancient Salapia. It was once the fee of
a bifhop, removed to Trani. In its vicinity are fome falt-
works; 13 miles S. of Manfredonia.

SALPHA, 2 town of Hindooftan, in Vifiapour; 20
miles N.N.E. of Sattarah.

SALPINGO-PHARYNGEUS, in Anatomy, a name
given to a flender bundle of mufcular fibres in the pharynx.
See Decrutition.

SALPINGO-STAPHYLINUS, isa name given by
fome of the older anatomiits to the levator palati mollis.
See Deciurition.

SALPUGA, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by fome
of the Latin writers to the folipuga.

SALRICO, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Pacific
ocean; 40 miles W.S.W. of Cape Corrientes. N. lat.
20° 2!.

SALSAFY, in Botany. Sce Tracorocon.

SALSAS, in Geography, a town and fortrefs of France,
in the department of the Kaftern Pyrenées, fituated on the
fide of the lake of Leucate. The fortrefs was built by
Charles V. of a {quare form, with thick walls, and towers
at the angles, and good mines; 9 miles N. of Perpignan.

SALSEDA, a town of Spain, in Galicia; 18 miles
E.N.E. of Compottella.

SALSETTE, a {mall ifland near the welt coaft of Hin-
dooftan, in the Indian fea, about 15 miles fquare. This
ifland is fertile in rice, fruit, and fugar, and was taken by
the Britith from the Mahrattas in 1773; and they had taken
it from the Portuguefe, to whom it belonged, in 1750.
It is feparated from Bombay by a narrow [trait ; and to the
Lait Indian company it was a very valuable acquifition, as
the fettlement of Bombay poflefled no territory beyond the

SAL

fmall ifland on which it is fituated, and depended upon toe
reign {upplies for its fubfiftence. Salfette, as well as Ele:
phanta (which fee), another fmall ifland in its vicinity, has
its fubterraneous temples, cut out of the folid rock ; all of
which appear, as major Rennell fays, to be monuments of
a fuperitition anterior to that of the Hindoos. But though
fome of the figures at Elephanta be different from thofe now
exhibited in the pagodas as objeéts of veneration, and this
circumitance might feem to juitify the conjeGture of Rennell
and other learned Europeans as to their antiquity, yet the
Hindoos themfelves contider the caverns as hallowed places
of their own worfhip, and they {till refort thither to per-
form their devotion, and honour the figures there in the
fame manner with thofe in their own pagodas. A fagacious
Brahman, a native of Benares, who, for the firt time, vi-
fited this fubterraneous fan@uary in the year 1782, recog-
nized at once all the figures, was well acquainted with the
parentage, education, and life of every deity or human per-
fonage there reprefented, and explained with fluency the
meaning of the various fymbols by which the images were
diftinguifled. This, fays Dr. Robertfon (Hitt. Difq.
concerning India), may be confidered as a clear proof that
the fyitem of mythology, now prevalent in Benares, is not
different from that delineated in the caverns of Elephanta.
Mr. Hunter, who vifited Elephanta in the year 1784, feems
to confider the figures there as reprefenting deities who are
itll obje&ts of worfhip among the Hindoos. (Archzol,
vol. vil. p. 286, &c.) Another circumftance feems to
confirm the juitnefs of this opinion. Several of the moft
con{picuous perfonages in the groups at Elephanta are de-
corated with the ‘* zennar,” the facred ftring or cord pe-
culiar to the order of Brahmans; an authentic evidence of
the diitinétion of caits having been eftablifhed in India at
the time when thefe works were finifhed. Salfette is ro
miles N. of Bombay. N. lat. 19° 12'.. E. long. 72° 50’.

SALSEY, one of the fmaller Shetland iflands. N, lat.

2 53!) Welong. 1° 41!

SALSIRORA, in Botany, a name ufed by fome authors
for the res /olis, or fundew.

SALSITZ, in Geography, a town of Saxony, in the
bifhopric of Naumburg; 2 miles S.W. of Naumburg.

SALSO, ariver of Sicily, which runs into the fea, near
Alicata.—Alfo, a village of the duchy of Piacenza, cele-
brated for its Please which are faid to produce an-
nually to the value of 50,000 fcudi; 16 miles S.E. of Pia-
cenza.

SALSOLA, in Botany, fo called from its faline pro-
perties; hence the Englifh name Saltwort, moft of the
{pecies affording foflile alkaliim—Linn. Gen. 122. Schreb.
171. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1310. Mart. Mill. Di. v. 4.
Sm. Fl. Brit. 279. Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 411.
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 102. Loureir. Cochinch. 173.
Juil. 85. Lamarck Di@. v. 7. 283. LIlluftr. t. 181.
Gertn. t. 75. (Kali; Tournef. t. 128.)—Clafs and
order, Pentandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Holeracee, Winn.
Atriplices, Jutl. Chenopodee, Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, deeply
cloven into five, ovate, concave, permanent fegments. Cor.
none, unlefs the calyx be taken for fuch. Stam. Filaments
five, very fhort, inferted into the fegments of the calyx.
Pift. Germen fuperior, globofe; {tyle bifid or three-cleft,
fhort ; ftigmas recurved. Peric. Capfule of one cell, ovate,
inclofed in the calyx. Seed folitary, very large, {piral like
a hell.

Obf, M. Richard remarks that fome fpecies have three
ftyles.

Eff. Ch. Calyx deeply five-cleft. Grp

wae

Corolla none.

SALSOLA.

fale containing one feed, refembling a fhell, with fpiral
cotyledons. .

1. S. Kali. Prickly Saltwort. Linn. Sp. Pl. 322.
Engl. Bot. t. 634. Woodv. Med. Bot. t.143- Fl. Dan.
t. 818.—Stem herbaceous, procumbent. Leaves awl-
fhaped, fpinous, rough. Flowers axillary. Calyx mar-

ined.—Common on fandy fhores almoft all over the world,
Fetedial with us in June and July. Root annual, fibrous.
Stems rigid, much branched, decumbent, leafy, downy.
Leaves alternate, awl-fhaped, channelled, much fpreading,
rough, fharp at the tip. Flowers folitary, white but turn-
ing reddifh, each accompanied by three leafy, {pinous
bra@eas at the bafe. This {pecies is frequently fubftituted
for Chenopodium maritimum, in glafs manufaétories, although
the Soda obtained from it is not equal to that of fome other
fpecies of Sal/ola.

2. S. Tragus. Linn. Sp. Pl. 322. Ameen. Acad. v. 4.
310. Sims and Kon. Ann. of Bot. v. 2. 415.—Stem
herbaceous, erect. Leaves awl-fhaped, fpinous, fmooth.
Calyx ovate.—Native of the fouth of Europe, and Africa.
The /lem of this plant is ereé&t and fmooth, about three feet
high. Leaves cylindrical, fmooth, flatter above. In other
refpects it refembles the laft, of which it has by many
authors been confidered merely as a variety. . Dr. Wood-
ville mentions that the Soda obtained from S. Tragus is of
am ordinary kind, and that it is uféd in Languedoc and Si-
cily for adulterating the better fort.

3. S. rofacea. Rofe-coloured Saltwort. Linn. Sp. Pi.
323. Cavan. Ic. v. 3. 44. t. 286. Ann. of Bot. v. 2.
416.—Stem erect, branched. Leaves awl-fhaped, prickly
at thetip. Calyx wide fpreading.—Native of the northern
parts of Afia. It flowers at Kew in July and Augutt.
Stem a foot and half high, covered with alternate, roughifh
_ branches, which are frequently rofe-coloured. Leaves alter-
nate, feffile, folitary, fucculent, terminating in a white
fpine. Flowers axillary, folitary, pink or blufh-coloured.

4. S. Soda. French Saltwort. Linn. Sp. Pl. 323.
Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 1. t. 68.—Stems fpreading. Leaves
{pinelefs.—Common on the fhores of the Mediterranean,
flowering in Auguit.—Root annual. Stem a foot high,
round, {mooth and fhining, furnifhed with oppolite, {fpread-
ing branches. Leaves awl-fhaped, very long, furrowed,
fucculent. Flowers axillary, of a yellowifh-green colour,
like the ftem and Jeaves, fo as to be very inconfpicuous.

5- S. fativa. Spanifh Saltwort, or Barilla. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 323. Cavan. Ic. v. 3. t. 291-—Stem diffufe. Leaves
cylindrical, fmooth. Flowers many together.—Native of
Spain, where it is alfo very extenfively cultivated. It
flowers in July and Auguft. Root fucculent and branched.
Stem a foot high, round, with fpreading branches, which are
often reddifh. Leaves {effile, numerous, fucculent. Flowers
axillary, very fmall, five or feven together in a clufter.

From this and the preceding f{pecies the beft Soda is ex-
trated, and the utility of this fubitance in our foap and
glafs manufactories will be fhewn under the article Sopa.

6. S. fpicata. Spiked Saltwort. Willd. n. 6. (S.
falfa; Cavan. Ic. v. 3. t. 2g0.)—Stem herbaceous. Leaves
oblong, convex above, flat beneath. Flowers axillary, ter-
nate, fomewhat fpiked. Native alfo of Spain, where it
flowers in July. Whole plant extremely fucculent. Stems
a foot and half high, ere&, much branched, purplifh.
Leaves alternate or {cattered, fhort, obtufe. Flowers ex-
ceedingly fmall, three together.

9. 5. altifima. Grals-leaved Saltwort. Linn. Sp. Pl.

24. Forik. Ic. t. g.—Stem herbaceous, ereé&t, much
branched. Leaves thread-fhaped, acute, with the flower-
{talks at their bafe.—Native-of Spain, flowering in July.

4

Stem three or four feet high, ere€t, fmooth, much branched,
Leaves alternate, feffile, fucculent. Flowers {mall, glo-
bular, three together. Some authors think that this is pro-
perly a Chenopodium.

8. S. trigyna. Trifid-ityled Saltwort. Willd. n. 8.
ies altiflima ; Cavan. Ic. v. 3. 46. t. 289, excluding the
ynonyms.)—Stem herbaceous, ereét. Leaves thread-
fhaped, obtufe, flefhy. Flowers axillary, feffile, three to-
gether. Style trifid.—A native alfo of Spain, where it
flowers in July. This fpecies is adopted from Willdenow,
who fays that in habit it greatly refembles the preceding,
but that it is quite diftin& ; having axillary flowers, not
conneéted with the /eaves.

g. S. falfa. Striped-ftalked Saltwort. Linn. Sp. Pl.
324. Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 3. t. 83.—Stem herbaceous,
nearly ere€&t. Leaves linear, rather flefhy, not awned.
Calyx fucculent, tranfparent.—Native of Aftracan, and in-
troduced at Kew in 1782, by Dr. Brouffonet, where it
flowers in Auguit and September. Root annual, branched,
{mooth. Stem rather proftrate at the bafe, but afterwards
ere&t, a foot high, ftriated, purplifh. Leaves feattered,
linear, flefhy, entire. Flowers axillary, feffile, yellowith,
from three to five in a clutter.

10. S. nudiflore. Naked-flowered Saltwort. Willd.
n. 10,.—‘¢ Stem rather woody, afcending. Leaves thread-
fhaped, flefhy. Flowers forming a head, the length of the
leaves.”’—Native of the Eaft Indies, on the fhores of
Tranquebar. Stems branched, woody at the bafe, panicled
above. Branches fimple, covered with heads of flowers,
which appear naked, but are each accompanied by a fhort
leaf. Leaves as in the latt.

tt. S. flavefcens. Yellow Saltwort. Willd. n. 11.
Cavan. Ic. wv. 3. 45. t- 288.—Stem rather woody, ereét.
Leaves cylindrical, downy. Flowers in a fort of head.—
Found on mountains in Spain, where it flowers im July.
Stem fix inches high, much branched. Leaves alternate,
hairy, yellowifh-white, as indeed is the whole plant.
Flowers axillary, five or feven together in {mall {pikes.

12. S. hirfuta. Hairy Saltwort. Linn. Sp. Pl. 323.
Fl. Dan. .t. 187.—Stem herbaceous, diffufe. Leaves cy-
lindrical, obtufe, downy. Flowers axillary, folitary.—
Native of Denmark and the fouth of France. Introduced
at Kew by Mr. Hunneman, in 1791, where it flowers in
Augult. Stem a {pan high, chiefly branched from the bafe,
reddifh, downy as well as the /eaves and calyx ; the latter is
purplifh externally, yellow within. :

13. S. laniflora. Woolly Saltwort. Linn. Suppl. 172.
(«© S. lanata; Pallas It. v. 1. t. P.”?)—Stem herbaceous.
Leaves cylindrical, downy. Flowers axillary; anthers ‘co-
loured.—Native of Siberia. It flowers from June to Au-
guilt. Stem two feet high, woolly when young, but naked
when in flower. Leaves obtufe, flefhy. Flowers three to-
gether, yellow, differing from all the reft in having rofe-
coloured anthers. i

14. S. Ayfopifolia. Hyffop-leaved Saltwort. Willd.
n. 14. “ Pallas It. v. 1. 491. t. H.”?—Stem herbaceous.
Leaves linear, flat. Flowers axillary, in woolly heads.—
Native of dry, falt plains on the coatts of Siberia, flowering
through the fummer.—Roof annual, flender, fibrous, whitifh.
Stem ere&t, a foot high, purple, branched at the bafe.
Leaves {mall, downy. | Flowers axillary, two or three to-
gether in a head, greatly refembling thofe-of S. muricata,

n.25- Dr. Roth thinks that this fpecies fhould be referred
to Koenia. See that article, as well as Annals of Botany,
Vv. 2. 20.

15. S. polyclonos. Many-{piked Saltwort. Linn, Mant.
54. (Anthylloides rotundifolia; Bocce. Mul. t. 34. f. 1.—
Stem

SALSOLA.

Stem rather woody. Leaves oblong. _ Flowers capitate.
Calyx margined, coloured.—Native of the fhores of Sicily
and Spain. Stems much branched and fpreading. Leaves
oblong, flefhy, awnlefs. . Flowers axillary, terminal, form-
ing a feffile head.

16. S. profrata. Trailing Saltwort. Linn. Sp. Pl.
323. Jacq. Auftr. v. 3. 52. t. 294.— Stem fhrubby.
Leaves linear, hairy, unarmed.—Native of the fouth of
Europe. Introduced at Kew in 1780, where it flowers
from July to September. Stems proftrate but afcending,
branched, round, near two feet high, fmooth and green
below, ‘but downy and red at the upper part. Leaves fef-
file, linear, acute, of a yellowifh glaucous green, downy.
Flowers axillary, {mall, feffile, flefh-coloured.

17. S, monandra. Flefhy-leaved Saltwort. Willd. n. 17.
Pallas It. v- 3. t. M. £. 1.—Stem herbaceous, branched,
flefhy, almoft leafiefs. Radical leaves cylindrical, flefhy.
Stamen one.—Native of Siberia, by the lake Altan. Raot
annual. Stem {mall, undivided, a fpan high. Radical leaves
two, cylindrical, obtufe. _F/owers refembling thofe of Sali-
cornia; indeed the whole plant has great affinity to that
genus, in its habit and appearance.

18. S. wermiculata. Small-leaved Saltwort. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 323. (S. microphylla; Cavan. Ic. v. 3. 45. t. 287.)—
Stem fhrubby. Leaves fafciculate, cylindrical, thread-
fhaped ; floral ones ovate, acute, flefhy.—Native of Spain
and Siberia, flowering in May. Stems two feet high,
hardifh, branched, decumbent. Leaves alternate, very
fmall. Flowers yellow, in numerous, denfe, terminal
fpikes.

19. S. Arbufcula. Bufhy Saltwort. Willd. n. 19.
«© Pallas It. v. 1. t. K.22—« Stem fhrubby. Leaves in
bundles, cylindrical, attenuated at the bafe, incurved.
Flowers folitary, fcattered.—Native of maritime plains in
Tartary.”” Nothing is known of this, but from the authors
above quoted.

20. S. aphylla. Leaflefs Saltwort. Linn. Suppl. 173.
Willd. n. 20.—Stem arborefcent, jointed. Leaves very
fhort, ovate, acute, foon falling off.—Native of the Cape
of Good Hope. A very irregular /brub, five or fix feet in
height, whofe branches are covered with the rudiments of
the flowers. Leaves falling off when the plant is young;
hence its fpecific name. J/owers feffile; their. limb ex-

» membranaceous.

21. 5. arborefeens. Arborefcent Saltwort. Linn. Suppl.
173- (Kali fruticofum, incanum, foliis exfuccis; Buxb.
Cent. 1. 9g. t. 15.)—Stem fhrubby. Leaves convex on
one fide, fiat on the other, the lower ones in pairs.—Native
of Siberia. Stem fomewhat more than a foot high, woody,
much branched, white. Leaves narrow, acute, f{cattered,
whitith, flightly fucculent. F/owers in a terminal {pike.

22. §. fruticofa. Shrubby Saltwort. Linn. Sp. Pl. 324.
Engl. Bot.t.635.—Ereét, thrubby. Leaves {emi-cylindrical,
bluntifh, without {pines.—Native of Great Britain, and other
parts of Europe, flowering in July and Augutt. It was difco-
vered originally in this country, inthe time of Ray, by the
celebrated fir Thomas Brown, author of Religio Medici.—
This elegant evergreen, not uncommon in our gardens, has
a woody, erect, round, much-branched flem. Leaves alter-
nate, flefhy, obtufe, fmooth, rather glaucous. Flowers

i » feffile, folitary, green. Bradeas ternate, concave.
fealy, {mall.—« The leaves have an herbaceous flavour, with
came degree of falt, and fome acrimony.’’—Willdenow

umes, that the S. fruticofa of Cavanilles’ Icones, v. 3.

t. 285, is a new fpecies, andit has fince been called oppofiti-
Solia by Desfontaines.

23. 8. indica. Indian Saltwort. Willd. n. 23.—Stem

fhrubby. Leaves linear, -flefhy, femi-cylindrical; floral
ones oblong, obtufe. Native of the Eaft Indies—A {mall

JSbrub, {carcely more than a foot high. Leaves refembling

the lait, but longer; the floralones very fhort. Flowers axil-
lary, feffile, three together, found only on the older
branches. :

24. S. fedisides. Sedum-hke Saltwort. Willd. n. 24.
“ Pallas It..v. 1.t. M. f.1, 2.”.— Stem rather fhrubby.
Leaves cylindrical, thread-fhaped, ciliated. Flowers axil-
lary, capitate.’’—Found in watery falt-marfhes in Siberia.
—All that we know of this fpecies is from Willdenow, who
merely fays that it is diftinét from the following, in having
“ cylindrical /eaves ciliated with long hairs.””

25. S. muricata. Egyptian Saltwort. Linn. Mant. 54.
(“‘ Baffia muricata; Allion. Mifc. Taur. v. 3. 177.t. 4. f. 2.’)
—Stem fhrubby, fpreading. Branches hairy. Calyx
{pinous.—Native of Egypt, and the fouth of Europe. It
flowers in July and Auguit.—Nearly allied to 8. profrata,
but the whole plant is more {preading, and the /fem lefs
downy. Branches flender, panicled. Leaves alternate, li-
near, flefhy, foft, afh-coloured, awnlefs. /owers axillary,
feffile, {mall, covering the branches.

26. S. didyma. Twin-fruited Saltwort. Loureir. Co-
chinch. 173.—‘* Stem herbaceous, decumbent. Leaves
oblong, unarmed. Capfule two-lobed, two-feeded.’’—Na-
tive of Africa. Stem two feet high, procumbent, rough.
Leaves oppofite, oblong, entire, thick, {mooth. Yewers
axillary, nearly feffile, crowded together, without petals.

27. S. Echinus. Thorny Saltwort. Billard. Syr. fafc. 2,
10. t. 5.—Stem fhrubby, imooth. Leaves awl-fhaped, awn-
lefs: Spines divaricated, bearing the flowers.—Native of
the high mountains of Libanus. Shruda foot in height, its
flem much branched, fmooth, yellowifh. Spines folitary,
large and ftrong, an inch in length. Leaves alternate, glau-
cous, rigid. lowers feflile on the fpines, alternate, foli-
tary ; fometimes crowded together.

28. S. camphoro/moides. Camphorofma-leaved Saltwort.
Desfont. Atlant. 218. (Kali orientale fruticofum {pinofum,
Camphorate foliis; Tourn. Cor. 18.)—‘ Stem fhrubby,
fmooth. . Leaves thread-fhaped, in axillary bundles.’’—Na-
tive of Barbary, in fallow fields. Stems fmooth, ereé.
Bark white, afterwards brown. Branches numerous, pani-
cled, furnifhed with numerous, fharp /pines. Leaves alter-
nate, fmooth. Flowers unknown.

29. S. brevifolia. Short-leayed Saltwort. Desfont.
Atlant. 218. (Kali ficulum lignofum, floribus membra-
naceis; Bocc. Sicc. 59.)—*‘ Stem fhrubby, much branched.
Leaves ovate, crowded, very fhort, downy.’’—Found on the
fands of Barbary, and alfo in Sicily. Stem furnifked with
numerous, downy branches. Leaves alternate, villous, fhort,
obtufe, refembling thofe of Sedum acre. Flowers axillary,
folitary, numerous.

30. S. mollis. Soft-leaved Saltwort. Desfont. Atlant.
218.— Stem fhrubby, with {preading branches. Leaves
flefhy, glaucous, obtufe.”—A native alfo of Barbary.
An erect /hrub, whofe jflem is covered with numerous,
fpreading branches. Leaves very foft, {mooth, fucculent,
refembling thofe of Sedum album, but more flender and
fhorter.

31. S. oppofitifolia. Oppofite-leaved Saltwort. Des-
font. Atlant. 219. (S. fruticofa; Cavan. Ic. v. 3. 44.
t. 285.)— Stem fhrubby. Leaves awl-fhaped, unarmed,
oppolite.’”’—Native of Tunis in Africa, and alfo of Spain
and Sicily. Stems upright, very much branched. Branches
oppofite, knotty, {mooth. Leaves oppofite, flefhy, awn-
lefs, deprefled above. J/oqwers axillary, feflile, one, two
or three together.

The

SAL

The lait five {pecies are adopted from Desfontainess; and
we clofe this extenfive genus by fubjoining from Mr. Brown’s
Prodromus of the Flora of New Holland, 411, the two
following, not knowing precifely where each fhould be in-
ferted.

32. S. auffralis—“< Herbaceous, {mooth, very much
branched. Leaves awl-fhaped, {pinous, divaricated. - Brac-
teas longer than the calyx, which is folitary ; its fegments
when in fruit veiny and membranous.’’—Native of Port
Jackfon, and the fouthern parts of New Holland.

33- S. macrophylla. Rather fhrubby, ere&t, {mooth,
glaucous. Leaves awl-fhaped, {pinous, divaricated, trian-
gular at the bafe. Braéteas divaricated. Segments of the
calyx when in fruit membranous.’?—Native of the tropical
part of New Holland. See Kari and Sopa.

SALSOLA, in Gardening, contains a plant of the fhrubby
evergreen kind, of which the fpecies cultivated is the
fhrubby glaffwort, faltwort, or ttone-crop tree (S. fru-
ticofa).

Method of Culture—This plant may be increafed by
layers or cuttings, though with difficulty in the latter
method.

The young branches fhould be laid down in the fpring,
and when well-rooted, in the following autumn, be taken off
and planted out where they are to remain, a warm fheltered
fituation being provided for the purpofe.

But though thefe plants are inhabitants of the fea-fhores,
they may be introduced in the borders and clumps of the
fhrubbery with other evergreens, with good effect.

SALT, Sat, in Chemiflry, isa term fo varioufly applied
as not to admit of an accurate definition. It’ is obferved,
however, that the general and the moft ancient idea of a falt is,
a cryttallizable fubftance, confiderably foluble in water, and
highly fapid ; but for the fenfe in which the term is at pre-
fent applied, or of acids with alkalies, earths, or metallic
oxyds, fee Sarts. See alfo the references under Sat, and
Rock-Salt.

SAtt, in the Manufa@ures and Domeflic Economy, gene-
rally fignifies the common culinary falt, which ina ftate of
purity 1s called muriate of foda. See Muriate of Soda, under
Sopa.

Under this head we fhall give an account of the different
varieties of the common culinary falt, and defcribe the dif-
ferent proceffes by which it is manufactured.

Alimentary or common falt may alfo be diftinguifhed into
various kinds, according to the various ways of preparing
it. Hence we have,

1. Bay-falt, prepared by evaporation, by the heat of the
fun. This falt is of two kinds; the firft drawn from fea-
water, as is pra¢tifed in France, Spain, and Portugal, and
many other hot countries; the other from the water of falt-
fprings, or lakes, as in the Cape Verd iflands, in the ifland
of Tortuga, Turk’s ifland, and many parts of America.
The firft kind, in time of peace, is imported into Great
Britain in large quantities. America and its fifheries are
commonly fupplied with the latter.

The feveral kinds of bay-falt made in the different parts of
the world are found to differ greatly from one another in
feveral particulars; as, 1. Inthe fize of the crydtals, which
is owing to the heat of the fun, and the time it lies in the
pits. The French cream of falt, and the blown falt of the
ifle of May, are fine and f{mall-grained. The Portugal falt
is larger grained than that of France ; and thatof Tortuga
is larger than either. 2. In purity: as all bay-falt has
fome mud, flime, or the like, in the making, and fome
kinds are mixed with the bittern falt, or what 1s called Ep-
fom falt. 3. They are all more white while dry, and more

SAL

pellucid when moift ; and they differ in colour, according ta
the earth which makes the bottoms of the pits. Thus, fome
of the French bay-falt is grey, fome reddifh, and fome
white, according as a -blue clay has lined the pits, or a red
or white one. 4. Some kinds of bay-falt are more apt to
contraét a moifture from the air than others ; an imperfec-
tion to which the common forts of marine falt are much
more fubjeét : this is fometimes owing to the fmallnefs of
the grain, and fometimes to a.mixture of a calcareous or
alkaline falt with it, or to acombination of earth with ma-
rine acid. And, 5. Some kinds have an agreeable {mell in _
large heaps ; fuch are the Portugal, and the Hamphhire
bay-falts; and this feems owing to the fea-water they-were
made from having a bituminous matter in it. 6. It differs
greatly in tafte, according to the various foreign mixtures it
contains ; and it will often alter in tafte, and other qualities,
by long keeping. Thus the falt of Peccais is fo bitter,
when new made, as not to be eatable, but after keeping a
while, it becomes very pleafant. This is owing to its con- |
taining at firft a large proportion of the bitternfalt, or Ep-
fom falt, which liquefies in keeping, and running off in form
of a fluid, leaves the reft of a good tatte. In general, bay-
falt is much fitter for ufe after it has been kept fome time in
adry place, than when it is firft made.

2. Marine falt boiled, which is extraéted from fea-water
by coétion.

3. Brine {alt, or fountain falt, prepared by boiling from
natural brine, whether of ponds and fountains, or of lakes
and rivers. . allan

4. White falt, prepared from fea-water, or any other
kind of falt-water, firft heightened into a itrong brine by
the heat of the fun, and operation of the air. ,

5. White falt, prepared from a {trong brine, or lixivium
drawn from earth, ftones, or fands, ftrongly impregnated
with common falt. °

6. Refined rock-falt, which is boiled from a folution of
foffile falt in falt-water, orin frefh. And, ;

7. Salt upon falt, which is made from bay-falt diflolved in
fea-water, or other water, and boiled to a white falt.

All thefe kinds, except the firft, are comprehended by
Dr. Brownrigg under the general denomination of qwhite
falt.

There is no foluble falt found in nature fo abundant as the
falt under confideration. We find it in fome proportion in
almoft every animal and vegetable fubftance. In the earth
it is found in vait maffes, conitituting rocks of fuch extent,
as to affordan exhauftlefs fource of this valuable ingredient
of our food. The moft remarkable of the falt-mines,
which are excavations made into thefe rocks, are at Wiliecika
in Poland, Cataloniain Spain, Altemonte in Calabria, Loo-
wur in Hungary, Tunis in Algiers, and Chefhire, in this
country. Sources ofa fimilar kind have alfo been difcovered
in America. Thefe rocks are fometimes almoft pure falt,
requiring merely to be reduced to powder. In others it
abounds with earthy matter, and fometimes with oxyd of
iron, giving it various colours. The foffile falt of Chethire is
of the latter kind, and requires to be diflolved in water, and
evaporated, to obtain it in cryftals. See Rocx-Salt.

Salt-{prings are another fource of falt, and fome lakes
abound with a confiderable quantity. The fea itfelf is the
principal of this clafs, which would furnifh a fufficient fup-
ply for the ufe of man, if no other fource of it exiited.
Indeed, the circumitance of the fea abounding with more of
this ingredient than any other, isa {ufficient proof of what we
have before aflerted, that it is the moft plentiful foluble fub-
ftance in nature. The water of the fea, which raifed inthe
ftate of pure water, and afterwards filtering through the earth

and

SALT.

nd mountains, brings to that immenfe refervuir every thing
foluble which it findsin its way. Hence we find many
‘other fubftances befides falt in fea-water. This will be ex-
hibited in atabular form hereafter. The falt-works of Wie-
licfka, in Poland, are upon an immenfe {eale. The fubter-
raneous excavations extend upwards of three miles. ; Dwel-
lings and chapels are formed in the folid rock, having the
appearance of enchantment. ‘The number of people em-
ployed are from twelve hundred to two thoufand. They
are faid not to live long, being liable to a complaint in the
eheft. Great quantities of this falt require merely to be
pulverized.

In Chefhire, particularly in the neighbourhood of North-
wich, thefalt-works are very extenfive. Great quantities
are got in the folid form, but not fufficiently pure for ufe.
In this ftate it is conveyed from the mines to the Chefhire
fide of the river, nearly oppofite to Liverpooi. It is at this
place diffolved in the fea-water, from which it is afterwards
feparated by evaporation and cryftallization, by a procefs
which we fhall defcribe. ,

There are alfo in the fame diftri& falt-works, at which the
falt called Chefhire falt is extra€ted from brine. Thefe
works are defcribed very intelligibly by Dr. Holland, in the
Report of Agriculture for the County of Chefbire. See
Rock-Salt.

We thall give a brief account of the procefs employed
here for extrating the falt, for the fats of which we are
indebted tothe above author. The different ftates in which
this falt is fold has given it different appellations, which are,

froved or lump falt, common falt, and another variety in the.
form of large cryftals, called f/ery falt. In making the
firft, the brine is put into pans of great furface and little
depth, made of wrought iron, after the manner of fteam-
engine boilers. The fre being made to play uniformly over
the bottom, the brine, which is fully faturated, is raifed to
the temperature of 226°. This hightemperature, which is
14° above the boiling point of water, is induced by the
prefence of the falt. As foon as the liquid is hot, a
white be fometimes tinged with oxyd of iron, be-
comes feparated. This is partly fkimmed off, and fome falls
to the bottom of the pan. This is moftly carbonates of lime
and iron, which were diffolved in an excefs of carbonic acid,
and which is driven off when the heat is applied. It may
here be remarked, that the ftratum of red marle in which the
falt veins are found, contain carbonate of lime; and it is fo
liable to contain that excefs of carbonic acid by which it be-
comes foluble, that the {prings of thofe countries where the
fame red marle abounds, are fighly charged with carbonate
of lime, which is precipitated by heat. The removal of
the carbonates above-mentioned from the brine, as well from
the furface as from the bottom, is called clearing the pan.
Some brines abound with this impurity more than othan,
and fome contain none at all. The liquid now becomes
clear, and cryftals of falt form on the furface till they fall,
by their accumulating gravity, in the {pace of from
eight to twelve hours. The principal part of the water
is evaporated; the falt is now me out with wooden
fhovels, and put into conical bafkets, called barrows, from
which the liquid part may drain. The falt is then dried
ina flove, where it lofes about one-feventh of its weight,
and aflumes the lumpy form, from which it takes its
name.
After the pan has been ufed for a few weeks, the bottom
becomes coated with the precipitates above-mentioned to
a confiderable thicknefs. ‘Thefe require to be removed by
mechanical means, being almoft as compaét as ftone. It
would be an advantage to remove this fubftance oftener. It
Vor. XXXI.

not only lofes time by protraéting the procefs, but the bot-
tom of the pan becomes heated fo hot as foon to be deftroyed
by the aGtion of the air.

The common {alt is made by the fame procefs, but it is not
ftoved after draining, and the evaporation is conducted
more flowly, the temperature being from 160° to 170°.

The ffkery falt is made-.by the fame apparatus, and from
the fame brine, but the evaporation is ftill flower than the laft,
the temperature being only from 100° to 110°, and the pro-
cefs lafts from feven toten days. By this means the cryitals
become much larger and harder, and hence are better adapted
for the ufe of fifheries. All thefe varieties of falt, and many
others, have been analyfed by Dr. Henry of Manchetter ;
an account of which has been publifhed in the Philofophical
TranfaGtions for 1810. We fhall in the fequel to this ar-
ticle give a table of the principal facts, with other judicious
remarks, given by this celebrated chemitt.

The falt-fprings of Namptwich,*in the fame county, and
Droitwich in Worcelterfhire, are evaporated by a procefs
fimilar to that above defcribed. The falt which they afford
is held in high eftimation for its great whitenels. f

Before we quit the fubje& of the Chethire falt, it will be
proper to point out the advantage derived from fending the
rock-falt to the fea-coaft to be manufactured. The fea-
water, in which it is there diffolved, being faturated with
falt, 100 tons of this brine afford 23 tons of falt; the
fame quantity of fea-water affording 2 tons 27 cwt. which
would require the fame quantity of fuel to evaporate it.
See Satt-Brine Springs.

Confiderable falt-works are carried on in Scotland, and in
the northern counties of this country on the fea-coaft, by the
evaporation of fea-water. At Lymington, in Hamphhire,
the fea-water is evaporated to one-fixth of the whole by the
action of the fun and air.

The works in which the fea-water is heightened into brine
are called fun-works, or out-works. Thefe are conftru&ted
on a flat down or oozy beach: within a mole, which is raifed,
if neceffary, to keep out the fea, there is a large refervoir, or
feeding pond, spec se with the fea by a fluice, and
adjoining to this refervoir a long trench, parallel to which
there are feveral {quare ponds, called brine-pots, nine or
fometimes twelve placed in a row, and parallel to this two
other rows of the fame kind; beyond the third row there
is a row of larger ponds, three in number, called fun-pans,
with each of which three or four of the brine-pits in the third
row communicate by narrow openings ; and thefe often com-
municate with a larger pond, called the common fun-pan,
from which the brine flows into large covered cifterns (made
very tight of brick and clay) adjoining to the boiling-houfe.
The bottoms of the ponds are in feveral places formed of an
oozy mud, well trodden and laid {mooth; and in the brine-
pits and fun-pans covered with fea-fand. The bottoms of
all the pits form an inclined plane, higheft at the refervoirs,
and loweft at the common fun-pan. ‘The partitions between
the ponds are of mud and earth, about two feet broad, with
little openings, by which the pits communicate with one
another. The fea-water, received at full fea into the re-
fervoir, is thence let out, as occafion requires, into the
trench, and from the trench into the firlt row of brine-pits ;
and when they are duly filled, the openings between them
and the trench are clofed with mud. ‘The water, after
ftanding for fome time in thefe pits, is let out into the
fecond row ; and after a certain time, according to the de-

ree of evaporation, into the third row of pits ; thofe of the
firft row being again filled; and thus they are filled and
emptied alternat ie When the brine is fufficiently eva-
porated in the third row of brine-pits, it is fuffered to flow
Gg into

SALT.

into the common fun-pan, where its weight is examined by
glafs hydrometers ; and being found of due ftrength, it is
drawn from thence into the cifterns, where it remains till
they are ready for boiling it. The fea-water, thus carried
through the whole work, is called a courfe of brine ; and in
hot weather, it acquires its proper ftrength in twenty-four
hours ; but, if fhowers approach, it is drawn into the ciftern
before it is brought to its full ftrength. In this courfe the
falt-water ftands deepeft in the pits of the firlt row, and is
gradually fhallower in the others, till it arrives at the fun-
pan, where it is fhalloweft, and in the common fun-pan it is
fomewhat deeper, being about fix or feven inches deep.
After this manner, if the feafon proves favourable, they
make as much brine as keeps them boiling till near Chriit-
mas; after which they repair their pans and furnaces ; and
prepare their Epfom falt from the bittern, and begin again
to make brine about April.

The next operation 9s performed by artificial evapora-
tion, in boilers fimilar to thofe ufed in other falt-
works. The pans in which they boil the falt at Lyming-
ton are of lead, of afquare form, and fmaller than thofe
ufed for boiling fea-water into falt. They have ufually
four of thefe in afaltern, placed in a row, with a furnace to
each of them. The chimnies are carried up by the fide of
the wall, which divides the boiling-houfe from the fire-
houfe ; and the {moke is conveyed Bom each furnace into
thefe chimnies by two flues, one on each fide of the mouth
of the furnace. To each of thefe flues is fitted a regifter, or
plate of iron, placed horizontally, which mny be drawn out,
or thruft in over the flue fo as to clofe it, and prevent the
fmoke from afcending through it; and by means of thefe
regifters and ancdieliny and doors to the mouths of the fur-
naces and afh-pits, they are able to regulate the fires in the
exaéteft manner, and damp them while the falt is grainiag, or
{mother them quite out, if they find occafion. In the boil-
ing-houfe they have a chimney to convey off the vapours
from each pan ; which is a {quare funnel of boards. ‘There
is only one long walk in the boiling-houfe, on the fide of the
pans oppofite to the mouths of the furnaces, and between
this walk and the wall are placed large wooden troughs,
with feveral little holes at their bottoms ; into which troughs
the falt, when drawn out of the pans, is put to be drained
from the bittern.

The procefs varies, in fome degree, from that ufed in
Chefhire. The falt is not removed from the boiler till the
whole of the water is evaporated. It is then taken out
all at once, and placed in troughs with holes in the bottom.
A certain quantity of moift uncrytftallizable matter adheres
to this falt, which drains ae the above-mentioned
holes into pits below. Immediately under the holes are
placed upright ftakes or pillars, down which the liquid runs,
and upon which a portion of falt cryftallizes in maffes,
which in ten or twelve days weigh as much as 60 or 8olbs.
Thefe matles are called /a/t-cats, and amount to +,th of the
whole falt manufa@turedhere. The liquid which paffes into
the pit is of a very fharp bitter tafte, and 1s called dittern.
It is referved for the winter feafon, when the falt-works are
fufpended, and then undergoes evaporation to a certain ex-
tent. A little more common falt is feparated, which is
referved to add to the falt-brine. The evaporated fluid is
placed in wooden coolers, eight feet long, five feet broad, and
one foot deep, where it affords cryitals of Epfom {alt
(fulphate of magnefia). The remaining liquid is drained off
from the cryftals, and runs away. This is called fingle 49
fom falt, to diftinguith it from the fame article, after a fe-
cond folution and cryttallization, which is termed double
Epfom falt. Four or five tons of Epfom falt are pro-

duced from a quantity of fea-water which has yielded twa
of common falt and one of cat-falt. We are indebted to

Dr. Henry’s effay above alluded to for the account of |

thefe-falt-works, who had it from a gentleman refiding at
that place.

The artificial method of promoting the evaporation of
fea-water, and the preferving the brine in the Englifh falt-
pits from being diluted with rain, propofed by Dr. Brown-
rigg, is as follows. A number of falt-pits fhould be made
in a row in the marfh, from eaft to weit, and their bottoms
lined with plaifter, or fome {trong cement that will not eafily
break up; and by this caution, the falt may be drawn white
and pure like the Portugal kind, not grey like the French.
Over each pit covers fhould be made of thin boards, or rather
of canvas painted white, and ftretched on frames of wood,
and thefe fhould be fixed to ftrong pofts, ereGted on the
north fide of the pits, and contrived to be eafily drawn back
to them, in the manner of drawbridges. Thefe covers, thus
fixed, may be let down over the pits in the manner of a fhed
or pent-houfe, in rainy weather, to keep the brine from being
diluted with frefh water ; and in dry weather they may be
rafed almoft toa perpendicular, but inclining a little to-
wards the fouth, fo as to forma wall with the Boath afpe& ;
and thus they would ferve for a double ufe, being a coverin
to the pits in rainy weather, and reflectors of the fun’s heat
in dry weather. The reflection of fo large a body of the
fun’s rays, in the courfe of a bright day, would greatly pro-
mote the evaporation of the brine ; and the hinges on which
the reflectors turn, being placed at ten inches from the
ground, when the reflectors itand upright, there will be 2
{pace under them, through which the air will continually
flow in a brifk current, and this will greatly promote the
evaporation of the water. i

The paflages of communication between the pits muit be
narrow and winding, and mutt be wholly flopped up in wet
weather, that no frefh water run into the brine. This chan-
nel fhould be covered alfo with boards, and, at the entrance
of the pits, there muft not be a pond, as is the cuftom in
France, but only a narrow covered trench, running parallel
with the fide of the pits, which is oppofite to the reflec-
tors; and the pond, which forms the entrance of the pits
in the French falt-marfhes, muft in thefe be detached from
them, and inftead of it, there muft be formed a fourth brine-
pond, communicating with the third by a long and narrow
channel. '

If thefe contrivances fhould be reduced to praétice in
England, the falt will probably cryftallize much falter there
than in the French marfhes, and the brine may be kept as
deep, and even deeper than in the French pits ; and a fhower
of rain will only retard the work for the {mall time in which
it is falling : whereas, in the French works, it throws them
back three or four days, as no falt can be formed till all the
water it brought be evaporated. .

Four cifterns may be dug adjoining to the brine-pits, to
admit the brine in the falt-ponds, when the weather is very
rainy ; and as to the falt-water in the refervoir, if it fhould be
found neceflary to preferve it from rain in cilterns, when fo
much rain falls as to make it fresher than fea-water, it may
be let out, and fea-water admitted in its place. And, in or-
der to promote the evaporation, and to make the falt-water
in the refervoir fitter to fupply the firlt brine-pond with
brine of a due {trength, it may be proper, by means of a
{mall fire-engine, continually to force up the falt-water in
the refervoir, as often as occafion requires, aad, by means
of a diverger, fitted to the engine, to make it defcend again
into the refervoir like a fhower of rain: by which means,
the evaporation of the watery vapours will be greatly ~

mote

—

SALT.

moted after much the fame manner as is prattifed at fe-
veral of the falt-works in Germany, where the brine is very
weak.

Thus by augmenting the force of the fun’s heat, and of
the air, by promoting the evaporation of the watery vapours,
and preventing the brine from being diluted with rain, it is
very probable that, during the fummer feafon, double the
quantity of falt might be prepared at an Englifh work with
thefe contrivances, that is now ufually prepared at a French
falt-marfh of equal magnitude.

Befides thefe methods of managing fea-water, it is certain
that very large quantities of bay-falt might be prepared in
England with great eafe, from the natural brine of falt-
fprings, and from the common foffile or rock-falt of Che-
fhire, diffolyed in weak brine, or in fea-water. Upon the
whole, the bay-falt might thus be made here at a moderate
price, and in {fufficient quantities to fupply both the nation
itfelf, and all our colonies.

Dr. Watfon, in his Chemical Effays, vol. ii. p. 58, having
found, by experiment, that, in a fummer-day of {ixteen hours,
three gallons of water may be difperfed into the air, by a
warm fun and a brifk wind, from the furface of a linen
cloth, equal to one fquare yard, fuggefts a method of ma-
nufaéturing bay-falt, by wetting and drying alternately any
number of fquare yards of coarfe cloth: and he obferves,
that one labourer, affifted by proper mechanical contrivances,
might be equal to the daily management of a thoufand yards,
ormore. By this plan in favourable weather there would
be daily evaporated twenty-four thoufand pounds of water,
which, fuppofing fea-water to contain one thirty-fecond part
of its weight of falt, would give feven hundred and fifty
pounds of falt.

He adds, that thofe who have feen the artifice of itrength-
ening brine, which is pra¢tifed in Franche Comté, and other
places, by making it drip through faggots, in order to in-
creafe the evaporation, by increafing the furface of the water,
which is expofed to the air, will not be furprized at this
method of evaporating water.

Marine falt is prepared by boiling fea-water. This falt
is only made in countries where great quantity of fuel can
be had at a very low price, or where the fun has not force
enough; and is therefore made ip few counties of Eng-
land, except on thofe parts of the Britifh coaft which molt
abound in pit-coal. This has thence got the name of Neau-
cafile falt.

The falt-works in the north are the moft extenfive, and
are wholly carried on by artificial heat.

The moft convenient works fur the manufa¢ture of this
falt are conftruéted in the following manner. The faltern is
erected at fome convenient place near the fhore ; it isa long
and low building, confifting of two parts, one called the fore-
houfe, and the other the pan-houfe, or boiling-houfe, The fore-
houfe fervesto receive the fuel, and cover the workmen ; andin
the boiling-houfe are placed the furnace, and the pan or boiler
in which the falt is made. And in fome places they have two
me one at each end of the building, and the fuel and place
for the workmen are in the middle. The furnace opens into
the fore-houfe by two mouths, and from thefe is carried up
a wall to prevent the afhes from flying to the falt-pans, and
in this is a door of communication between the two houfes.
The body of the furnace confifts of two chambers, divided
from one another by a brick-work, called the mid-feather,
which from a broad bafe terminates in a high edge nigh the
top of the furnace, and by means of fhort pillars of Galabion
fixed upon it, fupports the falt-pan. The pans are oblong
and fhallow, the common meafure being fifteen feet in length,
twelve feet in breadth, and fixteen inches in depth ; they

are commonly made of plates of wrought iron, joined toge-
ther with nails, and the joints filled with a ftrong cement ;
and the bottom of the pan is prevented from bending down,
or changing its figure, by hooks faftened to ftrong iron.
bars which are placed acrofs it. Sometimes the fides, which
are not always covered with liquid but expofed to the air,
are made of lead, iron being liable to be corroded.

Between the fides of the pan and the walls of the boiling-
houfe there runs a walk, five or fix feet broad, where the
workmen ftand to draw out the falt. The roofs are wood,
and are faftened with pegs of wood, nails mouldering away
into ruit ina few months.

Not far_diftant from the faltern on the fea-fhore, between
full fea and low-water mark, they make a little pond in the
rocks, or with ftonesin the fand ; this they call a /ump ; and
from this pond they lay a pipe, through which, when the
{ea is in, the water runs into a well adjoining to the faltern,
and by this well they pump it inte troughs, by which it is
conveyed into their fhip or ciftern, in which it is ftored up
till they have occafion to ufe it.

The ciltern is built clofe to the faltern, and may be placed
mott conveniently between the boiling-houfes on the back fide
of the fore-houfe. It is made either of wocd, brick, or
clay, and fhould be covered with a fhed, that the falt-water
in it may not be weakened by rains, and fhould be placed fo
high that the water may conveniently run out of it into the
pans. When the fea-water has {tood in the ciftern till the
mud and fand are fettled from it, it is drawn off into the falt-
pan ; and at the four corners of the falt-pan, where it is fup-
ported by the brick-work, and confequently the flame does
not touch its bottom, there are placed four {maller leaden
pans and {cratch-pans, which, for a falt-pan of fifteen feet,
are ufually about a foot and a half long and a foot broad,
and three inches deep. Thefe have a bow or circular handle
of iron, by which they may be drawn out with a hook when
the liquer in the pan is boiling.

The falt-pan being filled with fea-water, a ftrong fire of
pit-coal is lighted in the furnace, and then, for a pan which
contains about fourteen hundred gallons, the falt-boiler takes
the whites of three or four eggs, and incorporates them all
with two or three gallons of fea-water, which he pours into
the falt-pan, while the water contained in it is only luke-
warm, and mixes this with the reft by itirring it about with
arake. In many places they ufe, initead of eggs, the blood
of fheep or oxen to clarify the fea-water, and in Scotland
they do not give themfelves the trouble of clarifying it at all.
As the water heats, and approaches boiling, there arifes a
black frothy fcum upon it, which is colleéted into four
{mall pans at each corner of the boiler, called « {eratch-
pans ;”’ and a great part is alfo taken off with flat wooden
{kimmers. This impurity is earthy matter proceeding from
the decompofition of certain earthy falts, and is called by
the workmen “fcratch.’? After this the water appears per-
feétly clear, and by boiling it briflly about four hours, a pan
loaded in the common way, that is about fifteen inches deep,
will begin to form cryftals upon its furface. ‘The pan is then
filled up a fecond time with frefh fea-water, applying the
eggs or bullock’s blood, and the operation of {kimming as
before : about the time when it is half filled, the {eratch-pans
are taken out and emptied of a white powder, feeming a
kind of calcareous earth, which feparates itfelf from the tins
water during its boiling, before the falt begins to fhoot.
When thefe have been emptied they are again put into their
places, where they are afterwards filled again. This
powder, being violently agitated by the boiling liquor, does
not fubfide ri it comes to the corners of the pan, where the
motion of the mafs is {maller, and it there falle into thefe

Ggz pang

SALT.

pans placed on purpofe to receive it. The fecond filling of
the pan is boiled down after clarifying in the fame manner as
the firft, and fo athird, and a fourth ; butin the evaporation
of the fourth, when the cryitals begin to form themfelves,
they flacken the fire, and only keep the liquor fimmering ;
in this heat they keep it all the while that the falt is granu-
lating, which is ten or twelve hours. The granules or
cryftals all fall to the bottom of the pan; and when the
water is almolt all evaporated, andthe falt lies nearly dry at
the bottom, they rake it all, altogether, into a long heap on
one fide of the pan, or into two heaps, one at each end of
the pan, where it lies a-while to drain from the brine, and then
is put into barrows and carried to the ftore-houfe, and deli-
vered into the cuftody of his majefty’s officers. In this
manner the whole procefs is ufually performed in twenty-four
hours, the falt being commonly drawn out every morning.
This is the method in moft of our falt-works, but in fome
they fill the pan feven times before they boil up the falt, and
fo take it out but once in two days, or five times in a fort-
night. In the common way of four boilings, a pan of the
tifcal fize, containing one thoufand three hundred gallons,
they draw from fifteen to twenty buthels of falt every day,
each bufhel weighing fifty-fix pounds.

When the falt is carried into the ftore-houfe, it is put
into drabs, which are partitions, like ftalls for horfes, lined
at three fides, and the bottom with boards, and having a
fliding-board on the fore-fide to draw up on occafion. The
bottoms are made fhelving, being higheft at the back, and
gradually inclining forward ; by this means the brine re-
maining among the falt, eafily feparates and runs from it,
and the falt in three or four days hecomes fufficiently dry.
In fome places they ufe cribs and barrows, which are long
and conic wicker bafkets for this purpofe, and in fome places
wooden troughs with holes in the bottom. The faline
liquor which remains from the making of falt, is what is
called bittern.

The fides of the pans in which the falt is made, are foon
crufted over with the fame fort of matter, formed into cakes
or cruits, that falls in powder into the fcratch-pans ; this the
workmen call « {tone feratch ;”’ thus diftinguifhing it from
that fkimmed from the top, which they call ‘ powder
fcratch :”” they are obliged to cleanfe the pans of it once in
a week or ten days, otherwife they will be burnt. In
England they do this with iron picks, but at Halle in Saxony
they havea much better method ; for they there take out the
pans, and turning them bottom upwards, burn ftraw under
them, by which means the matter of the cruft loofens itfelf,
and after this it falls off on being ftruck with a mallet or
hammer.

In Lancafhire, and fome other parts of England, fea-falt
is made in this manner; they pare off, in dry weather, in
fummer, the furface of the flats, which are covered at full
fea, and bare when the tide is out. When they have pro-
cured heaps of this they put it into troughs, and pour frefh
water on it ; this wafhes off the falt that hung about the fand,
and is received fo impregnated into veffels fet underneath the
troughs. Solong as this liquor is ftrong enough to bear an
egg, they put on more water ; when an egg finks in it they
throw the fand out of the troughs, and put in frefh from
theheaps. The water thus impregnated with falt they boil
in leaden pans, and evaporate to a drynefs, the falt remain-
ing behind.

Brine or fountain {alt is prepared from the water of falt
wells and {prinys. Sce Sarr-Brine Springs.

The ancient methods of boiling brine into falt, in Chefhire
and Worcelterfhire, are accurately defcribed in the Tranf-
aétions of the Royal Society; and the method, formerly

5

ufed in Staffordfhire, is delivered in Dr. Plott’s hiftory of
pact county ; but the method now generally ufed in England
is this.

The brine being received from the well into a large ciftern,
is thence received, as occafion requires, into the falt-pan.
Thefe pans are of the fame form with thofe ufed in the boil-
ing of fea-falt, and ufually hold about eight hundred gallons ;
in fome places thefe are made of iron, and in others of lead.
When the brine is put iato the pan, a little blood is mixed
with it, in order to clarify it, and leaden pans are placed at
the corners to receive’ the feratch, or calcareous earth, that
feparates from them in the boiling. An ounce of blood is
fufficient for eight hundred gallons of brine. In fome
places they clarity their brine with whites of eggs. As foon
as it is boiled, it is carefully fkimmed, and afterwards it is
fuffered to boil very brifkly for fome time, till the falt is
granulated ; after this the {cratch is feparated, and the fire
flackened, till the whole falt is formed.

When they have feparated the feratch, and the falt is ready
to cryftallize, they put into the pan feveral forts of feafon-
ing,*as they call them, fuch as ale, butter, and the like,
which they fuppofe corre& the bad qualities of the brine,
and make the falt of a fmaller grain. After this they boil
it very gently, and when as much falt is formed as will fill
two or three of their wicker bafkets, they rake it up to the
fides of the pan, and fill it into the bafkets, placing tl
over the leach trough, that the brine may drain into it from
the falt. The falt taken out they calla “draught” of falt,
and the operation, a “clearing’’ of the pan. -

In this manner they draw the falt, and clear the pan five
or fix times during each procefs, leaving at laft only a few
quarts of brine at the bottom of the pan. The bafkets
into which they put the falt out of the pan are called

alfo arrows ; they ufually contain about a bufhel of falt,

and are of a conic figure, open at the bafe. The whole
procefs of working a pan of brine ufwally laits about
twenty-four hours. After the falt has drained an hour or
two inthe bafkets, it is removed into the hot-houfe over the
furnace, where it remains four or five hours to be thoroughly
dried, and is then taken out of the bafkets, and laid up for
fale. In all the Englifh falt-works, the leach brine, which
is what remains in the pan after the falt is cry{tallized, and
what drains from the falt in the bafkets, is not thrown away,
as it is in Germany, but is added to the pan next to be
boiled. And befide the {alt made in this manner, they have,
at moft of the Englith falt-works, a different kind, which
they call /bivery falt. This is of a larger and firmer grain
than that prepared in the common way, and is ftronger,
being formed by a milder heat, and therefore more fit for
preferving meat. When they would make this falt, they
fill the pans on Saturday night, and then, as they draw out
no falt on Sundays, there is a very moderate fire kept up all
that day, and on Monday morning all the falt is taken out
at one draught, having had time to form itfelf into larger
cryftals than ordinary, as it is eight and forty hours inflead
of four and twenty in forming. :

They have alfo another kind of falt, made up in form of
fugar-loaves, in fmall wicker bafkets, which is thence called
loaf-falt, or bafket-/alt.. This is the whitelt, drieft, and fineft
grained of any falt, and is therefore greatly efteemed at
table. In preparing this falt they ufe ome refin and other
additions, to break the grain and render it very {mall; others
alfo, to this purpofe, boil it the more brifkly, and ttir it
brifkly all the while. But in Chefhire, where the belt
bafket-falt is made, they ufe no particular procefs about it,
but only take the fecond and third draughts of every pan,
which always are the purelt falt; and they do not Nae

thefe

pel fae ar

el

o%

SALT.

thefe to lie fo long in the pan, as when they make falt of a
larger grain, but take it out before it can form large cryttals ;
by this means they have it of a fine fmall grain, and they
then prefs it hard down into the wicker bafkets, and when
dried in the ftove, they let it remain in the bafkets for
fale;

Not long fince, Mr. Lowndes publifhed a method of

atly improving the Englifh brine-falt, fo as to make it at
att equal to the French bay-falt.

The method is this. Let a brine-pan, containing about
eight hundred gallons of liquor, be filled with brine to
within an inchto the top ;. then make and light thefire, and,
when the brine is juft luke-warm, put in either an ounce of
blood from the butchers, or the whites of twoeggs. Let
the pan boil with all poffible violence, and as the {cum nifes
take it off. When the frefh or watery part is pretty well de-
creafed, throw into the pan the third part of a pint of new
ale, or the fame quantity of the grounds of any malt liquor.
When the brine begins to grain, add to it the quantity of a
{mall nut of frefh butter, and when the liquor has ftood half
an hour longer, draw out the falt. By this time the fire
will be greatly abated, and fo will the heat of the liquor ;
Yet no more fuel be thrown on the fire, but let the brine
gently cool, till a perfon can juft Bear to put his hand into
it; keep it in that degree of heat as nearly as poffible, and
when it has worked for fome time, and is beginning to grain,
throw in the quantity of a {mall nutmeg of frefh butter, and
about two minutes after that fcatter throughout the pan, as
equally as may be, an ounce and three quarters of common
alum, pulverized very fine ; then inftantly, with the common
iron fcrape-pan, itir the brine very brifkly in every part of
the pan for about a minute ; then let the pan fettle, and
conttantly feed the fire, fo that the brine may never be quite
{calding hot, yet always a great deal more than luke-warm ;
let the pan ftand working thus for about’ three days and
nights, and then draw it, or take out the falt. The brine
remaining will, by this time, be fo cold, that it will not
work at all, therefore frefh coals muft be thrown upon the
fire, and the brine muft boil for about half an hour, but not
near fo violently as before the firft drawing ; then, with the
ufual inftrument, take out fuch falt as is beginning to fall,
and put it apart; then let the pan fettle and cool. When
the brine becomes no hotter than one can juft put one’s hand
intoit, proceed as before, and let the quantity of alum not
exceed an ounce and a quarter, and about eight and forty
hours after draw the pan, and take out all the falt.
Lowndes’s Brine Salt improved.

This is Mr. Lowndes’s procefs; except that he after-
wards dire&ts cinders to be chiefly ufed in preparing the
fires, the better to preferve an equal heat, and by that
means alfo he propofes faving a confiderable expence,
afferting that at prefent cinders are fo little valued in Chethire,
as to be thrown out into the highways. Mr. Lowndes adds,
that ina pan of the fize before-mentioned, there may be
hy a at each procefs, fixteen hundred pounds weight of
alt from the beft brine in Chethire, and one thoufand and
fixty-fix pounds from the ordinary brine of that country.
This, as the procels continues five days, isa little more than
five buthels and a half of falt a day from the beft brine, and
a little more than four bufhels a day from the ordinary kind.

The falt-boilers, and particularly thofe that prepare brine-
falt, have long been aceuftomed to make ufe of various fub-
ftances, which they call additions or feafonings, and mix
them with the brine while it is boiling ; either when they firft
oblerve the falt begin to form, or elfe afterwards during the
time of granulation. The intention of thefe additions is to
make the falt grain better, or more quickly form into

cryftals, to make it of a {mall fine grain, to make it of a
large firm and hard grain, and lefs apt to imbibe the moifture
of the air, to render it more pure, and to make it ftronger
and fitter for preferving provifions.

The additions commonly ufed for thefe purpofes are wheat-
flour and refin, in order to give the falt a {mall grain; butter
and tallow, to make the brine cryftallize more readily ; new
ale, ftale beer, bottoms or lees of ale and beer, wine lees,
and alum. Wine lees, new ale, ftale ale, and the lees of ale
and beer, are now generally rejeted by the marine falt-boilers;
except in the weit of England, where the briners, who ufe
them, affirm that they raife a large grain, and make their
falt more hard and firm, and fome fay that they make it
cryftallize more readily.

Hoffman prefers the ftrongeft ale; and Plot affures us
that it makes the falt of a larger or {maller grain according
to the degree of its flalenefs. Dr. Brownrigg apprehends
that the only good effeéts which fermented liquors can have,
as an addition, are owing to their acid fpirit, which may
correé the alkaline falts of the brine, and thus render the
common falt more dry and hard, and lefs apt to diflolve in
moiit air. For correéting the alkaline quality of the brine,
if any additions are thought neceflary, he recommends ftale
ale or Rhenifh wine ; or perhaps malt vinegar would anfwer
the fame purpofe. Alum and butter were long ufed in
Chefhire, but the ufe of the former has been difcontinued.
Mr. Lowndes introduced it, with a view of corre@ing the
flakynefs and foftnefs of brine-falt; but Dr. Brownrigg is
of opinion, that alum cannot anfwer thefe purpofes, and that
it is not neceflary ; for, he fays, that the grains of common
falt will always be fufficiently hard, and of their natural
figure, large fize, and undeliquiable, if formed by a gentle
heat and perfe@tly free from heterogeneous mixtures ; and he
imagines, that the goodnefs of Mr. Lowndes’s falt is not
owing to the alum, ioe to the gentle heat ufed in the pre-
paration of it. The addition recommended by the Dutch
will appear in the fequel of this article.

We may obferve that bay-falt and boiled falt have
refpective different qualities, according as they are prepared
at different places; and there are two general caufes of this”
diverfity ; one refpeéts the manner of preparing the falt, the
other refpeéts the quality of the water from which the falt is
prepared. When fea-water or brine is boiled into falt, a por-
tion of the acid, which is one of its conftituent parts, is dif-
perfed ; and a greater or lefs portion is difperfed, according
as the falt has been formed with a greater or lefs degree of
heat. We have an inftance of this, both in bay-falt compared
with boiled falt, and in the different forts of the latter, when
compared with each other.

Bay-falt, which is prepared from fea-water, by the mild
heat of the fun, is generally efteemed much {tronger than the
white falt, which is prepared likewife from fea-water, by
boiling the water. Hence this falt is not only weaker, but
more difpofed to deliquiate in the air; both which imper-
feétions are faid to be correéted by a {mall addition of frefh
acid, when the falt begins to concrete. Hence alfo diftilled
fea-water is manifeltly impregnated with acid, fo as to be
unfit for drinking, or for the common purpofes of life ;
unlefs a little chalk, vegetable afhes, or other like fub-
ftances, be added in the diltillation, to abforb and keep down
the acid extricated by heat; by which means the dittilled
fluid proves perfeétly fweet.

White falt is prepared by boiling either the natural brine
of fea-water, or lult-ponds and {prings, whence are obtained
the marine falt and brine falt, or the {tronger brine produced
by artificial means, viz. by previous evaporation, or folution
of foffile falt, or the impregnation of common fualt ay

rom

SALT.

from earths, fands, or ftones. Of this falt two very dif-
ferent kinds are required; the one for the ufe of the table,
and the other as a condiment for provifions. Its whitenefs,
dryneis, and the fmallnefs of its grains, are the properties
which chiefly recommend the firft kind, and its {trength and
purity the latter.

Dr. Brownrigg has propofed a method of improving the
preparation of both kinds, founded on the following prin-
ciples; viz. 1. That in the common proceffes for making
white falt, the falt is deprived of a confiderable part of its
acid fpirit, by the violent boiling ufed in its preparation ;
whence it is rendered lefs fit for preferving fifh, flefh, and
other provifions, than it would be if prepared with a more
gentle heat. 2. That moft kinds of white falt are rendered
impure by the mixture of various heterogeneous fubltances,
which render it lefs proper for preferving provifions than it
would be if feparated from them.

In order to obtain a falt of this kind, free from all im-
purities, and in no refpeét weakened by a diflipation of its
acid fpirit, let the fea-water (if that be we be heightened
into a {trong brine by the fun, after the method pra¢tifed in
Hamphhire, and other parts of England, or in a falt-marfh
conftru€ted after the French manner.

For this purpofe, a faltern muft be ere&ted adjoining to
the falt-marfh, and a large boiler, or falt-pan, made of iron,
placed in it. The bottom of the pan may be of a f{quare
figure, forty feet on each fide, and its depth may be eighteen
inches ; or it may be made of a cylindrical form, forty feet
in diameter, and eighteen inches deep, like thofe ufed in
Holland. The furnace over which the pan is ereéted may
have four mouths, made on the oppofite fides at equal dif-
tances, for the convenience of receiving fuel. The fire may
be made on a hearth ; and within the furnace mutt be ere@ted
proper pillars of brick, or mid-feathers; and, if neceflary,
{trong pofts and crofs bars of iron, to fupport the bottom
of the falt-pan. There muft be alfo four funnels, for con-
veying away the fmoke, at equal diftances, between the
mouths of the furnace. If the pan be fquare, the funyels
may be carried up at its four corners, and the mouths may
be under the middle of its four fides. To the mouths muit
be fitted clofe doors, and the funnels muft be furnifhed with
regilters, for regulating the fire. When this apparatus is
provided, let the falt-pan be filled with ftrong brine, drawn
from the ciftern, and well cleared from its muddy fediment.
Then kindle a fire, and mix a fufficient quantity of whites
of eggs with the brine, in order to clarify it; let the brine
boil gently at firit, and let it be well {kimmed. When this
is done, diminifh the fire, and apply a moderate heat, fuf-
ficient to keep the brine of a fcalding heat.

When the falt begins to grain, rake out the feratch,
which will be found at the bottom of the pan. When the
brine is thus fully depurated, in order to corre& its alkaline
quality, a proper quantity of four whey may be added to
it; the brine being kept of a fcalding heat, while the falt
is graining or forming into cryftals ; and when moft of it is
eryttallized, and lies in the pan almoft dry on its furface,
the fire mutt be damped by fhutting the doors of the furnace
and regifters; and the falt muft be drawn from the liquor
to the fides of the pan, and put into drabs, or proper vellele,
till the bitter liquor is drained from it, and then it will be fit
to be ufed in the fecond procefs of refining.

In this way may be prepared a fea-falt fa er, and of a
much firmer and larger grain, than any kind of common
white falt made by the ordinary methods; and alfo a falt
for the table, better in quality and cheaper than that pre-
pared by the common methods. However, it is neceflary
to obferve, that the falt which is required of a fair grain,

fhould be granulated with quicker fires, and drawn out of
the pan before it hath lain long enough to form itfelf into
large cryftals, fo that it may be taken out at five or fix
draughts during the procefs. The fecond or third draughts
will be the beft falt, being moft free from {cratch, and the
falts of the bittern. After the fame manner, a good kind
of white falt may be extra€ted from natural brine, and
likewife from a folution of rock-falt in weak brine or fea-
water.

In the fecond procefs of refining, a fufficient quantity of
the white falt, prepared as above direted, fhould be put
into a large ciftern, made of wood, or bricks and clay ; and
to this fhould be added as much pure river-water as will be
fufficient to reduce it to ftrong brine, almoft fully faturated
with falt ; when the falt is diflolved, and the brine has re-
mained unmoved, a {cum will arife which muft be taken off,
and a fediment will fall to the bottom. Let the clear brine
be drawn out of the ciftern into a fait-pan, fuch as has al-
ready been defcribed in the firit procefs, well cleanfed from
bittern; let a fire be kindled in the furnace, and the heat
be fo gentle, that the watery part of the brine may be
flowly evaporated without any of the faline {pirit ; for this
purpofe the heat fhould be regular, and lefs than the heat of
boiling water ; but the degree which falt can endure without
any diffipation of its acid {pirit, is beft known by experience,
and may be adjulted by the regifters, &c. When the evapo-
ration is fo far advanced, that little faline cryftals begin to
appear on the furface of the brine, then may be added to it
a fufficient quantity of the acid muriatic {pirit @ the propor-
tion of about one, two, or three drops of the fpirit to a
gallon of the brine), fo that neither the acid, nor the alka-
line principle of the falt, may be predominant. When this
is done, the evaporation mutt be continued until the furface
of the falt in the pan is almoft dry. The doors of the fur-
nace and regifters muft then be clofed, and the fire {mo-
thered out, and the falt, which will be found in large clear
cryftals, muft be raked to the fides of the pan, and having
drained there a little while, be taken out, and put in proper
veffels to drain farther from the fuperfluous brine, and it will
be then fit for fale.

The ftrong brine which reinains in the pan after the re-
fined falt is drawn out, and the brine that drains from it,
ought not to be mixed with the folution intended to be
made into refined falt, but will ferve to mix with the brine,
to be boiled up in the firft procefs into common white falt.
See on the fubje& of this article Brownrigg’s Art of mak-
ing Common Salt, 8vo. 1748, paflim.

Foreign falt, which has undefervedly been held in great
eftimation in this country, is formed from fea-water, in hot
countries where the natural heat is fufficient to evaporate
the water from the falt. The fea is let into pits or bafins
made on purpofe, and lined with clay, to prevent the water
from finking into the earth. When one quantity is evapo-
rated more water is let in, till the brine becomes faturated.

The white falt of Normandy is not made by refining the
bay-falt, but has this colour naturally when taken out of
the pits. ‘To make it they gather a muddy fand on the flats
of the fhore, which the rifing tide has covered and impreg-
nated with its waters for feven or eight days. This fand
being removed into pits for the purpofe, difcharges itfelf
by degrees of all its water, which filtrates through fome
{traw, with which the opening of the pit is filled, and trickles
into veffels fet on purpofe to receive it. Of this water it is
that they make their falt.

Their furnaces are of earth, and their boilers of lead:
each furnace boils four leads. When the water with which
they have filled the leads begins to boil, they take off the

7 {cum,

SALT.

feum, which arifes'in abundance; and in proportion as it
diminifhes, throw in frefh water, which they continue to
fim, 2s before. When it thickens, they keep it continually
ftirring, with a crooked ftick or ladle; and when the grain
is termed, they take it off*the fire to purify it.

The purifying is performed by letting it ftand in large
ofier bafkets ; where it drains itfelf of certain humidities that
remained. When dry it is laid in heaps, and thence is car-
ried into the magazines.

The commerce of falt has brought an immenfe profit to
France, though more to the king than to the makers and
fellers; on account of the heavy duty, which ufed to be
one-fourth part of the price the falt was fold at. The Eng-
lifh and Dutch, and (when they are at war with France) the
Swedes and Danes, have taken off moft of the falt of the
Comte Nantois; paying for it, communibus annis, from 20
to 35 livres the load. That of Guerande has been preferred,
by the Englifh and Irifh, to all the reft, as the beft. Yet
that of Borneuf, though browner, and heavier, is moft ufed
in France, as alfo throughout the Baltic; particularly in
Poland, where, befides the ordinary ufes, it ferves in tilling
the ground ; being found to warm it, and prevent little ver-
min from gnawing the grain.

The Englifh and Dutch have often ftriven hard, in times
of war, to do without the French falt; and to that end
have endeavoured to take falt from the Spaniards and Portu-
guefe ; but there is a difagreeable fharpnefs and ferofity na-
tural to this falt, which renders it very unfit for the falting
of flefh, fith, &c. To remove this, they boil it with fea-
water, and a little French falt, which they procure by means
of neutral nations, which not only foftens it, but increafes
its quantity by one-third. But it fhould feem their refining
does not fucceed to their wifh, by the eagernefs with which
they return to the falt of Bretagne, &c. as foon as any treaty
has opened the commerce. Sec Satt-Marjhes.

In the fouth of France thefe works are carried to a great
extent. The land generally dettined for this purpofe is flat,
having a clayey foil, and not liable to inundations. It is fur-
rounded by a wall or bank, having inlets next to the fea,

capable of being opened and fhut at pleafure. The land
thus allotted is divided into fields or compartments, of from
fifty to one hundred acres. When the evaporation is fo far
advanced that the falt begins to be depofited, it is pumped
up ona platform elevated above the fields, for the purpofe
of giving free accefs of air, by which the remaining water
is evaporated. As the water evaporates more brine is
pumped up, till the falt is formed into a cruft of about
three inches in thicknefs. This platform is divided into
many compartments, connected with each other by a com-
mon gutter. When the falt has become hard it is broken
into pieces, and laid up in heaps, fheltered from the rain, It
will be obvious, from what has been obferved of the Eng-
lifh falt extraéted from fea-water, that this incrufted mafs
muft contain a certain portion of thofe earthy falts which
conttitute the dittern. This bitter fluid drains from the in-
crufted heaps for a long time, and the falt made in this way
is not deemed perfectly good till it has been expofed for
three years. In fome places thefe drainings are colleéted
for the purpofe of procuring fulphate of magnefia, and
other preparations containing magnefia. When falt is not
freed from thefe deliquefcent falts, it is apt to become moift
in the air, and has a difagreeable bitter taite.

This falt is called 4ay-/alt, and a prejudice has prevailed
in its favour in moft countries, as pofleffing more valuable
properties in preferving animal food. The valuable effay
by Dr. Henry, to which we have before referred, deferves
the greateft praife, inafmuch as it clearly proves that the
foreign falt, fo far from being fuperior to the Chefhire falt,
is very inferior to it in thofe points on which its preferving
quality depends. This prejudice has made us dependent
upon France, Spain, and Portugal, for an article which we
might with as good reafon export.

The following table is the refult of Dr. Henry’s analy-
fis, which was conduéted with great fkill, and with his ufual
accuracy. It may be obferved here, that it is the opinion
of feveral chemifts, that falt, and the bittern in which it is
formed, contain fulphate of foda. From Dr. Henry’s ex-
periments this appears to be a miftake. ‘

One Hundred Parts by Weight confift of

Infoluble
Matter.

Muriate of
Lime.

Kinds of Salts.

St. Ubes
St. Martin’s
Oleron -

a trace
ditto
ditto

Scotch (common) -
Scotch (Sunday) -
Lymington (common)
Ditto (cat) 4
Crufhed rock -
Fifhery

Common

Stoved

Sea-water. Bay-water.

-
5
fe
E
&
4
2)
£
za
|
6

Salt.

The three firft {pecimens are of the foreign or bay-falt.
In the column hate 5 total quantity of impurities, it will
be feen that they are not by any means fo pure as the four
laft, which are the Chefhire falts. A large portion of their
impurities, it will be feen by the fecond column, is infoluble

Muriate of
Magnefia.

11
11 &c, +

Pure
Muriate
of Soda.

Total
Impuri-
ties.

Sulphate Sulphate
of Lime.| ee

nefia,

Toral
Sulphates.

Total earthy
Mauriates.

matter, which is principally clay, derived from the platform
on which it was evaporated, whieh is formed of wood, and
eee with clay to make it water-tight. The fulphate of
ime is doubtlefs an ingredient of the fea-water. Perhaps
the circumftance of the heaps of falt being left fo long to

rain

SALT.

drain out their deliquefcent falts, may account for their con-
taining fo {mall a quantity of the muriates of lime and mag-
nefia, and fulphate of magnefia.

Dr. Henry gives another reafon for the deficiency of the
latter fubftances in bay-falt. The evaporation being very
flow, the cryftals are much larger than thofe produced by
artificial heat alone, which is the cafe with the Britith fpeci-
mens obtained from fea-water: and fince the deliquefcent
falts can exift only upon the furface of the cryftals, it will
be evident that the quantity contained in any-falt, will be as
the furface expofed, which will be as the number of cryitals
in a given ma(s, and inverfely as their fize.

This very clearly fhews why the bay-falt is lefs conta-
minated with the deliquefcent falts. The reafon why bay-
falt contains more fulphate of lime than the Britifh, will be
explained from the pains taken to remove the matter which
is feparated while evaporating. The fulphate of lime, being
fparingly foluble, is feparated in clearing the pan ; and forms
alfo a part of the incruftation at the bottom of the pan,
called /cratch in the falt-works in the North, and pan-/cale in
Chefhire. The Scotch common falt, for reafons above
given, contains a large proportion of the deliquefcent falts,
and of fulphate of magnefia. The evaporation is carried on
rapidly ; in confequence of which the cryftals are fmall,
which gives a greater furface for the moift {alt to adhere to.

The Sunday falt is fo called, from the fire being let out
from Saturday night till Monday morning. The evapo-
ration, by this means, is flower, and the cryttals larger, and
in confequence prefents a lefs furface for the retention of
the liquid impurities.

The Lymington common falt contains nearly the fame
quantity of impurities with the Scotch common. But the
quantity of fulphate of magnefia much exceeds the muriates.
The quantity of impurities in the two varieties depends
upon the fimilarity of their cryftals, with refpe& to furface,
the quality of each depending upon the fea-water from
which it is obtained.

The cat-falt, of the formation of which we have before
fpoken, is formed by a very flow cryttallization ; hence its
cryftals are large and fmooth on the furface ; and hence,
as will be feen in the table, it is the moft pure of all the
varieties.

In the four laft, which are the Chefhire falts, it will be
feen that the impurities differ much from thofe obtained
from fea-water.

The cruthed rock-falt, exclufive of its infoluble matter,
would be nearly pure. This impurity is, doubtlefs, fimilar
to that feparated in cleaning the pan, viz carbonate of
lime and oxyd of iron. The remainder is fulphate of lime,
a fubftance generally exifting plentifully in the fame ftratum
which contains the rock-falt. The other {fpecimens have little
infoluble matter, the impurity confifting chiefly of fulphate
of lime, which becomes precipitated with the cryttals of the
falt as the evaporation goes on. Dr. Henry, with his ufual
fagacity, conjectured that the fulphate of lime would be the
moft abundant in the falt which firft falls to the bottom,
and the Jeaft in the laft portions. This he found to be the

fact.
Sulphate
of Lime.
The common falt, drawn out two hours ( 9
° o e
after the heat was applied - -).68# 16
Salt drawn four hours after : -)e SE «ad
Salt drawn fix hours after - -(3°" 3h

He alfo properly obferves, at the fame time, that the im-
urities derived from the foluble falts will be the leaft in the
Frit falt which falls down, and the greateft in the laft.

Inafmuch as the {mallnefs of the crytftals is favourable
to the concealment of the foluble impurities, it is alfo the
caufe of this falt not being fo well fitted for falting provifions
which require merely to be ftratified with the falt. The
fluids which proceed from the aaimal matter tend to diffolve
the falt, and the folution will go on more flowly as the
cryftals are larger; becaufe the furface is lefs. By this
means the falt is more completely infinuated, and in con-
fequence more effective. From this reafoning Dr. Henry
concludes, that falt in large grains or cryttals is beft fitted
for the itratifying mode of falting, and fmall falt better
adapted for making brine or pickle, in which the fubftance
is immerged.

This view of the fubje&t may fuggelt fome reafon why a
preference has been given to the foreign bay-falt. For,
although it is not fo pure as the Chefhire common falt ;
yet, from the flow way in which it is evaporated, the cryftals
are larger, and in confequence poflefs the advantage above
ftated. The large-grained fifhery-falt, however, is certainly
fuperior to the bay-falt for the itratifying method of falting.
Indeed, its name feems to have arifen out of its own cele-
brity ; and it is no uncommon praétice for this falt to be
fold as bay-falt. In all falt-works thefe hints may be
turned to fome' account, particularly in the manufaéture
of fifhery-falt. By a more protra¢ted evaporation, the
cryftals will be larger, which has two advantages in that
made from-fea-water :—the falt will contain lefs of the
foluble impurities, which are the muriates of lime and mag-
nefia, and fulphate of magnefia; and it will be as well
fitted for all purpofes as the foreign falt, the importation
of which is a national evil, and a difgrace to thofe who
prefer it to our own large-grained falt.

SALT ae Salt, a kind of common falt prepared by the
Dutch, of great ufe in preferving herrings and other fifh,
and to which they principally owe their advantages in
the herring-trade. The Dutch prepare two kinds of re-
fined falt, one of a {mall grain, intended for the ufe of the
table, and called butter falt. They export large quantities
of this to the countries upon the Rhine, and into other
parts of Germany. The other kind is a very ftrong and
pure falt, and is of the largeft grain of any boiled falt now
made: this lait they call the St. Ubes’s or Lifbon falt,
from its refemblance to the puré bay-falt made in thofe
places.

The falt which they refine is altogether marine bay-
falt, and they chiefly have it from France and Spain; but
they find, by experience, that any one kind of bay-falt
does not anfwer their purpofes fo well as two or more
kinds ; they therefore frequently mix three parts of Cadiz
falt with one part of that of Soufton, which is of great
ftrength, but very dirty, and of a green colour, and does
not cott above half the price of the Spanifh falt: for dif-
folving the bay-falt they ufe fea-water, which they brin
in lighters to Dort and Rotterdam from below the Bri
or Helvaet ; out of thefe lighters it is craned into cellars,
and is thus impregnated with bay-falt to a certain degree
of itrength, which they determine by hydrometers made
for that purpofe. After the heavy drofs of the falt is fub-
fided at the bottom of the cellar, the clear brine is pumped
up into the falt-pan through a mat, which retains the light
f{cum, {traws, or other impurities, which floated on the fur-
face of it. Thefe falt-pans are of iron, of a round figure,
and commonly forty feet in diameter, and eighteen inches
deep. Thefe pans are placed’ over a hearth-furnace, and
the only fuel they ufe in boiling the falt is dry turf. The
fire is kept up fo high, that the liquor boils brifkly all the
time, and if any fcum arifes, they carefully take it off, i

they

+ VAULT.

they ufe no clarifying mixtures. A little before the falt
begins to granulate, they add to the pan a lump of butter,
of the bignefs of a walnut, and half a pint of four whey,
which has ftood at leaft halfa year. This acid whey, called
azy, unites itfelf with the uncombined fixed alkali contained
in the falt, and thus prevents it from adhering to the common
falt as it cryftallizes. Any other mild acid might probably
anfwer the fame purpofe. When thefe things are perfeétly
mixed in by a good ftirring, they fhut the doors and win-
dows of the houfe, that no air may blow in cold, and the
houfe is kept thus hot all the time that the falt is forming.
This method is not new or peculiar to the Dutch works,
for Agricola defcribes an apparatus of boards to keep the
cold air out of the falt-pan all the time that the falt is form-
ing ; and the Germans ufe it, in many places, at this time.

It is out of this fame brine, and by the fame procefs, that
they make the table-falt and the ftrong falt; only towards
the end of the procefs they make this difference; if the
pan is to be wrought into table-falt, the brine is kept gently
fimmering during the whole operation, and all is finifhed in
twenty-four hours; but if it be to be made into a ftrong
falt, they flacken the fire to fuch a degree, that the operation
takes up three days.. In both cafes they let the falt remain
in the pan till the whole is finifhed ; they then rake it out
with wooden rakes, and after it has drained a-while in
wooden drabs, itis fit for ufe. The mother-brine, of which
there always remains a large quantity in the pan after .the
ftrong falt is made, as alfo the drainings of the drabs where
the falt is put, is referved to be boiled up into table-falt ;
but the mother-brine of table-falt becomes more fharp and
bitter after every procels, and is finally thrown away.

The principal ufes to which falt is applied, are as a feafon-
ing in our food, in the making of butter and cheefe, the
curing of hams, bacon, and fifh, and the prefervation of
animal and other fubftances. For the firlt of thefe purpofes
it feems almoft an indifpenfable neceffary, fo infipid would be
moft kinds of food without it. It is remarked, with fome
truth, that its favour is agreeable to moft other animals as
well as man. There are places in America where the
fea occafionaly overflows, which, on the water evapo-
rating, leaves the falt. Thefe places are called /icks, and
are the refort of vaft crowds of different quadrupeds,
whofe objet is to lick the ground for the fake of the falt.
It is faid that hay, fprinkled with falt, is eaten by cattle
with greater avidity. Salt has been faid to be injurious to
health when taken in more than common quantity. It
would, however, be difficult to mark out any inconvenience
in thofe who take more than is generally taken. Each
perfon acquires the habit of a certain dofe in his food,
above or below which he would feel great inconvenience in
taking it. Some countries far removed from the fea, and
having no fupply from the mineral falt, are obliged to ex-
traét it from the afhes of certain vegetables. In fome places
it is fo valued from its fearcity, as to become a fubftitute for
coin. In fome of the northern countries; where fuel is
fcarce, the fea-water is let into ditches lined with clay, and
the water, on freezing, concentrates the falt in the remain-
ing fluid, which, being faturated, requires lefs evaporation.
The ufe of falt in preferving food is found to have fome
difadvantages. Although it preferves the food, it ulti-
mately changes its nature, and deftroys its nutritious qua-
lities. We have ftriking inftances of thefe effeéts in the
fea-feurvy, which is not produced by the falt in the meat,
but from its being deprived of its nutritive qualities and
rendered indigeftible. Pickles or vats made with fugar,
nitre, and a little falt, are faid to preferve meat better,
without injuring its quality.

Vo. XXX .

“Sir Humphrey Davy fuppofes that the power of falt iu
preferving animal and vegetable fub{tances is owing to its
attraction for water, by which the decompofing aétion of
that fluid is prevented, as well as to its power of excluding air.
And Dr. Holland, who feems to have attended much to the
fubjeét, thinks, that although the different forts of this fub-
{tance differ little in their nature or purity in confequence of
the manner in which they are made, it may readily be con-
ceived, that their difference in form, as well as compactnefs,
may fit them for very various applications in thefe intentions,
efpecially in the prefervation of animal flefh and provifions.
But in every cafe, the more pure the falt is, and the more
free from any admixture of foreign alkaline or earthy faline
matter, the nore effectual it will be for the purpofe it is
defigned. Thus it is f{uppofed by the writer juft mentioned,
that for table ufe, the falting of butter, and various do-
meftic purpofes, a preference fhould be given to the finer
kind of falt, or that which is prepared by a boiling heat ;
as the fmallnefs of its grain fits it in a better manner for
all fuch applications. It is alfo better for the making and
preferving of cheefe; and in that procefs, as well asin the
making and preferving of butter, it is particularly proper,
in confequence of its blending, incorporating, and uniting
itfelf in fo equal and intimate a manner with the different
fubftances. It may likewife be the moft proper for pre-
ferving different kinds of vegetable fubftances on the fame
account.

For the like reafon of the {mallnefs of its grain or par-
ticles, as well. as from its confequent readinefs of folution,
the fame fort of falt may, it is faid, be well, or perhaps
the beft adapted of any for making the pickle for friking
the meat, which, with the rubbing it well on and into the
fubftance, for which fuch a ftate of its parts admirably fits
it, is the primary proceeding in the preferving of animal
flefh, and the firft part of the procefs in the curing of fifh
in the fifheries, or in other ways and intentions.

But it is contended, that for the purpofe of packing fifh
and provifions of the meat kind, it is by no means fo pro-
per, or fo well fitted and efficacious, as the common or
large-grained fifhery-falt ; for, as might be expetted, it is
found, when applied to this purpofe, not to preferve them
in an equally effetual manner from taking on or running
intothe {tate of putrefa€tion. This, however, is fated to
arife, not from any want of purity in the falt, or from any
admixture of earthy falts or other matters with it; but
from the fmallnefs of its grain or particles, and its want
of hardnefs and ee originating from the circum-
{tance of its containing a larger proportion of the water of
cryftallization than the larger grained falt. Therefore, in
confequence of its being fo fe of folution, the whole of
it is Phen into brine; which, it is thought, by being
forced out from betwixt the layers of flefh or fifth, by the
preflure of thefe on each other, the different portions of
animal matter are allowed to come into clofe contaét, with-
out having any falt interpofed. Whereas, on the contrary,
when the falt of a larger grain is employed, a confiderable
part of it continues ee undiffolved ; feparating the dif-
ferent layers or portions of meat; admitting in fome de-
gree the brine to flow and infinuate itfelf betwixt them ;
and furnifhing a conflant new fupply of faturated brine,
from the eral folution of the k tin the fluids exuding
from the animal matter, to every part of the packed pro-
vifions or other matters.

And it is further fuggefled, that the aétion or operation
of bay-falt in the fame intention, is exaétly fimilar to that
of the large-grained falt; and that neither the one nor
the other would feem to a any fuperiority or advantage

Hh over

SALT.

over the fine falt prepared by a boiling heat, except in fo
far as the fize and compaétnefs of its cryitals are con-
cerned ; and in containing a fomewhat {maller proportion of
the water of cryftallization. And that, as the large-grained
fifhery-falt, which is prepared by a low degree of heat
from natural brine, is, it is thought, more than equal to the
bay-falt in thefe important points; there can be no doubt,
whatever prejudices to the contrary may have exited, or
have been formed on the matter, that it at leait equals the
latter in its power of preferving animal flefh, or provifions,
and perhaps other fubftances. :

Ass experience, however, has much more weight than
any theory or opinion on fuch a fubjeé& as the prefent, the
writer has had recourfe to it in fupport of his reafoning on
the matter. This fort of experience is had, it is faid, on
an extenfive fcale, at the victualling-office near Deptford,
at which, it is ftated, the large-grained falt manufa@tured
in this country from natural falt-brine fprings, has for
feveral years been the only falt ufed for packing provifions,
after they have been firft falted or cured with common {falt,
or that which is prepared by a heat of one hundred and
eighty degrees. And it is aflerted, that though thefe pro-
vifions have been afterwards carried to the hotteft climates,
the ftrength and purity of the falt employed in preferving
them have never been called in queftion. They have kept
perfectly well, and it has never been doubted that the falt
ufed there, was in every refpeét equal to the St. Ubes’ falt ;
or to any other falt prepared from fea-water, by the natural
heat of the fun. It is remarked, that what is fold in the
metropolis as bay-falt, is almoft wholly the large-grained
falt of home manufaéture from natural brine-fprings or
others of the fame quality.

However, ftrongly rooted prejudices in favour of bay-falt
in the prefervation of meat and fifh ftill exift in Ireland,
Scotland, and perhaps in fome parts of this country, which
cannot be removed, except by fome change in the duties
of the foreign or imported falt, and that which is made in
this country, by which the latter may be fold at a much
lower rate than the former. And fuch a regulation would
feem defirable, as large fums are now annually paid for bay-
falt, which might be faved to the country without any dif-
advantage.

The ftate and form of falt, as the confequence of the
method of preparing it, are therefore conftantly to be con-
fidered in the rural and other praétices of curing meat and
other fubitances. See Sarr-Brine Springs.

It has been fuggefted by the firft of the above writers,
that where animal or vegetable food is to be preferved on a
large f{cale, he is difpofed to believe that it may be in fome
meafure effeéted by forcibly throwing a quantity of car-
bonic acid, hydrogen, or azote, into the vellel, by means
of a comprefling pump, fimilar to that contrived for making
artificial Seltzer water. In this way any change in the
fubitances would, it is thought, be more effectually pre-
vented. And no elaftic fluid would, in. fuch cafes, have
room to form by the decompofition of fuch matters; be-
fides, the tightnefs and ftrength of the veilel would be
proved by the procefs. That as no putrefa€tion or fermen-
tation can go on without the produétion of elaftic fluid;
preflure would probably a&t with as much effe& as cold in
preferying thefe forts of provifions.

With regard to alimentary falt in general, we may ob-
ferve, that though it appears to us under various forms, it
is immediately Siftinguithed by applying it to the tongue,
and its.always afluming the fame figures after a regular
cryftallization. Its cryitals are cubes, feveral of which
unite together into the form of ‘hollow truncated pyramids,

9

Common falt diffolves in water, and cold water diffolves
nearly the fame quantity as hot boiling water, nor does it
concrete again in the cold, like the other neutral falts, as
long as the evaporation of the fluid is prevented; but
writers are not agreed about the proportion of falt diffolved
in water. Some fay, that it diffolves in lefs than thrice

its weight of boiling water; others fay, that it requires

37th times its own quantity of water; and others again fay,
that four parts of water to one of falt are required for a
perfe& folution. Thefe differences may be eafily accounted
for by the different falts that may have been ufed. Boer-
haave is of opinion, that 16 ounces of water will not dif-
folve quite five ounces of rock-falt ; Spielmann, with whom
Neumann agrees, thinks that they will diflolve 62d ounces;
Eller fays, that feven ounces of foffile fault may be diffolved
in 16 ounces of water ; and Hoffmann affures us, that 16
ounces of water will not diffolve above fix ounces of com-
mon falt. Dr, Watfon’s experiments confirm that of Hoff-
mann; for he obferves, that he never could diflolve quite
fix ounces of rock-falt in 16 ounces of water. The fea-
water in different parts of the world is very diflerently
fated with falt; that of fome parts containing twice as
much as others. The fea-water which furrounds the coaits
of Great Britain, is faid to hold feldom more than one-
thirtieth, or lefs than one-fiftieth part of common falt.
When water is impregnated with any falt, as much as it
can bear, it will {till diffolve a quantity of another falt,
whofe particles are of different figures, proper to infinuate
into the remaining vacuities of the water: thus, after com-
mon falt will no longer diffolve in it, alum will; and after
alum, faltpetre ; then fal ammoniac, &c.

Although common falt is very cryitallizable, and exaétly
neutral, it very readily becomes. moift when expofed to
humid air, and mutt, therefore, be kept in dry places.
This falt contraéts an union with common falt with a cal-
careous bafis, and, confequently, all the falt obtained either
from fea-water, or falt fountains, contains a certain quan-
tity of this falt with earthy bafes, the white earth of which
will precipitate by adding fixed alkali to a folution of
common falt in pure water. In order to obtain a very
pure common falt, it is neceflary to diflolve it in water,
filtrate it, and add a folution of cryftals of foda, or marine
alkali, till no more white cloud is formed by the addition ;
then filtrate the liquor again, and evaporate it.

The cryftals of common falt, expofed to the fire, crackle
and burft, and thus form the /al decrepitatum, foon after
melt, and when cool, fix in form of a white and almoft
opaque mafs. This falt is abfolutely unalterable by fire, even
when it has been heated ftrongly together with inflammable
matters ; a property which refults from the flight difpofition
which its acid has to combine with phlogifton, as the ex-
periments of Meffrs. Duhamel and Margraat have demon-
{trated. However, though it be fixed in the fire to a cer-
tain degree, yet when it is expofed to a violent fire with
free accefs of air, it exhales in vapours, and attaches itfelf
in white flowers to bodies lefs hot than itfelf. Chemifts
know no other acid but vitriolic and nitrous acids, and
fedative falt, which can decompofe common falt by difen-
gaging its acid.

Common falt is of all faline fubftances the moft neceflary
and ufeful. . Its acid and alkali are employed in many che-
mical operations in the arts; it is an important ingredient
in the fufion of glafs io Grass), which it whitens and
purifies ; it facilitates the fufion and precipitation of the
metallic parts of minerals in aflays, and perfeétly covers
them ; and its peculiar ufe in preferving meats, &e. feafoned
with it, or fteeped in folutions of it, and in improving -

talte

SALT.

tafte of aliments, is univerfally known, and has been already
mentioned. In the application of falt to this important
purpofe, it retards and prevents the putrefation of almoit
all our aliments, without producing any fuch change
upon them, even when preferved a long time, as to render
them altogether unfit for nourifhment. And though falted
animal foods are generally accounted one of the principal
caufes of the fcurvy at fea, this is owing not to the falt itfelf
being prejudicial, but to its being incapable of preferving
the animal fubje&ts, for a length of time, in a perfeétly un-
corrupted ftate. Pure fea-falt, and fea-water, are rather
falubrious than hurtful, both inthe true curvy, (which fee,)
and in impurities of the blood and humours in general.

Hoffmann obferves, that an ounce of the falt, diffolved
in a proper quantity of water, occafions commonly fix
ftools or more, without uneafinefs; that this falt checks
the operation of emetics, and carries them off by tftool;
that in glyfters it is more effeétual, though ufed only in the
quantity of a drachm, than any of the pureatives ; and that
where other glyfters fail of opening the belly, a folution of
common falt produces effeG.

With regard to the antifeptic property of common falt,
it is proved by the experiments of fir John Pringle, Dr.
Macbride, and M. Gardane, in his Effay towards a Hiftory
of Putrefaétion, that, though when mixed with animal fub-
itances in a large proportion, it preferves them from putre-
faGtion, yet when a {mall quantity of it is employed, it
confiderably accelerates putrefaGtion. Whence it appears,
that fmall quantities of common falt, fuch as are taken
with food, facilitate digeftion, which is a kind of in-
cipient putrefa@tion, and ferve at the fame time as. a
mild ftimulus.to the ftomach itfelf: and, therefore, com-
mon falt is not only agreeable and ufeful, but alfo falu-
tary, at leaft to all conftitutions in which the digeftion
is too remote from putrefaétion, as in thofe’ which are
properly called crudities; though different temperaments
may differ much in this refpeét. Common falt is ob-
ferved to differ from other faline fubftances, in occafioning
drought, and tending, not to cool, but rather to heat the
body. Lewis’s Mat. Med. and Macquer’s Di&. Chem.
Eng. ed. art. Common Sar.

ALT, Common, Laws relating to. By 38 Geo. III. c. 89.
the management of the falt duties is transferred to the com-
miffioners of excife; and by 43 Geo. III. c. 69. 45 Geo. III.
c. 14. and 47 Geo. III. fefl. 2. c. 30. feveral duties are im-
pofed upon it; and by the laft a& the additional duties
charged by that and the preceding are charged upon Glauber
and me falts. And 65 pounds weight avoirdupois of
rock-falt fhall be deemed a bufhel, and 56 pounds of every
other kind of falt. {38 Geo, III. c. 39. f. 4. 45 Geo. III,
c. 14. f. 4.) Theaé 47 Geo. III. feff. 2.c. 30. recites the
ee ing previoufly made for impofing duties on falt as fol-
ows: By 43 Geo. III. c. 69. a duty of 10s. is impofed for
every buthel of falt and rock-falt made at any falt-work or
taken out of any mine in England, and a dty of 4s. for
every bufhel of the fame in Scotland; and by 45 Geo. III,
c. 14. an additional duty of 5. for every bufhel (as above) in
England for home confumption, and 2s. in the fame manner in
Scotland. By the former aét an allowance is direéted to be
made of tos. for every bufhel of falt of Englith manufacture,
ufed by any bleacher of linen or cotton in England, in the
making of oxygenated muriatic acid for this purpofe, and
fo in proportion for any greater or lefs quantity, deduéting
at the rate of 74 per cent. in confequence of the increafe in
the weight of the falt by the moifture of the air, and an al-
lowance of 44. for every bufhel of falt ufed for the fame
purpofe in Baiting, with a fimilar deduétion: and by the

47 Geo. III. feff. 2. c. 30. a farther allowance on falt ufed
by bleachers in making oxygenated muriatic acid, out of the
duties impofed by 45 Geo. III. c. 14. of 5s. for every bufhel
of falt of Englifh manufa@ture, confumed in England, and
with the deduétion above ftated, and 25. on every bufhel
confumed in Scotland for the fame purpofe, and fubjeét to the
fame dedustion.

The a& 43 Geo. III. c. 69. impofes a duty of 135. 4d.
for every bufhel of falt imported into Great Britain, not
being Irifh falt imported dire@tly from Ireland; for every
ton of rock-falt, which fhall be exported to parts beyond
the feas, other than Ireland, 1d. ; for every buthel of falt or
rock-falt brought from Scotland into England, with a certi-
ficate that the duty of as. has been paid, 6s. ; and for every
bufhel of falt employed in curing and falting fifh, exported
from Scotland to England, 6s. ; and for every cwt. of falted
beef or pork, or bacon, brought by land from Scotland to
England, 2s. 6d. The faid a& allows drawbacks of tos.
for every bufhel of falt made in England, rock-falt excepted,
for which all the duties have been paid, and duly exported;
of 4s. for every bufhel of falt made in Scotland, fimilarly
circumttanced ; and of tos. for every bufhel of Glauber or
Epfom falts. By 45 Geo. III. c. 14. an additional duty
of 6s. 8d. is impofed on every bufhel of falt imported into
Great Britain (not being Irifh falt imported dire@ly from
Ireland) ; for every bufhel of Trith falt or Irith rock-falt, or
Irifh Glauber or Epfom falt, imported into Great Britain,
an additional duty of ss. ; and by the fame a& the following
drawbacks are allowed, viz. for every bufhel of Englifh
{alt (rock-falt excepted) duly exported, 5s.; and for every
bufhel of Glauber or Epfom falt, made in Great Britain,
duly exported, for which the duties have been paid, iter
and for every bufhel of falt made in Scotland (rock-falt ex-
cepted) in the fame circumftances, 2s.

But the duty impofed by this a& fhall not extend to any
foreign or Britifh falt delivered or received for the fole pur-
pofe of curing or preferving fifh. By 47 Geo. III. feff. 2.
c. 30. 6d. of the duty of 25. 6d. per cwt. (under 43 Geo. III.
c. 69.) on falted beef or pork, or bacon, brought by land
from Scotland to England, fhall ceafe.

Commiffioners may compound for the duty with the
refiners of rock-falt, and alfo for the duty on mineral
alkali or flux for glafs. (45 Geo. III. c. 14. f. 7.) The
importer of foreign falt fhall pay the duty upon entry,
and before landing, under the penalty of forfeiture of
the faid falt, and all veflels, horfes, carriages, &c. em-
ployed in removing, landing, or conveying the fame, which
may be feized by any officer of excife or cuftoms; and
every perfon employed, or to whofe houfe the falt fhall
come after having been unfhipped, knowing the fame, fhall
forfeit treble its value: f. 8. If any falt be imported without
entry and payment of the duty, within 20 days, fuch falt
fhall be forkeived, and may be feized: f. 9. Provided never-
thelefs, that fuch foreign falt, not lefs than 50 bufhels, upon
entry and before payment of the duty, may be landed in pre-
fence of an officer, weighed and warehoufed upon bond
being given in double the amount of the duty, to pay and
clear off the duty when fold, if within 12 months, and if
not fold within that time, then at the end of fuch 12 months:
f. ro. The warehoufes are to be fecured under the joint
locks of the officer and proprietor; nor fhall any falt be
put into or taken out of fuch warehoufe in lefs quantity
than 50 bufhels, at one time, and after proper notice of 12
hours, and with the attendance of an officer: {. 11. No
foreign falt fhall be imported in any veflel of lefs burden
than 40 tons, except for the ufe of the feamen, not exceed-
ing slbe. for each man, upon pain of forfeiting fuch falt and

h 2 vellel,

SALT.

veffel, &c. f. 13. No falt fhall be imported from Ireland,
Guernfey, Jeriey, Sark, Alderney or Man, except for the
ufe of feamen, not exceeding 2lbs. for each man, and is
liable to forfeiture with the veffels, and may be feized; but
fifhing veffels, having a due quantity of falt, received from
entered warehoufes, or other veffels employed in fifhing, are
exempted: f. 14. By 45 Geo. III. c.14. f. 19. no falt
fhall be imported from Ireland into Great Britain in any
fhip of lefs burden than 100 tons, under penalty of the for-
feiture of falt, veffel, &c.: and by f. ro and 11, if any perfon
fhall put on board any veffel in Ireland more than in the
proportion of 2lbs. of falt for each perfon employed in the
fhip, without notice and bond, he fhall forfeit all fuch falt,
ed 1oo/. By f. 14. no rock-falt fhall be refined, or made
into white falt, at any place in Great Britain beyond the dif-
tance of ten miles from the falt-mine or falt-pit from which
the rock-falt has been taken ; except at fuch works as have
been duly entered for the purpofe one year previous to the
pafling of this aét: and places for making falt in England are
to be entered, on pain of forfeiting 1oo/., the falt, and articles
ufed in making the fame, &c. f.17. By 38 Geo. III. c. 89.
officers may enter and take an account at any time by day
or night. Proprietors are to provide warehoufes and ftore
their rock-falt in them, &c. under penalty of tool. f. 19.
Proprietors are to give notice of their intention to take falt
out of the mine, under forfeiture for every offence of 20/.
No rock-falt fhall be taken out of fuch warehoufe, but in
the prefence of an officer, no lefs than four bufhels at a time,
and between the hours of five in the morning and feven in
the evening from March 24th to the 29th of September; and
between feven in the morning and five in the evening from
28th September to 28th March, in each year, under penalty
of forfeiture of falt, &c. and 40s. for every bufhel of fuch
falt, or 5o/. at the eleétion of the attorney-general, or per-
fon who fhall fue: f. 21. Makers and refiners of {alt fhall
provide fuitable warehoufes, with proper faftenings, which
fhall be kept locked, except when the officer attends, under
forfeiture of so/. {. 22. Such maker fhall give fix hours’
notice in writing before he begins to charge any pan or boiler,
which notice fhall {pecify whether he intends to make
larger grained, commonly called fifhery-falt, or fine-grained
falt, under penalty of 20/. for each offence: f. 23. And
he fhall proceed without delay, on pain of 20/. Brine may
be added once and no move: f. 24. But the whole opera-
tion muft be finifhed before frefh brine is put in, under
penalty of so/. {.25. The falt taken from each pan is to
be kept feparate, and within ten hours after it has been
taken out, the maker fhall {pecify in writing to the proper
officer the quantity made at fuch boiling ; and when the
officer has taken account of it, all fuch falt fhall be removed
into the maker’s entered warehoufe, on painof 2o0/. Half
the falt of one boiling may be warehoufed before the whole
is finifhed, nor is any falt to be warehoufed till an account is
taken, under forfeiture of 20s. for every pound, or roo/. at
the option of the attorney-general, or the perfon fuing: f. 30.
Salt may be removed to warehoufes at Liverpool or Briltol
for the purpofe of exportation ; and bond fhall be given,
which bond fhall be difcharged, upon leaving with the pro-
per officer, within three months, a certificate that fuch falt
was duly delivered and fecured at fuch warehoufe : f{. 33.
70, 71. The falt removed to export warehoufes may be im-
mediately fhipped, without being warehoufed, and the bond
be difcharged: {. 72, Salt fhall not be removed out of
warehoufes, except at ftipulated times, under penalty of
forfeiting the fame, carriages, horfes, &c. and 100/. for
every fuch offeace: f. 34. Salt thall not be removed without
a permit, under the penalty of forfeiting as before, and

40s. for every pound, or 100/. at the pleafure of the attor-
ney-general, or perfon who fhall fue: {.35. Perfons-re-
moving falt without a permit fhall on conviétion forfeit 50/.
or be committed to the houfe of correétion for any time not
exceeding 12 months: f{, 36. Warehoufes are to be ap-
proved by the officer, and repaired or altered according to
his directions ; and if fuch warehoufes be opened or entered
by any perfon but in the prefence of the officer, he fhall for
every offence forfeit 20/. {. 37, 38. And if any lock er
fattening provided by the officer at the expence of the pro-
prietor be removed or broken, the delinquent fhall forfeit for
every fuch offence roo/. {. 39. And it fhall be repaired by
the proprietor within a reafonable time, on pain of forfeiting
20/. {. 40. Notice is to be given when it is propofed to take
{alt out of the warehoufes, and the officer is to attend. The
proprietor fhall be difcharged from payment of duty for
rock-falt taken out for refining, for exportation, or for
curing of fifh: f. 41. Rock-falt may be made into white
falt at the appointed place, and no other, under forfeiture
of 200/ f. 15 and 16. (45 Geo. III. c. 14. f. 14.) Per-
mits fhall be granted upon application by a note in writing :
{. 43. The permit fhall be returned after the time limited
on demand, on pain of forfeiting 50/. for every offence ;
and giving falfe permits incurs a penalty of soo/. for every
fuch offence: f. 104. f. 132. Duties fhall be cleared off
within a week after entry, or bond be given in double value:
{. 45,46. Removing rock-falt without a permit incurs a for-
feiture of the fame, and carriages, cattle, &c. and perfons
concerned in fo doing incur a penalty of 500/. {. 48. Scales
and weights are to be provided by the proprietor, and
his fervants are required to aflift, on forfeiture of 1oo/,
f. 50, 51. He that conceals falt to evade the duty forfeits
the falt and so/. f. 52. Officers may feize falt found in
veffels and carriages fufpeéted of being clandeftinely removed,
and perfons offending fhall forfeit the falt and carriages, &c.
and 4os. for every pound weight: {.54. The proof of pay-
ment of duty lies on the owner, and not on the officer who
feized the fame: f. 56. Previous notice is to be given of
fhipping {alt for exportation, and bond fhall be given in tre-
ble the value for payment of the duty, for the due export-
ation, and that it fhall not be relanded in Great Britain.
Salt for curing fifh may be imported, and mutt be duly en-
tered: f.12. Before fuch falt is delivered duty free, bond in
double the amount of the duty fhall be given that fuch falt
fhall be delivered to the fifh curer, &c. The rates at which
falt for curing fifh fhall be allowed are as follow :

For every hundred weight of cod, ling, or hake, 50 pounds
of falt.

For every barrel containing 32 gallons of wet cod, ling,
or hake, 56 pounds of falt.

For ditto 42 gallons of falmon, 36 pounds of falt.

ti ditto 32 gallons of white herrings, 140 pounds of
falt.

For every barrel containing 32 gallons of red herrings, 65
pounds of falt.

For ditto 32 gallons of clean fhotten red herrings, 56
pounds of fal.

For every lait confilting of 1000 dried red fprats, 25
pounds of falt.

For every cafk containing 50 gallons of pilchards or feads,
336 pounds of falt. 42 Geo. ILI. c. 93. {. 20.

For 32 gallons of mackarel, 84 pounds of falt.

And fo in proportion for any greater or lefs quantity.

No falt fhall be ufed in curing pilchards or feads more
than twice ; and in taking account of falt only once fo ufed,
credit fhall be given to every fifh curer for fuch falt, as con-
taining of pure falt in the proportion of three parts in four

12 of

a.

SALT.

of the whole quantity and no more; and every officer of
excife fhall make his computation according to fuch propor-
tion. 42 Geo. III. c. 93. f. 21.

Andevery barrel, cafk, or veflel, in which fith, beef, or
pork, entitled to any bounty fhall be packed, fhall be gauged
according to the gallon Englifh wine meafure. 38 Geo. III.
c. 8g. f. 5.

All fait imported from Scotland without a legal permit
teftifying that all the duties payable in Scotland have been
paid fhall be forfeited, together with the packages, thips,
boats, and other veflels, waggons, carts, and other carriages,
horfes and cattle any? in removing the fame, which may
be feized by any fuch officer ; and the perfon in whofe.cuitody
fuch falt fhall be found, or employed in removing the fame,
fhali forfeit 5o/. f. 86.

No falt fhall be removed from Scotland to England by
land, on pain of forfeiting the fame, together with the
packages, waggons, carts, carriages, horfes and cattle
employed in removing thereof, which may be feized by any
fuch officer ; and every perfon concerned in removing the
fame, contrary to the directions of this at, fhall forfeit gos.
for every pound weight thereof, or 100/. at the election of
the attorney-general, or perfon who fhall fue. f. 87.

By 49 Geo. III. c. 81. falted beef, pork, or bacon,
brought by land from. Scotland to England, fhall imme-
diately on the arrival thereof in England, be entered at the
neareit excife-office in England; on pain of forfeiting the
fame.

Every maker of glafs may take rock-falt from any ware-
houfe belonging to any {falt-mine, or brine or fea-water for
making mineral alkali, or flux for glafs, upon bond being
given that the fame fhall be fo employed; fuch bond to be
difcharged upon oath being made before the collector that
allfuch rock-falt, brine, or fea-water, for which the fame
was given, was made ufe of in making fuch mineral alkali
or fiux for glafs, and for no other purpofe whatfoever.
f{, 116.

Every perfon before he begins to make mineral alkali or
flux for glafs, fhall make entry in writing of every work-
houfe, warehoufe, ttorehoufe, room, or other place, and
alfo of every utenfil or veflel by him intended to be ufed
therein, at the excife-office of the difti@. Andif any fuch
perfon thall begin to make any mineral alkali or flux for glafs,
without making fuch entry, he fhall forfeit 100). together
with the fame, and all materials proper for making the
fame, together with the utenfils and veffels ufed therein,
found in any unentered place. {. 117.

No fuch rock-falt fhall be delivered out of fuch entered
warehoufe, for the purpofe of making mineral alkali or flux
for glafs, or fhall be afterwards Saiyeed at fuch alkali
sah 4 or be depofited in any warehoufe or place belonging
thereto, but in the prefence of an officer, who fhall make an
entry in writing, containing the weight or quantity thereof,
and the day ot fo delivered, and the name of the maker
of glafe to whom delivered, and for the ufe of what works.
f. 119.

In cafe the rock-falt fo brought to be ftored in any fuch
alkali works, fhall be lefs in weight or quantity than {pecified
in the permit, the maker for whofe ufe the fame was delivered
fhall be anfwerable for the fame. f. 120.

If any fuch maker, on whofe account fuch rock-falt fhall
have been delivered as aforefaid, or if any other perfon fhall
ule the fame or any part thereof, or any acid materials to be
produced therefrom, after being ufed in making fuch mineral
alkali or flux for glafs as aforefaid for any other purpofe, he
fhall forfeit 1oo/. f. 121.

Any officer of excife may enter any fuch work-houfe or

place made ufe of by any fuch manufaGturer of mineral
alkali or flux for glafs, and if fuch manufacturer fhall upon
demand in the day time (and if in the night, inthe prefence
of a conftable or other peace officer) fits to permit fuch
officer to enter, he fhall forfeit so/. f. 122.

Provided always, that nothing herein fhall extend to im-
pofe any duty on fuch Glauber falts as fhall be made by any
glafs-maker in any of the proceffes of making mineral al-
kali or flux for glafs, and which fhall be bond Jide ex-
pended and confumed in making fuch mineral alkali or flux
for glafs : f. 123. See however 47 Geo. III. fefl. 2. c. 30.
Rips

And whereas falt is an effential ingredient in making oxy-
genated muriatic acid ufed for bleaching linen and cotton,
and allowing a drawback on falt ufed for that purpofe would
promote the manufacture thereof, it is enaéted that the
whole duties now payable on falt of Britifh manufacture
fhall be drawn back for all falt confumed in making any fuch
oxygenated muriatic acid as aforefaid. Provided, that no
fuch drawback fhall be granted for more or other falt than
fhall be mixed with vitriolic acid, manganefe, and water, in
the prefence of an officer, and inthe proportion of at leaft
20 pounds of vitriolic acid, 20 pounds of manganefe, and
10 pounds of water to every 56 pounds of falt. Nor shall
any fuch drawback be granted to any perfon not being a
bleacher of linen or cotton, nor unlefs he make entry in
writing of every work-houfe or place intended to be ufed in
making fuch oxygenated muriatic acid as aforefaid at the next
excife-office. Provided alfo, that any officer of excife may
at all times, by day or night, upon requeft enter into any
fuch work-houfe or other place ufed by fuch bleacher, and
by weighing, gauging, or otherwife, take an account of all
falt therein, and of the ftate of operation of fuch oxyge-
nated muriatic acid. f. 89.

By 47 Geo. III. feff. 2. c. 30. f. 1. divers allowances
are further-made on falt ufed by bleachers in making fuch
acid.

In all cafes where it fhall be neceffary to afcertain the
value of falt, the fame fhall be taken at the higheft price at
which the fame fhall fell for in London. f. 129.

If any perfon fhall counterfeit or forge, or caufe to be
done, any certificate or debenture, with intent to defraud
his majefty, he fhall be guilty of felony, and be tran{ported
for feven years. f. 131.

If any perfon fhall obftru& any officer in the due execu-
tion of his office, or fhall by force refcue, or attempt to
refcue, any falt, veflel, boat, horfe, cattle, cart, or car-
riage, he fhall for every fuch offence, for which no penalty
1s particularly provided by this aét, forfeit zoo/. f. 133.

If any perfon fhall cae or give any bribe to any fuch
officer, in order to corrupt him in the execution of his
office, or to conniye at or conceal any fraud relating to the
duties on falt, whether fuch propofal be accepted or not, he
fhall forfeit soo/. f. 134.

And all fines, penalties, and forfeitures hereby impofed
relating to the duties on falt, may be fued for, recovered,
levied, and mitigated as by the laws of excife, or in the
courts of Weftminfter, and fhall be applied half to the king
(except where otherwife expreffed), and the other half to him
who hall fue. f. 136.

Provided, that nothing in this aé&t contained fhall extend
to repeal or alter By act in force relating to the duties on
falt, immediately before the paffing of this aét, except fo far
as the fame is revoked or altered or repugnant thereto, but
all the provifions, regulations, penalties, and forfeitures there-
by impofed (except as aforefaid) fhall remain in full force.

{. 140,
And

SALT.

And all powers of 12 Car. If. c. 24. fhall extend to this
a&... f..143.

And the lord mayor and aldermen of London, and the
juttices of the peace, at their refpeétive general feffions, may
fet, afcertain, and publifh the price of falt to be fold or
expofed to fale (and not intended for exportation) within
their refpeétive counties, cities, and places, and may alter the
fame as they may fee occafion ; and the prices fo fet or altered
are to be obferved by every perfon felling or expofing falt
for fale. And if any perfon fhall fell ri falt ere for
exportation) at any higher price, or refufe to fell it at the
price fo fixed as aforefaid, he fhall forfeit 20/. to be levied
by diftrefs, by warrant of one juttice ; and in default of fuf-
ficient diftrefs, fuch juftice may imprifon fuch offender until
he fhall pay the fame, to be applied half to the king, and
balf to him who fhall fue. {. 143. Burn’s Juftice, art.
£xcife.

There is a cuftom duty in the city of London, called
“ granage,”” payable to the lord mayor, &c. for falt brought
to the port of London, being the twentieth part.

Saxt, as manure, and for the ufe of animals, in Agri-
culture, is a fubftance which has been faid to be found
afeful, when applied in this way to land, and as food or
condiment in the fupport or fattening of domeftic animals.
In the former of thefe applications, there has been much
difference of opinion in refpeét to its effects; fome con-
tending that it is highly beneficial ; while others think that
it is of little, if any, advantage. There are likewife others
who have fuppofed it to be ufeful, when laid on land in
{mall proportions, while in large ones it has an injurious
effeét ; having, in the former cafe, a tendency to promote
putrefaction; while, in the latter, it may retard it by its
antifeptic property, as well as be capable of aGting in other
ways, in both cafes. It has alfo been fuppofed to produce
much benefit by the power which it poffefles of deftroying
{nails, grubs, and other fimilar animals that may be in the
ground. It is obferved by Dr. Darwin, that as it is a fti-
mulus which poffefles no nourifhment, but may excite the
vegetable abforbent veflels into greater action than ufual, it
may, m a certain quantity, increafe their growth, by their
taking up more nourifhment in a given time, and performing
their circulations and fecretions with greater energy. Ina
greater quantity, its ftimulus may be fo great as to att as
an immediate poifon on vegetables, and dettroy the motions
of the veffels, by exhaufting their irritability. And it has
been remarked by the Rev. Mr. Cartwright, in an able
paper in the fourth volume ef the Communications to the
Board of Agriculture, that at prefent the ufe of falt, asa
manure, is a fubjeét on which the public opinion is much
divided: its advocates, reafoning from the ftriking effects
of falt-water on the marfhes, which are occafionally irrigated
by the fea at {pring-tides, conclude that the fertihzing
virtue of fuch irrigation is owing to its faline quality, with-
out taking into confideration the quantity of animal and
vegetable matter, which fea-water (particularly near the
coaft, and where rivers difembogue themfelves) mutt necef-
farily holdin folution. But that thofe who maintain a con-
trary opinion, coniidering falt merely as an antifeptic, fatisfy
themfelves that it is impoflible that any thing can be friendly
to vegetation which retards putrefaction, a procefs indif-
penfable in fubftances that are to be the food of plants.
To get over this difficulty, it has been conjectured, nay,
there have not been wanting thofe (and of great name too)
who have even attempted to prove, that felt in {mall quan-
tities accelerates, as in large quantities it is known to refitt,
putrefaétion ; a doétrine to which, however, he fhall not
willingly yield his affent, till he can be perfuaded that effects

are not, in all cafes, proportionate to their caules. The
operation of every caufe is, and muft, he contends, be uni-
form; and when, to appearance, it is not fo, fome other
caufe obtrudes itfelf, too fubtile for our obfervation, which
operating at the fame time with the primary caufe, joins in
giving a refult, which not being able to account for, we
confider as anomalous. He thinks, that theorifts fheuld
be at variance with each other is not to be wondered at ; for
having the wide field of imagination and conjeéture before
them to expatiate in, it is reafonable to conclude, indeed it
is unavoidable, that fome of them muft lofe their way.
But what fhall we fay to the difagreement and inconfiltency
which prevail on the fubjeét amongit practical farmers ?
Nothing, indeed, can be more contradiétory than the dif-
ferent reports that have been made on the efteéts of falt, as
a manure, by thofe who have even brought it to the telt of
actual experiment. As there is no reafon to queftion the
veracity of the reporters, we muft look for the grounds of
their difagreement in fome predominating circumftance or
other, which at the time efcaped their obfervation. Indeed,
the fuccefs or failure of an agricultural experiment depends
fo frequently on caufes, which can neither be controlled
nor forefeen, and fo foreign from thofe which were expected
to operate, that it is not to be wondered at if the repetition
of the very fame experiment gives oftentimes a different
refult to the inquirer. But as it is not the bufinefs of this
paper to fupport a theory, but to detail what has been prac-
tiled; not to contend for an opinion, but to ftate faéts ;
the few obfervations which may be hazarded, will be fuch
only as are required merely in explanation of occurrences, as
they arife. He fhall endeavour to give, therefore, as fimple
a relation as poflible of the experiments he has tried, to
afcertain the advantages or difadvantages which may attend
the ufe of falt as a manure, and alfo when mixed with the
food of animals, and employed in that way.

In regard to the firft of thefe objects, it is ftated that the
foil on which his trials were made was a ferruginous fand,
brought to a due texture and confiftence by a liberal cover-
ing of pond-mud. Of this foil, in its improved flate, he
means by the acceflion of pond-mud, (for having been
ufed merely as a nurfery for raifing foreft-trees previous to
thefe experiments, the nurfery-man had not thought it ne-
ceflary to make ufe of any other manure), the fubfequent
analyfis is given:

Grains.

About 400 grains gave of filiceous fand, of dif-
ferent degrees of finenefs, about —- =) te
Of finely divided matter, which appeared in a 104

form of clay 4 =

280

Lofs in water - - - - - - 16
400
The 104 grains of finely divided matter contained
of carbonate of lime — - - - eres 8
Of oxyd of iron - - - = 2 tour
Lofs by incineration (moft probably from vege- 1

table decompofing oe -
The remainder principally filex and alumine.
And it is added, that there were no indications of either
gypfum or phofphate of lime. And that from this analyfis
it will appear, he thinks, that thefe experiments could not,
perhaps, have been tried on a foil better adapted to give im-
partial refults; for of its component parts, there is no in-
gredient (the oxyd of iron poflibly excepted) of fufficient
activity to augment or reftrain the peculiar energies of the
fubftances employed in the bufinefs.
It

SALT.

It is ftated farther, that on the 14th of April 1804, a
certain portion of this foil was laid cut in beds, one yard
wide, and forty long. Of thefe, twenty-five were manured
(the firft excepted) in the following manner :

N° r. No manure.

2. Salt, a quarter of a peck.

3. Lime, one bubhel.

4. Soot, one peck.

5. Wood-afhes, two pecks.

6. Saw-duft, three bufhels.

7. Malt-duft, two pecks.

8. Peat, three bufhels.

g- Decayed leaves, three bufhels.
10. Frefh dung, three bufhels.
11. Chandlers’ graves, nine pounds.
12. Salt, lime.

13. Salt, lime, fulphuric acid.

14. Salt, lime, peat.

15. Salt, lime, dung.

tor Salt, for, 2PM PSE | NB. ‘The quan-
18. Salt, wood-afhes. : eels f each
19. Salt, faw-dutt. Qari
20. Salt, malt-duit. aa

21. Salt, peat ufed ifingly:

22. Salt, peat, bone-dutt.
23. Salt, decayed leaves.
24. Salt, peat-afhes.

25. Salt, chandlers’ graves.

And that on the fame day the whole was planted with
potatoes, a fingle row in each bed; and that the general
experiment might be conduéted with all poffible accuracy,
each bed received the fame number of fets. That on the
14th of May, (a few days after the plants appeared above
ground,) the whole was carefully examined, and the com-
parative excellence of each row (as far, at leaft, as could
be judged of by appearances) was as carefully regiftered.
The beit row was decidedly N° 7, malt-duit; after which
they followed in order, as below.

N° 11. Chandlers’ graves.
16. Salt, lime, gypfum, peat.
25. Salt, graves.
20. Salt, malt-duft.
g. Decayed leaves.
4. Soot. *
2. Salt.
1. No manure.
5. Wocd-ahhes.
8. Peat.
13. Salt, lime, fulphuric acid.
Salt, lime, peat.
17. Salt, foot.
18. Salt, wood-afhes.
Salt, peat.
22. Salt, peat, bone-dutt.
23. Salt, decayed leaves.
3- Lime.
6. Saw-dutt.
Freth dung.
Salt, lime.
Salt, lime, dung.
Salt, peat-athes.
19. Salt, Faw-dutt.

Further, that on the 28th of May, fourteen days after-
wards, the apparent vigour of the plants was in the fol-
lowing order ;

N° 7. Malt-duft.
11. Chandlers’ graves.
4. Soot.
8. Peat.
16. Salt, lime, gypfum, peat.
17. Salt, foot. <9 =
20. Salt, malt-duft.
21. Salt, peat.
23. Salt, decayed leaves.
25. Salt, graves.
1. No manure.
2. Salt.
_ 5. Wood-athes.
g. Decayed leaves.
13. Salt, lime, fulphuric acid.
14. Salt, lime, peat.
18. Salt, wood-afhes.
24. Salt, peat-afhes.
10. Frefh dung.
3. Lime.
22. Salt, peat, bone-dutt.
19. Salt, faw-dutt.
15. Salt, lime, dung.
12. Salt, lime.
6. Saw-dutt.
And that on the 21ft of September, the potatoes were
taken up, when the produce of each row was in fucceflion,
as follows :

N° 17. Salt and foot © - - produced 240
11. Chandlers’ graves = - = = 220
18. Salt, wood-afhes . = ~ 217
16. Salt, gypium, peat, lime - < 201
15. Salt, lime, dung b = S 199

2. Salt = * = z = 198
25. Salt, graves ~ = = = 195
4. Soot - - 4 = = 192
10, Frefh dung - = = = 192
20. Salt, malt-duit - - - 189
5. Wood-afhes = - - - = 187
23- Salt, decayed leaves - = : 187
24. Salt, peat-afhes - 3 < 185
7. Malt-dutt = = J _ 184
14. Salt, lime, peat = ~ = 183
19. Salt, faw-duft - < : 180
22. Salt, peat, bone-dutft - . 178
g- Decayed leaves - - . 175)
13- Salt, lime, fulphuric aeid - - 175
21. Salt, peat - - - - 171
12. Salt, lime FS » F ~ 167
8. Peat - e “ “! a 159
1. No manure = a 3 is 157
6. Saw-dut - = a . ad 155

- Lime - - - 150

It is es itated as fingular, that of ten different manures,
moft of which are of known and acknowledged efficacy,
falt, a manure hitherto of ambiguous charaéter, is fuperior
to them all, one only excepted! and that when ufed in
combination with other fubitances, it is only unfuccefsfully
applied in union with that one, namely, chandlers’ graves,
no other manure feemingly being injured by it. Poflibly
its deteriorating effeé&ts on chandlers? graves may be owing
to its antifeptic property, which refifts the putrefaétive
procefs, by which animal fubitances undergo the changes
neceflary to qualify them to become the food of plants.
This, however, he cannot, from any appearance in the foil,
when the plants were taken up, affert to have been the cafe.
And the extraordinary effeéts of falt, when combined with

foot,

SALT.

foot, are, he obferves,-f{trikingly fingular. There is no
reafon to fuppofe thefe effets were produced by any known
chemical agency of foot or falt on each other. Were he to
guefs at the producing caufe, he fhould conje€ture it to be
that property of faline fubitances, by which they attract
moifture from the atmofphere: for he obferved thofe beds,
where falt had been ufed, were vifibly and palpably moifter
than the reft, even for weeks after the falt had been applied ;
and this appearance continued till rain fell, when, of courfe,
the diftinGtion ceafed. This property of attraéting moifture
had greater influence, poffibly, on the foot than on any of the
other manures ; as foot, from its acrid and dry nature, may,
he thinks, be f{uppofed to require a greater proportion of
water to dilute it than thofe fubftances which contain water
already. It may be proper to obferve, that on thofe beds
where falt had. been ufed, the plants were obvioufly of a
paler green than on the reft, though not lefs luxuriant; a
circumftance which he thought worth noticing, aad which
he confidered, though erroneoufly, (as appeared by the
event,) to indicate a want of vigour, which would be felt
in the crop. It was obfervable alfo, that where falt was
applied, whether by itfelf or in combination, the roots were
free from that {cabbinefs which oftentimes infeéts potatoes,
and from which none of the other beds (and there were
in the field nearly forty more than what made part of thefe
experiments) were altogether exempt. This circumftance
deferves the notice of the praétical farmer. And it is fur-
ther noticed by the fame writer, that two fets of experi-
ments, and with the fame proportions of manures, were
tried with turnips and buck-wheat, on a foil the pooreft he
could meet with, which produced only a dwarf heath and
lichen, and which he had pared off. The poverty of this
foil will appear by the following analyfis :

Grains.

400 grains gave of filiceous fand - 2 . 320

Of finely divided matter, which appeared as brown 68
mould - - - - - “-% =

Lofs in water - . - . - - - 12

400

And that the finely divided matter loft by incineration
nearly half its weight, which fhews it contained a great
deal of vegetable matter. The refiduum, principally a mix-
ture of aluminous and filiceous earths, coloured red by
oxyd of iron, and containing very little calcareous matter.
There were no indications of either gypfum or phofphate of
lime in it.

On July 6, 1804, the pieces fet apart for each fet of ex-
periments were ref{pectively fown with turnips and buck-
wheat. Onthe 26th, Nos. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6; 7, 19, 20, 21,
22, 24) 25, fhewed little or no marks of vegetation. Thofe
that remained were merely in the feed leaf. And that on
the 16th of Auguit, four only were alive and in rough
leaf, namely,

No. 12. Salt and lime.
13. Salt, lime, and fulphuric acid.
14. Salt, lime, peat.
16. Salt, lime, gypfum, peat.

And it is added, that thefe four maintained a fickly ex-
iftence till the middle of September, fhortly after which
they all difappeared. And it is remarked, that the appear-
ances of the turnips and buck-wheat were fo nearly iota!
that he has not thought it neceflary to notice the trifling
variations between them, which could not have been done
without entering into a minute.detail, equally tedious and un-

interefting tothe inquirer. It is, however, fuggefted, that
though no decifive conclufion can be drawn from thefe two
fets of experiments ref{pecting the advantages or difadyan-
tages of falt asa manure, on fucha foil as he has deferibed,
becaufe other manures of acknowledged efficacy fhared the
fame fate with the falt, yet this inference may, he thinks,
be drawn from them, (and that not an unimportant one,)
namely, that a due texture and confiftence in the foil is as
neceflary to the exiftence and health of vegetables as the
pabulum they are fuftained by ; and this appears evidently
by the fuperiority (f{uch as it was) of thofe plants where
the manure contributed, in any degree, to improve that
texture and confiftence. This is, he contends, fully fhewn
by an adjoining field, which within thefe few years was ina
great part in a ftate of uncultivated nature, equally barren
as the fpot he has been {peaking of ; it is, however, now
brought into cultivation, and into a decent {tate of fertility,
chiefly from its texture having been improved by a thick
coating of marley clay.

But thefe facts and experiments fhew the effects of falt in
a more favourable light as a manure, than it has been hither-
to generally confidered in; and the intelligent writer fug-
gefts, that if its beneficial properties were more perfeétl
demonttrated, the attention of the legiflature would devife
fome meafure, without prejudice to the revenue, by which it
might be employed for the purpofes of hufbandry.

There are, in a communication from Davies Giddy, efq.
prefident of the Penzance Agricultural Society, inferted in
the twenty-feventh volume or the Annals of Agriculture,
fome interefting experiments on the ufe of foa-falt in the
culture of turnips detailed. They are enabled to make ufe
of this fubftance as a manure, from the extenfive pilchard-
fifhery eftablifhed on the coaft. Salt is frequently imported
for curing fifh at gd. or gid. the bufhel of eighty-four
pounds, and what remains after it has been once, or fome-
times twice ufed in preferving the pilchards, is ufually fold
at about the fame price to the neighbouring farms. Though
fome animal oil is united to the falt, that which has been the
leaft ufed is univerfally preferred, and found the molt ef-
fe&tual. It is fuppofed perhaps difficult to determine whe-
ther the whole efficacy of the {alt in producing plentiful, and,
as it would feem, certain crops of turnips, can be imputed
to its virtues as a manure, or whether part of the effe&
may not be owing to the deftruétion of flugs.

The Report is thus {tated by the Rev. John Allen, and
Mr. Sickler, two members of the fociety ; at Michaelmas
1790, Mr. Sickler entered on an eftate fo much impo-
verifhed by the former tenant, as fcarcely to return the
feed.

Inthe fpring of 1791, Mr. Sickler prepared two acres
for turnips, which had borne feven crops of oats in fuccef-
fion. The laft crop did not produce nine bufhels on an
acre.

In the firft week of April the earth from the ditches was
carried into the field, and laid in four piles; each received
three cart-loads’ of fea-fhell fand, and five bufkels of falt.
The earth from another ditch, chiefly confifting of the de-
cayed foil, which had been taken off the ground in former
tillaze, was placed in three more piles, and each of thefe
received alfo three cart-loads of fand, but no falt, on ac-
count of the apparent richnefs of the earth. Half the field
was manured with the four firlt piles, but the three lait not
being fufficient for the other half, what remained was fown
with falt, at the rate of ten bufhels to an acre.

The part of the field where falt had been ufed, either
mixed with earth, or alone, produced about half a crop of
turnips, but the crop totally Filed where there was no falt.

In

SALT.

in the {pring following, white oats were fown, and pro-
duced a crop of forty-five bufhels to an acre.

In 1792, three acres, which in 1791 had borne a crop of
wheat, not exceeding twelve bufhels on an acre, were
ploughed before Chriitmas, and brought into fine tilth by
Midfummer following. On each acre were fown twenty
bufhels of falt, excepting that two ridges towards the mid-
dle of the field were purpofely left without any manure ;
on thefe two ridges the turnips totally failed, but the re-
mainder of the field produced a plentiful crop.

In 1793, four acres of land, completely worn out by
fucceffive tillage, were ploughed before Chrittmas ; three
acres were fown with falt, at the rate of twenty-five bufhels,
and the remaining acre with eighteen bufhels, without any
other manure: the crop was in general a good one, but vifi-
bly belt where the greateft quantity of falt had been ufed.
Crops of turnips have been raifed with equal fuccefs by the
ufe of falt, fince that time, and in the fevere winter of
1794—5, it was obferved that thefe turnips were much lefs
injured by the froit than others fimilarly treated, and culti-
vated in the common way. When falt is ufed in the quan-
tity of twenty or twenty-five bufhels to an acre, the turnips
fhould not be fown till at leaft three weeks after the falt.
Clover fown with barley after turnips raifed by the ufe of
falt, has never failed to produce an abuadant crop of hay the
year following. It is fuggefted in the Report, that if the
obfervation can be depended on of turnips being lefs injured
by froft when they are manured with falt, than when they
are cultivated in the ufual manner, it muft indicate an extra-
ordinary degree of health and vigour in the plant ; but a fingle

On Fallow.—July 1, 1797-

obfervation is obvioufly infufficient to eftablifh fuch a faé-
It is alfo fuggetted by Mr. Jay, after obferving that the na-
ture of the foil, and perhaps the feafon fhould be regarded,
as that ‘may poffibly account for certain proportions of falt
fucceeding much better in fome inftances than in others s—
that a gentleman in New England, in America, has pub-
lifhed fome facts, from which it appears that the fubje&
merits attention.

It is noticed, that in June 1786, he falted one bed of his
onions, one bed of his carrots, and one bed of his early tur-
nips: laying the falt under the furface, in the centre of the
intervals between the rows, at fome diftance from the roots,
that the falt might have time to be diffolved and altered be-
fore the fibrous roots fhould reach it. The carrots of the
falted bed evidently grew much larger and better than the
reft, but he could not perceive that the falt was at all bene-
ficial to the onions or to the turnips. And further, that
according to Mr. Ford’s experiments in falting flax ground,
falt feems to be highly beneficial to that crop. He {preads
the falt at the time of fowing the feed, and thinks that the
quantity fhould be double to that of the feed: from three
acres of flax falted he had fifty bufhels of feed, and an ex-
cellent crop of flax. Mr. Elliot tells us of five bufhels of
falt being applied to one acre of flax, which is a much larger
proportion, and that it had an extraordinary effet : and alfo
of a crop of wheat increafed by falt.

But the trials of Mr. Fenna in Chefhire, with this fub-
ftance as a manure in various modes of application, do not
however appear to have been fo fuccefsful, though they feem
to have been made with much care and attention.

Experiments on a fallow for wheat being once ploughed, and that before Chriftmas

Jali, full of grafs and weeds, owing to the continual wet weather.

Det abe
3 butts o 2 4 fown with
2 ditto adjoining o 1 26 unfown.
3 next ditto - © 2 35 fown with
2 — ditto - © I 35 unfown.
3 — ditto - 90 2 § fown with
2 — ditto - © 1 13 unfown.
3 — ditto - © 3 74 fown with
3 — ditto - © tI 7 unfown.
3 — ditto - © 1 34 fown with
3 — ditto - © 1 17. unfown.
3 — ditto - © 1 13 fown with

Ob fervations.—July 12, 1797.

thofe unfown, and none at all upon thofe fown with {mall quantities.

July, the weather being rather drying, but ftill fhowery.

July 12. Salt fown on the fame fallow being twice
Aone, Ibs.

1 butt 0 © 22 fown with 764

1 ditto o o 18 fownwith 784

I ditto 0 0 33 fown with 109

Additional Obfervations.—It is {tated that fome few {nails
perifhed by the application the day following. No other
ceptible alteration has yet taken place.—Augult 28 ;
S been harrowed and ploughed a third time. It is fug-
efted, that a man fowing from a feed-hopper, common
ride and full hand, twice over the fame ground, will fow
from ten to twelve bufhels per acre.

O&. 1, 1797. Sowed another butt in the fame fallow
with falt, immediately before its being fown with wheat,
and ploughed in therewith, being ser the rate of ten

Vor. XXXI.

Ibs. Bufh, lbs.
85% of falt, thatis, 2 50 per acre,
89 ditto, Zieetit

130 ditto, 4 20

193 ditto, Pa 2

175 ditto, 6 42

195 ditto, 10 25

Some few of the weeds have perifhed, but no other evident alteration, compared with

Ploughed under between the 7th and rqth of

ploughed, the weather drying.

Buth, Ibs.

of falt, that is, 9 49 per acre,
ditto, N2es 21
ditto, 9 34

bufhels per acre. No vifible advantage has been {een in any
of the above, through the winter, or at {pring, nor any
perceptible advantage as the crop advanced to maturity ;
neither could the reapers, nor any other viewers, diftinguifh
the leafl appearance in favour of falt compared with the faite
unfalted.

On Paflures.—June 30° Sowed oa.or. 17 p. of patlure
with qlbs. 4oz. of falt (being rye-grafs Gloss of the
fecond year’s growth, foil pretty good upon marle).

Sowed oa. Or. 13 p. with falt (2 lbs, 12 07.) being paf-

Ti ture

SALT.

ture of feveral years’ growth, full of wild or natural clo-
ver ; foil deeper and warmer than the former.

July 1. Sowed oa.or. 35 p. with 174Ilbs. of falt, being
palture of the third year’s growth ; foil open, upon fand
produdiive of fern.

December 1, 1797. Sowed part of a butt with falt,
after the rate of 15 bufhels per acre.

December 1. Sowed 8 Ibs. of falt on part of a rough
meadow, having nearly its whole fummer’s growth of four
grafs, which the cattle would not eat, and has been ufually
burnt off at fpring.

Obfervations.—July 12. No evident alteration compared
with the adjoining land. Augult 28, continues unaltered.

In {pring 1798, not forwarder, nor any wife preferable to
the adjoining butts of ground which were not falted.

Some thiitles and fome little of the fern damaged, but not
deftroyed. The rough or four grafs bemg in a withered or
dead ftate, though fown with fine falt when dewy, was not
affe&ted thereby, neither did the cattle prefer it to the other
not falted.

On Mozwing.—July 17. Sowed 3g3lbs. of falt upon
oa. or. 14p.acold peaty meadow (herbage indifferent,
intermixed with rufhes) immediately after the hay being
carried off, the weather dry. N.B. Eight bufhels ger acre.

Obfervations.—July 25. The weather broke, and much
rain has fince followed, but no vifible alteration has yet
taken place.—Auguft 27. This is not a fufficient quantity
to deftroy the herbage, nor has any advantage yet ap-
peared. Neither has the {pring nor the crop of hay-grafs
fhewn any thing preferable to the unfalted parts adjoining.

On Hay.—Auguft 13. Scattered 3lbs. of falt in a ton
of new hay at the time of houfing, being a little weathered.
This hay appeared lefs mouldy, and on that account
was better than the fame unfalted, but would not com-
pare with the like hay which had not been weathered, and
not falted.

On Weeds and Brambles.—June 30, 1797. Applied 40z.
of falt to 4 0z. of weed-wifs (in Gerrard’s Hiftory of Plants
called geniftella tin@orts, dyer’s weed, or baftard broom),
tufts, or roots, occupying a {pace twelve inches in diameter,
in equal quantities. The ground being wet with almott
continual rains for a month patt.

Obfervations.—July 1. Began to droop.—July 12. Dead.
—Auguft 28. Three of them are rotted away, and their
place growing over with grafs ; the other has its woody fub-
itance yet ttanding, though dead. Thefe fprang up from
the old roots this fpring, 1798, and have continued in the
fame flourifhing {tate as they were before the application of
falt, July 1797.

July 1, 1797. Applied 7lbs. of falt to a number of the
hard kind of rufh-tufts, or bogs in the pafture.

Obfervations.—The cows found it the next day, and col-
le&ted as much as they could, together with every blade of
grafs growing amongit the rufhes. Some few of the ruthes
were bit off in confequence of their fearch ; the remainder
did not die; nor fuffer any apparent damage from the ap-
plication, Auguft 28. It has been found, by fubfequent
trials, that the cows take this, in the aét of licking the
grains of falt with their bs Sa and that where the grains
have been diffolved, the herbage is not preferable, on ac-
count ef its having been falted.

July 12,1797. Ten pounds, ufed upon a poor furze,
or gorfey bank, chiefly clay foil, being then almott totally
overgrown about twelve or fixteen inches high; in quantity
about eighty fquare yards ; the weather dry.

Obferwations. —The cows found this, and {tole all that they
could grag at, together with any decent herbage with which

it was intermixed. Some little of the gorfe has perifhed,
but it is far from being deftroyed..

Auguft 28. The whole recovered at the return of {pring
(1798), and fo continues.

July 12, 1797. Ufed feveral pounds of falt upon a
number of weed-wifs, or baftard-broom, tufts, or roots (the
four falted the 30th ult. being dead); the weather dry. |

Obfervations.—July 27. They are in part deftroyed.
The cows found this, and collected as much as they pof-
fibly could, without eating the weed, which is very bitter.
It is alfo obferved, that thefe retained their verdure much
longer than thofe falted in wet weather.—Augutt 28, and
not yet deftroyed, but much hurt. Thefe, like the for-
mer, recovered in the {pring of 1798, and fo continue (July
1798). "

July 12, 1797- Ufed rolbs. of falt upon more rufh-tufts
or roots in the pafture, a greater quantity to each.

Objervations—The cows found it im a fhort time, and
felected every grals from amongft the rufhes, together with
as much of the falt as they could. Some of the rufhes fuf-
fered in the purfuit, being bitten off and thinned.—
Augutt 28. The rufh-roots are too deep to be deftroyed.
Grafs, and other herbage near, has fuffered. hele, in
pik are not to be diftinguifhed from the others not
alted.

Auguft 25, 1797. Ufed 6lbs. upon 15 fquare yards of
ground almott totally overgrown with hen-gorfe (in Ger-
rard’s Hiftory of Plants called ononis five refla bovis, cam-
mock, or re{t-harrow), a pernicious woody fhrub infefting
clay foils, being then in full flower, and beginning to fet its
feed-pods ; the weather fhowery.—Auguft 28. The leaves
and flowers are dying. The branches died foon after ; but
the roots fent out frefh ones at the return of fpring, which
{till continue. This being upwards of thirty bufhels to
the acre, deftroyed the intermixed grafs, which became
brown and lifelefs till the approach of winter, when it
began to recover, and the whole was covered by the {pring ;
but no better herbage than the adjoining; nor has it any
time fince been preferable, July 1798. ‘This quantity was
not fufficient to leave the ground quite bare. Thou
the herbage was killed, it never totally difappeared. Ifa
leffer quantity would have done fo, it might have been fer-
viceable for deftroying the fward previous to the making
of a lay fallow. Salt has been ufed from fifteen to twenty
buthels fer acre, upon {mall patches of nettles in deep-foiled
paiture, which were fretted awhile; but afterwards re-
covered, without any vifible alteration in their growth.

It is further oblerved, that it has likewile been tried
(1798) in various proportions, and at different times, upon
a turnip fallow, without any good effect. It was fown upon
a weedy part of the turnips, to the amount of ten buthels
per acre; after they were up in three or four rough leaves,
thefe were fretted ; but the greateft part of both weeds and
turnips recovered with little variation from the other (rather
worle if either), How falt would aé upon werms, or
what is called the fly, is not known, as the crops were not
plagued with them this laft year ; probably it would have
a good effeét ; for falt-water was tried upon worms on a
gooleberry-buth, without fretting the tree much, the werms
foon after died ; but, as this was only one initance, perhaps
a change of weather, or fome other caufe, might occafion
their death. This experiment is intended to 5 repeated
both on turnips and on goofeberries in future. And it
is added by the writer, that qwith cut firaw falt has been
tried, mixed and immediately given, put together and left
to ferment, and {prinkled with falt and water; in every
cafe it is refufed by the cattle.

And

SALT.

And that in manure, falt mixed with dung, in various
proportions, and in different forts, is not difcoverable from
the fame fort, fet on without falt.

On the 3d of January, 1798, 67lbs. of falt were mixed
in two fquare yards of tough peaty parings, cut from the
fides and bottoms of an open peaty drain, and made in a
heap of that fize. The remainder of the fame parings were
made in another heap, and mixed up with a quantity of
horfe-dung of proportionate value, allowing the falt to be
2s. fer fquare yard. Both forts were examined by fir
Robert S. Cotton, the beginning of Auguft lait, at which
time the admixture with falt remained m a dead tough
ftate, without any rotten or faponaceous particles in it; the
blades of grafs in the middle of the heap, though dead, had
not loft their colour. No weed or any vegetable had
grown upon this heap; but the other mixed with dung
was covered with weeds, andon opening was found much re-
duced and: pulverized; and after one good turning and
mixing, was fet upon the ground in good condition, in
Wovember lait; the other has fince been twice turned, and
remains in the heap unrotted at this day, March 1799.
From hence it may be concluded, that falt a€&ts not as a
feptic on vegetable fubftances, but, on the contrary, pre-
ferves them in a dead itate, and a&ts as a preventative to
putrefaGtion: this is perhaps more fully proved by the
common method of preferving kidney or French beans,
when ripe enough for the table, which are kept the year
round for culinary purpofes in pots, between layers of
dry falt. The writer alfo ftates, that from the fore-
going experiments it may. be concluded, that falt may
be of fervice to agriculture in the preparation of fallows,
in rainy feafons unfavourable to the plough; but in this
cafe great quantities muft be ufed to have the defired
effe@ ; perhaps lefs than fifty bufhels to each acre would be
infufficient : this quantity would not deftroy vevetation for
more than two months, as appears from the firft experiment
with weed-wifs, where fomething more than that quantity
was ufed: this quantity might deftroy the weeds, but
would not reduce it, if in a tough or foddy ftate, as ap-
pears from the laft experiment in manures, where the quan-
tity ufed is equal to 240 bubhels per acre, allowing it to
penetrate the ace of the fallow, in an equal degree, only
three inches deep. Avnd that perhaps it would be more bene-
ficially ufed in {mall quantities with hay at the time of houfing
or ftacking, which, if weathered or damp, might prevent
it in fome degree from becoming mouldy, and, if green and
in large quantities, might a¢t as a preventative to overheat-
ing and fri + But that as an affiftant, or ftimulus, to the
vegetable fyitem, it appears, through all the foregoing expe-
riments, to be quite deftitute of every good property, and
unworthy of notice as a manure in any kind of procefs.
And that fuch is the opinion of feveral of the neighbouring
farmers who have viewed the different applications, and
who have, without exception, concurred in the report
which is here made.

It is, however, advifed by Dr. Darwin, that, becaufe falt,
when made ufe of as amanure, has a tendency to induce dif-
eafe by its excefhve ftimulant power, it fhould be employed a
little before the time that the plant would acquire that part
of its growth which is wanted. But though this may be
done in the garden, it cannot be well extended to the field.

Notwithitanding thefe refults, other trials made in the
fame diftri@, as well as in others, lead to different con-
clufions. It was found, in one attempt, on four rufhy land
after draining, by {preading on one part in the autumn re-
fufe falt, at the rate of eight bufhels to the acre, and on an-
ather part fixteen buthels to the fame extent; that in a

fhort time the vegetation wholly difappeared, not a blade
of glafs being to be feen during the early part of the fuc-
ceeding f{pring, but towards the end of May a moit flourifh-
ing crop of rich grafs appeared on the eight-buthel por-
tion. After the middle of fummer, the other portion too
produced a crop itill ftronger ; the cattle were remarkably
fond of it, and during the whole enfuing winter, and to this
time, which is ten or twelve years fince, the land has retained,
and ftill exhibits, a fuperior verdure to the neighbouring
clofes. In another trial, in a meadow, the after-grafs of
which was of fo coarfe and rank a nature as to be refufed by

the cattle, on falt being laid upon one part of it, they have
ever fince preferred the grafs growing on that part to every
other, and eaten up every blade. It has alfa, it is faid,
good effects in mixture or compoft withother coarfe manures,
producing itrong crops of barley and hay-grafs. On fome
foul falt being laid upon a court pavement to deftroy the
growth of grafly matters, though in the firt fummer after-
wards not any thing appeared, in that which fucceeded it
the vegetation was greatly more abundant than before the
falt was ufed. It has equally beneficial effets, it is faid,
on fallow land: by ufing it at the time of breaking up the
land, its ftrong faline properties deitroy vegetation and all
noxious infeéts; and mixing intimately with the mould
before the grain is put in, it ftrongly {upports and infures
the beft crops.

In other experiments, when employed in compoft with
earth, in comparifon with lime in mixture with the
fame earth, on fuch being laid on different parts of the
fame field, that part which had the lime compoft vege-
tated ftrongly, but bore no fort of comparifon to the
health and vigour of growth in the crop of that which.
had the falt compoft. The latter is ftill capable of being
marked out and traced by the ftronger growth of grafs on
it, notwithftanding the time that has fince elapfed.

In ufing it pretty thickly, without being mixed with the
earth on a portion of land, the expected benefit was not
only not received, but the vegetation was dettroyed, and
the ground left almoft bare, which was attributed to the
manner of application, as being unfavourable and improper.

The water of falt-brine fprings, where they break out and
{pread upon the furface, is however {tated to have the efle&
of deftroying all vegetation for the {pace of feveral yards
about them in particular cafes: while in the natural ap-
plication on the marfh-lands, it appears to produce effects
fomewhat of a contrary kind; as where the falt-water of
the fea overflows them, the vegetation is by no means
deficient in vigour.

The difference in the effe& of falt, applied as a manure,
is attempted to be accounted for by the writer of the cor-
rected Chefhire Agricultural Report, by referring it prin-
cipally to two caufes; namely, a variation in the manner
and degree of its application, and a difference in the nature
of the foils or lands on which the trials with it have been
made. ‘The firft of thefe caufes mutt, it is thought, have
a great influence on its aétion upon vegetable matter as that
of a ftimulus, and confequently that its effects mutt be
greatly varied by the proportion applied. When em-
ployed in a large quantity, it may, like every other exceffive
ftimulus, tend to diforganize and deftroy tie vegetable
fubftances with which it comes into contaét. When ufed
in a {maller proportion, or in mixture as a compolt, it may
be regarded, by the moderate flimulus it gives to the aétion
of the veflels in the plants, as a promoter of vegetation,
and, of courfe, as a valuable manure. The writer is aware
that this is not perfeétly conformable to the opinion of
fome, but he thinks it the molt confiftent with the general

li 2 analogy

SALT.

analogy of nature, as well as with particular experiments
on the fubje&. In fallows it would feem that it might
be beneficial in large quantity, by the deftruétion of all
ufelefs vegetable and animal matter; which, at the fame
time, would be fo much reduced and {pent by the time the
feed was put into the ground, as to fit it for producing that
degree of ftimulus, which is moft adapted to healthy vege-
tation. The differences of the nature of foils muft ob-
vioufly produce great variety in the refults of the different
trials which are made to afcertain its particular nature.

Sir Humphrey Davy, in his ‘¢ Agricultural Chemitftry,”’
feems, howeyer, to think it probable that common falt aéts
as a manure, by entering into the compofitions of the
plants fomewhat in the fame manner as gypfum, phofphate
of lime, and alkalies. See thefe heads, Satine Manure,
and SutPHarTe of Lime.

And that as it has been ftated, from good authority, that
falt, in {mall quantities, promotes the decompofition of
animal and vegetable matter; that circumftance may alfo
render it ufeful in certain foils and kinds of land. Common
falt is likewife offenfive to infe&ts. In fhort, that in {mall
quantities, it is fometimes beneficial in the intention of
manure, he thinks, is now fully proved; and that it is pro-
bable that its efficacy may depend upon many combined
caufes. The reafonings againit the ufe of it urged by
fome, on the grounds, that when applied in large propor-
tions it either does no good, or renders the land fterile, are
confidered as very unfair and improper; as the circum-
ftance that falt in large proportions rendered land barren,
was well known long before any records of agricultural
fcience exilted, from the {cite of a city having been {tated
in the Scriptures to have been fown with falt, that the
ground might for ever remain unproductive. And that
though Virgil reprobated a falt foil; and Pliny, who ad-
vifed it for cattle, affirmed, that when difperfed over land
it caufed it to be barren, thefe are not by any means
reafons again{t the proper ufe of it. The refufe falt of the
fifheries of Cornwall have been feen above, and long known
to be an excellent manure, but they contain, as well as the
falt, fome oil and exuviz derived from the animals.

Upon the whole, it is thought not unlikely, that the
fame caufes may influence the effects of falt, as thofe which
have a power in modifying the action of fulphate of lime,
as already noticed.

Mott lands in this country, efpecially thofe near the fea,
it is fuppofed, probably contain a fufficient quantity of falt
already for all the purpofes of vegetation; and that in
fuch cafes the fupply of it to the foil will not only be ufe-
lefs, but may be prejudicial. It is‘noticed, that in great
ftorms the {pray of the fea has been carried more than fifty
miles from the fhore; fo that from this fource falt mutt
often be fupplied to the foil. Salt has alfo been found
in all the fand-ftone rocks that the above writer has
examined, and it mutt, it is faid, exift in the foil, or the
mould that is derived and formed from them. It is a con-
ftituent, likewife, of almoft every kind of animal and vege-
table manure, therefore it mult prevail very confiderably.

Salt has been employed upon fallows, in fome cafes, with
good effects, and the refufe of it would probably be found
beneficial in many circum(tances of land, if it was allowed
to be taken from works of this nature, free of duty, and which
would not unfrequently be a material convenience to the
proprietors.

Many additional fa&s, experiments, and obfervations will,
however, probably be neceflary, in order fully to afcertain
the nature and utility of falt as a manure.

Ufe of Salt for domeftic Aninals.—And it is conceived by

Dr. Anderfon, that there is no fubftance yet known which
is fo much relifhed by the whole order of graminivorous
animals, as common falt. The wild creatures of the defart
are fo fond of it, that wherever they difcover a bank of earth
impregnated with a {mall proportion of falt, they come to
it ever after regularly to lick the faline earth, as they would
to a pool of water to drink, were there none other near;
fo that when a hunter in America difcovers fuch a Jick, as
fuch places are there called, he reckons himfelf {ure of ob-
taining plenty of game, by lying in wait near it, and fhoot-
ing them as they approach, until the whole beaits that have
difcovered it are killed. And itis alfo admitted by all thofe
who have tried the experiment, that falt, given along with
the food of domeftic animals, (except fowls, to which falt is
a certain poifon,) tends very much to promote their health
and accelerate their feeding ; and although fome perfons,
who haye been at a lofs to account for the manner in which
this {timulant could a& asa nutritious fubftance have affe@ted
to difregard this fact, yet no one has been able to bring the
flighteft fhow of evidence, to invalidate the ftrong proofs
that have been adduced in fupport of it; though, unfortu-
nately for this country, few experiments of this kind have
been tried init. In fa€t, we have no reafon to fuppofe that
falt acts in the {malleft degree as a nutritious fubftance, or of
itfelf tends to fatten any animal; bat that merely by ating
as a condiment, it whets the appetite, and gives the creature
to which it is probably adminiftered a ftrong relith for its
proper food, fo as to induce it to eat in a given time a greater
quantity than it would have done, and thus greatly to aug-
ment, as has been above explained, its feeding quality beyond
what it otherwife could have had. In this way it is not,
perhaps, an extravagant pofition to fay, that by a proper
ufe of common falt, the fame quantity of forage might, on
many occafions, be made to go twice as far as it could have
gone in feeding animals, had the falt been withheld from
them. If fo, and let thofe who are inclined to withhold
their aflent to this pofition, prove, by a fet of experiments
fairly conducted, that it is erroneous ; till then, the unvary-
ing te(timony of the few who have tried it, confirming the
pofition, ought to be relied on. If fo, then we have here
laid open to our view an eafy mode of augmenting the pro-
duce of our fields to an amazing extent ; for, if the 3
quantity of forage can be made to go, not twice as far, but
one-twentieth part only farther than it now does, it would
be the fame thing as adding one-twentieth part to the aggre-
pee produce of meat for bealts, throughout the whole
ingdom.

It has alfo been fuggefted by a writer in the firft volume
of the Memeirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Paris, which is inferted in the 24th volume of Young’s
Annals, that vait advantage may be derived from the ufe of
falt, in promoting improvements in land as well as in in-
creafing the number of cattle. The farmer, it is obferved,
who has more than an ordinary itock of working cattle,
reaps a double advantage, the one by having his work done
in feafon, the other by enriching a greater proportion of his
land by means of their additional manure. The only diffi-
culty 1s how to maintain an increafed number without, in-
creafing the expence ; this, he aflerts, may be done by the
ufe of falt, and advances the three following propofitions.

1. That falt, given with the food of cattle, augments the
nourifhment of that food.

2. That in proportion to the quantity of falt eaten by
cattle, the effects of that augmentation will be perceivable.

3. That no ill confequence will follow from an excefs of
falt eaten by cattle, even though it fhould be given them
without {tint. And thefe propofitions he endeavours to

fupport

SALT.

fupport by unqueftionable faéts. In the jurifdition of
Arle, in the county of Provence, there is a diftri& called
the Craw, extending in iength about fix leagues, and in
breadth about three, the whole furface of which is covered
with {mall rough ftones, and not a tree or bufh to be feen in
the whole diitri&, except here and there upon the borders ;
yet on this {pot, fo feemingly fterile, by the free ufe of falt,
more numerous flocks of fheep are bred and reared than
upon any other common, of equal extent, throughout the
whole kingdom. And what is no lefs remarkable, the fheep
are healthier, hardier, and endure the feverity of winter with
lefs lofs, though they have fewer fheep-cots for covering
them, than thofe bred and fed on more copious paftures, and
befides they have not the advantage of more convenient
fhelter. Add to this, that the wool of the flocks bred and
brought up in the Craw is not only the fineft in the whole
country, but bears the highelt price of any in France.
From hence he concludes that it is to the unlimited ufe of
falt that thefe furprifing effets are to be afcribed, for it fre-
quently happens that the Craw is fo burnt up in the fummer
that the poor animals are forced to turn up the very ftones
to come at the few blades of grafs that grow round them,
and yet none perifh for want of food ; let every excellence
therefore, that can reafonably be fuppofed inherent in the
herbage, be allowed to it, yet the quantity of it is fo {mall,
that without the abundant ufe of falt, a fourth part of the
fheep kept in the Craw could not fubfift in it.

But asa ftill farther demonftration that this aftonifhing
effe& is folely to be attributed to falt, we have, fays the
writer, in Languedoc, on the borders of the Rhone, a {pot
of the fame kind of ftony land, in every refpe& fimilar to that
of the’Craw, yet for want of the free ufe of falt, that in Lan-

loc does not maintain the tenth part of the number of
Sheep that are brought up in the Craw, though in other
refpeéts it is no ways inferior, their wines and other fruits
produced in the borders of both being in their goodnefs and
other eflential qualities, equal.

Having thus proved his firft propofition incontrovertibly,
he proceeds to prove the fecond, and to recommend an eafy
experiment, which it isin every farmer’s power to make, and
that is, to give one half of his cattle falt, and the other half
none. By this fimple trial, in lefs than a month the dif-
ference will be difcernible ; the cattle to which the falt is
given will thew it in their looks, in the flecknefs of their
coats, in their growth, and in their ftrength and firmnefs of
labour. He adds, that with little more than half their ufval
food all thefe effets will be produced.

In order to eftablith his third propofition, he appeals to
the ice about Arles, where the cattle have as much
falt as they will eat, and noneare fo healthy or thrive fo faft
as thofe that eat moft of it. It is of courfe fuppofed that
there can be no doubt of the good effects of falt, in the
feeding or fattening cattle ; but the manner in giving it to
the uring cattle is not clearly explained. It is ftated,
that in eight days a ftock of three hundred ate fifteen pounds
of falt, being one pound to every {core ; and it would feem
that the hile quantity was given in one day, as the farmer
is cautioned againtt letting the fheep drink on.the day the
falt is given, fuggefting at the, fame time how much it

a og their appetites.

ut theexperiments of Mr. Cartwright in refpec to the
effe&ts of falt, when mixed with the food of animals, have not
been extended to theep, as he did not apprehend that a few
limited experiments would either throw new light upon a
fubjeét which has already been fofficiently difcufled, as ap-
plied to thofe animals, or furnifh the public with facts of
which it is not already in polleffion. His experiments have,

therefore, been confined to hogs andcows. It is ftated that
on July 23d, 1804, three hogs of the fame litter, about
eight months old, were put up to fatten. Their refpetive
weights were as follow :

No. 1. 44 lbs.
2. 47 lbs.
40 Ibs.

3.

And that from the 23d of July till the 7th of Auguit,
they were fed with barley-meal mixed up with water, durin
which time they confumed three bufhels and a half of barley,
and gained in weight as follows:

No. 1. 12 lbs.
ae 10 lbs.
lbs.

3: 5
But that from the 3d of Auguit to the 2rft, they had falt
mixed with their food, of which they confumed a quarter
of apound ger day.. The food confumed was four bufhels,
they had gained upon the laft weighing as under :

No. 1. 18 lbs.
2 22 lbs.
14 lbs.

However, that from the 21{t of Auguft to the 3d of
September, the falt was difcontinued, ia which time they
eat four bufhels and a half of barley-meal, and their increafe
of weight was:

No. 1. 24 lbs.
2 21 Ibs.
3. 21 Ibs.

But from the 3d of September to the 17th, they had falt
as before, and their confumption of food was the fame as
during the laft fortnight, namely, four bufhels and a half of

barley-meal. Their gain of weight was,
No. 1. 31 lbs.
2 19 lbs.
19 lbs.

They were then Raciglecsedl

And it is remarked that it did not appear that the falt had
any operation either in promoting thirft, or ftimulating their
appetites, the confumption of pad being nearly the fame
whether falted or not ; neither does it appear that the falt
had any influence on their fattening ; perhaps the quantity
allowed them was too little, and yet he fhould think not, as
there was enough to make their whole mafs of food fuffi-
ciently favory to the human talte. But in trying this expe-
riment he did not confine one parcel of hogs to falt, and
another to unfalted food. This mode of trying experiments
is always uncertain, as there will be frequently habits and
tendencies in the individual animals which will vary the re-
fults, and prevent their being uniform. The faireft way,
aud that which is the leaft liable to error, is to compare each
animal with himfelf, by feeding him at one period with one
kindof food, and then for an equal period with another. If
this principle, which he has proceeded upon, be right, there
is nothing in thefe experiments to encourage the practice of
adminiftering falt to hogs with a view, at leatt, to increafe
their tendency to fatten ; how far it may contribute to keep
them in health, is a different queftion, and on which years
of experience may probably be neceflary to decide.

It is alfo {tated that on the oth of October 1804, his ex-
periments on cows commenced. On that day two Welth
heifers, one of which had calved about five months, the
other three, were confined to the houfe, and fed with hay
for the {pace of one fortnight. The hay they confumed
during that time was four hundred weight nineteen pounds,
and the milk they Saas was thirty-fix gallons three
quarts. They had then for the next fortnight falt mixed
with their hay, the hay being firft flightly moiftened with

water,

SALT.

water, and the falt fprinkled over it; in which time they
confumed four hundred weight forty-two pounds of hay,
and feven pounds of falt. The milk produced was thirty-
feven gallons. For the next fortnight, namely, from the
fixth to the twentieth of November, the falt was omitted,
and their food was four hundred weight and one quarter of
hay, and two hundred weight and a half of cabbages. The
produce of milk in that {pace of time was fifty-four gallons
three quarts. From the twentieth of November, their food
was the fame as before, with the addition of half a pound
of falt per day. The produce of milk was fifty-feven

lons one quart. It is here noticed that it will be recol-
eted that falt feemed to have no tendency to promote
thirft, or to increafe appetite in the hogs; yet on the cows
its effects in one refpeé&t was very perceptible, for during the
period they had falt they drank three gallons a day each
more than at othertimes. It is therefore fuppofed that falt
may poflibly promote digeftion, (notwithitanding its anti-
feptic quality,) by itimulating the falival glands, and the
glands yielding the gues juice, and by introducing an in-
creafed difcharge of their refpeCtive fluids, fo neceffary to
the folubility of the different fubftances received into the
ftomach, before they can be admitted into the lat¢teals.
And itis fuggefted that though there may be nothing in the
foregoing experiments to lead us to fuppofe that falt has any
other tendency to promote a difpofition in animals to fatten
than as it may contribute to their health, by aiding their
digeftion; yet it is probable that, when adminiftered to
animals yielding milk, it may contribute in fome {mall degree
to increafe that fecretion ; and this it may do by promoting
thirft, which induces the animal to drink copioufly, in con-
fequence of which the fecretion of milk, as well as all other
fecretions of the fluids, may be augmented. Perhaps, alfo,
it may have a ftimulating influence on the laéteals themfelves.
But that after all, admitting thefe experiments to prove that
falt increafes, in fome fmall degree, the produétion of milk,
when that increafed quantity is balanced againft the price of
the falt, the dairy-man will find himfelf no gainer by fuch
means.

Thus, notwithftanding there does not feem any thing in
thefe experiments, either with hogs or cows, to encourage
the practice of giving falt to animals, with a view to in-
creafe their difpofition to fatten; yet it would be temerit
to affirm that it is entirely ufelefs. From the avidity wit
which moft, if not all, kinds of graminivorous animals,
whether in a ftate of domeftication or otherwife, are known
to eat falt, whenever it comes in their way, it is reafonable
to conclude that the propenfity has not been implanted in
them in vain. But from whatever caufe its falutary effeéts
may be fuppofed to proceed, whether (as was hinted at be-
fore) from its promoting digeftion, and an increafed fecre-
tion of fluids, or from any other aétion it may have on the
animal economy, it muit be left to an experimenter more
fuccefsful than he has been, to afcertain the matter in a
more perfect manner.

But with regard to fheep, it is well known that falt has
long been made ufe of with advantage in preferving the
health and condition of the animal; and that the incon-
venience of wet, moift, and otherwife unfavourable land
for fheep, may in a great meafure be obviated, by having
recourfe to the giving of falt to the animals. It 1s indeed
the common management, in almoft every country but this.
The proper mode of giving it is in fhallow troughs, being
allowed as much as they will take, which is in common but
very little, though they are extremely fond of it. Under
unfavourable feafons, and where the foil, food, and climate,
are not well fuited to them, the ufe of this material has

4

been found of great fervice. However, in Mr. Fenna’s dif.
ferent trials with this material for fheep, whether fcattered
in different parts of their pafture, or {prinkled upon other
portions, the animals do not feem to have been much at-
tracted by it; as they fcarce did any thing more than {mell
to it, and quit the place where it had been depofited. This
might, however, arife from their natural timidity, or their
want of being accuftomed to it ; as many animals are fhy
in taking new forts of food, till they get a fort of tafte for
them. This is the cafe with oil-cake, and fome others.

But it has been fuggelted by baron Schultz, in the firft
volume gf Communications to the Board of Agriculture,
that it deftroys the fafciola hepatica, or fluke-worm, in
fheep. And for this purpofe fome have recommended, ac-
cording to Dr. Darwin, one ounce of falt to be given every
day, diffolved in’ water; but that it is probable that it
might be ufed with greater advantage, if hay was moif-
tened with the folution, which would thus, at the fame
time, fupply them with better nourifhment than generally
falls to the lot of thofe difeafed fheep, on the fuppofition
that they would eat it, But as they take it readily in the
manner that has been mentioned above, it may anfwer the
intention in that very convenient method very well.

This fubftance, on the whole, befides its effects in other
ways, as feen above, has the praperty of moderating the
heat in hay-ttacks, preferving the green colour, and im-
proving the quality of it. See Hay, &c.

In the early ages of the world falt was regarded as a
fymbol of extreme fterility. And we read of princes, who,
in token of their indignation, fowed grounds with falt to
render them barren, See Judges, ix. 45. Deut. xxix. 23.
Zephan. ii. 9. a

Virgd, Georg. lib. ii. reprobates a falt foil as occafion-
ing the degeneration of fruit-trees, and admitting no me-
lioration from ploughing. ;

Pliny, {peaking of foffile falt, affirms, that every place
in which it is found is barren, and unfit for vegetation.
And Plutarch obferves, that the Egyptians believed falt to
be the f{pittle or foam of the giant Typhon, the great enemy
of their gods; and hence, he adds, they held it in the
greateft abhorrence.

In later times, however, falt has been frequently ufed as
a manure with great fuccefs. It has been the cuftom, ever
fince the time of Henry III. at leaft, for the farmers on the
Cornifh coaft to manure their land with fea-fand, in which
fea-falt is fo copioufly mixed, that in many places it is ufed
to be extracted from a ley:made of fand. When the fand
has been long expofed to the air, it proves lefs ufeful and
enriching, which fome have attributed to its having been
deprived of a good part of its falt by the dews and rains.
This practice of manuring lands with fea-fand has, within
thefe few years, beep introduced with advantage, in other
parts of Great Britain. The Chefhire farmers purchale no
inconfiderable quantity of refufe falt from the falt-boilers :
they mix it with dung, and it makes an excellent manure.

At Northwich alone, there were fold, a few years ago,
near 3000 tons of it in one year, for the ufe of the farmers
in that and other counties.

In Chefhire, and other counties, they make a t ufe
of the water of their falt-fprings, as a manure their

lands. They let out the water of thefe {prings for a certain
time upon the lands, after there has been rain, and by this
means the quantity of {alt they contain is fo blended with
the rain-water, that it is too weak to hurt the corn or grafs,
and yet {trong enough to kill worms and other vermin, and

to improve vegetation.
On the other hand, when the foil abounds with rufhes o
weeds,

— ee

‘7. ae

SAL

weeds, it is cuftomary in Chefhire to lay a quantity of rock- /pri

falt upon it, as it is found utterly to deftroy every vege-
table. And Mr. Tull, obferving that common fea-falt is
deftrudtive to almoft all plants, except thefe which naturally
grow in the fea-water, or on the fhores, invented a method
of determining how far the horizontal roots of plants run,
by burying falt at a diftance from them.

From the above obfervation it fhould feem, that falt,

when ufed in {mall quantities, is a good manure, and, when’

in large ones, a real poifon to vegetabies.

Some of the African and Arabian defarts are thought to
be barren by their having too much falt in them; whilft
many parts of Barbary are reckoned to be peculiarly fruit-
ful, from their containing a lefs quantity of it. As falt, in
fmall quantities, is known to accelerate the putrefaétion of
animal fubftances, and when in larger, to retard it, and thus
is ufeful in affifting the organs of digeftion in men and other
carnivorous animals, as we have already obferved, falt ap-
plied in like manner, as a manure, may be found very bene-
ficial ; not from its entering as an aliment into the fubitance
of vegetables, fince there are many experiments tending to
prove that no kind of falt can of itfelt become the food of
plants; but from its efficacy in reducing weeds, dried
herbage, dead roots, &c. into a putrid oily mafs; the
fruétifying virtue of oily compofts being now generally
acknowledged: but when it is ufed in a large proportion,
by preferving thefe matters from corruption, and drying up
or hardening the fibrous capillaries of the roots, fo that they
become unfit for fucking in nutriment, the fertility of the
ground is diminifhed, or wholly deftroyed. As to the fer-
tility of lands overflowed by fea-water, it may be partly
owing to the flime and mud left by it, and partly to the falt
contained in it, which, being in a {mall quantity, may con-
tribute to the putrefaGtion of the effete vegetable roots, and
the confequent produGtion of an oily compott.

There are no lands that fatten cattle fooner than thofe
ure grounds which are thus, at times, overflowed by
water: fuch, ¢.g. are the paftures at Erith, near the

Thames, which are fometimes overflowed at f{pring-tides.
Some farmers have tried the fcattering of falt over their
corn-fields, as foon as fown, in the quantity of two buthels
to an acre, with good fuccefs: and this quantity may be
produétive of all the advantages which arife from the occa-
fional overflowing of high tides, or natural falt-{prings.

Sact is ufed /ymbolically and metaphorically, by facred and
profane writers, in a variety of refpe¢ts. Accordingly we
find it ufed as the fymbol of wifdom, Mark, ix. 50. Col.
ivy. 1.; and hence we read of Attic falt, denoting wit or
mental intelligence. Salt is alfo ufed as a fymbol of incor-
ruption and perpetuity, Numb. xviii. 19. 2 Chron. xiii. 5.
It is alfo metaphorically ufed to fignify barrennefs or {teri-
lity, Judg. iv. 15. Zephaniah, ii. 9. Jer. xvii. 6. Salt is
likewife the fymbol of hofpitality, and alfo of that fidelity
which is due from fervants, friends, guefts, and domettics,
to thofe who maintain them. ‘Thus the governors of the
provinces beyond the Euphrates, writing to king Ar-
taxerxes, tell him, “ Bedale we have maintenance from the
king’s palace, &c. ;’? which in the Chaldee is thus ex-

d, * becaufe we are falted with the falt of the palace.”

See Ezra, iv. 14.) Among the nations of the Ealt Indies

it is faid to be a common expreffion, “ 1 eat fuch an one’s
falt,” for “I am fed or maintained by him.’

Sart, in Chemifiry,.&c. See Sar and Sars.

Sat-Brine Springs, in Rural Economy, {uch {prings,
i or pits, as afford a watery fluid, ftrongly impreg-

nated with falt or faline matter. The falt cued hon the
water of falt-wells and fprings, is denominated brine or

SAL

Great quantities of this falt are made in moft
of the inland countries, asin Germany, Switzerland, Hun-
gary, and in fome parts of France and England.

In Somerfetfhire, Cumberland, Weftmoreland, Durham,
and Yorkfhire, there are many falt-fprings, but they are
either too weakly impregnated, or fituated where fuel is
{earce, and for thefe and other reafons are net worked; but
in other parts of England there are many rich and valuable
falt-{prings, which are worked to great advantage. Of thefe,
fome are fituated in Staffordfhire, a great many in Lancathire,
but the chief are thofe at Droitwich in Worcefterfhire, and
Northwich in Chefhire ; about which laft place there are
many rich mines of foffile falt, above and beneath the beds
of which the falt-fprings are ufually found.

Ait Namptwich, in the lait county, there are alfo fome falt-
wells, which have been of very long ftanding, being fup-
pofed by many to have been worked in the time of the Re-
mans. The brine of thefe {prings is found to differ very
greatly in its ftrength and qualities; fome yielding much
more falt than others, and the falt extra@ted from fome of
them being found improper for many ufes, for which that
of others ferves very well.

The brine of Barton and Northwich is almoft fully fatu-
rated with falt, a pound of it yielding, as fome have faid,
fix ounces of falt ; but this cannot be itritly true ; for, al-
lowiag that 16 ounces of water can diffolve fix ounces of falt,
and no more, it mutt follow that no brine-{pring can yield fix
ounces of falt from a pint of brine; becaufe 16 ounces of
water impregnated with fix ounces of falt, conftitute a fa-
turated brine, weighing 22 ounces; and, therefore, by the
rule of proportion, if 22 ounces of brine contain fix ounces
of falt, 16 ounces of brine will contain 4,2, ounces of falt.
Hence we may infer, that the ftrongeit brine-{prings will not
yield above one quarter of their weight of falt. Accordingly,
Dr. Leigh (Hift. of Lancafhire, p. 43.) informs us, that
fome of the ftrongeft {prings at Northwich yielded feven or
eight ounces of falt from a quart of brine; but a quart of
brine weighs confiderably more than 32 ounces, the weight
of a quart of water: fo that the Northwich fprings, from
this account, do not yield a quarter of their weight.

The brine of Droitwich, Upwich, and Middlewich, con-
tains about one-fourth of falt: fome of the fprings at
Namptwich yield a fixth part of falt ; and thofe of Wetton,
in Staffordfhire, afford only one-ninth part. In England,
we feldom boil weaker brine than the a(t; but in Germany,
and fome other places, where falt is fcarce, they work
fprings, whofe water is not impregnated more highly than
the common fea-water, coritaining about ., falt.

Here we may obferve, that fea-water, brine-fprings, and
rock-falt, generally contain, befides common falt, various
other earthy and faline ingredients, fuch as calcareous earth,
magnefia, Epfom falts, edisn Glauber’s falt, fixed al-
kali uncombined with any acid, &c. Thefe fubftances are
foreign to the nature of the falt, and injure its quality ; and
hence it muft appear, that common fale may have very dif-
ferent properties, according to the quality of the water from
which it 1s made, or {kill of the falt-maker in feparating
thefe heterogeneous fubftances from it.

Although fprings of the kind above-mentioned exift in
feveral different parts of our own country, in different degrees
of ftrength, and of different qualities, yet they are perhaps
at prefent no where wrought for the purpofe of obtaining
falt from them, in any quantity, except in the county of
Chefter. They are, however, highly interefting and im-
portant to that diftri& in feveral different points of view.

The intelligent author of the correéted account of the
agricultural ftate of that diftriét, fays that the principal
brine-

ing {alt.

SAL

brine-{prings in it are found in the valleys through which the
river Weaver, and the {mall rivulet the Wheelock, have their
courfe ; and, for the moft part, near the banks of them.
If aweak fpring of this nature at Dunham, near the Bollin
river, beexcepted ; and the {prings at Dirtwich, in the moft
fouthern part of the county ; no others, it is faid, have ever
been worked. By their means, it is fuppofed, an importance
is given to the firft mentioned river, that it would not other-
wife peflefs ; and that there is probably a greater bulk of
carriage on that ftream, than on any other river in the ifland,
which is of itfelf fo little conftderable. Tracing the courfe
of this river from its fource, at the Peck-ferton hills, no
{prings ftrongly impregnated with falt are faid to be found
near it, until the town of Namptwich is approached. But
that brine does exift as high up as Brickley, though it has
not been afcertained at what depth, or of what ftrength,
feems probable, it is faid, from a finking of the ground,
and the confequent filling cf the cavity with this fort of
fluid, which took place in its vicinity in the year 1657 ; ac-
counts of which are given by Dr. Jackfon, in the Philofophi-
cal TranfaGtions, and more minutely by Childrey, in his
Britannica Baconica. Leland has alfo, it is obferved,
given the hiftory of a very fimilar occurrence at a {till earlier
period, a few miles fouth of this. It is related by him, that
“about a mile from Combermere abbey, part of a hill, with
trees upon it, fuddenly funk down, and was covered with
falt-water, of which the abbot being informed, caufed it to
be wrought ; but the proprietors of the wiches compound-
ing with him, he left off working.’ It is likewife added,
** that this falt-pool {till continued in his time, but that no
care was taken of it.?’

It is further ftated, that a few miles lower down the
Weaver than Brickley, in Baddiley, and one or two adjoin-
ing townfhips, fprings are met with varioufly impregnated
with falt. Brinefield is, it is faid, the name given to dif-
ferent inclofures in Baddiley. And where the river takes
a northerly dire€tion at Audlem, brine is, it is faid, met
with on each fide of it, and may be found, on finking near
its banks, all the way from thence to the town of Nampt-
wich. About the midway between the former place and
Namptwich there is a farm, it is remarked, which ftill retains
the name of Brine-pits farm, where falt was formerly manu-
faétured. Alfoa little further down, brine was found, and
falt made, on each fide of the river, at Auftafton and Bad-
dington, as ftated in King’s Vale Royal. However, at the
preient time, it is afferted that none is manufactured until the
town of Namptwich is reached, where a great many falt-brine
fprings prefent themfelves. Continuing the fame courfe
down the river, brine is again found at Winsford. And
betwixt Winsford and Northwich, attempts have been made
to get downto it; but thefe have hitherto, it is faid, been
rendered unfuccefsful by the quantity of frefh water which
has been met with. It is {tated to be again found at Lett-
wich, in the angle between the Dane and the Weaver rivers ;
at Northwich ; at Witton, half a mile north of the former of
thefe places, on a fmall brook of the fame name, which falls
into the Weaver at Anderton, a townhip about a mile below
Northwich. Alfo at Barnton, a mile {till lower down the
river, a weaker brine has been found; and again at Salters-
ford, about a mile below the above place. ‘['wo miles {till
lower, in Weverham, brine has likewife been found, which
was worked, it is faid, as early as the time of William the
Conqueror ; but it does not appear, it is remarked, that any
has been difcovered below this place.

And in following the courfe of the little ftream, the
Wheelock, brine is, itis faid, firft met with at Lawton, on
the very confines of the county ; then three or four miles

3

SA L

lower, at Roughwood, in the townfhip of Bechton; again
at Wheelock; and, laitly, at Middlewich, where the
Wheelock falls into the Dane. It is remarked that no brine
has been found in the valley through which the Dane flows
from Middlewich to Northwich: however, higher up this
{tream, inthe vicinity of Congleton, fome of the inclofures
have, it is faid, the name of Brine-field, Brine-hill, &c.
whence it may be concluded, that brine has fome time or other
been difcovered there in fuch places. F F

But though the places which have been noticed are the
only ones where brine has been found, and works for its
evaporation erected, there is little doubt, itis fuppofed, but
that it might be met with in almoft every part of the valleys
through which the Weaver and the Wheelock rivers take
their courfe, did not the frefh-water fprinzs prevent the
accefs to cr the coming at it. :

It is ftated that the depth from the furface at which the
falt-brine {prings are found; the level they take when the
ftratum which immediately confines them is penetrated; and
the abundance of the brine which they contain or afford,
are extremely various. About the town of Namptwich, the
brine is met with, it is faid, about ten or twelve yards from
the furface ; and that in finking for frefh water, it is necei-
fary to do it with caution, in order that the brine may be
avoided. It is noticed, that in finking for the foundation
of a bridge, fome few years ago, juit above this town, a
very copious falt-brine {pring was found about eight yards
from the furface ; andthat the workmen were much incom-
moded byit. The brine-fprings moftly rife near to the fur-
face. When Winsford is reached, to which place the river
Weaver is made navigable, the brine is found, it is faid, at a
much greater depth from the furface ; and that it is gene-
rally neceflary to fink from fifty-five to fixty yards before it
is met with, when it is ufually found in great abundance.
It has its level twelve yards from the furface. Near North-

wich it is ftated to be found at a depth from thirty to forty —

yards, the {prings being very fluent ; and its level is about
twenty yards from the furface. At Witton it is met with
at about the fame depth, and rifes much to the fame level,
the fprings being equally copious. However, through the
whole of Anderton, the quantity of brine is faid tobe the
moft abundant ; at the higher end of that townfhip it is ob-
ferved to be found about forty yards from the furface, and
that the level is nearly the fame as that at Witton. Some-
what lower down, it is faid to be neceflary to fink from fifty
to fifty-five yards before it is met with. Still keeping the
courfe of the river, at Barnton, about a mile below An-
derton, on finking fixty yards, and boring fifty yards below
this, it is noticed, that a very weak brine was difcovered,
and that in {mall quantities only.

In tracing the different falt-brine {prings along the little
itream of the Wheelock, it is faid to be found, that at
Lawton they are met with about eighty-five yards from the
furface, and have their level at feventy yards. The fprings
here, it is remarked, are much lefs copious than many of
thofe on the Weaver. At Roughwood, the brine is fifty
yards from the furface, and rifes fifteen yards ; the {pring
1s by no means abundant, and it is often pumped dry. At
Wheelock it is noticed to be found at the depth of feventy
yards, and that it rifes within thirty yards of the furface ;
the {prings being very copious. At Middlewich, however,
the brine is, it is faid, at different depths, as from thirty-five
toeighty-four yards; in one pit, in which it is found at feventy
yards depth, it rifes, it is faid, to the furface. But, it is
remarked, that the {prings here are by no means fo fluent,
and are occafionally pumped until they are quite dry.

In regard to the difcovery of the falt-brine {prings in this

diftri&t,

lett cede A Tier ee geet OO

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difiri&, and the time when they were. firft worked, it is
faid that we are without any certain accounts. It is
thought, .however, that there can be little doubt, but that
at a very early period falt muft have been procured from the
brine-{prings which found their way to the furface. This,
as has been. feen above, is parti¢ularly the cafe with the
fprings in the vicinity of the towns of Namptwich and Mid-
dlewich; and it is known.from Doomfday-book, it is. faid,
that, at the time of Edward the Confeffor, brine-pits were
wrought at all the wiches in this diftri€t. It would appear,
however, it is obferved, that, even feveral centuries after-
wards, the art of making falt was very imperfeétly under-
ftood in any part of this country ; and that the quantity
manufa€tured was very inconfiderable. And it is further
ftated, that Henry VI., having been informed that a new
methodof, making falt had been invented in the Low Coun-
tries, by which it might be made more abundantly in this
country than had hitherto been the cafe; invited John de
Sheidame, a gentleman of Zealand, with fixty perfons_ in
his company, to come into ‘this country, and inftruct his
fubje@s in the new method of making falt, promifing them
proteétion and encouragement. But whether they came, or
what their improvements were, does not appear: however,
itis probable that thefe were not. of much importance, or
that they were loit, as we find the Royal Society, foon after
its inftitution, very intent upon improving the art of manu-
fa@turing white falt, and publifhing, towards the clofe of
the feventeenth century, the accounts or hiftories of feveral
modes of making it ; particularly Dr. William Jackfon’s ac-
count of the brine-{prings, and the method of making
white falt at Namptwich, in this country ; and Dr. Thomas
Ratftel’s account of the manufacture of it at Droitwich, in
Worcefterfhire. However, thefe are conceived to be rather

5 of the methods of manufactures then. ufed, than
fuggeltions of improvements. The falt made in this country
was ftill, it is f2id, confidered inferior to that made abroad ;
and what wasmanufa¢tured in Chefhire was confined to the
fupply of itsown confumption, and that of a few neigh-
bouring counties or diftricts.

But the want of knowledge in the manufaCture, and ‘the
fuppofed fuperiority of foreign over Englifh falt, it is ob-
ferved, attraéted, in the beginning of the laft ‘century, the
attention of the houfe of commons; and Mr. Lowndes, a
Chefhire gentleman, received a reward from parliament, in
confideration of his'making kaown fome improvements he
was thought to have made in the manufacture of falt. Soon
after which the late Dr. Brownrigg publithed his ingenious
and philofophical work on “ the art of making common
falt,” in which, in addition to a full and detailed account
of the proceffes in the manufa¢ture of it, at that time ufed,
he fuggelted, it is faid, a variety of alterations and improve-
ments. Some of thefe were, it is obferved; adopted, though
not to the extent which was admitted of by the ftate of i
manufaéture. Ip confequence, however, it is thought, of
thefe and various fubfequent improvements, joined to the
inereafed commercial fpirit of the country, and the facility
of communication with the port of Liverpool, by ren-
dering the river Weaver ‘navigable for veffels of confi-
derable burthen from Northwich and Winsford, the manu-
faéture of white falt in Chefhire, as well for home. con-
fumption as for exportation, has exceedingly increafed in the
courte of the laft century, more particularly towards the
clofe of it; and the fupport of it is now become, it is
thought, “an obje& and matter of the firit confequence, not
only to the county itfelf, but to the whole nation.

lore falt-brive {prings appear to have exifted, and to
have been wrought in this diltriét, from the earlieft periods of

Vou. ¥XXI,

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the-hiftory of this country, while the difcovery of the beds

of foffile falt in 1t are only of late date. See Rock-Salt.
In regard to the origin and itrength of thefe falt-brine
{prings, it may be obferved, that the notions concerning the
former were, it is faid, extremely erroneous and abfurd until
the difcovery of the beds of foffile falt ; but that fince that pe-
riod, no doubt -has been entertained that their faline contents
are derived from the-water of {prings, or rain-water, coming
upon, or penetrating down to the furface of thefe rocky beds,
or the heads of the rock, as they are commonly termed, and
thus effecting the folution of a certain portion of them with
which they come in contact. With refpeé& to the latter,
the quantum of fuch folution, or the ftrength of the brine,
various circumitances will, of courfe, it is obferved, influence
it; but moit particularly, the extent of furface of the rocky
faline bed, which is expofed to the aGtion of the water; as
the greater this is, the more completely the water and the
rocky bed are brought into contaét, the longer and. more
perfe& the folution which takes place, and the ftronger the
brine or falt-fpring. _ But, independently of fuch an imme-
diate operation, the ftrength of the brine will, it is faid, be
varied by the manner in which any pit is worked, and the
circumftances attending the raifing of the brine ; for if it be
pumped up feldom, it will be found to be weaker than it
would be, were it drawn up more frequently. Dr. Jackfon
found, that a quart of brine, when the pit had been drawn
off three or four days, to fupply five or fix wich-houfes,
yielded an ounce and a half more falt than at any other time,
when it had a reft of fomewhere about a week. And it is
faid, that it has been noticed at feveral falt-fprings, by
Dr. Brownrigg, that the brine is much {tronger at the bot-
tom of the pits than near the furface; alfo in dry weather,
than in wet ; and when the pits are conitantly drawn, than
when little brine is taken out of them. The explanation
of which is confidered to be this, that the water which finds
its way to the layer or bed of foffilefalt, probably remains, in
a great degree, at reft, until put in motion by raifing the
brine ; while in this ftate, the portion of it which is in im-
mediate contaé with the rock becomes faturated; but ac-
quiring at the fame time a greater degree of {pecific gravity
than it had as pure water, it thereby prevents the water above
from finking down fo as to act upon the rock ; and the fim
of folution is confequently lefs than where the pit is’ fre-
quently worked, and the rocky faline fubitance expofed to
a more conitant action of the water. This, it is obferved,
is particularly the cafe in fuch brine-pits as are not imme-
diately conneG&ed with any others; and that the fame ob-
fervations will be applicable to thofe pits which have a com-
munication ; with this difference only, that the mode of
working in one pit is to be taken into confideration in the
effe&t produced on the ftrength of the brine in another, inde-
pendently of its own particular operations. It is {tated,
that still of the pits in the vicinity of Northwich and Winf-
ford in the above diftri€&t, have fuch a communication at the
rock-head, as is rendered fufficiently apparent by the brine
in one pit having its level lowered, when another pit is at
work at fome diltance. At the former place this has been
further evinced, it is faid, when the brine has found its way
into the cavity, of a rock-falt pit, an accident which has not
unfrequently occurred. In fuch cafes, it is obferved, fix or
eight brine-pits, at the diftance of nearly a mile from each
other, have often been laid dry, and have continued fo until
the rock-pit has been filled, and the brine has again found
its le Even on fome occafions, where the cavity of the
rock-pit has been large, it is remarked, that four or five
weeks have’ elapfed before this has been fully accomplifhed.
The ftrength of the brine will alfo, it is faid, be further
K k materially

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materially affected by the quantity of frefh water which
finds accefs to it, either direétly through the fides of the
fhaft out of which the brine is drawn, or by any fiffures,
cracks, or openings in the earth with which thefe are nearly
connected. The proportion of falt which is held in folu-
tion, in fuch cafes will, it is faid, bear a ratio to the frefh
water thus introduced, and to the fubfequent opportunity
this has of aéting upon the rocky fubftance. ‘Thefe cir-
cumftances are therefore all highly neceffary to be confidered
in the working of falt-brine fprings.

In refpeét to the quantity of falt which a given portion of
water, fully faturated, will hold in folation, very different
éftimates have been formed ; which are fuppofed to have
been caufed by confounding given quantities of brine with
the fame meafures of water, and the want of proper difcri-
mination between the quantities of falt contained in the one,
and that capable of being diffolved by the other ; as well as
from the different ftate of the falt ufed in making the trials,
in which there may have been variations in absttetes and more
or lefs of the water of cryftallization. But the refult of
the moft corre& trials fhews it to be not quite fix ounces in
fixteen of water, avoirdupois weight. In the forming of
eftablifhments for the making of falt from brine-{prings, this
is, of courfe, of material importance, as the firft points to
be confidered are unqueltionably the ftrength and purity of
the brine which is to beemployed. However, notwithttand-
ing thefe circumftances, the advantages derived from feveral
other adventitious ones may, it is faid, render it better worth
while to prepare the article from a weaker brine in one
fituation, than from a ftronger one in another. The chief
and moft material point which has any influeace in this bufi-
nefs, after thofe of the ftrength and purity of the brine, is
faid to be the convenience which is afforded of ‘water-car-
riage for fending away the manufaétured material, and for
the ready conveyance of fuel to the works. The expence
and capability of fupply of this laft article are alfo neceflary
to be confidered. And the fluency of the fpring is another
confideration which, it is noticed, Dr. Jackfon has obferved,
may be rich or poor, in a double fenfe ; for a {pring may
be rich in falt, but poor in the quantity of brine it affords.”’
The opportunity of ftrengthening a weaker brine with
rock-falt, may likewife, it is faid, render it more advanta-
geous to work this, than a {tronger brine differently circum-
ftanced.

In refpeé to ftrength and purity, the greater proportion
of the brines of the above diftri@ are concluded, from dif-
ferent trials, to poffefs them in a very fuperior degree ; and
that many of thofe which are lefs impregnated with falt,
have rock-falt at no great diftance from them, for affording
the ready means of ftrengthening them; wile the fprings
are in general copious, and fuel, efpecially coals, really
procured, though of late at a much more increafed rate than
formerly, notwithftanding the more extended navigation of
the principal river, and every convenience of water-carriage
furnifhed by a neighbouring canal.

It is further noticed that the workmen, or the wallers, as
they are denominated from the bank or wall they raife by
the falt rubbifh round the pits, commonly make their efti-
mate of the ftrength of brine from its fpecilic gravity ; a
new-laid egg being their ufual hydrometer, which finks in
pure water, but is fufpended when the water holds a {mall
portion of diffolved falt in it ; and has a larger or fmaller
extent of its furface expofed, as the brine contains more
or lefs dalt»in folution. They have alfo an PG of
the above kind graduated upward, like that for f{pirits,
which is occafionally employed, the zero point of which
is completely faturated or Ieach brine; however; by this,

9

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it is faid, they only know the comparative ftrength of the
different brines; and are not enabled to afcertain the exa&
proportion of falt contained in any given quantity of liquor.

It is however ftated, that, from the table in Watfon’s
Chemical Effays containing the fpecific gravity of water im-
pregnated with different quantities of falt, from the one-

third down to the one thoufand and twenty-fourth part of -

the weight of the water, by knowing the fame fort of gra-
vity in any brine, a pretty exaé eftimate may be formed of
the amount of the falt it contains. The French, it is ob-
ferved, employ Baume’s inftrument for this ofe, as
being, from its ready application, the molt uff ad con-
venient. And with the fame hydrometer, nicely adjufted and
regulated with every poffible care in other refpeéts, the
writer found by his trials that the ftrength of feveral of the
Chefhire brines was from 21.250 to 25.625 per cent. Of pure
falt, and in one inftance from 25 to 26.566 fer cent. ; or that
in an ale-pint there was contained from 4 oz. 15dr. to
6 oz. 2 dr.; and in one cafe from 6 oz, to 6 oz. 6 dr. ; and the
proportion of earthy falts contained were from 6.25 to 2.500
per cent. Some of the brine-fprings are noticed to have a
greater fpecific gravity than that of a faturated folution of
muriate of foda in pure water ; which was found by the
above hydrometer to be, when cold, 27.812 Pda cent. of the
falt ; an ale-pint of the London ftandard brafs meafure, con-
taining 60z. 12 dr. By referring to the work the quanti-
ties will be feen minutely put down, with the names of the
different brine-{prings to which they relate, and many other
interefting particulars. '
Anda comparifon of the ftrength of the brine-fprings in
the above diftri@, with that of fimilar {prings in France, may
be formed by the account given by citizen Nicholas,- an
aflociate of the National [nftitute, in a memoir on the national
falt-works in the departments of La Meurthe, Jura, Danbs,
and Mont Blanc; who was required, by a decree of the
committee of public fafety in Auguit 1795, to vifit fuch
works, and colleét-all the neceflary information concerning
their actual fituation, and the means of their improvement.
It would appear, it is faid, that there are three of thefe
eftablifhments in the firft, as at Chateau Salins, at Moxenvie,
and at Dieuze ; two in the fecond, as at Salins, and Mont
Morot ; one in the third, at Arc ; and two in the laft, as
at Montiers, or Mont Salin, and at Conflans. - At the three
firlt places, the brine pretty regularly contains, it is ob-
ferved, from 13 to 14 per cent. of muriate of foda, though,
after long pumping, it comes up ftronger. At the two fe-
cond places, the avérage degree of faltnefs in the former is
11.86 of the hydrometer ; and that of the latter from 11 to
82 of it. “At the third place, the brine contains from 32
to 74 per cent. of the fame falt. And in a particular triab
with the brine at Chateau Salins, the refult was, that one
pound of water gave 10z. 7 gr. of pure falt; 25 grains of
felenite ; 75 grains of Glauber’s falts; and S14 grains of
muriated lime and magnefia. ’ ron
In refpe& to the rent of pane fees from Doomfday-
book, it is faid to appear that the king had formerly a
claim on all thofe in the above county. ‘That, in the time of
Edward the Confeffor, there was 2 brine-{pring at‘Nampt-
wich, and eight falterns betwixt the king and earl Edwin ;
of which the king bote two-thirds of the expences, and re-
ceived two-thirds of the returns ; the earl the other third.
Befides, the earl had a faltern for the particular ufe of his
own family : if, however, he fold any falt from it, the kin
had two-thirds of the’ receipts, the earl one-third. Severa
private individuals had alfo, it is faid, falterns for the ufe of
their own families ; but if they fold any falt, a certain fum
was paid to the king. ony
However,

SAL

However, no right over thefe {fprings is now, it is faid,
claimed by the crown ; they being folely the property of the
owners of the land in which they are found. Few of them,
however, are occupied by the land owners ; they being com-
monly let out to tenants, either at fixed annual rents, without
any reftriGtions as to the working of them, or at rents pro-

ioned to the extent of the manufacture, and the quantity
of falt produced. aye. % worl 9h

In order to prepare the falt, the brine is raifed from the
pits in which it is found, by being pumped up into ciiterns,
or refervoirs formed near the works. In fuch fituations as
admit of the aid of a ftream of water, it fometimes is raifed
by that means; as is the cafe at different places. Where
fach affiftance could not be had, it was formerly the cuftom
to draw-it up by horfes. However, in Camden’s time
horfes were net had recourfe to for this purpofe, as he ob-
ferves, that ** at Northwich there is a deep and plentiful
brine-pit, with ftairs about it, by which, when they have
drawn the water in their leathern buckets, they afcend
half naked to their troughs, and fill them, from whence it is
conveyed to the wich-houfes.” The demand for falt in-
creafing, {mall wind-mills were in addition employed for this
ufe ; and as the confumption became ftill larger, a variety of
inconveniencies were experienced from truiting to fo un-
certain a machine, which ultimately led to the ufe of fteam-
engines, and confequently, at almoft all the newly-erected
works the brine is raifed in this way.

It is noticed that the refervoirs, into which the brine is
seer ig up, are either large ponds, formed in clay, and
moftly lined with brick, being capable of containin the
confumption of feveral weeks ; or they are wooden cilterns,
pitched within, fit for holding the fupply of it for the con-
fumption of only a few. days. ~

hough it has been feen that many of the brines contain
very large proportions of falt, fo as to be nearly faturated
hw A cafes, they will all diffolye an increafed portion of
falt to fome extent; and as it is of great importance in
regard to the economy of fuel, to have the {malleft poffible
quantity of fuperfluous water to evaporate, it is conftantly
an objet with the manufa€turer to have a fully faturated
brine. In cafes, therefore, where the brine is weak, or where
there is the conyenience of faturating a brine already ftrongly
impregnated with falt, this is done by putting rock-falt in
the cillern into which the brine is pumped, and permitting
the liquor to a¢t upon it until it becomes completely fatu-
rated. For this purpofe a ftrong wooden frame is fixed in
the ciftern, at about half its depth, upon which the rock-
falt is thrown ; and the earthy refiduum is occafionally re-
moved from it, after the whole of the falt has been diffolved.
Water flightly impregnated with falt, in other works, is
alfo improved and brought to a perfect {tate of faturation
in the fame way.

From thefe refervoirs the brine is, it is faid, drawn, as it is
wanted, through wooden pipes, or by troughs, into the eva-
perating pans, which are now made of wrought iron; the
dimenfions of which vary confiderably, but they are moftl
in new works a great deal larger than thofe which were in ufe
a few years ago ; ufually containing from 600 to 800 fupere
ficial feet, and in one or two inftances nearly 1000 feet.
Their form is ufually that of an oblong {quare, having the
depth of from 12 to 16 inches. © Thofe of the firtt fizes have
commonly three furnaces, of from fix and a half to feven feet
lon from 20 to 24 inches wide, The grates from two
sokaibelt to three feet from the bottoms of the pans. The
furnace-doors fingle ; and none to the afh-pits. . Each pan
is moftly partitioned out, and has a feparate pan-hou/e, on
the fides of which are long wooden benches, more than a

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yard wide, for placing the falt upon in conical bafkets to
drain, after it is taken from the pan; thefe houfes being
covered with wooden or flated roofs, with eceuvres to
let the fteam pafs freely away. See the work alluded to
above, and the article SaLr.

The very great difference in the dimenfions of the refer-
voirs, the pans, and other things ufed at prefent, and thofe
which were employed two centuries ago ; {trongly denote
the vaft increafe and improvement of this manufaéture.

The falt is prepared from the falt-brine {prings, in the
above diitriéts, into /leved or lump falt, large-grained fraky
falt, and Jarge-grained or fifhery falt, by {everal different
ways, or rather by the application of different degrees of
heat in the proeefs; the firft fort being produced by the
higheft, or that of two hundred and twenty-fix degrees, and
the laft fort by the loweit, or that of from one hundred to
one hundred and ten. The intermediate degrees furnifhing
the other two forts of falt, as thofe of from one hundred
and fixty to one hundred and feventy ; and of one hundred
and thirty to one hundred and forty degrees of Fahrenheit’s
fcale. See Murtare of Soda, and Sar.

Though the white falt made in the above diftri@ was, little
more than a century ago, fcarcely more than fufficient to fup-
ply its own coniumption, as has been feen, the increafe which
has taken place fince that time has been fo great, on dif-
ferent accounts, that the quantity difpofed of for home con-
fumption in different places is {tated to have been, from fix
of the works, from the 24th of May 1805 to the fame date
in 1806, no lefs than 663,637 bufhels, or 16,590 tons
77 buthels, which paid a duty to government of 475,728/. 155.
And though the increafe has lately been fo very large,
there is reafon to believe, it is faid, that it is ftill capable of
confiderable extenfion. See Rocx-Salt.

» Saxt-Brine. Pits, the fhafts, pits, or openings from
which the falt-brine is taken or raifed. See the preceding
article.

SaLt-Marfb, in Agriculture, fuch pafture-land as lies
near the fea, and is fometimes overflowed by the water of
it. It has been obferved that horfes and black cattle thrive
better, and get flefh and fat fooner, in falt-marfhes than
in frefh-water meadows or upland paftures; though the
reafon of it has not been fully affgned. But according to
fome, it is fuppofed that the air of the fea whets their
appetites ; and that the herbs produced by the lands near
the fea are more conducive to the health of herbaceous ani-
mals, than fuch as grow on upland paltures, whether natural
or artificial. But may we not rather attribute the thrivin
of cattle on thefe marfhes to the faline particles with which
the earth as well as its produce is, when near the fea, ftrongly
impregnated? Perhaps even the dews have their partion of
falt ; et of this the writer (now cited) has made no experi-
ment, therefore mentions it only as a probable conjecture.
He is fully of opinion, that the faline particles only with
which the grafs is impregnated in the above-mentioned fort
of marfhes caufe cattle to thrive in them in the manner they
are known todo. Thefe falts purge away the foul humours
which the beafts haye contracted, either by inaétivity, or
by being oyerheated in labour, by which means they are
better difpoted to be nourifhed by the aliment they receive,
But it may perhaps be objected, that if the grafs of thefe
marfhes is apt to purge cattle, this very purging, by being
long continued, will be a means of preyenting their.grow-
ing fat. ‘To this it is anfwered, that the cattle take with
their food every day nearly the fame quantity, of thefe
purgative particles 5 but that the quantity of falt, which
at their being firkt put into the marfh will have that effec,
will ceafe producing it when then are by cultom habituated

Kk 2 to

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to take 2 daily portion of it, as is evident in many cafes.
The writer fuggefts, that as it is not convenient to every
one to fend their cattle to a falt-marfh, that it would be
happy if a method could be fubftituted that would nearly
anfwer the fame purpofe. He does not think this im-
poflible: perhaps if common falt-water was to be laid in
the fields for the horfes to lick as often as they pleafed,
they would thrive much better; were he to fay he knew
it would have that effe&t, it would, however, be no pre-
fumption. Cattle, he adds, are naturally fond of falt, and
if let at their liberty will take no more of it than what
does them good. With this help, our frefh-water meadows
and uplands, natural and artificial paftures, would yield us
a greater profit, and of courfe be worth more both to the
land-owner‘and farmer. And in fupport ofthis praétice
the writer aflerts, that in the inland parts of Switzerland,
when their horfes and cattle have endured the hardthips of
a long and fevere winter, they turn them in the fpring loofe
into the mountains, laying falt here and there upon the
rocks, for them to refort to when they pleafe ; and of this
they are fo fond, that when the farmers want to catch
their horfes, they take fome falt in their hats, as we do
oats in a fieve, to allure them. And experience has long
convinced them, that the falt thus laid in their way anfwers
a very good purpofe: their cattle are more healthy in
general than ours, and they attribute it almoft to this alone.
And he ftates, that in the provinces of Munfter and Con-
naught, in Ireland, they very frequently lay falt on flates,
for the benefit of their horfes when at grafs, which they
find does the cattle great fervice. It is likewife fuggefted,
that the ufe of this fubftance is extremely proper, when
cattle are turned into clover, lucern, or cole-feed, to feed:
it is well known, that on thefe oceafions they are very
apt, unlefs great care is taken, to be furfeited, which the
falt would prevent, and thereby greatly accelerate the fat-
tening of the cattle, and make it much fafer to the farmer.
Aend the writer concludes by obferving that lucern, cut
green and given to Horfes, has the fame effeét upon them
as a falt-marfh. The lucern at firlt, and for feveral days,
is in a great degree diuretic to them; after which they
thrive upon it furprifingly, and in a very fhort time they
fet into high order. $

And it is ftated by Mr. Curtis of Lynn, Norfolk, in
the fourth volume of Communications to the Board of
Agriculture, that he had a neighbour, who by embank-
ment converted about four hundred acres of falt-marfh into
a more profitable courfe. After the fea was excluded from
its accuftomed depredations, the land was immediately
ploughed up and fown with oats; but fearcely a fingle
grain was feen to vegetate. In the farne fummer it was
afterwards fown with cole-feed; but here one difappoint-
ment trod on the licels of another, though rather in a lefs
degree; particular {pots here and there produced a very
decent crop, but the quantity was infufficient to defray the
expence. In the month of Auguft following, the whole
of it was again fown with the fame feeds This fecond
crop, in a great meafure, not only compenfated for the
former failures, but was a happy prefage of enfuing profit.
In the following autumn, after the crop was reaped, the
whole of the land was fown with wheat, and in the enfuing
fpring, when it might be about four inches high, it was
all laid down with grafs-feeds ; but whether the dofeé pro-
ceeded from the greatnefs of the crop, or from the feeds
themfelvew falling into the interftices of the grafs of the
wheat, which prevented its arrival at the foil, cannot now
be known; it 1s only certain that {careely one-fourth of
the land proved fit for pafturage. ‘That portion of it was,

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and continues, extremely fine; but the other has ever fince
been coarfe..and. unproductive. The proprietor being an
old man, with a talcable {hare. of the charateriftic ob-
{tinacy of declining life, has ever fince (a period of about
eighteen years) configned its produce folely to nature’s
operations.» It has conftantly been fed with fheep and bul-
locks, and from the fine and prolific ftate of that portion
that fucceeded, there is not the flighteft doubt but that the
whole might be converted into the beft of pafture. It has
lately become the property of another, who will pro-
bably profit by the errors of his predeceflor. The foil is
a filt; and the grafs-feeds with which it was fown, were a
compofition of hay-feeds, cow-grafs, narrow-leafed plan-
tain, and white clover. When land is frefh recovered from
the fea, .he conceives (provided flooding is not pra¢ticable)
that it ought to remain a whole year before it is configned
to tillage; as it will take that period at leaft to expel
the falts fufficiently for corn to vegetate. He knew a
gentleman who fowed a piece of arable land with turnips,
and in the ploughing preceding the fowing of the feed,
he drefled the land with refufefalt. The confequence was,
that on thirty-fix acres of land he had not twenty turnips,
though the fame feed fown on the reft of the farm evinced
not the fmalleft failure. Some, however, have fuppofed the
ufe of falt as manure favourable to the growth of turnips,
as may be feen in the preceding article of falt. It is pro-
bable that too large a quantity was applied at one time.
Thefe forts ditens have been long celebrated for the
power which they poffefs in reltoring fuch hories as have
been prematurely worn out and reduced by hard labour
or improper management. And it has been remarked
that horfes often grow fat on the beit falt-marfhes, when
they are eaten fo bare, or burnt up in dry weather, that
fcarcely any grafs is to be feenon them. In winter fome
never houfe them, but let them run abroad and take their
chance in the open fields, where there are neither trees nor
hedges to cover them, and yet they feldom or ever fuffer
any thing from the cantcatityat the weather ; nor, unlefs
the ground be covered deep with fnow, do they allow them
any dry forage. Yet thefe for the mo{t part appear in
good condition even in the months of December and
January, when they have nothing to feed on but the roots.
Befides all the water they have to drink is for the moft part
brackifh, which at firft is not very agreeable to horfes that
have not been ufed to it, but afterwards they come to relifh
it as well as any other. The greateft danger on the marth
grounds*is from the deep ‘ditches made to take off the
{pring tides, fome of which have their bottoms full of a
kind of loam engendered by the weed which comes into
them in great plenty-at high water. And if a horfe that
is a ftranger to thefe grounds happen, in leaping, or in
any other way, to ftep into one of them, he may run
the hazard of being loft unlefs he be difcovered im time.
Horfes, however, have moitly fagacity enough to ‘avoid
this danger, and that of being wafhed away by {pring
tides. ’ en
The writer of the corre&ted account of the ftate of the
agriculture of the county of Devon remarks, that*in all
the experience which he has had of the nature and form-
ation, as well as of the mode of embanking or fecuring} cul-
tivating, and appropriating falt-marfh in this country, Tres
landy Folland, and Ameriea, no inftance has occurred or
come within his knowledge, of any improvement bei
made on fuch traéts as confift ofja crude, tough, black fea-
mud. This fubltance, or compofition of land, when ripe
and ready for embankment, or being fecured againft the
fea, is the mildeit, moft temperate, and permanently fruit-
ful

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fal foil of any that prevails; and which, béfore its embank-
ment of fecuring, is, or fhould be, raifed to nearly, if not
quite the Keight of the ordinary flow of the {pring tides.
The fea-mud land, on the other hand, is covered every
twelve hours with a depth of twelve or fifteen feet of pure,
or nearly ‘fo, fea-water, and when embanked and fecured,
lies perhaps a little above the line of low-water mark. It
is contended, that in proportion as the embankments of
land of this fort from the fea have been made between
thefe points of high and low-water mark, they have an-
fwered or difappointed the views of the undertakers or pro-
prietors. It is noticed, that throughout all the feven town-
fhips of marfh-land in the county of Norfolk, the whole of
which at different periods have been refcued from the fea,
the earlieft embankments, and thofe in the interior of the
diftri&, are uniformly lower in their general level, and of
an inferior quality, to the level of country inclofed by a
line of embankments made at a fubfequent period. In the
fame manner, the later embankments continue on more
high plains to the prefent line of fea-coaft, where the
lak of any material confequence that has been made, was
aecomplifhed by captain Bentinck ‘a few years ago, by the
inclofure and fecuring of a very large tra& of perhaps
twelve hundred zcres. This lies, it is faid, upon a higher
level than the interior inclofures, and foon after.its being
finifhed was efteemed by far the beft of all.

It is alfo ftated, that throughout the whole of the em-
banked marfhes of the counties of Cambridge and Lincoln,
a premature inclofure and proteétion from the fea has never
failed to difappoint the expeétations of thofe engaged in
the enterprize. And near Dublin, had the lots, near the
fituation of the new cuftom-houfe, been left open, it is faid,
to the waters of the tide, which are there very turbid, and
highly charged with fediment, from the end ofthe north
fea-wall towards the fheds of .Clontarff, and-the money
paid for inclofing mounds and walls been ufed for continu-
ing the north wall m a line nearly parallel to the fouth
one, the waters of the Liffey, thus confined in their de-
fcent, would have been not only of great ufe in fcouring
obt and deepening the channel of that river, for their dif-
«charge into the bay of the above city, and the removal of
obitractions dangerous ‘and prejudicial to the fhipping there,
but hi beneficial tothe navigation and accefs ofthe
port ; at this time, or perhaps a few years hence, fuch
a depofition of fediment have been made by the unreftrained
flowing of the tides over what are now the old inclofed
lots, as to have rendered them equally rich and fruitful
with fome of the moft favoured {pots in the neighbourhood
of that metropolis. The above is given in ekehanatic and
for illuftrating the writer’s idea of the difference between
falt-marfh, ripe and fit for exclufion from the fea, from
that which may be permanently inclofed, and alfo of em-
bankments ened with the view of inclofing portions of in-
vincibly fterile and hear fea-mud, which are fometimes: very
= Se

t is further conccived, that the tender hazel-coloured
loam, which forms the foil of all falt-marth ready for em-
bankment or fecuring from the fea, being conitituted of
animal and vegetable exuviz, combined with the fineft par-
ticles of terrene matter the waters of the tide could hold
im fufpenfion, can never fail yielding the moft ample re-
turns all {uch traéts refeued from the ocean. here
an accumulation of fuch foil, as fometimes happens, is not
found of fufficient extent for embanking, and where it is con-
venient for removal to the adjacent enlasds, no pains, it is
t ht, thould: be {pared in applying it, not only as a
val alterative to fuch Innds, bat Fem its containing,

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“as before implied, the principle of an immediate and direé&

manure. In its application great care is advifed to be taken
to caft afide; as is the ufual praftice at Auze Catt, all along
the coaft of Norfolk, every fpit of blue or black fea-clay
that may be met with in its digging, this being conftantly
found tteadily to refift incorporation with any foil to which
the hazel-coloured falt-marfh ouze is applicable. This fort
of ouze fhould be fpread upon the lay-ground, it is faid,
at from 1000 to 1200 bufhels the acre ; and the marfh green
{ward or fpine chopped fine, and left gradually to incor-
porate with the furface-mould for two or three years. In
the firft ploughing of this lay afterwards, it will occur to
the intelligent farmer, that this furface is not to be turned
under at a full pitch; but, on all occafions,. firit fkirted or
writt-balked, and that as fine as poffible. Should the marfh-
ouze be required for ploughed ground, it will be advifeable
to rot its green fward in heaps, and to pulverize the whole
mafs, by turning it once or twice over before it is fpread
upon the broken or fallow ground, at which time it fhould
not be ploughed under, but harrowed in with the feed.

In the above diftri& there feem to be fome thonfands
of acres of falt-marfh on the cuaits and the banks or
fides of the mouths and other parts of the large rivers
which have arrived, by the regular depofitions of the fedi-
ment of the waters of the tides, at the {tage of height and
accumulation of itrength, fertility, and ripenefs, which
fit them for a final exclufion from the fea. Some of
them confift of rich foapy loam of the above caft, and may
be fecured from the fea with great propriety, and vat ad-
vantage to individuals as well as the nation at-large.

The falt-marfhes in the county of Effex are likewife
numerous and extenfive, bemg fome time managed under the
plough, as well as in the ftate of grafs. Of late, in fome
parts, a confiderable portion of them have been brought
into tillage. In thefe cafes the pratice of exhauftfhg them
before they are returned to the flate of grafs, as pafture or
grazing ground, fhould always be carefully avoided; yet
invall cafes where rough, old, and uncultivated falt-marfhes
have been previoufly chalked, they fhould be kept in oc-
cafional motion by the plough for three or four years, to
open and reduce their parts, and then be well laid down for
permanent patture. The ftate of paiturage is, however,
undoubtedly the beit fuited to this fort of land, particularly
after it has been properly improved and brought to a good
herbage. In this condition it would probably be the moft
profitably employed in grazing fheep and cattle, if it were
not for the want of a conftant fupply of wholefome frefh
water, an inconvenience which moft falt-marfhes labour
under. ; :

In the falt-marth iflands of this diftri&, about two acres
and a half of the feeding fort are commonly allowed for the
fix fummer months, to thé grazing of a runt of thirty
feore; the fame marfhes being afterwards clofely eaten by
mixed live-ftock till after the end of the year, and then
fhut up for {pring and early fummer growth.

The cuftom of alternate mowing and grazing on thefe
lands is too often praétifed, but it is bad on uplands and
ruinous on marfhes.

The falt-marfhes on the banks of the Thames are greatly
fuperior to thofe in other parts, as they are not allowed to
be mown; for it is juftly fuppofed to be very hurtful to
fuch valuable bullock lands. ‘

In fome places the falt-marfhes are faid to enrich the
uplands, but that the latter impoverifh the former, as the
crops are carried to them and the dung never returned.

There are large traéts of falt-marfh in many other coun-
ties which have extenfive fea-coalts, where the i fe

an

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and management of them is much the fame.
Marsu. ‘

nas Meten or Saline, for the manufature of falt,
are found in feveral parts of the world, where falt is pro-
duced without any art or labour of man. Pliny, Alonfo
Barba, Shaw, and other writers, give accounts of large
briny lakes, which are evaporated to a perfe&t drynefs in
fummer time ; when the inhabitants cut and carry away as
much falt as they have occafion for. Lakes of this kind
are found in the Podolian defart, near the river Bory{thenes,
on the Ruffian frontiers towards Crim Tartary, in the king-
dom of Algiers, and in other countries.

Mr. Majilon, in his botanical trayels from the Cape of
Good Hope (Philof. Tranf. vol. Ixvi. parti. p. 297-),
met with fuch a lake, called Zwart Kop’s Salt-pan, feveral
miles diftant from the fea, and fituated upon an eminence.
In the rainy feafon it is filled with frefh water, which, by
the faltnefs of the ground, foon becomes ftrongly impreg-
nated with faline particles; and when the fummer’s heat
exhales the frefh water, the bottom of the lake is covered
with a cruit of pure falt, two or three feet thick. The
Jake is about three miles round, and furrounded by a rifing

‘ound.

In thofe countries, however, where this manufacture of
falt is not naturally performed, it may be effected by art ;
and faline or falt-marfhes may be conftructed for this pur-
pofe. This is annually done to great advantage in France,
where the chief coaits for bay-tlt are thofe of Bretagne,
Saintonge, and the Pays d’ Aunis. ;

In order to make a faline or falt-marfh, a low plat of
ground mutt be chofen adjoining to the fea, and diftant from
the mouths of large rivers, and this muft be near fome con-
yenient harbour for veffels. The ground mutt be free from
frefh-water f{prings, and out of the reach of land floods,
and, if poffible, fhould have a clayey bottom ; and, finally,
it muft be well defended from the fea, either by natural
oe ara banks of earth of a proper ftrength and thick-
nefs.

The ground thus chofen muft be hollowed out to three
ponds or receptacles. The firft, into which the fea-water
is ufually admitted, may be called the refervoir ; the fecond
receptacle, which is to be divided into three diftin&t ponds,
communicating with each other by narrow paflages, and
containing brine of different degrees of ftrength, may be
called the brine-ponds; and the third receptacle is to be
furnifhed with an entrance, between which and the brine-
ponds there is to run a long, narrow, and winding channel.
The reft of it is to be divided into {mall and fhallow pits,
containing a very ftrongly faturated brine, which in them is
to be converted into Bit ; and they may, therefore, very
properly be called the falt-pits.

The firft receptacle or refervoir mu{t have a communica-
tion with the fea by a ditch, defended on each fide by walls
of brick or ftone, and made of fuch a depth, that by it all
the water of the refervoir and other parts of the falt-marfhes
may be able to run out at low water, and by it alfo the fea
may be admitted into it at high tide, So that at neap
tides, the marfh may be filled with fea-water to the depth
of ten inches in the refervoir ; and, confequently, at higher
tides, to the depth of two feet, when there is occafion to
overflow the marfh, as is always to be done in the winter
feafon, when there is no falt to be made; for by this
means, the wood-work is kept from decay, and the clay
bottom from injuries by froft. The ditch between the
refervoir and fea muft have a flood-gate, by which the fea-
water may be admitted, retained, re out, as occafion may
require,

See Fen and

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The feveral ponds or receptacles muft not have all their
bottonis upon the fame level, but muft be made of unequal
depths, fo that the firlt receptacle or refervoir may be eight
inches and a half deeper than the falt-pits in the third re-
ceptacle. The three brine-ponds alfo fituated between the
refervoir and the falt-pits muft be of unequal depths. The
next adjoining to the refervoir muft be the deepeit, and that
which is the nigheit the falt-pits the fhalloweft, but all of
them muft be fhallower than the refervoir ; and the three
receptacles being thus conftructed, the water ftanding at
the fame height in them all, and forming with its furface
one continued plain, will be ten inches deep in the referyoir,
when only an inch and a half in the falt-pits. }

The length and breadth of the brine-ponds and referyoirs
are to be at difcretion ; but it is beft to err in making them
too large; and in general they ought to be fo large, as to
furnifh the falt-pits with a conftant fupply of brine, fully
faturated with falt; and for this purpofe, it is neceflary to
have them of different dimenfions, in different countries,
according to the degree of heat. “~e

The bottoms of the referyoir or brine-ponds are to be
lined with any kind,of lean and tough clay, or earth, that
will hold water; and the French ie a red, or blue clay,
to be had in the neighbouring grounds. Wath them the
blue always fucceeds better than the red, which colours the
falt much more ; but in order to have a perfeétly pure falt
from this kind of manufacture, the bottom fhould be lined
with fome clean cement, which will hold water perfetly,
and will not be eafily broken up.

The faline or marfh being thus conftruéted, the faltmen,
at the proper feafon of the year, which is from the middle
of May.to the end of Auguit, open the flood-gate when
the tide is out, and drain off all the flagnating water.
When this is done, they repair the bottom of the marfh in
feveral places, where it is Be neceflary, and cleanfe the
feyeral receptacles from mud and dirt; after this they aay
the fea-water at the next high tide, till it floats the whole
marfh, and {tands at about ten inches high in the refervoir.
In a day or two moft of the water in the falt-pits is exhaled,
and what remains is a very {trong brine: they then let in
more fea-water at the two or three following tides; and fo_
take care'to admit as much frefh water into the marfh, as
has been wafted in vapour by the heat, conftantly raifing it
to the height of ten inches in the referyoir, and conftantly
to:an inch and half in the falt-pits ; and when the weather is
extremely bots or there are fharp drying winds, they fill
them fomething higher than this. .

All the parts ay the marfh are thus fupplied with water
out of the refervoir; but the fea-water which is let into
the refervoir, is not confufedly let into the other water or
brine of the ponds and falt-pits ; for as the feveral parts of
the work communicate cnly by narrow channels, it is pro-
vided, that the falt-water flowing out of the refervoir never
returns to it again, but gently flows along till it arrives at
the fecend brine-pond, and from that to the third, being
forced forward by the fea-water received from time to time
in the refervoir. During this flow courfe, the watery fluid
always flies off in great quantity by exhalation, and the
brine is continually preparing for cryttallization as it flows
along gently, becoming all the way {tronger and ftronger, as
it approaches the falt-pits; fo that when it at length enters
thefe pits, it is fully faturated with falt; and particular
care is taken to guard the entrance of the falt-pits by a long
and narrow channel, by which means the ftrong brine con-
tained in thefe pits is prevented from returning back, and
mixing with the weaker brine in the brine-ponds! care is
alfo taken, that the flrong brine in the falt-pits is {pread

our

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out very thin, and expofed to the fun and air with a large
furface, by which means the water more quickly exhales
from it, and the falt is left concreted in the cryftals. Thefe
cryftals, or falt, the workmen in France draw out every
day ; and difpofe them at length together in a pyramidal
heap, which they cover over at the top with thatch or ftraw,
and fo preferve them from the injuries of weather. Thus at
a fmall expence and trouble a falt is prepared, which is
found very fit for'all domeitic ufes; and France is furnifhed
with a very profitable article for exportation into other
countries. ~ . %

The falt thus made is of different colours, according
to the colour of the clay employed in making the pits.
That of the French is brown, whence the denomination of
bay-falt, and it is ufually fold without farther preparation ;
though in fome places they make’ it inte white falt, by re-
fining it in large flat cauldrons. Ina favourable feafon, the
French are faid to be able to make enough of bay-falt in a
fortnight, to fupply their home confumption for a year,
and the wants of other nations, who purchafe from them
much more than is confumed in France. The greateft dif-
ficulty which attends the making of bay-falt in Great Bri-
tain, arifes from the heat of our fummer not being fuffi-
ciently itrong to evaporate a great quantity of fea-water in
afmall portion of time. But Dr. Brownrigg has fufficiently
evinced the praéticability of our imitating the French in
their manner of procuring bay-falt. It is well known, that
in Hamphhire, and fome other counties, they have a method
of heightening the fea-water into a {trong brine, by expofing
it to the fun in large pits, much after the manner in which
bay-falt is made ; and fo much of the fea-water is, by this
means, naturally evaporated, that though they boil the re-
mainder with Newcattle coal, yet they can afford their falt
at a lefs’ price than the Newcaitle falt-boilers can afford
theirs; though the fea-water is, probably, equally impreg-
nated with falt at both places.

Satt-Mar/b Ouze, the rich ouzy brownifh earthy matters
which forms the furface of falt-marth lands, in fome cafes.
See the article Sart-Mar/h. b

Sa.t-Water, that which naturally contains this fub-
ftance, the effe&ts of which on land have not yet been afcer-
tained in any very fatisfaétory manner. It would feem,
however, that where it runs over, or remains only a fhort
time upon it, that great benefit is afforded ; but where it
ftagnates, or refts upon it for a length of time, great injury
and mifchief are often done by it. It is {tated in the Effex
corrected Report on Agriculture, that if falt-water be on
the land only a few hours, its utility is confiderable, and
that it is the continuance only that is hurtful. The writer
has had land under falt-water twenty-four hours’ at lea(t,
which, after one fallow, would bear a crop, and in the
third year appeared benefited by it. On a piece of wheat-
land, the water remained about two hours in January: the
crop was eleven coombs the acre, landlord’s meafure. It
effectually deftroys all the infeéts in the land.

Savy Creek, in Geo, raphy, a river of Mexico, in Yuca-
tan, which runs into the bay of Honduras, N. lat. 18° 10!.
W. long. 89° 24’,

Sarr [fland, one of the fmaller Virgin iflands, welt of
Cooper’s ifland, N. lat. 18% 5’. W. long. 64° 6’.

Sart Lfland, Little, an ifland near the fouth coalt of
Jamaica, one mile north of « Great Salt Ifland,’”’ in N. lat.
177 50’. W. long. 76° 57!. '

Sart Key, a {mall ied in the Weft Indies. N. lat.
21° 30/. - long. 71° 3’.

Sart Lakes §.. Ononpaco,

A EB

Sat Lick, a town of North Carolina; 15 miles S.E.
of Cayahoga.

Saxr-Lick Town, a town of America, in Pennfylvania ;
70 miles N.N.E. of Pittfburg. ;

Sait River, a river of Kentucky, which runs into the
Ohio, five miles N.E. of Ohichiawingo. It is formed by
three principal branches, and difcharges itfelf into the Ohio
through the fouth-eaft bank, by a wide mouth, 20 miles
below the Rapids. It is navigable for boats about 60 miles.
The land on its head-waters is good, but low and unhealthy ;
and for 25 miles from its mouth, on each fide, it is level
and poor, and abounds with ponds. Between Salt and
Green rivers there are two {prings of bitumen, which, when
analyfed, is found to be amber.—Alfo, a river of Jamaica,
which runs into the fea, oppofite to Great Salt Ifland.—
Alfo, an arm of the fea, which divides Guadalouge into
two parts, and communicates with the fea on both fides of
the ifland, two leagues long and fifteen paces broad, with a
dangerous navigation even for {mall veflels, none being ad-
miffible above 25 tons. —Alfo, a river of Lonifiana, which
runs into the Miffiippi, N. lat. 37° 34’. W. long. 90° 44’.

Sait Sea. See AspHattite Lake and Dean Sea.

Sat Spring River, a river of the Indiana territory,
which rifes near the eaft line of the New Jerfey Company’s
lands, and runs, fouth-eaft into the Ohio river, ten miles
below the mouth of the Wababh, after a courfe of 56 miles.
The falt-fpring which gives it name is ten miles from its
mouth.

Saxr Town, a town of Africa, in the country of Cala-
bar, fo called from the falt manufacture which employs its
inhabitants.

Sarr, Valley of, a valley of Syria, which produces falt.
In the winter it is faid to be a lake, but in fummer the fun
evaporates the-water, and leaves beds of dry falt, about an
inch thick, which is refined for ufe; 18 miles E. of Aleppo.
Dr. Halifax, in his account of Palmyra, mentions a large
plain covered with falt, which fupplies the adjacent country.
This plain is about a league from Palmyra, and:extends to-
wards the eaflern parts of Idumea, whofe capital. city was
formerly Bozra. David defeated the Idumeans in the
Valley of Salt, as he returned from Syria of Zobah: hence
it has been concluded that this plain of falt is the Valley of
Salt of feripture.

SALT A, a town of Arabia, in the province of Hedsjas ;
25 miles S. of Serrain.—Alfo, a town of South America,
in the province of Tucuman, fituated on a {mall river, which
foon after pafling the town falls into a lake. The town is
inhabited chiefly by Spaniards, and contains about four
hundred houfes, two churches, and four monafteries. It
has no walls, nor ditch, nor any other defence again{t the
hollilities of the Indians, with whom the inhabitants have
frequent wars, and who, from this circumftance, are all
expert foldiers. Of thefe about 500 bear arms, and flaves
of the fame defcription are about twice that number. Salta
is a confiderable mart of commerce for corn, meal, wine,
cattle, falt meat, fat, hides, and other commodities, which
are fent from this place to moft parts of Peru; 50 miles S.
of St. Salvador. S. lat. 24° 40'. W. long. 66° 30!.

SALTAIM, a lake of Ruflia, in the government of
Tobolfk, 48 miles in circumference. N. lat. 56°. E. long.
66° 30!.

SALTARELLA, ox SsLrAnr1o, in the Jtalian Mufie,
is applied to triple time, the firft note of which is pointed thus ;

St ors “s
= i ee

SAL

Airs in this kind of movement are faid to be in faltarello.
Such are the Venetian orlanos, ficilianas, fome jigs, and
other gay dances.

SALTASH, in Geography, 2 borough and market-town
in the parifh of St. Stephen’s, fouth divifion of the hundred
of Eatt, and county of Cornwall, England, is fituated at
the diftance’ of 21 miles S.S.E. from Launcetton, and 220
miles W.S.W. from London. It isa town of confiderable
antiquity, and was originally denominated Effe or Afsheburgh.
Reginald de Valletort, lord.of the manor of Trematon, firft
obtained for it the privileges of a free borough, either in
the reign of king John, or in that of his fuccetlor, king
Henry ff. The fame individual likewife confirmed to the
inhabitants the rights and immunities which had been con-
ferred upon them by his predeceffors. Richard I. executed
a charter confirming all thefe privileges; and under that deed
the town was governed till the yeat 1682, when rae
Charles II. granted the burgeffes a new charter, in whic
the corporation was declared to confift.of a mayor and fix
aldermen, ftyled the council of the borough, who were cm-
powered to nominate a recorder. The lait charter bears
date the 7th of June, 1774, and is fimilar in principle to
the former one, but the crown referves to itfelf the right of
difplacing any member of the body-corporate at pleafure.
Saltafh fends two reprefentatives to parliament, and has
done fo regularly fince the reign of Edward VI. The
ele&tive franchife 1s velted in the mayor, aldermen, and the
holders of burgage tenements, who’ are computed at about
120 in number. Several narhes of eminence occur in the
lift of reprefentatives for this borough, as fir Francis, after-
wards lord Cottington ;, Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of
Clarendon ; and Edmund Waller, the celebrated poet. ~

Saltafh is mentioned by Leland “ as a praty quik market
toun ;”” and Norden fays of it, that it “increafeth daily in
merchandife and wealth; there belong unto the towne fome
8 fhips, befydes {mall boates. The haven is capable of
anie burden. The great Carrack, that fir Francis Drake
pris home fo rich, arrived here, and was here difbur-
dened, and after fatally fyred.”” Being an important ‘tation,
as one of the principal paffes into Cornwall, this town was
frequently the fubject of conteft during the civil wars, - It
was firit garrifoned for the parliament, but was furrendered,
without oppofition, to fir Ralph Hopton, im the autumn
of 1642. General Ruthen, finding it open after his defeat
at Bradock Down, in January 1643, took pofleffion of it,
and hattily ratfed fortifications ; but it was foon afterwards
taken by aflault, by the royalifts under lord Mohun, who
left a gartifou in it, which was in turn compelled to fur-
render to the earl of Effex in July 1644. On this occafion
fir Edward Waldegrave defended the pafs with great gal-
lantry, and, “@s it appears, with temporary fuccefs. Saltafh
again fell into the hands of the royalifts, commanded by fir
Richard Grenville; but only a few months afterwards it was
recdvered to the parliament by a detachment from the gar-
rifon at Plymouth. Sir Richard, however, once more ob-
tained pofleffion of it by affault, and held it till February
1646, when it was finally abaridoned by the king’s troops,

The town of Saltath 1s fituated’on the declivity of a fteep
hill, near the weftern bank of the Tamar, and confitts
chiefly of three {treets, the principal one of which runs at
right angles with the river. The houfes are built of {tone,
quarried from the rock on which they ftand, and rifeone
above another, in quick afcent, to the fummit of the hill,
where are fituated the chapel and the mayoralty-hall. The
latter was ereéted about forty years ago, and is {upported
upon pillars ; the open {pace within being appropriated for
the accommodation of the market-people. ‘The market is

3

SAL

held on Saturday; but the burgeffes likewife claim the

right of holding another on Tuefday ; and there are-befides
two annual fairs, on the 2d of February, and the 2 sth of
July. The tolls of the markets and fairs belong to the cor-
poration, who hold alfo the manor of the burgh of A{fshe-
burgh under the duchy, andvare entitled to a ferry over the
Tamar, the privilege of dredging for oyfters, and certain
duties payable by mafters of fhips; which altogether pto-
duce an annual revenue of at leaft 300/ Here are meeting-
houfes for Baptifts and Wefleyan Methoditts ; alfo a free-
{chool, {aid to have been founded by queen Elizabeth. Ac-
cording to the late parliamentary returns, the borough of
Saltafh contains 198 houfes and 1478 inhabitants, moft of
whom are engaged in the fifheries. :
About a mile fouth-weft from the town ftands the vill
of St. Stephen’s, which gives name to the parifh in which
Saltafh is included. The church is a fpacious ftru€ture,
confifting of a body and two aifles, with a lofty towér at
its weftern extremity. In the interior are feveral monuments
to the memory of the Butlers of Shillingham. Some cen-
turies ago, a leaden coffin was dug up here, which appeared,
from the infcription on the lid, to have belonged to a fon of
one of the dukes of Cornwall. At the entrance of the
church-yard is a ftone-bearer, called a leach-ftone, upon
which bodies are refted when brought hither for interment =
its fhape refembles that of a coffin. On the fummit of an
eminence, adjoining St. Stephen’s on the weit, are the ruins
of that once formidable fortrefs Trematen-caftle. ‘The ori-
ginal edifice was built previous to the conqueft, and contti-
tuted the head of a barony belonging to the ancient dukes
of Cornwall. The Conqueror gave it to his half-brother,
Robert earl of Moreton and Cornwall, on the attainder of
whofe fon and fucceffor, William, it reverted to the crown,
and was reftored, along with the earldom of Cornwall, té
Cadoc, a Britifh prince. \ His daughter and heirefs conveyed
it by marriage to Reginald Fite-Hlenry; and their daughter
to Walter de Duntftanville, whofe iflue male failing, it went
by marriage to Reginald de Valletort, and was afterwards
united to the duchy of Cornwall. It is, therefore, now the
property of the prince of Wales, who has a court held here
twice a-year, for receiving rents, and for other | urpofes.
The remains of this caftle are ftill very confiderable, and
when viewed from the eaft have an afpeé& of great boldnefs
and grandeur. The area inclofed by the walls, which mea-
fure about fix feet in thicknefs, is nearly circular, and eons
tains fomewhat more than an acre of ground.
are embattled, and are fecured exteriorly by a broad and
deep ditch, which furrounds the whole fortrefs, except at the
gateway. The laft confitts of a maflive fquare tower, with
an entrance way beneath, leading into the court. This
caftle commands a fine profpe& of the Hamoaze, Dock,
mount Edgecumbe, and Maker heights. A branch of the
Lynher.creek flows near the foot of the hill on which itis
fituated. On another branch of the fame creek ttands An-
thony houfe, a feat of the family of Carew. It is chiefly
remarkable as the birth-place of Richard Carew, éefq. author
of the Survey of Cornwall, publifhed.in 1602, which is
efteemed one of the belt early county hiftories extant. Ly-
fons’s Magna Britannia, Cornwall, to. 1814. Beauties of
England and Wales, vol. ii. by John Britton and’ E. W.
Brayley, 8vo. 1801. Polwhele’s Hiftory and Antiquities of
Cornwall, gto. : :
SaxTasu, a townfhiprof America, in Windfor county,
Vermont ; now Plymouth, which fee. re
SALTATIO, in the Ancient Pantomime and Dance. “The
Greeks called orche/is what the Romans termed /a/tatio. The
ancients fometimes call it chiromania, rules for the hands. It
confilted

ee eee

£

SAL

~ confifted in the imitation of all the geftures and natural

moyements of'man. Varro tells us (Ifidor. lib. 18. cap. 50.)
that the word /a/tatio is not derived from /a/tus, which figni-
fies a leap, but from the Arcadian Salius, who firlt taught
the art tothe Romans. We mutt not then, as is generally
done, confound dancing with leaping and jumping ; and it
fhould be remembered, that the true dance of the ancients
was an imitation of the aétions and attitudes of the body,
the geftures and all the demonftrations with which men
ufually accompany their difcourfe, or which are ufed to ex-
plain their fentiments, without the help of words. See
Dance and PANTOMIME.

Among the capital pi€tures dug out of Herculaneum, are
portraits of Apollo and the nine mufes, his companions,
from which engravings have been publifhed in the fecond
volume of “ Le Pitturi “Antichi d’Ercolano;’? and the
feventh mufe, Polhymnia, is called the Fabulift; TMOATMNIA
mreorc. Sheisthere reprefented as the patronefs of mimes,
with her finger on her mouth, in token of filence. The
painter differs in charaGterifing this mufe from moft of the
poets and mythologifts, who make her the inventrefs of
hymns to the gods. However, there are etymologitts,
among whom are Plutarch and Nonnus, who derive her
name from Mmpr, tradition, alluding to the fables and tales
of antiquity, which the mimes and dancers ufually made the
ve an of their performance. Nonnus Dionyf. v. 5. 104,
et feq. fays,

* Sweet Polhymnia, fee advance,
Mother of the graceful dance :
She who taught th’ ingenious art,

_ Silent language to impart :
‘ Signs for fentiment fhe found,

Eloquence without a found :
Hands loquacious fave her lungs,
All her limbs are {peaking tongues.”

SALTCOATS, in Geozraphy, a confiderable fea-port
town, partly in the parifh of Ardroflan, and partly in that
of Stevenfton, county of Ayr, Scotland, is fituated on the
eaftern coait of the Frith of Clyde, at the diftance of five
miles N.W. from the town of Irvine, and about 63 miles
W.S.W. from the city of Edinburgh. This place may be
juttly faid to have owed ite origin to Robert Cuningham,
efg. of Auchinbarric, who became proprietor of the whole
parith of Stevenfton towards the clofe of the fixteenth cen-
tury. Aware of the advantages to be derived to the coun-
try from raifing an abundant fupply of coal, and fenfible
that his eftate contained great ftores of that valuable mineral,
he funk pits in various places, and made numerous experi-
ments to afcertain the declivity, thicknefs, and qualities of
the different feams. -He likewife conftruéted the harbour
and falt-pans*of Saltcoats, which yet remain, with fome
trifling alterations, monuments of his public fpirit and en-
terprife. While he thus laid the foundation of the future
profperity of this town, however, the expence of his under-
takings injured his own fortune fo much, that he was com-

lled to fell a confiderable part of his cftate, referving to

imfelf the track veareft to Saltcoats. After his death the
collieries continued to be wrought with great caution, and
only moderate fuccefs, till about 30 years ago, when the
exertions of his great grandfon gave a uew and efficient {ti-
mulus to the ped ser atog This gentleman, in conjunétion
* with Mr. Warner, a neighbouring proprietor, opened feve-
ral new mines, and to facilitate the conveyance of their pro-
duce, cut canals from them to Saltcoats, which has ever
fince been increafing in population and extent. The har-

bour being peculiarly advantageous for launching, the in-
Vou XXXI. ‘i

SAL

habitants, in the time of the American war, began the trade
of fhip-building, which {till continues to flourifh. Rope
and fail-cloth manufaétories were eftablifhed during the fame
period, alfo a diltillery and brewery, all of which are yet
in exiftence. The principal exports are coal, falt, herrings,
and a few bales of Paifley filk and cotton goods. The im-
ports are timber, iron, hemp, colonial produce, and various
other minor articles of neceffity and luxury. There are no
magiftrates, nor any local police, in Saltcoats ; only one an-
nual fair; no market-place or weekly markets, and no
tonnage paid by the vellels. A fhore-bailiff levies the {mall
anchorage dues, and carries into execution fuch regulations
as are neceflary for the loading and failing of the veffels ;
which regulations the owners or mafters come under a writ-
ten obligation to fubmit to. The earl of Eglinton is pro-
prietor, and receives rent for all the houfes on the Ardroffan
fide, built by the pofleflors on longer or fhorter leafes.
His lordfhip is alfo fuperior of the Stevenfton fide of the
town, nearly the whole of the houfes paying a {mall feu
duty. Here is a Relief meeting-houfe, erected about 20
years ago, alfo places of public worfhip for burghers and’
antiburghers.

According to the parliamentary returns of 1811, the
parifhes of Ardroflan and Stevenfton contained 782 houfes
and 5437 inhabitants, of whom above 2000 are fuppofed to
refide in Saltcoats. Sinclair’s Statiftical Account of Scot-
land, vol. vil. Svo. 1793. Carlifle’s Topographical Dic-
tionary of Scotland, ato. 1813.

SALTEES, two iflands in the [rifh channel, near the
S. coaft of the county of Wexford, Ireland. They are not
only remarkable obje¢ts to guide the navigator, but afford
him an occafional {topping place, as veflels may fafely lie
there in moderate weather. Thefe iflands are conne¢ted
with the main by a ledge of rocks already defcribed. See
Sr. Patrick's Bridge.

SALTEN, a town of Norway, in the province of
Drontheim ; 260 miles N. of Drontheim.

SALTERNS. Small brine falt-works had formerly this
name applied to them. See Sart and Sa.t-Brine Springs.

SALTFLEET, in Geography, a market-town and fea-
port in the parifh of Skidbrook, Marfh divifion of the hun-
dred of Louth Efke, parts of Lindfey, and county of Lin-
coln, England, is fituated on the coait of the Northern
ocean, about feven miles S. from the mouth of the Humber,
and 165 N. by E. from London. It is a place of no. im-
portance, but the haven formed by the river which flows
into the fea clofe to it, is confidered as a ufeful and fafe
refuge for coafting veflels in boifterous weather. The
ae day is Saturday, weekly ; and there is an annual
fair on the 3d of October.

According to the population cenfus of 1811, the parifh
of Skidbrook, with Saltfleet haven, contained 65 houfes,
and 355 inhabitants.

SALTHOLM, a {mall ifland of Denmark, near the
coalt of Zealand, in the Sound, where the inhabitants of
the ifland of Amack pafture fome cattle ; five miles S.E.
of Copenhagen. N. lat. 55° 58!. E. long. 12° 46.

SALTHOLMEN, an ifland of Denmark, in the Baltic,
near the coatt of Zealand, being a narrow ftrip of land
about threg miles in length. N. lat. 54° 39!. E. long.
11? 29,

SALTIER, Sarteen, or Saltire, in Heraldry, an
honourable ordinary, in form of St. Andrew's crofs 5 an-
ciently called the crofs of Burgundy.

The faltier may be faid to be compofed of a bend dexter
and finilter, exiting each other in the centre of the efcut-
cheon.

L1 Ite

SAL

Its ordinary breadth, when alone, is one-fifth of the
field ; but if charged one-third.

It is fometimes borne alaifé, and fometimes in number,
placed in different parts of the field; fometimes charged,
countercharged with the field, accompanied, raguled, ene
grailed, indented, quarterly-quartered, &c.

The faltier was entirely a piece of the knight’s harnefs ;
being faftened to the faddle, and ferving him for a ftirrup
to mount upon ; and hence it had its name /altier, by the
French /autoir, from fauter, to leap. It was made of filk
cord, or fome other kind of cord, covered with fome rich
ftuff.
Others will have it, that the original faltier was a kind
of palifade, ferving to fence parks, woods, &c. where wild
beaits were inclofed. Though Spelman fays, it was an
inftrument for the taking of them, thus called, guod fit in ufu
in faltu.

Lily, others affure us, that faltier was anciently the
figure of an engine, which being full of pins, was ufed
in the fcaling of the walls of a befieged place; whence
its origin from /auter, as it helped the plies to leap over
the wall.

SALTING Cueese, the method of applying falt to it.
See Darryn.

SALTING Fifh, &c. Refufe of, in Agriculture, the various
forts of materials which are the wafte of fifth of different
kinds in curing them and other ways. Thefe all form ufeful
manures in different intentions as well as thofe which are the
wafte of them in their frefh ftate ; and they are both of them
employed extenfively as manure in different maritime diftriéts
where they can be had at a fufficiently cheap rate, and in
fufficient quantities.

The refufe compound faline fubftance thrown afide in the
curing of herrings or pilchards, when no longer ufeful, is
beneficially applied for barley and turnip crops in the county
of Cornwall, and fome other places; twenty to thirty
bufhels being ufed upon the acre, fown over the land by
means of the hand, and remaining five or fix days on it be-
fore the feed is put in. It is thought by the writer of the
agricultural report of that diftri& that it is moft fuited to
light lands, efpecially thofe of the furze-croft kind.
‘Twenty bufhels to the acre of the fame material have like-
wife been ftrewed over grafs lands, and over a wheat crop,
in the early {pring with evident advantage. But the fub-
ftance is now become nearly double its former price, which

atly prevents its ufe. Sir Humphrey Davy ftates that
refufe pilchards are ufed, throughout the whole of the
above county as a manure with the bett effects, being ufually
mixed with fand or foil, and occafionally with fea-weed, to
prevent their raifing too luxuriant acrop. The effects are
{aid to be perceived for feveral years afterwards.

The liquor which drains from thefe fifh, while under the
procefs of being cured, confifting of the bloody, briny, and
oily matters that efeape from them, and are caught in pits,
is alfo carted away in cafks by the farmer in order to be
poured over and mixed with his piles of earth and fand that
are to be employed as manure, which, it is faid, to greatly
enrich and render more ufeful.

The farmers near the fifhing towns in the fame diftri&
likewife buy the refufe of bruifed and {mall pilchards, which
are rejected as unfit for curing or the market, and are called
caff, four cart-loads of twelve buthels each being confidered
as the quantity proper for an acre. The ufual method of
proceeding is to incorporate thefe caff with a pile of earth
in fach 2 manner and to fuch a depth, as to fecure them
from dogs or other animals, blending with the heap or pile
a faffigient quantity of fand, mixing the whole well together

SAL

by turning after they have lain fome months. Without this .
practice, the refufe fifh, it is fuppofed, would not deca
fufficiently for a confiderable length of time. But thefe
refufe fifh are fometimes employed alone. They are then
fpread thinly over the ground before the plough, and turned
in under furrow. One of the refufe fifh, when reduced {mall,
may, it is imagined, drefs a foot {quate of land in an ample
manner. The butt-load formerly coft about Qs. OF 10s.
but they now fetch 15s. or 20s. the load. The refufe
bruifed fifh immediately from the cellar doors, are, it is faid,
confidered as infinitely preferable to the refufe of the falted
fifh, in the intention oF manure.

Refufe herrings are recorded even to have been fpread
over a field, and ploughed in for a crop of wheat, which
rendered it fo rank, that it was wholly laid before the time
of cutting it.

There are little fifhes ufelefs as food, of feveral different
kinds, that are collected in large quantities in {mall fhallow
waters, which form a great fource of manure in fome
diftrits of the fen and marth kind, and are very beneficial.
Such are flicklebacks.

In fome fea-coatt diftricts, where refufe mufcles abound,
they are fometimes made ufe of as manure for land, being
applied at the rate of about ten fingle horfe cart-loads to the
acre in their fimple ttate, when they have juft taken on the
putrefative procefs, and in mixture with mould or earthy
fubitances. They are fet onthe ground for all forts of
crops, even for thofe of the potatoe kind, and afferted to
afford very produétive returns ; but are confidered as ex-
hautting ina high degree, and leaving the foil difpofed to the
throwing up of weeds. When applied for wheat after a
naked fallow they are commonly laid on in the ftate of com-
polt with earthy matters, and occafionally a little dung.
They are, perhaps, always the bett applied in the way of this
fort of compoft. Whenever they are made ufe oh in their
fimple ftate, they fhould be immediately fpread ont and
turned into the foil in a light manner. When put upon
grafs land for the purpofe of pafture, the effe&t has not been
ath in the increafe of grafs. They are, however, a highly

orcing manure for one crop. Other fifhy refufe matters,
where they are in fufficient quantity, may likewife be found
beneficial in the way of manure, and fhould never be
neglected.

On the whole, the author of the “ Elements of Agn-
cultural Chemiftry,’”’ thinks that fifh and fifhy matter, in
whatever way they are applied, conftitute a powerful
manure, and that the former cannot be ploughed in too
frefh, though the quantity fhould be limited,

The aétion of refufe fifth as a manure is explained on the
principle of the fkinny portion chiefly containing gelatine,
which is readily foluble in water from the flight cohefion of
its parts, and from the fatty, oily fubftance contained in
other parts of them, as well as from their fibrous matter,
comprifing all the eflential elements of ble fub{tances.
The oily Tabihances of the nature of blubber are moft ufeful
in mixture with clay, fand, or any common earth, fo that a
large furface may be expofed to the air, the oxygen of
whieh produces foluble matter from it. It has had
fertilizing powers when applied in this way for feveral years
in fucceflion. It is fuppofed that the carbon and
which is abundant in oily matters, accounts fully for their
effects, and that their durability is explained on the principle
of their gradual change by the ation of the air and water
upon them.

nape the place in which cheefe or any other
fubftances are falted. See Darry.

SALTING- Boxes, in Artillery, ave boxes for holding mealed

6 powder,

SAL

powder, to fprinkle the fuzes of fhells, that they may take
fire from the bla{t of the powder in the chamber ; but as the
fuze takes fire without this operation with mealed powder,
falting-boxes are become almoft ufelefs.

SALTINGS, fuch falt-marhh lands as are not embanked
or fecured from the fea, but over which the tides flow. In
fome diftriGs the lands of this fort are of very confiderable
extents, and moftly of high value. In the county of Effex
there are many tracts of this fort of land forming, and fome
ready to be fecured; and much has there likewife already
been done in this way with great individual, local, and national
benefit. The fame is the cafe with feveral fea-coaft diftris
in the fouthern, as well as the northern parts of the ifland ;
alfo in thofe towards the eaft and the weit.

In {peaking of the embankments in the hundred of Dengy,
in the above county, by which fo much land of this nature
has of late been gained from the fea on that coaft ; it is re-
marked that, in time pait, it made great depredations there.
There is a fand called Buxey park, and old feamen now
living have heard their grandfathers fay when they were boys,
that this park was covered with trees ; and it is afferted that
the foundations of houfes have been feen there. Alfo at
St. Peter’s chapel, at Bradwell, in the fame diftri@, the fea

ined much in former times, as the remains of buildings are
aid to be ftill vifible on the fands at low tides.

Many curious faéts and circumftances of the fame kind, in
regard to the encroachments of the fea in other diftri€ts, have
likewife been noticed by writers. See EMBANKMENT and
pa

SALTKETCHERS, in he a town of America,
in South Carolina ; 35 miles W. of Dorchefter.—Alfo, a
river of South Carolina, which changes its name to Cam-
SALTNESS, Satsepo, the quality of fomething that
is impregnated with falt ; or that yields a faline tafte.

The faltnefs of the fea, lakes, &c. has been long a fubje&
which has perplexed philofophers.

Kircher, after having confulted thirty-three authors upon
the fubje&, remarks, that the flu€tuations of the ocean
itfelf are fcarcely more various than the opinions of men con-
cerning the origin of its faline impregnation.

Some, with Ariftotle ee ii. cap. 7. Meteor.) have even
taken it to be the effe&t of the dry, aduft, and even faline ex-
halations, which the fun raifes from the earth, and the winds,

and which rains difcharge into the fea; and hence, fay they,
it is that the fea is found more brackifh near the furface than
towards the bottom.

Others contend, that the fun being continually extra¢ting
the pureft and fubtileft parts from the water; the coarfer
parts remaining, being exalted and concoéted by this heat,
acquire, by little and Ectle, their degree of faltnefs.

Others, as father Bouhours and Nollet, will have it, that
the Creator gave the waters of the ocean their faltnefs at the
beginning, not only to prevent their corruption, but alfo to
enable t to bear greater burdens. his opinion was
advanced by Bernardine Gomefius, about two hundred years
a in an ingenious treatife upon falt. Gomef. de Sale,
lib. i. cap. 24.

Bernier feems to be nearer the matter, when he afcribes
the faltnefs of the ocean to the foffile or minéral falts
brought into it by fubterranean currents, and diffolved in
the water.

The count de Marfigli obferves, that,’ in Provence, the
bottom of the fea is wholly itony, and is nothing but a con-
tinuation of the mountains of the Cevennes; being even
found to confilt of feveral {trata ; among whichare falt and
pit-coal ; and hence he derives the faltnefs and bitternefs of
the fea-water.

SAL

Thofe who have adopted this opinion, and who afcribe
the faltnefs of the fea to thofe beds of rock-falt, which
they fuppofe to be fituated at its bottom, obferve, that
without fuch a permanent faline principle, the fea would
long fince have become infipid from the frefh water poured
into it by an infinity of rivers. But upon this hypothefis it
may reafonably be inquired, why the waters of the ocean
are not perfectly faturated with falt, if they have ever fince
the creation been exerting their diffolving powers upon fuch
permanent maffes of rock-falt as are thought to be fituated
at the bottom. Befides, the patrons of this opinion found
their reafoning upon a miftake, when they allege that, if
there were no mines of rock-falt in the bed of the ocean, its
waters would have been long ago converted into frefh waters
by the rivers difcharged into it ; for fuppofing that the rivers
themfelves contained no falt, and that they returned into
the fea, in any given time, the fame quantity of water,
which, in the fame time, is raifed from it by evaporation, the
faltnefs would remain precifely the fame for ever. But
neither of thefe fuppofitions is true; for the rivers do con-
vey into the ocean fome portion of falt every day, and they
do net, in any given time, return into the ocean fo much
water as in the fame time is feparated from it; and upon
both thefe accounts, the faltnefs of the fea, fo far trom being
diminifhed, ought conttantly to be increafed, from the rivers
poured into it.

Dr. Halley, in an exprefs difcourfe of the faltnefs of
the ocean, in the Philofophical Tranfaétions, N° 344, or
Abr. vol. v. part ii. p. 216, obferves, that all the lakes
in the world are faline, fome more, fome lefs fo, than the
ocean, which, in this cafe, may be efteemed a great lake
itfelf; and that all the vapours exhaled by the fun from
lakes are perfetly frefh: fo that all the faline particles
brought in by the waters which have pafled over falt-mines
remain behind, while the frefh evaporate. Hence it is evi-
dent their faltnefs muft be continually augmented.

Now if this be the true reafon of the faltnefs of lakes, it
is probable the faltnefs of the ocean itfelf arifes from the
fame caufe: and hence we are furnifhed with a method of
eftimating the age of the world, by obferving the increafe
of faltnefs in the waters of lakes ; and computing in how
long time the ocean might, at that rate, arrive at its pre-
fent faltnefs.

The principle upon which this opinion is founded, cannot
become the fubject of accurate calculation; rivers may
have formerly carried more or lefs falt into the fea than
they do at prefent ; and the quantities contained at prefent
in different rivers are fo various, that any general pofition,
with refpeét to the proportion of falt obfervable in river-
water, will be liable to many exceptions from particular
cafes ; but that the caufe here affigned of the faltnefs of
the fea is not adequate to the effeét, may appear probable
from the following obfervation, fuggefted by the ingenious
Dr. Watfon, the prefent bifhop of Landaff. Sea-water,
at a medium, taken from obfervations made in different cli-
mates, may be fuppofed to contain about one-thirtieth of
its weight of common falt ; but all the rivers in the world
could not have conveyed into the fea one five-hundredth
part of the weight of the fea, though we fuppofe, that
they daily, ever fince the creation, carried into the fea, and
left there, the fame quantity of falt which they at prefent
daily depofite in it: nor admitting what fome eminent pbi-
lofophers have endeavoured to prove, that all the rivers in
the world flowing into the bed of the fea, with a continu-
ance of their prefent ftores, would take up at leaft eight
hundred years to fill it to its prefent height (Buffon’s Hitt.
Nat. vol. i. p. 356.), and fuppofing the ocean to have been
originally frefh, and to have daily Joft by evaporation a

Ll 2 much

SALTNESS.

much water as it daily received from the influx of the
rivers, then muft eight hundred years have elapfed before
the frefh water of the ocean could have been changed into
viver-water, or acquired that proportion of falt with which
river-water is impregnated. River-water may, in general,
be fuppofed to contain one four-thoufandth part of its
weight of fea-falt ; upon this hypothefis, the ocean, at the
expiration of eight hundred years from the creation, would
have contained one four-thoufandth part of its weight
of fea-falt, and at the expiration of eight times eight hun-
dred years, it would have contained eight four-thoufandth
parts, or one five-hundredth part of its weight of falt; but
eight times eight hundred years carry us back to an era
antecedent to the creation of the ‘world.

The honourable Mr. Boyle (Works, vol.iii. p. 381.)
unites as it were the two preceding hypothefes, and takes
the faltnefs of the fea to be fupplied not only from rocks
and other maffes of falt, which at the beginning were, or
in fome countries may yet be found, either at the bottom
of the fea, or at the fides where the water can reach them ;
but alfo from the falt which the rivers, rains, and other
waters diffolve in their paflage through divers parts of the
earth, and at length carry with them into the fea. Buf-
fon, and moit modern philofophers, acquiefce in this opi-
pion. There is another opinion concerning the faline im-
pregnation of the fea, which deferves to be mentioned, viz.
that fea-falt is conftantly and abundantly generated, both on
the furface of the earth, and in the bofom of the ocean.

The degree, as weli as the caufe of the faltnefs of the
fea, has been the fubjeét of inyeftigation and experiment ;
whence we have reafon to believe, that this varies in dif-
ferent latitudes, and even in the fame latitudes at differ-
ent times.

From fome experiments mentioned in a voyage toward
the north pole, in 1773, by Capt. Phipps (now lord Mul-
grave), p. 143, it appears, that the fea-water at the Nore
contained not quite ., of falt; at the back of Yarmouth
fands not quite .',; off Flamborough-head, rather more
than y',; off Shetland, rather lefs than =; lat. 74° at
fea z',; lat. 78°, lefs than ',; lat. 80°, near the ice, not
quite ';; lat. 80°30, under the ice, not quite 5’, ; lat.
68°.46 rather more than z'-; lat. 65°, at fea, rather lefs
than 5‘.

Dr. Hales obtained only , from water taken up in the
Mediterranean, and ~\, from water taken up at the Nore.
Dr. Rutty obtained =. from water taken up in lat. 65°;
z's from water taken up near Dublin; and , from water
taken up at Dungarvan ; and Dr. Lucas got ., from fea-
water taken up at Harwich.

We learn. from fome experiments formerly made in a
veyage from England to Bombay in the Eaft Indies, that
the weight of the fea-water was the greateft, not precifely
at the equator, but where the fun was vertical, and con-
fequently, in fimilar circumftances, where the heat was
gene. The greateit weight of a definite quantity of
ea-water, obferved in failing from 28° N. lat. to the Cape
of Good Hope, which is about 343 S. lat. in the months
of May, June, and July, was at St. Jago ifland N. lat. 15°,
and the leaft at Teneriffe ifland, 28° N. lat. The propor-
tional weights of equal bulks of Thames water, Teneriffe
fea-water, and St. Jago fea-waters, were 1900110221, and
1184; whence, by comparing thefe numbers with a table
in the Phil. Tranf. for 1770, p. 349, exhibiting the com-
parative weight of equal bulks of fimple water, and of water
impregnated with different portions of fea-falt, it may be
conjectured, that the Teneriffe fea-water contained about
vy Of falt, and the St. Jago water above 4 of its weight of
talt, fo that it was nearly, if not fully, faturated.

The difference in the faltnefs of the fea in different places,.
may be owing to the variable quantity of vapours exhaling
from it, to the quantity of frefh water received into certai

arts of it in rains, or from the mouths of rivers, to beds
of foffile falt fituated at the bottom of the ocean, or to the
falt-water of {prings and rivers, which are difcharged into
it in certain places. Lat

Dr. Watfon mentions the following eafy method of efti-
mating the quantity of falt contained in fea-water : take a
clean towel, or any other piece of cloth, dry it well in the
fun before the fire, then weigh it accurately, and note
down its weight ; dip it in the fea-water, and when taken
out, wring it alittle till it will not drip when hung up to
dry ; weigh it in this wet ftate, then dry it, and when itis
perfectly dry weigh it again. The excefs of the weight of
the wetted cloth above its original weight, is the weight of
the fea-water imbibed by the cloth ; and the excefs of the
weight of the cloth, after being dry, above. its original
weight, is the weight of the falt retained by the cloth;
and by comparing this weight with the weight of the fea-
water imbibed by the cloth, we obtain the proportion of
falt contained in that {pecies of fea-waters’ But in making
this or any other experiment with the fame view, it is ne-
ceffary to obferve the ftate of the weather before the ex-
periment is made, becaufe the quantity of falt contained in
the water near the furface may be influenced, either by the an-
tecedent moifture, or the antecedent heat of the atmofphere.

It has been already obferved, at the beginning of this ara
ticle, that Ariftotle, and others after him, have fuppofed,
that the upper parts of the fea are falter, and alfo warmer,
than the lower: but modern philofophers have differed in
their accounts of the faltnefs of the fea at different depths.
There have beer various contrivances for raifing the fea-
water, in order to determine its faltnefs and temperature.
See Bucket Sea Gace, and Sea WATER. :

The faltnefs of fea-water raifed from different depths has
been determined, either by weighing equal bulks of it, or
by evaporating equal meafures of it, and weighing the
falt remaining after the water has been wholly diffipated.
Mr. Boyle (fee his Obfervations on the Saltnefs of the Sea}
purfuing the former method, found, that equal bulks of
water taken up in the Engtifh channel at the furface, and
at the depth of fifteen fathoms, were equally heavy ; and
thence concludes that the fuperficial. water was as falt as
that at a great depth. On the other hand, count Marfigli
(Hitt. Phyf. de la Mer) obtained, by evaporating the water,
only a thirty-fecond part of its weight of falt from water
taken up in the furface of the fea of the gulf of Lyons ; whi
that taken up at the fame time and place, from a great
depth, gave him a twenty-ninth part of its weight of falt ;
and he thence infers the greater faltnefs of the fea at the
bottom than at its furface, a conclufion which has been
fupported by experiments made in the gulf of Bothnia, and
by captain Ellis at Cape Monte on the coalt of Africa,
mentioned in Philofophical Tranfaétions, vol. xlvii. p.213-
It has been obferved, however, that in other places, the
water is more falt near the furface than at greater depths.
From the experiments relating to this fubje&t, made on
occafion of the voyage to the North pole, we learn, that
equal quantities of water, taken up in the open fea off
Shetland, 60° N. lat. at the furface, and at the depth of
fixty-five fathoms, yielded by evaporation equal quantities
of falt, viz. =!, of their weight nearly. In N. lat. 65°,
water taken from the furface gave nearly ,', of its weight
of falt, whilft an equal weight taken up from the depth
of fix hundred and eighty-three fathoms, in the fame place,

ave only ,';. The different refults obtained from thefe
Evel experiments may be accounted for by fome a aged
ances

5 AJL

Ranves which attended them, without contefting the accu-
racy of any of them.

It is well known, that the Rhone difcharges much frefh
water into the gulf of Lyons, which being lighter than fea-
water, will not readily mix with it, and, therefore, the
fuperficial water being moft diluted, will contain, bulk for
bulk, lefs falt than that which is at a greater depth. The

lf of Bothnia receives many rivers, and therefore its fur-
ace may be more diluted with frefh water, than its middle
or bottom. But the water of the Englifa channel has a
communication with the German oceanon one fide, and with
the Atlantic on the other; and, confequently, is fubjeét
to aconftant agitation, which will caufe the frefh water,
poured into it by the Thames, Medway, &c. to be uni-
formly diffufed through all its parts, {fo as to render it
equally falt at all depths. In other places, where the {u-

rficial water appears to be more falt than that at different
depths, the fupply of frefh water may be inconfiderable,
and the evaporation by the fun’s heat may be great. And
the difference. of evaporation, at different feafons of the year,
will account for the various refults of experiments made at
fuch feafons. After all, the fact of the fea’s being falter
at the furface than at the bottom, requires the confirmation
of repeated experiments ; fince it is known that the heavier
water of the furface muft gradually fink and mix itfelf with
the lighter and afcending water below it. See Brownrigg’s
Art of making common Salt, 1748, 8vo. p. 83, &c. Wat-
fon’s Chem. Eff. vol. ii. eff. iv. p..93; &c.

SALTO, in the /tahian Mufic. See Lear.

SALTPETRE. See Nirrat of Pota/b, Nirric Acid,
Porass® Nitras, and Nitrat of Pota/b, under Satts. Of the
chemical and medical properties of faltpetre or nitre, a brief
account has been already given under the articles to which
we haveabove referred. It remains to detail, as concifely as
poffible, the natural hiftory of this fubftance, the mode of
its manufaéture, and its ufesinthe arts. Nitre, as a natural

uét, may be found in two different repofitories, the firit
of which is lime-ftones, and the fecond vegetable foil. . The
firft, a caleareous repolitory, is either a peculiar variety of
fecondary floetz lime-ftone, or calcareous tufa, or chalk, or
indurated marle. In thefe rocks it occurs as a thin gra-
nular cruft, or an cflorefcence of minute fpicular cryftals,
overfpreading the outfide, and lining the infide of natural
and artificial caverns, with which thefe rocks abound.
Hence, as it has been conje¢tured, it might have derived
its lame of faltpetre, “ fal-petre,’”’ or rock-falt. Calcareous
ftrata containing nitre are found in various parts of South
America, in fome diltriéts of France, in the county of
Bamberg, and at Hamburgh, near Wurtzburg. But the
moft celebrated repofitory of native nitre is the Pulo of
Molfetta, in the province of Puglia, in the kingdom of
Naples. This deep cavity, in form of an inverted cone, has
within it, and branching eae it, feveral excavations, natural
and artificial, the ftrata of which confilt of hard fecondary
lime-ftone, abounding with the remains of organized bodies.
At the time when the abbé Fortis directed the public at-
tention to them, all thefe caves were lined with an ef-
florefcent crult of nitre more than an inch thick, which,
after being fcraped off, was again renewed within a few

s in conftant fucceflion. The fubftance of the rock, to
the depth of a foot or more, was richly impregnated with the
falt which might be feparated by lixiviation, but ata greater
me no nitre was found, or at leaft boiling water did not
afford it by diffolution. A piece of this rock, liowever,
appears by the teflimony of Dolomieu, after lying for two
months in a dry cabinet, to have been covered with a thin
erult of nitre. Klaproth and Pelletier, having analyfed the
nitrous cruft of Pulo, obtained the following refults ;

SAL

Klaproth. Pelletier.
425.5 407-5 nitre.
Ze muriated potafh.
26.7 muriates.
20.8 fulphates, foluble in cold water.
254.5 96.7 fulphate of lime.
304. 410. carbonate of lime.
986.0 961.7
14. 38.3 lofs.
1000 1000

Another repofitory of native nitre is vegetable foil. Of
all countries of Europe, Spain is faid to abound moft with
this kind of foil. According to Bowles, nearly a third of
the uncultivated lands in the eaftern and fouthern provinces
of this kingdom afford a rich fupply of it by the following
management. During the winter and {pring the land is
ploughed twice or thrice, to the depth of three or four
inches ; it is fuffered to lie fallow the whole fummer, and
about the middle of the autumn, the foil having been thus
fully expofed to the air, is lixiviated ; and the liquor being
boiled down in the ufual manner, affords, in cooling, a
quantity of nitre, mixed with from 20 to 40 per cent. of
common falt. A confiderable part of the foil in Lower
Hungary is richly impregnated with nitre ; and the water
of feveral wells and {prings, containing from two-thirds to
four per cent. of this falt, is unfit for drinking. In India
many of the lands, and efpecially thofe that lie in the val-
lies of great rivers, very much abound with nitre ; and in the
prefidency of Calcutta alone, between 7000 and 8000 tons
are annually manufa@tured. The faline eflorefcence which
covers the furface of the foil being {wept off, is renewed
every other day at particular feafons of the year: and that
foil, in which the falt is lefs abundant, is raked up in {mall
heaps, mixed with the fcrapings of roads and cattle-ftalls,
and after being for a certain time expofed to the action, of
the air, lixiviated. The earthy refidue is mixed with frefh
earth, and after two years affords as large a produce of nitre
as at firft. Thofe nitrous foils, the acid ef which is com-
bined, for the moft part, with lime inftead of potafh, and
which, in the ufual mode of treatment, yield but a {mall
quantity of nitre, are rendered productive by the addition
of wood-afhes; the carbonated alkali of the afhes and the
ealcareous nitrate of the foil mutually decompofing each
other, and furnifhing, in the refult, carbonated lime and
nitrated potafh. Many of the foils in India, as well as thofe
of China and other parts of Afia, require this alkaline addi-
tion. This is alfo the cafe with much of the foil in the
Crimea and Ukraine. In many parts of the Crimea, thofe
parts are felected that have been long uncultivated, and alfo
thofe artificial parts that have ferved for burial-places and the
{cites of towns; and the foil being dug up, is mixed with
about one-fifth, by meafure, of wood-afhes, and lixiviated
in perforated cafks in the ufual method: the liquor thus
produced, after concentration by repeated lixiviations, is
mixed with the mother-water of a preceding cryttallization,
and boiled down for 24 hours, removing from time to time
the common falt and muriated potafh that feparate during
the procefs: it is then transferred, while hot, into fhallow
coolers, in order to cryftallize, which it does in 24 hours
more. The rough cryltals being drained, are again dif-
folved in water, and the product of the fecond cryttal-
lization is a nitre fomewhat impure, and yet fit for the
market. Four hundred cubic feet of the mixture of earth
and wood-afhes afford g2lbs. of nitre of the firlt cryltal-
lization, which, by fubfequent refining, is reduced to 39lbs.

After the adoption of fire-arms, the confumption of

nitre

SALTPETRE.

nitre became proportionably great, and of courfe art and
induftry more atively employed in obtaining it. Different
foils were attentively examined, and experiments were made
for afcertaining their various produéts. In the courfe of
thefe refearches it was found, that the fuperficial foil of
farm-yards, of cattle-ftalls, of cellars, of privies, and of
other places long expofed to the vapours of putrefying
animal matter, forded, when mixed with wood-afhes and
lixiviated, a confiderable quantity of nitre. It was alfo
found, that the plaifter, mortar, and brick rubbith of old
houfes, might, by a fimilar treatment, yield this falt. In
confequence of thefe difcoveries, the feveral fubftances now
enumerated were claimed by the crown in moft of the
countries of Europe, and granted to focieties incorporated
for the purpofe of making Giepape, and fupplying the pub-
lic magazines with this indifpenfable article. England and
Holland fupplied themfelves from India and China, and there-
fore paid little attention for a fhort time to this kind of
manufacture : whereas France, Germany, and the Northern
itates of Europe, encouraged it to the utmoft of their power.
At Paris thefe aflociations or companies were incorporated
fo long ago as the reign of Charles IX, ; and regulated by
feveral ftatutes. Their privileges were very extenfive, and
enforced with fuch rigour, that they became occafions of
difcouraging agriculture, and of promoting tyranny and
oppreffion. They were allowed to appropriate to them-
felves all the nitrous foils and materials which they could
find, without any adequate compenfation to the proprietors.
Accordingly the earthen floors of every out-houfe, and
even of inhabited cottages, were fubje&ted to their depreda-
tions, fo that the people were thus deprived of their bett
manure ; and moreover, every parifh or diftriét was under
an obligation of furnifhing a certain quantity of wood-
afhes. Thefe oppreflive powers were entrufted by the
crown with the farmers-general, whofe inferior agents exer-
cifed them to their own pecuniary emolument, and to the
grievous annoyance of fuch perfons as were the fubjeéts of
their extortion. Neverthelefs, the annual produce of nitre
at the acceffion of Turgot to the miniftry, is faid to have
fcarcely exceeded one-half of its amount about half a cen-
tury before his time. This able minifter introduced a very
ufeful reform in this department, reftri€&ted fome of the
powers which had been fo much abufed, and abolifhed others ;
and transferred the adminiftration of this bufinefs from the
farmers-general to a particular commiffion, of which Lavoi-
fier and Clouet were leading members; and a confiderable
fum of money was placed at the difpofal of the Royal
Academy of Sciences, to be diftributed as prizes by this
body to the authors of the beft memoirs in the preparation
of faltpetre ; and thus important and beneficial improve-
ments were introduced in the conftruction and management
of artificial nitre-beds, and the refining of their produce.
By thefe means, the amount of nitre made in France was
increafed during the interval elapfed from the year 1775
to 1785, from 1,800,coolbs. to 3,500,coolbs. After the
commencement and during the progrefs of the Revolution-
war, the neceflities of the ftate occafioneda great additional
demand for this article; fo that the ableft chemifts of
Paris direéted their ingenuity and fedulous attention to this
object, and their fuccefs was fuch, that the Bate of
nitre was more than quadrupled, and the art of preparing
it attained nearly to perfeétion. From procefles detailed
under the articles Nitaic and Nitrous Acid, &c. it ap-
pears, that three conditions are requifite for the produc-
tion of nitrated lime, which, by the fubfequent addition of
carbonated potafh, affords nitre, wiz. animal matter in a
‘tate of decompofition, atmofpheric air, or rather the
oxy genous part of it, and carbonated lime.

In Virginia, they prepare the floors of their tobacco-
houfes for attraéting nitre: the method of making it in
this way, by Mr. Jeremiah Brown, has been publithed in
Virginia, by order of the truftees for the improvement of
arts and manufactures, and, in En d, by order of the
Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and
Commerce. See an account of this method in the Annual
Regilter for 1763, vol. vi. p. 121.

The conttruction of artificial nitre-beds was firft pro-
pofed by Glauber. Having turned his attention to feveral
previous circumftances, he fuggeited the following plan
for the formation of nitre, which we fhall extra& from
Aikin’s Di&tionary.

« Let a ineye-tguite wooden vat be made open at top,
and with a perforated falfe bottom placed a few inches
above the real bottom, and between the two bottoms let a
pipe with a {top-cock be inferted, fo as to difcharge any
liquor into a fhallow open refervoir funk into the ground
juft in the front of the vat: on the oppofite fide of the
refervoir let another vat, fimilar to that already defcribed,
be placed, and, to complete the apparatus, let a pump be
fixed in the refervoir, by which its contents may be tranf-
ferred to either of the vats that the workman choofes. Every
thing being complete, let the vats be filled with horfes’,
cows’, or fheep’s dung, mixed with leaves or any dry vege-
tables: then draw a weak alkaline ley from quicklime and
wood-afhes, and pour it into one of the vats till it ftands a
finger’s breadth above the other ingredients. In about
12 hours’ time tura the cock, and let the liquor drain into
the refervoir, whence it is to be pumped again into the
other vat, and after 12 hours more returned into the refer-
voir. In the fpace of a few days, the contents of the vats
will heat and ferment flrongly: no further care is required
till the decline of the fermentation, which may be known
by the ceflation of the fteam: the materials are then to
be again drenched with the liquor in the refervoir for
12 hours, and when this is again difcharged the fermenta-
tion will recommence. This method being purfued for
ten or twelve months, (taking care to keep the vats filled
with frefh portions of leaves and dung as the mafs fubfides, )
both the liquor and the contents of the vats will be found
to be very rich in nitre.””

« The above method of Glauber’s,” fays Mr. Aikin, ~
“¢ deferves notice as the firft attempt at the artificial manu-
fature of nitre, although there is little doubt that its fuc-
cefs is greatly exaggerated, as is but too much the cultom
of this author. Another method propofed by the fame
chemift, and the fuccefs of which is better authenticated,
is the following. Conitruct a vault of frame-work of any
dimenfions, and line it to the thicknefs of three or four
inches with plaifter compofed of the following materials,
viz. one part of quicklime, one of wood-afhes, and two of
cows’ or horfes’ dung, with a fufficient quantity ef urine
to work it up to a proper confiltence. This plaifter being
carefully applied, is to be dried by a gentle fire to be
made under the vault, a fecond coating of the fame mate-
rials is then to be put on, and thus, by alternate drying
and plailtering, the vault is to be made two or three feet
thick. Being now fufficiently ftrong, the wonden framing
may be removed. The plaifter, in puss: as it dries,
is to be reftored to a proper {tate of moilture by the ap-
plication of urine, and in the {pace of a few months, more
or lefs according to the warmth of the air and other cir-
cumltances, the whole infide of the vault will be covered
with nitrous eflorefcences: by degrees the plaitter will be im-
pregnated with nitre through its whole fubitance, at which
time the vault being broken down, and its materials being
duly lixiviated, a large quantity of nitre will be obtained:

This

SALTPETRE.

This method was adopted in many parts of Germany with
reafonable fuccefs, but, requiring much manual labour, was
at length zbandoned for more economical proceffes.

«In France the nitre-beds are compofed of nitrous earth
from farm-yards, ftables, &c. ; of ftreet-fweepings, of mild
calcareous earth, fuch as old mortar or plaiiter, chalk, tufa,
or the {fweepings of roads paved with lime-ftone ; of animal
matter, fuch as night-foil, blood, refufe from the fkinners
and tanners, bones and other offal; of vegetable matter,
fuch as ftraw and ftable litter, leaves, faw-duft, {pent tanners’
bark, &c. Thefe are all mixed in fomewhat cafual pro-
portions, care being only taken that a fufficient quantity
of calcareous matter is prefent ; they are laid as lightly as
poffible in long beds or pyramids under covered roofs to
proteét them from the weather, and are kept duly moif-
tened with putrid water or urine: by this management they
yield every other year, by lixiviation, a confiderable quan-
tity of nitrated lime, which, by the addition of waod-afhes
or potafh, is converted into true nitre. The circumftance
in which the French nitre-beds differ principally from thofe
of Sweden and Germany is, that they fcarcely ever contain
wood-afhes, the requilite portion of alkali being added in a
fubfequent part of the manufaéture.

« The proportion of nitre afforded by thefe artificial beds
it is not eafy to afcertain. In France, where the cuitom is
to lixiviate once in two years, the produce may be eftimated
at from feven to twelve ounces of nitre from t1oolbs. of
materials: of this about half is nitrate of potafh, and the
reft nitrate of lime, requiring therefore the addition of
potafh to convert it into true nitre.”’

For the theory of nitrification, and particularly that of
M. Thouvenel, we refer to the work now cited. Various
methods have been prattifed for the extraétion of nitre
from the earths that contain it, and the purification of this
falt.
The marley earth, frequent in China, Perfia, and many
parts of the Eaft, is feleéted for working from places
where it ftands in barren cliffs, on hills facing the northern
or eaftern winds. ‘The manner of their feparating nitre
from this earth is as follows: they dig large pits, which
they coat over on the infide with a ftiff and firm clay ; this
they fill half full of water, and into it throw the earth.
When the water has ftood fome days to imbibe the falt, they
draw it off into other pits, defended by flight walls on
all but the north-eaft fide. Here the fun exhaling the
water, the falt which it had imbibed affixes itfelf to the
fides of the pit in {mall, brownifh, white, hexahedral, but
very imperfect, cryftals, which are what we receive from*
the Indies under the name of rough nitre.

This is the way the greatett quantity of this falt is made ;
but it is alfo procured from divers other materials, and by
many other methods.

method of manufacturing faltpetre in Podolia, re-
lated Dr. Wolf, is as follows: the earth or mould,
which they make ufe of for this purpofe, is of a deep black ;
and they make choice of a place for their operation not far
from a fpot rich enough in nitre to keep them conftantly
at work, at leaft during a whole fummer, and fuch as can
ly them with water and wood at an eafy expence.
utenfils ufed in this manufacture, are a large copper
boiler, containing about fixty amphors of fix gallons, or
about s4lbs. of water each, which is fixed in the ground,
with its brim level with the furface ; 100 wooden tubs,
with a lwle bored near the bottom, each of which holds a
car of earth, or about four or five amphors; two very large
calks of about 100 amphors each; about thirty-two wide
troughs or coolers, holding about an amphor each; and a
fufficient number of armphors for fetching water.

In the manufa€ture, the firft operation is to beat the
nitrous earth to a coarfe powder with iron fpades, and to
clear it of all hard fubltances. If it be very rich in nitre
(indicated either by its fatnels. or its downy efforefcence),
they mix with it fome of a poorer fort, in equal quantity,
but very black and old: and, laflly, they add afhes, com-
monly thofe of the afh, which moft abounds, to the amount
of about a fifth part of the whole, and mix them well
together, If they have a quantity of urine at hand, they
throw it in, but never any quicklime: they then put one
car of the prepared nitrous earth into one of the tubs, fill
up the veflel with cold water, and tir the whole well with
a wooden ftaff; and after it has ood twenty-four hours,
with occafional ftirring, they fuffer the ley to run out at
the hole near the bottom, and put it into large cafks. In
this decoétion of the nitre, what they call the mother of
nitre 1s abfolutely neceflary. This is the infpiffated lixivium
remaining after the cryftallization of nitre, which cannot
itfelf be made to cryltallize, and they keep it from one year
to another. Of this mother of nitre, they pour one
or two tubs into the boiler, to which they add the
new ley, collected in the great cafks, till the boiler is
full, and keep the contents boiling near twenty-four hours.
As foon as they perceive any marks of cryftallization on
the furface, they remove the ley, thus decocted and infpif-
fated, into the thirty-two wooden coolers, and let it re-
main there twenty-four hours ; in which time the cryftalk-
zation being completed, they drain off the mother of nitre,
and return it into the boiler. The cryftals are taken
out and dried; but as they never prove clean, they are
again diflolved in clean water, filtered through a flannel
bag, and boiled up again, in a lefs boiler, to a requifite
thicknefs, and then cryitallized again, which brings them
to be fit for fale. In this manner, the procefs is repeated
through the fummer, till the winter’s froft puts a {top
to it.

The method formerly ufed in a confiderable manufa@ure
at Paris was as follows: M. Bouret, who makes every year
from 35,000 to 36,000lbs., employs fix men night and day,
two rooms, twenty large cafks, andthree horfes. The cafks
are half filled with old plaifter, which is changed every time
of pouring on water, and the lower half with wood-athes,
which are changed but once in five lixiviations. The water
poured on foaks through both the plaifter and afhes, and is
five times pafled through frefh plaifter. It is then boiled
down in a copper pan, fo placed that the flame pafles quite
round its fides. The fire is made of wood. The lixivium,
when properly evaporated, is fet to cryftallize, and the
eryflals to drain. The fcoum taken off in the boiling is
thrown upon the plaifter, which, the longer it lies in heaps,
(wetted from time to time,) becomes the ftronger ; and
likewife in proportion to the putrid matter thrown upon it.
The plailter ufed in the buildings at Paris, is made of that
gypfeous earth called plaifter of Paris, and found in the
neighbourhood of that city. In general, no lime is mixed
with it ; and if this be the cafe, the nitre is neither fo good,
nor produced in fo great a quantity. It is known when
the old plaifter is worth being colleéted and employed, by
the faltith talte of it.

The firft thing, in the procefs of extraéting and puri-
fying nitre, is to aflay the earth. This is done by lixi-
viating a few pounds of it, and adding to the liquor thus
obtained as much of a folution of common potafh, of a
known ftrength, as is fufficient to decompofe all the earthy
falts. From this allay, the quantity of alkali required is
eafily calculated.

he next procefs is the lixiviation; which is performed
in the following manner. Several cart-loads of nitrous
earth

SAL

earth are mixed as accurately as poffible with the requifite
quantity of alkali, either in the form of wood-afhes, or pul-
verized potafh. Several large cafks with perforated falfe
bottoms are then filled with the prepared earth laid on very
lightly ; after which as much river-water is poured in as
the veffels will hold. In two or three hours time the cock
at the bottom of each cafk is turned, and the liquor is
allowed to drain out during the remainder of the day.
The cafks of a fecond feries, charged with earth as before,
are now filled up with the firit lixivium, and after ftanding
for a few hours, the liquor thus concentrated is drawn off
in the manner juft defcribed. By a fimilar procefs on the
third day a lixivium, thrice as {trong as the firft, is obtained,
which is now fufficiently concentrated to be boiled down.
The contents of each feries of cafks are lixiviated twice
more, and the weak folutions thus obtained are employed
inftead of water in the firft and fecond lixiviations of freth
parcels of earth.

The boiling down and evaporation next fucceed. The
lixivium, containing nitrate of potafh, the muriates of potath
and foda, with probably a few other falts, and various earthy
and other impurities, is put into a large boiler like a falt-
pan, and heated nearly to ebullitioa ; itis then clarified
by the addition of bullock’s blood, or a folution of glue,
the impurities, as they appear on the furface, being care-
fully fkimmed off: when no more froth rifes of itfelf, a
little lime-water is added, which coagulates the remainder
of the blood and glue, and thus completes the clarification.
It is now boiled for feveral hours, and the muriates of pot-
afh and foda, as they depofit, are withdrawn by a per-
forated ladle. When the liquor is fo concentrated that a
few drops cryftallize readily on being dropped on a cold
Iron, it is laded out into a vat, where it remains half an
hour to depofit the common falt and impurities {till floating
in it: hence it is transferred to large wooden’ or metallic
eryftallizing bafons, where it remains clofe covered up
during from three to fix days, according to the tem-
perature of the air; at the expiration of this period the
fluid mother-water is poured out and returned to the nitre-
bed, and the falt depofited in a confufed cryftalline mafs
of an opaque dirty white, is broken to pieces and fet to
drain, after which it is brought to market, or delivered in
to the government-ftores, as rough nitre, or nitre of the
firit boiling.

In order to refine the rough nitre, ‘the ancient practice
was to fubjeét it to two more fucceflive boilings and cryf-
tallizations ; by this method, however, a very confiderable
proportion of the nitre was left in the mother-waters, no
inconfiderable fhare was volatilized by the heat required for
evaporating the folution when it had nearly acquired the
due degree of coneentration ; and befides, a great expence
- both of time and fuel was incurred. The modern method
of refining this falt was inyented in France a few years ago,
and is now confidered as brought nearly to perfection. It
is thus effeted :

The rough nitre is broken to fmall fragments by wooden
mallets, and is then put into a wooden tub, with 20 per
cent., by weight, of cold water ; in this {tate it remains for
fix or feven hours, being occalionally well {tirred up, that
the water may have free accefs to every part. The water
is now let out by a hole at the bottom of the veffel, and
carries with it in folution all the deliquefcent falts, and
the greateft part of the muriates of foda and potath, toge-
ther with fome nitre. When the whole of the liquor is
drained off, 10 per cent. more of water is added, and. well
mixed with the nitre for an hour’s time, when it is dif-
charged in the fame manner as the firlt. Laitly, 5 per
cent. of water is poured in, and run off again almoit imme-

SAL

diately after. The nitre thus wafhed, after being well
drained, is put into a boiler with half its weight of water,
and boiled till a pellicle forms on its furface ; the liquor
is then difcharged into a leaden cooler, and itirred about
with rakes, till it is quite cold, by which manipulation the
falt is depofited in {mall cryftalline needles. It is now
taken out of the liquor with a perforated ladle and well
drained : after which it is wafhed with 5 per cent. of cold
water, and again drained; being then {pread out on a
large table it dries in a few hours, and is laftly heated over
a fire in large bafons for two or three hours, at a tem-
perature not exceeding 120° Fahr. taking care to ftir it
all the while ; by this treatment it is perfeétly purified,
and brought to the confiftence of fine fand, and is now
ready to be manufactured into gunpowder.
Dictionary. 6

The ufe of nitre is very extenfive in medicine, in the arts,
and in chemiftry.

Dr. Shaw, on this occafion, obferves, that if the medi-
cinal virtues of nitre were to be enumerated, as they ftand
confirmed by fufficient experience, perhaps they would
prove more numerous than thofe of any one known medicine
befides. It is ferviceable in the ftone and ftoppages of
urine, in deliriums, malignant fevers, diarrhoeas, the {mall-
pox of the confluent kind, &c. fo as to prove almoft a
general remedy. And all thefe excellent qualities are in
this falt joined to that defirable property of being innocent,
or fearcely any way prejudicial to the body. The ufual dofe
of nitre, among us, is from two or three grains toa f{eruple ;
though, in many cafes, it may be given with fafety, and to
better advantage, in larger quantities. From fome experi-
ments on the effects of nitre taken internally, related in
Mr. Alexander’s Experimental Effays, it appears, that
nitre has a power of almoft in{tantly retarding the velocity
of the circulation of the blood, and of furprifingly di-
minifhing the number of arterial pulfaticns ; and that its
effeéts are much more powerful when newly diffolved in
water, than when it has remained diffolved during fome
hours. As this difference muit have proceeded from the
cold which is produced by nitre during its folution, pro-
bably a much greater effe€ would be produced by pro-
curing that folution in the ftomach. For the various medi-
cinal preparations of nitre, fee Nirre, and the references
under that article.

In chemiftry, befides the nitrous acid obtained from
nitre, which is one of its moft powerful agents, nitre itfelf
is alfo ufed in many chemical operations.. And in the arts,
its properties of detonating with bodies containing phlo-
gifton, of accelerating their calcination, and efpecially the
calcination of the imperfect metals, render it ufeful for the
purification of gold and filver, when they are allayed with
other metals. As nitre is quickly and eafily alkalifed, it
enters into the compofition of reducing fluxes, or of fimple
fluxes, to affilt fufion and vitrification. It may alfo be em-
ployed by its detonation, to difcover the prefence of the
inflammable principle in fubftances. But the moft confi-
derable ufe of nitre is for the preparation of gunpowder,
See Nitre, Nirrum, Nitrate, and Nitrate of Pota/by
under Porasn. : pa

SALT-POND Bay, in Geography, a bay on the fouth
coaft of Jamaica, eaft of Port Royal.

SALTS, in Chemifry, a term formerly ufed to fignify
all fapid fubftances which were foluble in water. The acids
were termed acid falts, alkalies, alkaline falts ; and thofe
fapid bodies not poffefling either of thofe qualities, neu.
tral falts. In the prefent {tate of chemical fcience, the
term falt is confined folely to the compounds formed by
acids with the alkalies, earths, and metallic oxyds; the

1 fubftance

See Aikin’s ;

SALTS.

Fubflance combining with the acid beiap called the bafe of
the falt.

Neutral falts are thofe in which the ingredients are in exa&t
faturation. (See Neurrat Salts, and NeuTRALIZATION.)
And'they are thus diftinguifhed from thofe, ftriéily fo calied,
that are formed by the combination of acids with alkalies,
in which the properties of the one or the other predominate.
When the acid predominates, the falt is defignated by the
fyllables /uper being added to the appellatios of the neutral
falt, formed with the fame acid and alkali; but when the
alkali is redundant, the fyllable fad is added: thus, carbo-
nate of potafh, with aredundance of acid, is fupercarbonate
of potafh; and with a deficiency of acid, fubcarbonate of
potath ; and as there are two varieties of acids formed from
the combination of the fame bafe or bafes with different pro-
portions of oxygen, fo it has been found alfo neceflary to
diftinguith the falts fermed with them by different termina-
tions ; thus the falt compoied of /ulphuric acid and potafh is
termed /ulphate of potafh, while that formed with /u/phureus
acid and the fame alkaline bafe, is termed /u/phite of potath.
When the acid has the term oxy prefixed to its name, the
fame fyllables are prefixed to that of the falt: thus, oxymu-
riate of potafh denotes a {alt compofed of the oxymuriatic
acid and potash.

The neutral and other fecondary falts have very different
degrees of folubility ; but that of almolt all of them is in-

Names of the Salts.

Carbonate of potafh = :
——— of foda s
of ditto -
of lime -
-———— of magnefia -
» common magnefia
of potahh = -
of foda =
of ditto
of magnefia
———-_ of ditto
Alum " z
Ditto ‘ w
Nitrate of potahh
Muriate of foda_ -
of ammonia
of barytes +
of ditto
of lime
of magnefa
Acetate of potath

Sulphate

* [gnited.
$ OF compofition.

ie Nemeycratone, and the different bafes of falts under
whichghe falts are defcribed.

The general plan of this work has been to treat of the falts,
as underltood by the laft definition, under their refpeétive
bafes. We find, however, that this plan has been deviated

m in the articles Atumina, Banyres, and Porasn.

is being the cafe, we think this the molt proper place in
which to fupply the deficiency, and refer to the re pective
bafes for the reft.

Potafh.—This falt has been called in medicine

Iphate o
Je per a in the old chemical nomenclature, vitriolated
tartar. Nt is formed by direétly adding fulphuric acid to a

folution of potash, till the mixture is neither acid nor alkaline,
which will be the cafe when it docs not change the colour of
Vor. XXX,

creafed by an augmented temperature, while their {olution
is for the moft part accompanied with a diminution of tem-
perature. They may be obtained unaltered from folutions
by evaporation ; and, if the procefs be flowly conducted,
they form in regular cryftallized maffes, which have more
or lefs tranfparency according to the quantity of water which
they retain in their compolition. LExpofure to air, heat,
and moifture, varioufly affect the appearance of eryttallized
falts. When they lofe their tran{parency, and are covered
with awhite cruit, or fallto powder, on fimple expofure
tothe air, fuch falts are faid to be effore/cent ; if, on the con-
trary, they attraét motiture from the atmofphere and become
fluid, they are named deliquefcent ; and permanent, when the
air has uo ‘effe& on their eryttals. The circumitance of a
falt firft melting in a moderate heat, then becomirg covered
with a white cruft, and ultimately being converted into a dry
opaque mafs, is termed qwatery fufion ; but when, inftead of
melting, it {plits with a crackling noile, this efe& is termed
decrepitation.

The efflorefcent and deliquefcent falts fhould be pre-
ferved, and difpenfed in well-itopped bottles ; while thofe
that are permanent will not fuffer from being put up in
paper. ;

The following abftra& of Mr. Kirwan’s table of the
compofition of falts, fhews at one view the quantity of bafe,
acid, and water contained in the falts medicinally ufed,

State.

Cryftallized.

Dry.

Deficcated.
Natural.
Cryttallized.
Dried at 80°.
Dry.

Fully cryftallized.
Deficcated at 700°. ;
Fully cryftallized.
Deficcated.
Cryttallized.
Deficcated at 700°.
Dried at 70°.
Dried at 80%
Sublimed.
Cryttallized.
Deficcated.
Red-hot.

Senfibly dry,

In foliated mafs. ||

+ Of cryttallization + 19.24 in the bafe.
§ Aqueous 38.88 real.

|| Higgins.

infufion, or fyrup of violets. This mixture on evaporation
affords criti, which are larger and more complete as the
time in which the water is efcaping. Thefe cry {tals are in
the form of fhort fix-fided prifms, terminating in pyramids
of the fame number of fides.

The fpecific gravity of this falt, in its perfect fate, is
about 2.4. It docs not poflefs much tafte, which is rather
bitter. f, diffolves in fixteen parte of water at 60°, and in
foar parts of water at 212°. It is not changed by expofure
tothe air. When thrown upon burning coals it decrepitates,
like common falt. Expofed to a {trong heat in a crucible
it melts. If charcoal, or, which is better, faw-dult, be pre-
fent, it is fpeedily converted into a fulphuret of potath,

called allo liver of fulphur. Its compofition by Dr. Wollaf-
Mm

ton’s

SALTS.

ton’s feale is in 100 parts, 46 fulphuric acid, and 54 pot-
afh. By Dalton’s numbers 45 acid, and 55 potath. Thefe
proportions agree very nearly with the analyfes of Bergman,
Kirwan, Wenzel, and Dr. Thomfon. The latter makes
it 42.2 acid, 50.1 potath, and 7.7 water. It would feem
from the latter that this falt confifts of an atom each of acid,
bafe, and water. This would be in Dalton’s numbers 34
acid, 42 potafh, and 8 water, which is doubtlefs near the
truth.

This falt is partially decompofed by the nitric and muri-
atic acids; and its folution is completely decompofed by
muriate of barytes, muriate of lime, lime-water, oxymuriate
of mercury, nitrate of filver, and acetate and fuperacetate of
lead, which therefore cannot enter into formule with it.
In'medicine, it is deobftruent and cathartic. It is given with
great advantage in the vifceral ob{tructions to which children
are liable, and in combination withrhubarb it has been found
more ufeful than any of the other faline purgatives in jaundice
and dyfpeptic affections. - Itis generally given in the form
of powder, in dofes of from x gr. to 3vi, as it is intended
to a@ as 2 deobftruent or a purgative. Its officinal pre-
parations are, ‘ Pulvis ipecacuanhe compofitus,”’ L. E. D. ;
and « Pulvis feammonie compofitus,” L. See Powner.

Sulphate of potafh with fulphur, formerly “ Polychreft
falt,” is dire€ted by the Edinb. Pharm. to be prepared by
mixing well together, equal parts of nitrate of potafh in
powder, and fublimed fulphur, and throwing the mixture in
fmall quantities at a time into a red-hot crucible. When
the deflagration terminates, let the falt cool, and preferve it
in a well-ftepped glafs veffel. This falt has a fenfibly acid
tafte, and reddens infufion of litmus: it is almoft wholly
diffolved in eight parts of water at 60°; and by expofure to
the air, it is altogether converted into fulphate of potafh.
Its medical properties and ufes are the fame with thofe of
fulphate of potafh; but it is very rarely ufed.

Superfulphate of potafh, or, agreeably to a more modern
nomenclature, bifulphate of potafb. Its name indicates that
it contains two atoms of acid to one of potafh. It is
formed by heating a folution of 84 parts of potafh and 42
of fulphuric acid, of the f{pecific gravity of 1.85. It cryf-
tallizes into long fix-fided prifms, having the appearance of
needles. Its tafte is fharp and acrid. It diflolves in about
three (five Thomfon) parts of cold water at 60°, and in its
own weight of boiling water. It is not changed by ex-
pofure to the air. When heated ina platina crucible it
fufes into a tranfparent fluid, but becomes white and hard
on cooling.

The compofition of this falt, as well by an experiment
made by Dr. Wollafton, as by theory, will be 34 x 2
acid, 42 potath, and probably 16 of water. Its efficacy as
a remedy is yet unknown.

Nitrate of Potafb. See Porassm Nitras.

It is the rapid evolution of thé elaltic fluids, refulting
from the decompofition of the nitric acid, by the agency
of the inflammable matter, that conftitutes the energy of
gunpowder, and the report of the pulvis fulminans, for
the manufa@ure of which, fee Gunrowper, and Futmi-
NANS Pulvis.

The very extenfive confumption of nitrate of potafh in
the manufaéture of gunpowder, has made it a defideratum
in fore countries to obtain it by fome artificial means. The
great {applies of nitre have been from thofe warm countries
where it exifts native in the common foil. It abounds in this
flate in Egypt, India, South America, and Spain. Some
parte of the foil contain much more than others. Where
it is found plentifully the earth is colleéted into immenfe
piles and lixiviated, which diflolves the nitre, and any other
foluble matter. This liquor is evaporated and the nitre ob-

8

tained in cryftals. The firft eryftallization is always impure,
and is called crude nitre. ‘The pure nitre can only be obtained
by repeated folutions and cryftallizations.. It has been the
opinion of fome philofophers that nitre has its origin in ve-
getables, becaufe it is often found an iagredient in their ana-
lyfis. Several parts, however, both in natural and artificial
nitre-beds, go far to prove that it originates in the earths
themfelves, aided by the prefence of atmofpheric air, by the
heat and perhaps the light of the fun. :
The author of this article has been informed by a friend
recently travelling in Spain during the lalt feafon, that in’
many parts of that country he found it difficult, and fre-
quently impoffible, to get a draught of water that was not
impregnated with nitre, and in eae places he. found nitre
in the foil. In the neighbourhood of Madrid, immenfe
heaps of this foil were colle&ted for the purpofe of extract-
ing the nitre from it. What, however, is the moft remark-
able, and which tends to confirm the opinion above given
refpeéting its origin, is, that thefe heaps, in a few years after

having been lixiviated, which mult have removed all the fo- -

luble parts, became again capable of furnifhing a fimilar
quantity of nitre; and what {till more confirms the above
idea, this procefs had been repeated upon the fame heap feveral
fucceflive times. It appears from this fact, that fome forts of
foil are capable of furnifhing nitre by merely being expofed
to air in warm climates.

This falt has been formed in great abundance in France
and Germany, by what are called artificial nitre-beds. Thefe
confift of long narrow heaps of a colleGtion of animal and
vegetable matter, mixed with calcareous and other earths.
Sheds are thrown over thefe heaps to fhelter them from the
rain, and keep up their heat ; and they are alfo kept ata
certain degree of moitture, by occafionally throwing water
uponthem. This keeps up to a certain extent the putrefac-
tive fermentation in the animal and vegetable fubftances.
The heat which thefe generate may contribute much to the
procefs, as well as furnifhing potafh for the nitre. It is
fuppofed that the nitrogen afforded by the animal matter in
its nafcent form may be more fitted for forming nitric acid.
with the oxygen of the atmofphere than is the nitrogen of
the atmofphere, which is only prefented in its gafeous
form. ‘There is, however, no proof of this being the cafe,
fince we find nitre produced where no animal or vegetable
fubftance is prefent. Thefe beds afford nitre after being
expofed a certain length of time. ‘The heaps are fome-
times turned over, which facilitates the produétion of
nitre. The nitre, mixed with other falts,, eflorefces on
the furface of the heaps, and is {wept with brooms from
time to time. Thefe fweepings are collected and purifi
by lixiviation and cryftallization. ,

The earth itfelf is alfo lixiviated at certain periods, and
then re-expofed. In Switzerland thefe nitre-beds are fre-
quently conneéted with ftables on a large fcale, to take ad-
vantage of animal excrement.

Many vegetables furnifh nitre in confiderable quantity,
particularly thofe that are poifonous, or pofleffing much
edour.. The extra&ts made from hemlock, henbane, and
quaffia, in a length of time become covered with cryftals
of nitre. During the maceration of henbane in hot water,
for the purpofe of making the extract, the nitric acid of
the nitre is to.a certain extent decompofed ; as nitrous gas
may be collected in confiderable quantities. Is it not proba-
ble that thofe plants which furnifh more than an ordinary
quantity of potafh, fuch as wormwood and the ferns, may
originally contain nitre, which is decompofed during their in-
cineration, l¢aving the potafh combined with carbonic acid ?

Nitre is fometimes ufed in preferving meat, particularly
hams. It is to the effect of this falt that the meat owes oo

> ee i» (rage ce

SALTS.

xed colour. "This colour is produced by the prefence of
the oxygen, or at leait by the abftraction of carbon, pre-
cifely on the fame principle that venous blood becomes red.
The frefh cut mufcle, which is of the colour of venous
blood, foon becomes changed by fimilar expofure to the
air, and alfo by the application of nitre. What corro-
borates this idea ts the faét, that when too much nitre has
been ufed upon meat, it acquires the exaGt flavour of nitrous
gas, and the parts moft fufceptible of this {mell exhibit the
prifmatic colours. See SALTPETRE.

Muriate of Pota/s.—This falt was, before the prefent no-
menclature, called regenerated feafalt; and in medicine it
was called digefive falt of Sylvius. See PoTasstum.

It is beit formed by adding muriatic acid to the cryftal-
lized carbonate of potafh, till the effervefcence ceafes.
This folution, by flow evaporation, affords cubic cryttals,
which are the falt in a ftate of purity.

Its tafte is bitter. ‘The fpecific gravity of the perfect
eryftals is 1.836. It diffolves in three times its weight of
water at 60°, and in a little lefs than two parts at 212°.
It is flightly deliquefcent in the air. When expofed to
heat, like the muriate of foda, it decrepitates. Az a red
heat it melts, and at an increafed temperature it fublimes in
white fumes.

This falt, in the dry ftate, is confidered by fir Humphrey
Davy as a compound of chlorine and potaflium ; in its
humid ftate, it is a compound of potafh and muriatic acid.
When in this laft fate heat is applied, the oxygen of the

fh combines with the hydrogen of the muriatic acid,
orming water, which is driven off, leaving what. fir
Humphrey has turned potaffane, and what Dr. Thomfon has
called chloride of potaffium, and what in the old language
would betermed muriate of pota/b. This falt, in the dry
ftate, according to Wenzel, is compofed of 35 acid and
65 potaths and, from the authority of Rofe, 34 acid and
66 potahh. By Dr. Wollafton’s {cale, it is 36.5 acid and
63.5 potafh. By. Dalton’s numbers, 22 acid and 42 bafe;
or, in the 100, it is 34.5 acid and 65.5 potafh. Thefe ac-
counts fo nearly agree, as to leave little doubt of their
accuracy. See Muriatic Acid.

Hyperoxymuriate of Potafo.—This falt was firlt difcovered
by Dr. Higgins, but Berthollet was the firft who pointed
out its conititution and particular properties. It has fince
been examined by Lavoifier, Van Mons, Fourcroy, Vau-
quelin, Hoyle, Chenevix, and others. ‘The latter chemift
has given a very able paper upon this clafs of falts, in the
Philofophical ‘TranfaGtions for 1802.

This falt is prepared by pafling oxymuriatic acid gas
through a folution of one part potafh to fix parts water.
For this purpofe, the latter folution may be put into the
bottle B. (See Plate XVII. Laboratory, fig. 9.) The
retort, A, contains the materials for producing the oxy-
muriatic acid. ‘The gas, on entering the bottle B, firft
forces the liquid up the tube into the bottle C, and then
flowly follows it in bubbles. Thefe are generally abforbed
before they reach the bottle C. If this fhould not be the
cafe, the remaining gas defcends by the tube b to the
bottle D, which contains a folution of potah fimilar to that
in Bs When the alkali is nearly faturated, the falt in
quettion begins to precipitate in the form of brilliant {cales,
or plates. Thefe are not perfeétly pure, but, by dillolving
them in about three times their weight of boiling water, the
falt falls down in greater purity as the water cools,

The form of the cryltals of this falt, although they appear
in the form of thin sietes when minutely examined, is tound
to be that of the parallelepiped, or rather obtufe rhomboids.

It has a cooling, tharp, and rather acrid tafte. Jt dif-
folves in 17 or 18 party of water at 60°, and in 24 parts of

water at 212°, It is not changed by expofure to the air.
When expofed to heat, it firft undergoes the aqueous fufion.
If the heat be increafed, the falt is at length decompofed.
A large quantity of oxygen gas efcapes, equal to one-third
of the weight of the falt, leaving behind two-thirds of
muriate of potafh. >

Its aétion upon combuitible bodies conftitutes its moft
remarkable properties. When three parts of this falt and
one of fulphur are fmartly rubbed in a mortar, a fucceffion
of explofions take place, not unlike the cracks of a whip.
Thefe are attended with flafhes of purplifh light, and a
{mell of fulphureous acid. The fame mixture laid upon an
anvil, and {truck with a hammer, gives a loud report.
When phofphorus is ufed inftead of fulphur, the effects are
much more violent. Similar, but lefs ftriking, phenomena
are obferved, when this falt is mixed with charcoal, fugar,
ftarch, or gum, and almoit any other dry vegetable matter.
When thefe mixtures are touched with concentrated ful-
phuric acid, inflammation inftantly enfues. This. effe& is
itill more confpicuous, when the mixtures are projected into
the acid. In thefe experiments, the greateft caution fhould
be obferved. In the detonations by fri@ion, or percufiion,
the eyes and hands of the operator fhould be guarded. The
mixture with fulphur fometimes explodes {pontaneoutly.
Similar detonations alfo take place with metals and this falt,
particularly the more oxydable metals. Thefe energetic
properties fuggetted the idea of ufing it, inftead of nitre,
in the manufacture of gunpowder; but its property of ex-
ploding by fri€tion, renders even the mixture of the ma-
terials too hazardous to be prattifed. In the very firft at-
tempt to form the compound, two individuals loft their lives.

This falt is decompofed by nitric acid, which difengages
the oxygen and the oxymuriatic acid.

The dilute meuriatic acid added to this falt, in a very
{mall retort, difengages a peculiar gas, which was difcovered
by fir Humphrey Davy, to which he has given the name of
euchlorine. See Oxxymuriatic Acid.

We fhall beit fhew the conttituents of this falt, as well as
its particular analyfis, by referring to the chemical changes
which take place in its formation.

According to the new hypothefis, which fir Humphrey
Davy and fome other chemifts have adopted, ‘the falt in
queftion confifts of 1 atom of chlorine, 1 of potaflium, and
6 of oxygen. Agreeable to the common opinion, it con-
filts of 1 atom of muriate of potafh, with 6 of oxygen; or
1 of muriatic acid, 6 of oxygen, and 1 of potath.

By the firft opinion, 6 atoms of chlorine enter the folu-
tion of potafh: 5 of thefe decompofe 5 atomsof water,
with the hydrogen of which they form 5 atoms of muriatic
acid. Thefe combine with 5 atoms of potafh, formin
5 atoms of potaflane, and 5 atoms of water. The 6th
atom of chlorine combines with 5 atoms of the oxygen de-
rived from the water: thefe combining with an atom of
potafh, form an atom of the hyperoxymuriate of potafh.
If the atom of hydrogen be 1, oxygen 7, chlorine 29,
and potaffium 35; then 5 atoms of potaffane will be
(29 + 35) x 5 = 320, and 1 atom of the hyperoxymuriate
will be 29 + 35 + 42 = 106.

By the old opinion, when 6 atoms of oxymuriatic acid
enter the folution of potafh, 5 of them give up their oxygen
tothe 6th. The firlt 5, which have become muriatic acid,
combine with 5 atoms of potafh, forming 5 atoms of mu-
riate of potafh. ‘Ihe 6th atom, with its 5 extra atoms of
oxygen, combine with an atom of potahh, forming an atom
of the hyperoxymuriate. Here, oxymuriatic acid, as its
name indicates, is {uppofed to be formed by 1 muriatic acid
= 22, and 1 of oxygen = 7; being together equal to 29.
The 5 atoms of muriate of potash will be (22 + 35 + 7)

x5

Mm 2

SALTS.

X § = $20; and-the atom of fiyperoxymuriate will be
(22 + 6 x 7 + 35+ 7) = 106, as before. We here fee
that both thefe theories explain the faét, and the refult is
the fame in both, when the fame elementary numbers are
taken. rom thefe data, the compofition will be in a
hundred parts,

Muridte of potafh ty ee OS
Oxygen = - mee 40
100

Tn clafling this among the reft of the falts, we might
prefume the exiftence of an acid called the hyperoxymuriatic
‘acid; This, however, has not as yet been obtained in a
free {tate. The euchlorine of fir Humphrey Davy was at
one time thoucht to be this acid; but fince the latter is con-
ftituted by 29 oxymuriatic acid and 7 oxygen, while the acid
united to potath, forming the falt in queftion, would coa-
fit of 29 + 5 x 7, fuch a fuppofition cannot be maintained.
If the old opinion keep its ground, the proper name for
this falt, agreeably to what has been laid down under
NoMENCLATURE, would be Ae@oxgmuriate of potafh. But if
the new opinion prevail, it would be called, according to the
nomenclature of Dr. Thomfon, hedoxychloryde of potajfium.

Superphofphate of Pota/s.—This falt is formed by adding
the liquid phofphoric acid to a folution of the cryltallized
carbonate of potafh, till the effervefcence ceafes. By eva-
poration it aflumes the form of a gelatinous mafs, but does
not cryitallize. It has a fweetifh-faline tafte. When dry,
its {pecific gravity is 2.85. It attracts humidity from the
air, and is very foluble in water.

When heated, it firft undergoes the watery fufion, after-
wards becomes dry. The heat being raifed, it melts into a
tranfparent glafs, which is deliquefcent in the air. No
analyiis of this falt is known. By Dalton’s numbers it is
46 acid and 42 potafh, in 88 parts.

Phofphate of Potafb—This falt cannot be formed by di-
reétly adding the acid to the alkali, in a ftate of folution;
as, in that cafe, the falt laft defcribed is always formed. In
order to form the prefent falt, the fuperphofphate muft be
fufed in a platina crucible with a quantity of alkali equal to
that already contained init. The white mafs thus formed is
the falt in queftion. The more certain way of forming this
falt is to boil the alkali and the above falt together: a white
powder fubfides, which, being feparated and dried, is the
pure phofphate of potafh. See Muriatic Acid.

Fluate of Potafb.—This falt may be formed by dire&tly
adding the liquid fluoric acid to potafh, till neutrality is
effected. Scheele fays it does not cryftallize; Wenzel,
however, informs us that it does, when perfeétly free from
filex. It diffolves in water, and melts in a {trong heat.
See Fruonte Acid.

Borate of Potafo.—This falt may be formed by heating
together nitre and borax (borate of foda). The nitric
acid is driven off, and ‘the potafh decompofes the borax.
By folution in water, and flow evaporation, the falt is ob-
tained in cryftals. According to the analyfis of Wenzel,
it is compofed of 100 acid and 30 of potafh. See Boracic
Acid, and Borax.

Carbonate of Pota/b, or Pure Subcarbonate of Potafe of
the Edinb. Pharmacopeia.—This falt is called falt of tartar,
from having been formed by the calcination of tartar.
When pure potafi is expofed to the air, it foon attraéts
water fufficient to liquefy it, and alfo carbonic acid, ulti-
mately becoming a folution of carbonate of potath. By
evaporation it affords cryftals, which require to be kept
from the air to prevent their deliquefcence. This falt may alfo
be formed by deflagrating nitre with fupertartrate of potash,

The compofition of this falt has been very clearly made
out by feveral able chemifts. By Dr. Wollatton’s fcale, it
is compofed of 68 potafh and 32 carbonic acid, in the dry
ftate. By Dalton’s numbers, of 19.4 acid and 42 potafh ;
which in the 100 is 68.3 potafh and .31.7 carbonic acid.
See Carnonare of Pota/b. :

Subcarbonate of Potafb. See Porass® Carbonas.

Supercarbonate or Bicarbonate of Potafo.—This falt differs
from the laft in containing twice as much carbonic acid.
It is formed by adding carbonate of ammonia to the car-
bonate of potafh, the falt laft defcribed, and dittilling off
the ammonia. ‘The folution, by evaporation to~a certain
extent, and by flow cooling, affords cryftals, appearing in
plates lying one over the edge of the other. The moft ad-
vantageous way of forming this falt is by pafling carbonic
acid gas through a ftrong folution of falt of tartar (car-
bonate of potafh), in the apparatus, Plate XVII. fg. g.
(See Lazoratory.) The falt cryftallizes without eva-
poration, the cryttals being very large and well-formed.

This falt has a cooling tafte, not the leaft cauftic, nor
{careely alkaline. It diffolves in about four parts of water
at 60°. When diffolved in boiling water, it feems te un-
dergo a partial decompofition, as bubbles of carbonic acid
efcape: hence it fhould not only be formed in cold water,
but diffolved in it, when ufed. ;

When this falt is heated to rednefs, it is completely con-
verted into the carbonate of potafh, having loft juft half of
its acid. rom this faét, which has been mentioned by
Dr. Wollafton, its compofition will be obvious; being
68 potath to 64 carbonic acid, and ie cent. 47 carbonic acid
and 53 potafh. From Dr. Wollatton’s {cale, it appears to
confilt of 2 atoms of acid, 1 of potafh, and 1 of water.
This will give per cent. 43 carbonic acid, 47.9 potafh, and
9-1 water of cryttallization.

Arfeniate of Potafb.—This falt is formed by adding ar-
fenic acid to potafh.

It does not cryttallize.
ftate, it deliquefces.

When fufed with a ftrong heat, it forms a white glafs.
If inflammable matter be prefent, the falt is decompofed
by the metal lofing its oxygen. The arfenic fublimes at
the fame time. :

Superarfeniate of Potafb.—This falt, from its name, con-
tains an excefs of acid, probably twice as much. It is
formed by adding more acid to the laft falt. It cryftallizes
in quadrangular prifms. See ARSENIC, § 10.

The molybdate and chromate of potafh are but little
known.

Acetate of Potafb.—This falt may be formed by addin
pure acetic acid to a folution of carbonate of potahh, ti
mutual faturation takes place. It is very difficult of cry{f-
tallization, but it may be effected by a very flow evapora-
tion. It has a fharp unpleafant tafte. It is foluble in
about its own weight of cold water. It becomes moilt by
expofure to the air. Like the reft of the falts, with vege-
table acid it is decompofed by a {trong heat, the refiduum
being charcoal and potafh. See Acetic Acid.

The London Pharmacopcia direéts it to be prepare by
mixing together, in a large glafs veflel, 14 lb. of fubcar-
bonate of potafh and a gallon of (diluted) acetic acid; and
having evaporated the folution to one-half over the fire, by
adding gradually as much more (diluted) acetic acid as may
be neceflary for perfect faturation. Let the folution: be
again evaporated to one-half, and ftrained; then continue
the evaporation in a water-bath, fo that, on being removed
from the fire, cryflals fhall form. aad

Aecetite of Pota/h of the Edinburgh Pharmacopeia is ie

pare

If expofed to the air in a dry

SALTS.

pared by boiling one pound of pure carbonate of potath,
with a very gentle heat, in four or five times its weight of
diftilled acetous acid, and adding more acid at different
times, until, the watery part of the former portion being
nearly diffipated by evaporation, the acid newly added ac-
cafions no effervefcence, which will be the cafe after about
20 pounds of acid have been confumed; then evaporating
flowly to drynefs. Liquefy the remaining in pure falt with
a gentle heat for a fhort time; then let it be diflolved in
water, and filtered through paper. Afterwards evaporate
this fluid, which, if the liquefa€tion be properly performed,
will be limpid, otherwife of a brown colour, in a fhallow
glafs veffel, with a very gentle heat; occafionally ftirring
the falt as it concretes, that ic may the more quickly become
dry. Finally, preferve the acetite of potafh in clofely fhut
veflels, to prevent its being liquefied by the air.

Acetate of Kali of the Dublin Pharmacopeia is formed by
adding to any quautity of fubcarbonate of kali, at different
times, about five times its weight of diftilled vinegar mo-
derately heated : when the effervefcence has ceafed, and the
fluid is fomewhat evaporated, add, at intervals, more dif-
tilled vinegar, until the effervefcence entircly ceafes: then
evaporate to drynefs, and having raifed the fire a little,
cautioufly liquefy the mafs. Diflolve the fait in water
after it is cold; filter the folution, and boil it, until, on
being removed from the fire, it -concretes into a cryftalline
mafs, which fhould be very white. Put’ the mals immedi-
ately into clofe-ftopped veffels.

Acetate of Potafh has.a fight peculiar odour, and a warm
fharp tafte. One fluid-ounce of diitilled water at 60° dif-
folves 504 grains; or Joo parts of it are foluble in 105
parts of water, and in twice its weight of alcohol. In the
watery folution it is fpontaneoufly decompofed; and it is
alfo decompofed by the ftrong acids, by a decoction of ta-
marinds, by the fulphates of magnefia and of foda, by the
muriate-of ammonia, the tartrate of potafh and foda, aad
by folutions of oxymuriate of mercury, and of the nitrate
of filver; which of courfe cannot enter into formulz with
it. See Acetic Acid.

As to the medical pzoperties and ufes of this falt, it is
mildly cathartic and diuretic; occafionally beneficial in
febrile affeGtions and jaundice, but principally ufed in
dropfies, and other difeafes requiring a copious difcharge of
urine. For producing the latter effect, the dofe may be
from 9j to 32j, given every three or four hours, in any
bland fluid. Dofes of 3ij or ziij open the bowels. Its ofi-
cinal preparations are ‘ Acetas hydrargyri,’”’” E. D.;
« Tinétura acetatis ferri,’’? D.; and “ Acidum accticum,”
D. Thomfon’s Difp. :

Oxalate of Potafb.—This falt is eafily formed by faturat-
ing a folution of the cryftals of this acid with potath ; and by
adding a little excefs of the alkali, the falt will be capable
of cryttallization. ‘The cryflals are long fix-fided prifms.

Superoxalate of Potafb.—T his is formed in the wood for-
rel, and is fold under the names of fait of forrel, and falt of
iemons, and is fometimes bought for lemon acid. It may be
formed artificially, by dropping a folution of potafh, by a
little at a time, into a faturated folution of oxalic acid.
The falt to be formed is fu much lefs foluble than the acid,
that as foon as it gets the proper dofe of alkali to contti-
tute the fuperoxalate, it falls to the bottom of the veffel in
{mall cryitals, which, when examined minutely, are {mall
tour-fided figures.

Neither of thefe falts have been analyfed, but their pro-
portions may be readily calculated, fince the weight of the
atom of oxalic acid is well defined, being about go times
heavier than that of hydrogen. ‘Whe firlt falt will, therefore,
be 40 of acid and 42 of yar per cent. 49 acid and 51 bale.

The fuperoxalate will be 80 acid and 42 bafe, orin the 100,
65.5 acid to 34.5 bafe. See Oxaxic Acid, and OxALis.

Lartrate and Tartrite of Potafb. See TarTrate and
TARTRITE. ;

Supertartrate of Potcfo.—This falt exifts in nature, par-
ticularly in the juice of the grape. It is generaily coille@ed
from the fides of wine-cafks, and may always be feen ad-
hering-to the fides of wine-bottles, when the wine has been
kept for fometime. This fult, when purified, is known by
the names of cream of tartar and cryftals of tartar. Thefe,
when well formed, are fhort fix-fided prifms. It diffolves in
60 parts of cold water, and in half that quantity of boiling
water. When expofed to heat it foon becomes black This
arifes from the decompofition of the acid, the potafh being
left in the ftate of carbonate, fince carbonic acid is one of
the refults of the decompofition. A portion of the acetic
acid is alfo formed during this decompofition, which may be
colle&ed and mixed with fome empyreumatic oil. This pro-
du& was called pyrotartareous acid, but is now found to be
acetic acid, mixed with the empyreumatic oil.

Tartrate of Pota/b.—This {alt is known in medicine by the
nameof foluble tartar, to diltinguifh it from the laft, which
fo {fparingly diffolves in water. It may be readily formed,
by adding to the fupertartrate a folution of as much potafh as
it already poffefles. This folution, by evaporation and gradual
cooling, affords crvftals in the form of four-fided prifms.

Its talte is rather bitter. _ It is foluble in almoft four parts
of cold water, and in much lefs of boiling water.’ It 1s de-
compofed by heat like the lait.

The compofition of the fupertattrate, according to Berg-
man, is

Tartaric acid 77

Potafh - 23

b Tole)

Or,
Tartrate of potahh 56

Acid - 44

100

By the analyfis of Thenard, it is

Acid = 57

Potath = 33

Water - 7
97.

This laftis probably near the truth; the firlt is very far
from being fo. See TARrrrite.

The nialatyeallat, benzoat, fuccinat, and faccolat of
potath, are but little known.

Camphorate of Potufh.—TVhis falt is formed by adding
camphoric acid to carbonate of potafh, till carbonic acid
ceafes to be evolved. The folution on evaporation affords
cryftals.

his falt is foluble in four parts of boiling water, and in
100 parts at 60°. It diffolves in aleohol, which caufes it
to burn witha blue fame. See CAMpHOR.

The relt of the falts of potafh are not known to poflefs
remarkable properties.

Sulphate of Barytes.—This falt exifts abundantly in nature
under the name of ponderous earth, and caulk. From its
infolubility in water, it cannot be formed artificially but in
the ftate of white powder. In nature it occurs in cry (tals, in
the form of tran{parent plates, or rather fourided priime,
the bales being rhombs; the primitive form of the ery(fals

being

SALTS.

being the fame. To all appearance, it is the moft foluble falt
which has occurred. Boiling water diffolves more than half
its weight, but cold water diflolves only th. Boiling ful-
phuric acid diffolves it, but it is precipitated by the addition
of water. When expofed to the heat of 35° of Wedge-
wood, it fufes into an opaque {fs or enamel. No fingle
acid or bafe is capable of decompofing this falt, but the car-
bonates of potath and foda are faid to decompofe it by
double decompofition. The moft effetual way of feparating
the earth from it, is to expofe it mixed with faw-duft, in a
covered crucible, to a {trong red heat for feveral hours.
The fulphate is by this operation converted into a fulphuret,
which is foluble in water. The fulphur may now be feparated
by weak nitre, or acetic acid, which diffolves the barytes.
The acid may afterwards be driven off by aredheat. The
analyfis of Kirwan, which feems the moit corre¢t, is

Barytes - 67

Sulphuric acid 33

100
Aikia makes it
Barytes - 66.04
Acid - 33-96
100

Dalton’s numbers give the acid 34, and the barytes 43.
This reduced to 100, gives

Barytes - 66.75
Acid - 33-25
100

See BARYTES. .
Nitrate of Barytes. See Nitrate of Barytes, under
which article the reader is defired to correct the number
expreffing its {pecific gravity, and to fubftitute 2.92.
According to Kirwan, its conitituents are
Acid wee ie:
Barytes - 57 "
Water = AI
100
By Dalton’s numbers, this falt is compofed of two atoms
of acid, and one of bafe; and from the laft analyfis it would
feem two atoms of water. Thefe would make 2 x 19 +
68 +2 x 8= 122. Thisreducedto 100, gives

Acid - 3u1
Bafe - 56.7
Water - 12.2 2
190

Muriate of Barytes.—TVhis {alt may be formed precifely
by the fame directions as the la(t, uling the muriatic acid
as the folvent. The evaporation being now carried to a
certain extent, the liquid may be fet afide to cryttallize.
Thefe cryftals will be more complete by leaving the folu-
tion, flightly covered with a piece of gauze, to {pontaneous
evaporation. If a few cryitals of the fame falt are placed
in the folution as foon as the cryltallization begins, they
will form needles for the new cry{tals, which may be-ob-
tained of great fize. Under fome circumitances the cryf-
tals are apt to become yellow, but the caufe of this colour
dogs not appear obvious. ‘Fhere is another method of
preparing this falt, when the carbonate of barytes cannot

be procured, by firt converting the fulphate, which ts
very abundant in the vicinity of moft lead-mines, into a
fulphuret, as direéted in decompofing the fulphate of
barytes, and adding muriatic acid to the fulphuret. This
precipitates the fulphur, and forms muriate of b ls
This folution, filtered and evaporated, affords cryftals of the
falt. Thefe cryitals are in the form of plates, but when
examined, they are four-fided prifms, with fquare bafes.
It has a ftrong and difagreeable tafte, and is faid, like
the reft of the barytic falts, to be poifonous. It is not
altered by expofure to the air. It diffolves in about twice
its weight of water at 60°, and is not much more foluble
in hot water. Hence its cryftallization is to be effeéted by
a flow evaporation, rather than by a flow cooling. It de-
crepitates at the fame heat that other falts do, aud is not
decompofable at the ftrongeft heat. In the fufed ftate it is
confidered, by the new dottrine, as a compound of chlorine
and batium, which would in the too be 65.5 barium, and
34.5 chlorine.
In its 7c ir Kirwan makes its compofitjon to be
Gide yp <=

20
Barytes - 64
P Wigterig = 5 316
Ico
Fourcroy’s analyfis gives
Acid - 22.93
Barytes 62.47
Water - 14.6
100
Ajikin’s gives
Acid = | ae
Barytes - 60

Water - 16

‘Dr. Wollafton’s feale gives for ‘the dry fait

Acid - 26
Barytes - 74 :
200

Ard the.cryftallized would be from the fame

Raid "= 22.25
Bae: «6%
Water - 14.75
100 st

Dalton’s numbers will give 22 acid, 63 bafe, end 16

avater, which per cent. is

Acid 7) == 20.95

Bafe =. G4.1

Water - = 15.15
pais
100

This falt is ufed only as a chemical 'teft for deteAling the
prefence of fulphuric acid, and in determining the propor-
tion in which that acid exiits in different bodies. See
BarytTes.

The muriate of barytes is prepared, acgording to the direc-
tions of the Edinb. Pharm., by mixing together three parts of
water, and one part of muriatic acid, and adding one pitt

°

SALTS.

of carbonate of barytes broken into fmall pieces. When
the effervefcence terminates, digeft for an hour; then filter,
and after due evaporation fet the folution apart, that cryitals
may be formed; and repeat the evaporation as long as any
cryftals are formed. If the carbonate of barytes cannot be
procured, the muriate of barytes may be formed in the fol-
lowing manner :

« Take of fulphate of barytes, two pounds; charcoal in
powder, four ounces. Roaft the fulphate, that it may be
the more eafily reduced to avery fine powder, and mix it
with the powder of charcoal. Put the mixture into acruci-
ble, and having fitted to it a cover, let it be expofed to a

_ ttrong fire for fix hours; then, having well triturated the

matter, put it into fix pounds of boiling water, ina glafs or
earthen veflel, and mix by agitation, preventing, as much
as poflible, the aétion of the air.

“« Let the veffel ftand in a vapour-bath until the undiffolved
part fhall have fubfided, and then pour off the liquor. Pour
on the refidue four pounds of boiling water, which, after
agitation and fubfidence, add to the former liquor; and
then, while it is ftill hot, or, if it fhall have cooled, after
it is again heated, let muriatic acid be dropped into it as
long as any effervefcence is excited. Then let the folution
be Eltered and evaporated, that cryftals may be formed.” —

Several other methods have been propofed for the pre-
paration of this falt, the beft of which is the following,
recommended by Bouillonla Grange (Annales de Chimie,
xlvii. 131.) Pulverize together equal parts of fulphate of
barytes and muriate of lime ; proje¢t the mixture into a red-
hot crucible, and let the fire be continued till the whole be
melted, which is then to be poured out on a heated tile.
After it is cold, reduce the mafs to powder; boil it for
fome minutes in fix times its weight of diftilled water, and
filter the folution: then evaporate the liquor to a pellicle,
and fet it afide to cryftallize. The cryftals require to be
re-diffolved and again cryftallized, to free them from any of
the calcareous muriate they may retain on the firlt cryftalliza-
tion. The Edinburgh procefs, however, is ftill preferable
to this of La Grange, as the previous calcination reduces
any metallic falts that may be combined with the fulphate ;
and being thus rendered infoluble, they are feparated during
the firft folution of the fulphuret. Goetling advifes muriate
of foda to be added to the charcoal, by which a {maller quan-
tity of charcoal is capable of reducing a larger quantity of
falphate of barytes. A mixture of one part of muriate of
foda and two parts of muriate of lime is fufficient to de-
compofe fix of fulphate.

uriate of barytes has an acrid, véry naufcous, bitter
tafte. It cryftallizes in grouped quadrangular tables, be-
velled on the edges; tranfparent, white, and very brilliant ;
of a fpecific gravity of 2.8257; and not alterable from ex-
pofure to the air. When heated, it decrepitates, becomes
opaque, and ultimately melts, but is not decompofed. One
part requires three of watcr at 60° for its fstattans and
2.20 of hot water. According to Kirwan, the conttituents
of 100 parts of this falt are, a of barytes, 20 of muriatic
acid, and 16 of water. It is ufed only for forming the follow-
ing folution, which is direéted in the Edinb. Pharm. to be
prepared by diffolving one part of the muriate of barytes in
three parts of diftilled water. ‘This folution poflefles all the
chemical and medicinal properties of the muriate. It is lim-
id, tranfparent, and colourlefs; but is rapidly decompofed
the earthy, metallic, and alkaline fulphates and nitrates ;
the alkaline phofphates, borates, and carbonates, being
cipitated in the form of a white powder. Its affinity for
ulphuric acid is fo great, that, as a re-agent, it is capable

of detetting o.coceg of that acid in any fluid.

This folution is ftimulant and deobftruent, and in large
dofes poifonous. It was introduced into praétice by the
late Dr. Crawford as a remedy for cancerous and ferophu-
lous affe€tions; and its. ufe was afterwards extended to
fyphilis. When taken in moderate dofes, it appears to in-
creafe the fecretion by the {kin, augments the flow of urine,
and improves the tone of the fyftem; but by large dofes,
violent vomiting, purging, vertigo, and the moft dangerous
fymptoms, are produced. It has undoubtedly been found
beneficial in feveral initances of ferophula, in fome cutaneous
affeGtions, and in ulcerations conneéted with elephantiafis ;
while in fyphilis it has the power of fufpending fome of the
fymptoms for a fhort period. But although it be a me-
dicine of fome efficacy, yet, to ufe the words of Mr. Pear-
fon, in whofe opinion of its deficient powers as an antify-
philitic we place implicit. faith, its ** good qualities are un-
certain in their operation, and narrowly circum{eribed ; nor
is it a preparation on which great confidence can be placed
for the cure of any difeafe.”” The dofe requires to be care-
fully apportioned, and very gradually increafed, until from
Nv, which are fufficient at firft, nj xx be taken twice a
day; or more, if naufea be not excited.

It is fometimes ufed externally as an efcharotic to fungous
ulcers and {pecks on the cornea. Thomfon’s Difp.

Phofphate of Barytes.—The mott fimple procefs for form-
ing this falt, is to add a folution of phofphate of foda to
a folution of muriate of barytes. The acids exchange
bafes, and the phofphate of barytes is precipitated in the
form of a white powder, haying no tafte. This falt is not
foluble in water. Its f{pecific gravity is 1.2867. With
the heat of a furnace it melts into a white enamel. Its
compofition is not known by analyfis, but by theory it
fhould confiit of

Barytes - 74.5
Phofphoric acid 24.5
99

The phofphorous acid combines with barytes by treat-
ing phofphate of foda with the muriate of barytes. It is
infoluble like the latt, and has no very diftinguifhing cha-
racters.

Fluate and Borate of Barytes.—Little known.

Carbonate of Barytes.—This falt exifts in nature in
feveral parts of England. It was firft difcovered by
Dr. Withering, and has been very improperly called
Witherite.

The form of its cryftals in the native {tate is various.
It is found with double pyramids, fometimes with fix and
alfo with four fides. It alfo occurs in fix-fided prifms,
terminated by fimilar fided pyramids. It frequently appears
like bundles of needles radiating from a point. Its {pecific
gravity is 4.331. ‘It is faid to be foluble in-',4 of cold,
and y 5 of boiling water. _ It is not altered by expofure
to the air. Its compofition, according to Withering, is

Carbonic acid 20

Barytes. - 80
100
According to Pelletier, it is compofed of
Acid - 22
Barytes - 62
Water - 16
100

This

SALTS.

This falt may be prepared artificially. by adding car-
bonate of potafh to muriate or nitrate of barytes. The
falt is precipitated in a white powder, which requires to be
feparated by filtering, wafhing, and drying. This powder
is of the fpecific gravity 3.763. Its compofition, accord-
ing to Bergman, is

Acid - 7
Barytes - 65
Water - 23

1co

According to Kirwan, the ignited falt is

Acid - 22
Barytes - 78
100
By Dr. Wollafton’s fcale, it is
Acid - 22
Barytes - 78
100
By Dalton’s numbers,
Acid - 22
Barytes - 78
100

There is in all probability 2 bicarbonate of barytes, which
is much more foluble in water. This would confift of

Acid - 38
Barytes - 68
106

Arfeniate of Barytes.—This is an infoluble falt, little
known.

Molybdate and Chromate of Barytes.—Not known.

Acetate of Barytes.—This falt may be formed by dif-
folving the carbonate of barytes in acetic acid. By eva-
poration it affords cryftals in the form of needles, which
are fix-fided prifms. It has an acid bitterifh talte, and
is foluble in water; it flightly efforefces in the air. See
Acetite of Barytes.

Oxalic acid in excefs, added to barytes, conftitutes a fuper-
acetate, which affords cry{tals, and is fparingly foluble in
water. When neutral it becomes an infoluble powder.

Tartrate of Barytes.—Not known.

Citrate of Barytcs.—Citric acid diffolves barytes, forming
at firfta white powder, but gradually aflumes the form of
filky flakes of a beautiful appearance.

Benzoate of Barytes is foluble in water.

The reft of the falts of barytes are at prefent but little
known.

Sulphate of Ammonia.—This falt is formed by faturating
carbonate of ammonia with fulphuric acid. By evapora-
tion it affords cryftals, which are fix-fided prifms, termi-
nated by fix-fided pyramids. ‘Thefe are extremely fmall,
like needles, when the evaporation is too rapid.

Its tafte is fharp, bitter, and difagreeable. It diffolves
in two parts of water at 60°, and in half that quantity of
boiling water.

It becomes moift by expofure to the air.

When heated it decrepitates. If the heat be continued

it fublimes, lofing a part of the alkali, and paffing to the
ftate of a fuper-falt. The heat at length favours the de-
compofition of the acid by the hydrogen of the ammonia,
by which azotic gas is produced.»

Its compofition, according to Kirwan, is

Acid - 54.66

Ammonia 14.24

Water - 31.1
100

By Dalton’s numbers, and fuppofing the falt to be con-
{lituted by one atom of acid to two atoms of ammonia, we
have 7

Acid - 74
Ammonia 26
100

Sce Cargonate of Ammonia. ‘ qd
Nitrate of Ammonia.—This falt is formed by adding car-
bonate of ammonia to nitric acid till the effervefcence ceafes,
On evaporation this falt cryftallizes in long prifmatic
cryftals, terminating in pyramids. To give them the latter
form, the evaporation is made with a ee heat, not more
than 100°. When evaporated at the boiling ‘point, the
cryftals afflume a fibrous form. If the heat be ftill raifed
higher up to 250° or 300°, the mafs on cooling aflumes a
compact form. ve
The talte of this falt is very acrid and difagreeable.
Its fpecific gravity.is 1.5785. 1t is foluble in two parts
of cold, and in half its weight of boiling water. It is de-
liquefcent in the air. ;
When the cryftals of this falt are put into a glafs re-
tort, and placed over an Argand lamp, it melts at about
100°. By keeping it in a boiling ftate, the water diftils
ever, and the heat requires to be gradually raifed in order
to keep up the ebullition. When the temperature reaches
about 450°, a number of bright bubbles begin to appear on
the furface, affluming a different appearance to that of the
boiling of a fluid. Thefe bubbles refult from the decom-
pofition of the falt, and are no other than the gas called
nitrous oxyd, which comes rapidly over. The whole falt
is, in this procefs, converted into water and nitrous oxyd,
and ultimately the retort becomes empty. (See Nitrous
Oxyp.) The decompofition of this falt fufficiently points
out its conitituents, and admits of a fimple explanation by
Dalton’s numbers. His number for nitric acid is 19, viz.
1 of azote 5 + 2, of oxygen 2 x 7. His atom of am-
monia confifts of 1 of azote, 5, and 1 of hydrogen, 1, and
the number for it willbe 6. The nitrate of ammonia is
therefore conltituted by 1 atom of nitric acid, 19, and 1
of ammonia, 6. An atom of hydrogen in the ammonia
combines with 1 of oxygen in the nitric acid, forming
water, and the azote of the ammonia combines with the
other atom of oxygen and azote of the nitric acid, formin
an atom of nitric oxyd, which is conftituted by 1 atom a
oxygen and 2 of azote. The whole falt being made of 2
oxygen = 14, 2 azote = 10, and of 1 of hydrogen = 1,
the whole being 25, the refult will be 1 + 7 = 8 water,

and 7 + 2 x 5 = 17, the nitrous oxyd. Hence the falt
will be per cent, without water, “
Acid 76
Ammonia 24
100 tia

The

SALTS.

The falt in prifmatic cryftals will contain an atom of
water, and will then be, acid 57.5, ammonia 18.2, water 24.3;
amounting to 100. tee :

According to Kirwan’s analyfis, it is acid 57, ammonia
23, water 20; zmouning to1oo. See AMMoniA.

Muriate of Ammonia. See SAL Ammoniac. ;

Phofphate of Ammonia.—This falt is prepared, like the
laft, by adding carbonate of ammonia to phofphoric acid.

By evaporation it forms cryftals in the form of four-
fided prifms, terminated by pyramids. When thefe are
fmall they appear like needles. It has, like moft of the
ammoniacal falts, a fharp difagreeable tafte.

It diffolves in two parts of water at 60°.
cent in the air.

When heated in a retort, the falt firft parts with fome
ammonia, leaving the falt m the ftate of a fuper-falt.

The acid undergoes decompofition, probably from the
hydrogen of the ammonia, as fome phofphorus comes
over diffolved in ammonia, and in the ftate of phofphuretted
hydrogen. Ultimately all the ammonia is expelled, leaving
the phofphoric acid in the ftate of glafs.

There feems to be no accurate analyfis of this falt.

Fluate of Ammonia.—This falt is obtained by faturating
carbonate of ammonia with liquid fluoric acid. It cryftal-
lizes and fublimes by heat. _

Subcarbonate of Ammonia.—To form this falt in a ftate
of purity, let five parts of dry powdered chalk be mixed
with three of muriate of ammonia, alfo very dry and in
powder. Place the mixture m a crucible of clofe texture,
having a groove round the top; let a difh-like or conical
veffel of the materials be inverted over this, and filling the
@roove. This latter veffel fhould have a {mall hole in the
top, with a flopper, to remove occafionally. Place the
lower veflel in a gentle fand heat. The carbonic acid of
the carbonate of lime combines with the ammonia of the
muriate, forming carbonate of ammonia, which fublimes at
the heat of boiling water. This falt condenfes into a cake
in the inverted veflel, having a cryftalline texture. In this
ftate it is fold in the fhops, under the name of volatile
falt.

It is of a fine white colour, having a ftrong {mell of
ammonia, and a flightly acrid yet cooling taite. i changes
moft vegetable blues to green. Its f{pecific gravity is
0.966. It is infoluble in alcohol, but diflolves in two
parts of cold water, and is much more foluble in hot water.
Boiling water volatilizes it. This lait property has ren-
dered it ufeful to paftry cooks. It is diflolved in the water
or milk with which the pafte is made. In the baking, the
falt rifes in vapour, and makes the paltry light and honey-
combed. When expofed to the air, it foon lofes its ftrong
{mell, and is converted into a falt, which contains juft half
the quantity of ammonia, and which is named carbonate of
ammonta.

The compofition of this falt has the appearance of be-
ing very irregular.

hen newly formed its proportions are, by Dr. Wollaf-
ton’s feale, carbonic acid 44, ammonia 56; amounting to
100.

When it has been expofed to the air till it has no {mell,
its compofition will be, acid 82, ammonia 18 ; amounting
to 100. °

Bergman makes its conltituents to be 45 parts of car-
bonic acid, 43 ammonia, and 12 water,—in 100 parts; by
which there would appear to be feven grains of ammonia in
excels; but fir Humphrey Davy has found, that the quantity
of alkali varies according to the temperature that has been
employed in the preparation: thus, when it is formed at a

ov. XXXL.

Tt is deliquef-

temperature of 300°, it contains rather more than 50 per
cent. of ammonia; but produced at a temperature of 60°, it
contains only 20 per cent.

The carbonate of ammonia of the Lond. Pharm. is formed
by pulverizing feparately one pound of muriate of ammonia,
and two pounds of prepared chalk, dried: then mixing
them, and fubliming with a gradually increafed heat, until
the retort becomes red-hot. The carbonate of ammonia
of the Edinb. Pharm. is prepared by taking one pound of
muriate of ammonia, and two pounds of fofter carbonate
of lime, dried, pulverizing each of them feparately, mix-
ing them, and fubliming from a retort into a receiver kept
cold. That of Dublin is formed by mixing muriate of
ammonia, reduced to powder, and well dried, carbonate of
foda dried, of each half a pound; putting them into an
earthen retort, and fubliming with a heat gradually in-
creafed into a receiver kept cold. This falt, notwith-
ftanding the name by which it is defignated in the refpe€tive
colleges, is merely a fubcarbonate. Subcarbonate of am-
monia is decompoted by the acids, the fixed alkalies, barytes
and lime, and partially by magnefia.

As an article of the Materia Medica, this falt is ftimu-
lant, antifpafmodic, antacid, diaphoretic, and in large dofes
emetic. It is beneficially given in gout, hyiteria, and dyf-
peptic affe€tions, when much acid is prefent in the ftomach;
and in infantine convulfions conneed with dentition, or
with acidity of the prime vie. As a diaphoretic it is oc-
cafionally exhibited in chronic rheumatifm, in combination
with guaiacum ; and fometimes, though rarely, it is em-
ployed to produce vomiting in gouty and paralytic cafes.
From the ammonia it contains in excefs, the fubcarbonate
is applied as a local ftimulant to the noftrils in fyncope,
hyfteria, and languors; and with the addition of a little
{cent forms the common fmelling falts of the fhops. The
ordinary dofe is from grs. v to grs. xx, formed into pills,
or diflolved in any aqueous vehicle; but to excite vomit-
ing 3{s may be given for a dofe, and repeated, if neceffary,
aflifting its operation by plentiful dilution.

Its officinal preparations are as follow: viz. ‘ Liquor
ammoniz carbonatis,” or folution of carbonate of ammonia,
which the Lond. Pharm. direéts to be prepared by diffolving
8 oz. of carbonate ({ub-carbonate) of ammonia in a pint of
diftilled water, and filtering through paper. The “ Aqua
carbonatis ammoniz,”’ or water oF carbonate of ammonia,
formerly water of ammonia, or fpirit of fal ammonia, of the
Edinb. Pharm. is formed by pouring 2 lbs. of water on
muriate of ammonia and carbonate of potafs, of each 1602.
mixed and put into a glafs retort ; then diftilling to drynefs,
from a fand-bath, with a fire gradually raifed. The water
of carbonate of ammonia of the Dubl. Pharm. is prepared,
by diftilling, with a fire gradually raifed, 2 pints from a
pound of muriate of ammonia, 28 oz. of carbonate of foda,
and 3 pints of water. The fpecific gravity of this liquor
is to that of diltilled water as 1095 to 1000. * This folution
has the odour and tafte of the concrete fub-carbonate ; it is
limpid and colourlefs ; and when fhaken with twice its bulk
of alcohol, a coagulum, nearly uniform, is formed. Its
medical properties and ufes are the fame with thofe of the
concrete falt. It is given in dofes of from £3 fs to F3j in any
bland fluid.

Other preparations of the carbonate (fub-carbonate)
of ammonia, are the London Carbonate of potafh,’’
the “Carbonate of foda,’’ (fee Cannonars, Porasn,
and Sopa,) the “Liquor ammoni« acetatis,”’ (fee the
next article,) and “Cuprum ammoniatum.”” The latter
is formed according to the dire&ion of the Lond Pharm,
by rubbing together in a glafs mortar half an ounce of

Nn fulphate

SALTS.

fulphate of copper and 6 drachms of fubcarbonate of
ammonia until the effervefcence ceafes ; then wrapping up
the ammoniacal copper in bibulous paper, and drying it
with a gentle heat. The ‘ Ammoniaret of copper’ of the
Edinb. Pharm. is obtained by rubbing thoroughly together
in a glafs mortar 2 parts of pure fulphate of copper with
3 parts of carbonate of ammonia, until the effervefcence is
finifhed, and they unite in a violet-coloured mafs, which,
wrapped up in bibulous paper, is dried, firlt on a chalk
ftone and afterwards with a gentle heat. It is preferved in
a well-ttopped glafs phial. The Dublin Pharm. dire&ts
the ammoniated copper to be prepared by rubbing an ounce
of fulphate of copper with an ounce and a half of car-
bonate of ammonia, in an earthenware mortar, until the
effervefcence has ceafed, and they unite in a mafs, which is
dried, wrapped up in bibulous paper, or preferved in a
phial clofed with a glafs itopper. See Copper.

This preparation has the odour of ammonia, a hot,
ftyptic, metalline talte, and a rich blue colour. Expofure
to the air deftroys the blue colour, and gives the falt a
greenifh hue. Ammoniated copper is tonic and antifpaf-
modic. It has been principally employed in epilepfy, as a
remedy for which it was firlt propofed by Dr. Cullen, and
it has fince been employed with advantage; though Mr.
Thomfon fuggetts from his own trials that it does not warrant
any great dependence. The dofe is gr. 4, gradually in-
creafed to grs. vy, given twice a day, either fimply in pills
of crumb of bread, or combined with valerian. The fo-
lution of ammoniated copper (Lond. Pharm.) is formed
by diffolving a drachm of the copper in a pint of diltilled
water, and filtering the folution through paper; or the
water of ammoniated copper (Dub. Pharm.) is prepared
by mixing together 8 fluid-ounces of lime-water, 2 {cruples
of muriate of ammonia, and 4 grains of prepared verdigris,
digelting for 24 hours, and pouring off the clear liquor. This
folution is detergent and mildly efcharotic ; and it forms an
ufeful local ftimulant for cleaning foul indolent ulcers, and
difpofing them to heal; and it is alfo employed, ftill
more largely diluted, for removing {pecks from the cornea.
Thomfon,

The arfeniates, molybdate, and chromate of ammonia,
are but little known.

Acetate of Ammonia. (See Acetate of Ammonia.) Its
cryftals, which are difficult to obtain from the volatility of
the falt, are in the form of needles.

It is capable, like the carbonate and muriate of ammonia,
of being fublimed when its cryftals are much more com-

lete.

Thefe are of a pearl-white colour.
cooling tafte.

It is deliquefcent in the air. It melts at 170°, and is vola-
tile at 250°.

Its compofition has not been determined with precifion.

The “liquor ammoniz acctatis” of the Lond. Pharm. is
prepared by adding four pints of (diluted) acetic acid to
two ounces of (fub) carbonate of ammonia, until the effer-
vefcence ceafes. The “ water of acetite of ammonia,’
(Edinb.) or “ fpiritus Mindereri,”’ is formed by pouring on
any quantity Reais of ammonia in powder as much
difilled acetous acid as will exaétly faturate the ammonia.
The “water of acetate of ammonia” (Dubl.) is prepared
by adding in {mall portions, with frequent agitation, 34 pints
of diftilled vinegar to two ounces of carbonate of ammonia,
or as much as will faturate the ammonia, which may be
afcertained by means of litmus. This folution is inodorous,
has a flightly naufeous tafte, and when made with pure ma-
terials, is limpid and colourlefs. It is decompofed by acids,

3

It has a {weetifh

the fixed alkalies, the ftrong acids, oxymuriate of mercury,
and nitrate of filver, which are therefore incompatible witl:
the formule prefcribing the ufe of it. As a diaphoretic
it is in common ufe in febrile difeafes, combined with opium,
camphor, antimonials, or nitrate of potafs. It is neceflary
to affift its determination to the fin with plentiful dilution,
and a moderate degree of external heat; for by free expo-
{ure to cool air it excites the kidnies, inftead of opening the
fkin. Externally, it is employed as a difcutient ; as alo-
tion to inflamed furfaces ; and when diluted with rofe-water
holding in folution a {mall portion of opium, it is an excel-
lent collyrium in chronic ophthalmia ; and ftill more largely
diluted, is occafionally ufed as an injection in the commence-
ment Of gonorrhoea. ‘The ordinary dofe is from £31j to £3 xij,
given every three or four hours. Thomfon. See AMmontra,
and Sat Ammoniac.

Oxalate of Ammonia.—This falt is formed like the latt.
It does not cryftallize ; it is employed in folution as a che-
mical telt for lime.

Tartrate of Ammonia.—This falt has a cooling, bitter
talte, and is very foluble in water. It is decompofed b
heat. It combines with excefs of acid, forming a falt o
little folubility, fimilar to the fupertartrate of potafh.

Satts, Earthy, are compounds of the acids with the
pure earths, refembling the falts formed by the combination
of acids with alkalies. Some of them are cryftallizable, and
foluble in water ; others are nearly infoluble : fome of them,
confidered in a medical view, exert fearcely any action in the
animal economy ; while others are pofleffed of great activity,
and produce very ftriking effects.

The following Table, which we extra&t from ‘ Thom-
fon’s London Difpenfatory,’’ fhews the folubility of the
above earths, and of the compounds which they form with
acids.

Acids which, in combination with thefe
Pp Solubility Earths, form
ure . P rt
Earths In one fa ;
| of Water. Soluble Compounds Infoluble
Compounds. j{carcely foluble.) Compounds.
Lime 0.002 | Nitric Sulphuric Phofphoric
Muriatic | Boracic | Carbonic
Acetic | Arfenic
| | Benzoic |
Magnefia! 0.000 | Sulphuric | Boracic Carbonic
Phofphoric
1 Nitric
| Muriatic
| Acetic
} | Benzoic
| | Succinic
| "
Barytes 0.050 | Nitric Succinic | Sulphuric
Muriatic Phofphoric
Acetic Carbonic
Benzeic | Boracic
Arfenic
Alumina | 0.000 | Sulphuric Phofphoric } *
| Nitric Carbonic
| Muriatic Boracic
| Acetic Arfenic
Benzoic

eS eee

SALTS.

The following Table, extracted from the valuable work

already cited, and formed on the more general table of

Dr. Thomfon, in his excellent “ Syitem of Chemiftry,” 4th ed. iti. 568, prefents a fynoptical view of the neutral
falts with alkaline and earthy bafes, employed as remedies, or for pharmaceutical purpofes.

Salts. Tafie Figure of Cryfials. Aion of Air. Aion of Heat.
‘ at 60°. | at 212°
pert Be TEE a ee > |
Sulphate of barytes None Rhomboidal prifms | None aoe ° Decrepitates.
potafh Bitter Six-fided prifms | None 6.25 | 24 Decrepitates.
tude ‘| Bitter Six-fided prifms Efflorefces 35 LZ Watery fufion.
magnefia None Foneidel prifms | Efflorefces 100 133 Watery fufion.
Alum A ttringent| OGahedrons_ Little 5 133 Watery fufion.
Nitrate of potafh Cooling Six-fided prifms None 14.3 | 100 Melts.
Muriate of barytes Aftringent} Four-fided prifms | None 43 Decrepitates.
foda Salt | Cubes None 35-46 | 36.16 | Decrepitates.
lime | Bitter | Six-fided prifms Deliquefces |400 Watery fufion.
ammonia | Acrid Four-fided pyra- Subdeliquefces| 31 Sublimes
mids ,

—- magnefia Bitter Needles Deliquefces [151 Watery fufion.
Hyperoxymuriate of potafh Cooling Rhomboidal plates | None 6 “| 40 Gives out oxygen.
Phofphate of lime None Six-fided prifms None ° ° Little.
——————- foda Salt Rhomboidal prifms | Eflorefces 25 50 | Watery fufion.
Borax Styptic | Six-fided prifms Subefflorefces | 5 16.8 | Watery fufion.
Carbonate of barytes None Various None | 0.023] 0.043) Little.
——_————- lime None Rhomboidal prifms | None | ° o | Decrepitates.

potafh Alkaline | Four-fided prifms | None | 25 83: | Watery fufion.

foda | Alkaline | OGahedral trun- | Efflorefces 50° 100 +} Watery fufion.

cated

magnefia | None Six-fided prifms | EMforefces | 2 Decrepitates.
—_———_ ammonia | Urinous Irregular None 50 + | 100- Evaporates.
Acetate of potafh | Hot Plates Deliquefces Melts.
—_—__—_- ammonia | Cool Slender prifms | Deliquefces _ Very foluble. | Meltsandfublimes.
Tartar | Acid Irregular prifms None 12 au Melts.
Tartrate of potafh | Bitter Four-fided prifms | None 2 Melts.

potafh and foda | Bitter | Eight-fided prifms | Efflorefces | 25 Melts.

Sauts, Metallic. See Merats, in the Materia Medica.
The reader is defired to infert in that article, for Todd’s
London Difpenfatory, Todd Thomfon’s, &c.

Sart, Bitter, Purging, or Epfom. See SA., Epsom
Salt, and Sulphate of Macnesta.

Sats, Cryflallizable, in Chemifiry, diftinguifh and com-
prehend all faline matters fufceptible of cryitallization ; in
contradiftin@tion to fluor Satts; which fee.

Savr of Colcothar is 2 white faline matter, obtained by
lixiviating colcothar.

Sats, Deliquefcent, 2 denomination comprehending all
faline matters, which may be obtained by cryftallization, or
drying in a concrete form, but which, when expofed to the
air, imbibe its moitture, and lofe their concrete cryttallized
form, deliquiating into a liquor by means of this moilture.
See Deriquescence.

Sart, Diuretic.
Pota/b.

Sat of England, is a name given to avery reétified, con-
crete, volatile alkali obtained from filk; and alfo to the
concrete volatile alkali obtained from fal ammoniac.

. Barts, Efintal, include all concrete faline matters
which preferve the {mell, talte, and all other principal qua-
lities of bodies from which they were obtained, which bodies
are only vegetable or animal. The ufual method of pre-
paring them is by evaporating, to almoft the confiftence of
a fyrup, the liquors containing the eflential falt, viz. the

See Sar Diureticus,and Acetate of

Solubility in 100 |

parts of Water

expreffed and depurated juices and {trong deco€tions, and by
keeping them in a cold place. From many of thefe liquors,
faline matters or cryftals are depofited upon the fides of the
containing veflels aftera confiderable time, and after they have
undergone a kind of fermentation. Thefe cryftals, which
are always very red, may be purified by diffolving them in
water, filtrating, evaporating, and cryftallizing. TThefe
mineral falts are extraneous to the vegetables and animals
from which they are obtained ; and are procured in the fame
ftate in which they were introduced. The bett known of
thefe eflential falts is tartar ; which fee.

Sars, Fixed, a name given by many chemifts to the
falts obtained from the afhes of plants, which, not having
been diffipated by fire, ought to be confidered as fixed, in
comparifon of the other faline matters of thefe plants,
which evaporate during their deflagration. As the faline
fubftances remaining in the athes of végetabled are entirely
or chiefly alkaline, the name of fixed falt has become fynoni-
mous with that of Fixed AvKkatt; which fee. But other
faline fubftances, as moft neutral falts, which have not
bafes of volatile alkali, are nearly as fixed as fixed alkali.

Sarr, Foffile. See Rocx-Salt and Common Sart.

Sars, Fluor, diftinguifh and include all faline fubftances,
which cannot by any method be rendered folid ; fuch are ni-
trous and marine acids, volatile alkali altered by quicklime,
and fome others.

Sart, Fufible, of urine, called alfo native ov efential falt

Nna of

SALTS.

of urine, phofphoric falt, and microcofmic falt, is a neutral
alt, compofed of phofphoric acid, faturated with an alkali
fixed or volatile.

It is beit prepared from putrefied human urine ; but it may
be prepared from frefh. A quantity of the urine of found
beer-drinking men being putrefied in a moderate heat, and
then flowly boiled in glazed earthen veflels to the cdnfiftence
of afyrup; if this liquor be placed in a cellar or cool place,
in about four weeks time, or fooner in winter, cryltals of a
peculiar figure will be formed. But thefe, being impure,
muit again be diflelyed in a fufficient quantity of water,
and filtered as hot as poffible through grey paper, and the
folution again put in a cool place, where, in a few days,
cryftals will again be formed much cleaner than the former.
Thefe being feparated from the liquor and dried, the opera-
tions of folution, filtration, and cryftallization, muft be
reiterated twice or thrice, till the falt becomes perfe@ly
white and without {mell.

Mr. Margraff fays, that a hundred, or a hundred and
tiventy mealures of urine, give about three or four ounces
ef this falt, which always cryftallizes firft, and is eafily
diftinguifhed from that which appears afterwards in cryftals
of along and cubical form.

This falt is ammoniacal, but of ‘a peculiar nature. It is
afaline acid body. By diftillation an urinous volatile fpirit
firftrifes. The refiduum may be reduced by a violent fire
into a pellucid white tranfparent mafs ‘like glafs, of a very
fixed nature, and from which neither acid nor any thing elfe
can be feparated, without the addition of fome other
matter.

This vitreous fubftance may be entirely diflolved in two or
three parts of diftilled water, and is thereby changed into a
tranfparent liquor, fomewhat thick, not unlike the concen-
trated oil of vitriol, and having the properties of all acids,
fuch as fermenting with volatile and fixed alkalies, formin
neutral falts with them, precipitating bodies diffolved in al-
kaline menftruums, and diffolving alkaline earths. It does
not diffolve gold nor filver: and copper, tin, and lead little,
but iron very ftrongly. It extraéts a red colour from co-
baltum pro ceruleo, in German, blau farben kobalde, the mine-
ral by which glafs is tinged blue.

But this ai in its dry ftate attraéts metals with much
more vigour, and with them produces feveral remarkable
and fingular phenomena ; for all which, as alfo for the rela-
tion their falt bears to acid, alkaline, and neutral falts, we
refer to the learned author, who has alfo examined its effe&s
on feveral folutions of terreftrial bodies. One moft eminent
property is, that mixed with the inflammable part of foot,
and diffolved in a clofe veffel, it produces a phofphorus.
An ounce of this falt of urine, thus feparated from its
urinous part, and exaétly mixed with half an ounce of
foot, affords in this way a drachm of the beft phofphorus.
The refiduum did not produce any when tried.

The learned author does not pretend to determine exa@ly
the true origin of this falt ; he thinks its acid may come into
the human body from vegetable aliments. He has obferved
elfewhere, that creffes, muftard, rocket, and even corn, ex-
peers to a very violent fire, produce a phofphorus. Hence

e thinks this acid muft be mixed with thofe fubftances ; and
the like may happen in other vegetables. He thinks this
conjeCture ftrengthened, becaufe urine in fummer, when
people eat molt vegetables, always produces this falt in the
greateft quantity. Margraff in Mem. de l’Acad. de Ber-
lin, 1946. See alfo Mifcel. Berol. tom. vii. p. 341.

Mr. Pott obferves, that the figure of fufible falts varies
much according to the heat, evaporation, and different mode

9

of cryftallization ; and that it affumes the thape of mott
others, as of faltpetre, vitriol, fal ammoniac, Glauber’s
falt, &c, but it is generally in fhining, o&tagonal, prifmatic
cryftals. The tafte of this falt is cool, refembling that
of borax, to which it is in other refpeéts fimilar. When
put on the fire ina crucible, it froths, fwells, and melts.
When melted upon a bit of charcoal, by means of a blow-
pipe, it forms around drop. The cryftals of the fecond
cryftallization do alfo melt upon charcoal, when they are
pure, but when cold they have a milky colour. They do
not, like the cryitals of the firft cryltallization, form phof-
phorus with phlogifton. They efHlorefce in the air, and are
hot to the tafte, in both which inttances they alfo differ from
the firit cryftals.

Saxtt of Chefs called alfo Gla/s-ga/l, is a kind of faline
feum or mafs, found in glafs-houfe pots upon the furface of
the melted glafs. It confifts of neutral falts, as common
falt, vitriolated tartar, and others, which are contained in
the foda and potafh employed in the compofition of glafs,
and which not being themfelves fufceptible of vitrification,
are feparated from the glafs during the fufion, and colleéted
together upon its furface, becaufe they are {pecifically
lighter. See Grass, and SANDEVER.

Sat, Glauber’s. See Sat, and Sulphate of Sopa.

Sar of Hartfhorn. See Carponate of Ammonia.

Saxts of Count Lagarais, a name by which the French and
fome other nations call a preparation of vegetable bodies,
invented by the gentleman whofe name it bears, but very
improperly called by him a falt. ;

The hittory of thefe preparations is this: in the year
1731, the count de Lagarais fhewed the French king fome
powders, which proved to be very ufeful in medicine, and
which he called the ¢fential falts of certain plants. The
method of making thefe was long kept a fecret, but at
length, the difcoverer publifhing it to the world, it appeared
that they were made by means of water only, agitated in a
violent and continued manner in a clofe veffel with an inftru-
ment refembling a checolate mill. Mr. Langelot had before
attempted a refolution of this kind of vegetable, and other
f{ubitances, by means of water and motion, but his was
done by grinding them with a {mall quantity of water at a
time ; whereas this of the count’s is by powdering the in-
gredients, mixing them with a large quantity of water, and
breaking them to pieces by a continued motion of this fort
of mill made with four vanes, or flaps of thin wood, which
was kept for fix or eight hours in a continual motion, by
means of a larger wheel, fuch as the lapidaries polifh {tones
with.

There is no doubt but that the inftrument ufed by the
count is of very great ufe, and that the refult of the operation
is a very valuable form of medicine ; but it is not a falt, but
an extremely fine extraét, containing the gummy, refinous,
and faline parts of the body, and in a form capable of being
reduced to powder, and eafily adminiftered, as it contains
the virtues of the plant it ismade from, in an extremely {mall
compafs, and is capable of ready folution in aqueous fluids.
It is certainly a form of medicine worthy to be brought into
pratice, and muft be a very proper way of adminiftering
the more bulky medicines to children, and perfons of tender
conttitutions.

To give a proper view of the nature of thefe preparations,
and their difference from the extra€ts made in the common
mauner, it may be proper to enter, in fome degree, into the
manner of preparing the two forms. The common extraéts
of the fhops are made either from the juices of fucculent
plante, as houfeleek, purflane, or the like; or from a ftrong

decoction

CO —— —

SALTS.

deco@ion of the other drier plants in common water, which,
when feparated from the coarfer parts by fubfidence, filtra-
tion, or the like means, are evaporated over a balneum Marie
to the confiftence of a thick honey.

In procefs of time, an effential falt will feparate itfelf
from thefe extraGis, and many plants have, in the deco&tions,

_a large quantity of a fine fubftance, which will never be made
to pafs the filter; and the extracts, made by this means,
contain the oil, the gummy and refinous parts of the plants,
and the effential falts, though this is but ina very iacon-
fiderable quantity. Thefe ere the common extraéts of
plants.

The method of making thoie extra@ts, called count La-
garais’s falts, is this. They choofe a glafs veflel, capable
of holding fix or feyen pints, and having a wide mouth ;
into this they put an ounce of bark, fena, guaiacum, or
any other vegetable of which they are to make the extra@t,
firft reduced to a coarfe powder. They pour on this two
pints and a half of rain-water; or diitilled water, and then
taking the veffel to the place where the mill is fixed, they
raife it fo high, that the body of the mill is in the middle of
the liquor ; then they cover the top of the veffel with a wet
bladder, that the froth may not be thrown over, and then
turning the large wheel, they make the mill move round
very {wiftly in the liquor for fix or feven hours together ;
after this they let the liquor fettle for an hour or two, till
only the finer parts of the body remain fufpended in it, and
then pour it off into a number of flat China or itone-ware
difhes, putting only a {mall quantity into each difh, and
thefe they fet in the fun, or over a balneum Marie pre-
pared on purpofe ; for fhould they attempt the evaporation
in a fand heat, the {mall quantity of extraét in each difh
would be burned. When the whole is evaporated to a
drynefs, there remains on the whole inner furface of the
dithes a thin cruft of an extra@, which is to be feparated by

{craping it off with a piece of {tiff paper, and referved for

ufe. This always breaks up in fmall fcales, which have a

very fhining furface on that part where they adhered to the
difhes; and it feems that this has given occafion to fome to
believe, that they were particles a real falt.

There is no doubt but this method of procuring a power-
ful extract might be of great ule, in regard to all thofe {ub-
ftances which water can have power to penetrate’; but it is
not eafy to give credit to its being able to make the like
valuable, medicines from the metals, though that has been
pretended. Gold and filver are pretended to be operated
on in a powerful manner by it, but there feems a fallacy in
this, fince even iron itf{elf, which is much more penetrable
by water than thofe metals, yields but little virtue to it;
two ounces of the filings of this metal yielding, with the
utmoft care and accuracy, only about four grains of a
white earthy matter, wise is allo much more likely to be a
part of the water than of the metal.

The falts of the metals, as the count called them, which
were prepared by this means, were always fufpected to
hold fome faline quality, which they owed to the men-
ftruum, which, whatever was pretended, was not fimple
water, and a ftriét examination of them always difcovered
a marine {alt amongthem. [t istrue, indeed, that accord-
ing to Langelot’s method of grinding, fome leaves of gold
were reduced, by the addition of a very {mall quantity of
water, into a liquor, from which, on diltillation, a few red
drops were feparated ; but it is to be obferved, that as
Langelot’s method is the grinding of the fubltance with great
vehemence, and for a long time, in an iron mortar, with a
peltle of the fame metal, there is reafon to fufpeét, that

what was found to come forth in red drops was a folution of
iron, not of gold, as was pretended by thofe who firit pre-
pared them.

It is not to be doubted, but the method of evaporation of
count Lagarais’s medicines is of great ufe, fince no other
can fo well retain the finer parts of the medicines. Mr.
Geoffroy tried it on rofes, violets, and fome other flowers,
and found great reafon to wifh that all the medicinal extras
could be prepared in the fame manner; but the method is
impracticable, when medicines are to be prepared for general
ufe; for though the mills might be made to be moved in
great numbers at once, by a current of water, and fo this
part of the work performed with tolerable eafe, yet the
evaporations, in fuch quantities, could by no means be made
in any tolerable room, or time, and they mutt be evaporated
as foon as made, fince they very quickly turn four, and lofe
all the virtues. Mém. de l’Acad. Scienc. Par. 1739. See
EXTRACT.

Saxt of Lead. See Salt of Leap, and SaccHARUM
Saturni.

Sats, Lixivial, a general name given to all faline fub-
ftances obtained by lixiviation of afhes, but particularly
applied to fixed alkali. '

Sat of Milk. See Mirx.

Satr, Microcofmic. See Fufible Sart of Urine.

Saxt of Mineral Waters. See Hatcryprium.

Satt, Muriatic calcareous. See SAt muriaticus caleareus.

Sats, Neutral. See Neurrat, and the diftribu-
tion of faline fubftances at the beginning of the article
SALTs.

Sait, Neutral arfenical, is a combination of arfenic with
fixed alkali to the point of faturation. M. Macquer firft
difcovered this combination, and began an account of its
properties in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy for 1746
and 1748. His method of making this falt, is, by mixing
together equal parts of very white cryftalline arfenic and
purified nitre, and by diftilling this mixture in a retort with
a graduated heat, in the ufual manner, till the retort is red-
hot, and no more yapours of nitrous acid arife. In the
retort there remains a faline mafs, white, compact, and fixed ;
from which, after folution in hot water, filtration, eva-
poration, and cryftallization, may be obtained beautiful,
quadrangular, prifmatic cry{tals, terminated at each end by
a quadrangular pyramid, the fides of which correfpond
with thofe of the prifm. This new falt is precifely neutral,
and exhibits no marks of an alkaline quality. It 1s infinitely
more foluble in water than pure arfenic, and diflolves in a
lefs quantity of hot than of cold water. It is eafily fufible
by fire, and remains fufed and tranfparent like glafs, without
being alkalized, if it has not touched any inflammable
matter; for it may be eafily decompofed by phlogifton,
which unites with the arfenic, feparates it from the alkali,
and is fublimed, ‘This falt cannot be decompofed by any
pure mineral acid, becaufe arfenic feems to have a greater
affinity with fixed alkali than acids have ; but when thefe
acids are united with metallic matters, they can eafily de-
compole the neutral arfenical falt, even by the humid way ;
fo that a folution of this falt, added to a folution of metals,
ocealions a precipitate, compofed of the arfenic and metal,
while the acid of the metallic folution combines with the
fixed alkali of the neutral, arfenical falt, and forms another
neutral falt. Macquer’s Diét. Chemiltry, art. Salt.

Sat, Pine. See Pine.

Sart of Rochelle, or of Scignette.
Sal, and Tartrite of Sova and Porasu.

Sat, Sea. See Common Sarr.

See Rupe. Lensis

SALT;

SALTS.

SALT, Sedative, a name giver by the modern chemifts to
a falt obtained from borax, by means of acids, of the virtues
of which they boaft much. Thofe who firft defcribed it,
gave the procefs for making it ina very enigmatical manner ;
and their fucceflors invented many different ways of preparing
it. The truth is, that all mixtures of borax with the
vitriolic acids furnifh us with a fedative falt, as do all the
mixtures of borax with {pirit of nitre, or of fea-falt.

Becher firft gave the enigmatic account of it, which Hom-
berg traced to its origin, and found the way of making it
with the vitriolic, as Lemery did with the other acids.
This falt is formed by fublimation, and is a congeries of
faline flowers, not a little approaching to flowers of ben-
jamin. Thefe flowers are fo light and fine, that they fwim
upon water, and require a great quantity of water to diflolve
them, and much more of cold than of boiling water; and,
therefore, it may be cryitallized by cold, and even by eva-
poration alone.

The fedative falt is a perfe& /al falfus. It makes no
alteration in the colour of the juice of violets, and has no
fenfible effe& on the folution of corrofive fublimate, or on a
folution of mercury in {pirit of nitre for a long time ;- but
it finally precipitates a yellow powder from it, as the borax
does.. There is this difference, however, between this pre-
cipitate, and that formed by crude borax, that the powder
precipitated by the fedative falt does not, as the other, be-
come white on wafhing with large quantities of water. Thefe
experiments fhew this {alt to be wholly analogous to tartarum
vitriolatum, or to the Glauber’s falts, in its effects.

When the compofition of which this falt is to be made is
placed on the fire, there arife different liquors before the
falt appears; the firlt is a phlegm of a fattifh complexion,
and with the fmell of foap; this is fucceeded by a turbid
white liquor, along with which there arife fome of the firit
flowers. This makes a folution of mercury in fpirit of nitre
muddy after fome time, and finally precipitates fromit a
{mall quantity of a white powder. After this all the falt or
flowers afcend ; thefe flowers, diflolved in warm water, re-
cryftallize themfelves in it when cold, afluming the fame
form with that they had in the flowers, except that the com-
binations of particles are’ more denfe and heavy. .

The ufual method of making this falt by fublimation has
been this. Takea glafs retort, with a large neck ; put into
it four ounces of borax in fine powder, and pour on this half
an ounce of common water, to wet it into a fort of foft
pafte ; then add to this an ounce and two drachms of con-
centrated oil of vitriol ; place the retort in a reverberatory
furnace, and give at firit a {mall tire, which raife by degrees
till the retort is red-hot: there will pafs over into the re-
ceiver about an ounce of aqueous matter; and after this the
flowers, or fedative falt, will rife with a little more humidity ;
hence fome part of the flowers will be diffolved in the liquor,
and run over into the recipient, but the greater quantity
will remain in form of a dry fublimation in the neck of the
retort ; they will finally ftop up the whole oritice of the
neck, and what arifes after this ufually forms a circle of a
fort of glofly falt about their bafes, out of which the flowers
feem to fhoot.

They are compofed+of multitudes of fine thin blades, or
flakes, and are eafily brufhed out of the neck of the retort
with a feather ; the glofly circle at the bottom of them may
be diffolved in water, and recry/tallized, and by this means
all the falt will be procured. :

M. Geoffroy the younger has given, in the Memoirs of
the Paris Academy, wn 1732, an account of a way of making
this falt by folution and cryftallization alone, without the

trouble of diftilling ; he has alfo fummed up the feveral
other ways of making it with blue and white vitriol, but the
method here mentioned is that by which the chemifts now
make it. .

Geoffroy’s method by cryftallization is as follows: take
four ounces of borax, and one ounce one drachm of the moft
concentrated oil of vitriol; put the borax into a glafs re-
tort, pour in it half an ounce of common water after the oil
of vitriol, and expofe the mixture to a fire gradually in-
creafed : ‘after the phlegm has paffed off, and even while it
is pafling, there arife flowers, or a volatile falt, in beauti-
ful foliated laminz, fome of which always melt by the
heat of the fire ; after the operation is over, the fineft of
the flowers are to be carefully gathered, and thefe are what
{tick to the neck of the retort. Thofe that are grey are to
be thrown upon the remaining mafs; this mafs is to be dif-
folved in water, filtrated and evaporated gradually ; fome-
times, even without evaporation, the fhining talcous laminz
are to be feen in the liquor ; after twenty-four hours ftand-
ing, the water is to be poured off from thefe laminz, which
are to be wafhed with frefh water, and then dried carefully
ina warm place. If thefe cryflals do not calcine in the
place where they are put to dry, nor in the fun’s heat, it is
a fign there is nothing cryftallized but the /al neutrum ; if
they do calcine, it is a proof that there is fome Glauber’s falt
formed of the borax and the vitriolic acid, and cryttallized in
the mafs. This fedative falt, obtained by cryttallization, does
not differ effentially from that which is fublimed, only that
the cryftals or lamin of the latter are more feparated and
detached than thofe of the former. This falt, when once it
has loit its water by drying, cannot be raifed into vapours
by the moft violent fire, in which it remains fixed, and melts
into. a vitreous matter, as borax does. Hence it appears
that it is a faline compound, the principles of which are
flrily united, and feparable with great difficulty. This
truth has been illuftrated by numerous and accurate expert-
ments on the fubje€t, by Mr. Bourdelin, related in the Me-
moirs of the Academy for the years 1753 and 1755.

M. Cadet has alfo publifhed in the Memoirs for 1766, an
account of experiments on this falt. —

Homberg, the inventor of fedative falt, believed that he
difcoyered in it a fedative, antifpafmodic, and even nar-
cotic quality, and thence called it the narcotic falt of vitriol ;
it was, therefore, generally employed in convulfive difeafes ;
but its fedative powers have not been well afcertained. See
Boracic Acid.

Savt of Soda, a name given to the marine or mineral al-
kali obtained from the afhes of foda, and of other maritime
plants. See Karn

Saxr of Sorrel.
OXALIs. :

Saxt, Spirit of. See Murtratic Acid. ;

Savt of Stahl, Sulphureous, a neutral falt, compofed of
volatile fulphureous acid, combined to the point of fatura-
tion with fixed vegetable alkali. This falt may be made
either by faturating fixed alkali with volatile {alpen
acid, made in a cracked retort, in Stahl’s manner, or by ex-
pofing linen, foaked in liquid fixed alkali, to the vapours of
fulphur flowly burning. In the latter method, the linen
dries, becomes {tiff, and fhines with many {mall needle-like
cryftals, which are the fulphureous falts. This has a more
pungent tate than vitriolated tartar, is more foluble in water,
and is cryttallizable by cold. It may be decompofed by
any acid, and its fulphureous acid expelled from it, and it
is perpetually changing, from the conftant difhpation (as
former chemilts fappols) of its phlogifton.

See Oxalat of Pota/b under Sauts, and

SALT

ey ee

ee ee ee

SALTS.

Sart of Syivius. See Acetate of Poiafh, and Sax
Marinus Regeneratus. ; ;

Saxts of Tachenius, are impure fixed alkalies, obtained
from the afhes of vegetables, burnt by fuffocating their
flame, and leaving no more communication with the air,
than is fufficient for the burning of their moit difengaged
inflammable parts. . The dried plant, in this procefs, 1s put
in an iron pot, fo heated, that its bottom may be red, and
continually ftirred, when a thick fume, and at length a
fiame, will rife from it. A lid muit then be put on the pot,
fo loofely, that the fmoke may efcape but the flame be extin-
guifhed, and this lid muft be occafionally removed for the
convenience of itirring the plant. “When it is thus reduced
to afhes, the afhes muft be lixiviated with boiling water ;
and when the lixivium has been evaporated to drynefs, a
faline matter, more or lefs reddifh, will remain, which is
Tachenius’s fixed falt, and fhould be kept in abottle. See
the procefs defcribed at large by Boerhaave, Chem. part 11.
p. 28, &c. In this way of burning plants, the fixed alkali
is phlogiiticated, rendered femi-faponaceous, and mixed with
all the neutral falts contained in the plants.

Satt of Tartar, the fixed alkali of tartar (which fee) ;
or this name is given to fixed vegetable alkali in general. See
Carzonate of Pota/b.

Saxt, Vegetable. See Soluble Tartar.

SALT of Vinegar, is a name given to vitriolated TARTAR,
impregnated with very {trong radical VinEGAR. See each
article.

Sat, Vitreous, a term ufed by fome modern chemifts for
a kind of falt, which till of late wanted a name, and which
is found in, and feparable from, the fixed alkaline falts of
vegetables.

It is bitter, hard, fixed, and not alkaline, and of a cryftal-
line, or gloffy appearance.

The method prefcribed by Boerhaave for the procuring
it with the moit eafe, is this: put. fix pounds of the beit
pot-afhes into a clean glafs, and add thereto twenty pints
of cold rain-water ; {tir them together with a ftick, and
fuffer the whole to reft. When the afhes are thoroughly
diffolved, gently decant the clear lixivium, and there will
be found at the bottom, mixed with the feces, a number of
{mall greyith granules, of a bitter tafte, and of an almoft
glaffy brittlenefs and hardnefs; thefe are the falt required,
and contain no alkaline quality. But to obtain it in greater
purity, diflolve fix pounds of pot-afhes in four times their
weight of water; filter the lixivium while hot, and make it
werteaily clear ; then put it into a glafs veflel, ready heated
and moiltened, and fuffer it to ftand; a dufky cruft will
foon begin to fhoot to the bottom and fides of the glafs,
and will gradually become thicker and thicker; at length,
when no more appears to fhoot, pour off the liquor, and
there will remain behind a falt like the former, but purer,
and in larger quantity ; if the remaining lixivium be boiled
alittle, and fet to eryttallize again, it will afford a {mall quan-
tity more of this falt, but after this it will yicld no more,
whence there feems to be only a certain and determinate

vantity of this falt contained in the alkali. If this falt
te put into a veffel of rain-water and fhook about, it does
not diflolve, only the alkali wathes off, and the falt remains
rer than before ; after this it is to be gently dried and kept.

r. Chem. pt. ii. p. 42.

It is well known among the chemifts, that genuine fixed
alkaline falts can hardly be cryltallized ; and though fome
have produced this falt as a cryftallized alkali, the fallacy
of the pretext is evident, fince this appears on trial to be
no alkali at all ; and it remains not lefs difficult than before

to cryitallize pure alkali, though a falt, different in its
nature from it, may be cryttallized in a certain quantity
from among it.

- This vitreous falt never runs fpontaneoufly in the air, nor
does it eafily diffolve in cold water ; when boiled, it requires a
large proportion of water to diffolve it, and as foon as cold, it
eafily feparates itfelf from it again; it is laftingly bitter to
the taite, and crackles very much when thrown into the fire ;
it is neither acid nor alkaline, nor approaches in its nature to
any other falt hitherto known, but feems nearett of all others
to refemble fandiver. This may fuggeft a query, whether
the fire in producing the fixed alkali, does not at the fame
time produce this falt from vegetables; and whether, by
combining the fand and alkali together in glafs-making, the
fire does not again feparate and throw up this falt in fandi-
ver. Something of this kind feems to be the cafe, and a
clofe inquiry on thefe principles may fhew us why tartar, in
the itate of an alkali, does not afford this falt; for tartar
proceeds from a fubtile liquor, intimately fermented in all its
parts. There yet remains the trying of this falt on various
bodies, by means of fire, to give a true knowledge of its na-
ture, which is at prefent too little known, This is to be
obferved, however, that it differs fo much from the alkali
in which it is contained, that the careful chemift, before he
makes ufe of that alkali in any nice procefs or experiment,
ought carefully to feparate this neutral falt from it. Boer-
haave’s Chem. part ii. p. 100. :

Sait, Volatile, a name commonly given to volatile, con-
crete, alkaline falts, as volatile fal AMMONIAC, and volatile
Salt of hart’s-norn. See alfo Volatile Sait of AMBER.

Sarts, Urinous, a term fynonimous with alkaline
falt.

Sat of Steel, aname given to feveral combinations of iron
with acids ; hence Riverius’s falt of fteel is a martial vitriol,
made with iron, vitriolic acid, and {pirit of wine.

Sats microfcopically examined. Mr. Leeuwenhoeck has
opened a very exterilive field for microfcopic obfervations,
in the evaporation of certain fluids, in which falts of va-
rious plants, and other fubftances of the like kind, had been
diffolved.

The fixed falts, in general, are faid by chemifts to admit
of no cryttallization at all ; but this curious obferver found,
that, on being evaporated in {mall quantities before the
microfcope, they each would fhoot into extremely minute,
but regular cryitals, and thofe often of various forms in
the fame falt ; but that thefe varieties were only of a certain
number, and that no other falt but that to which they be-
longed had them all in the fame regular manner.

The fophiftications of falts, too common among our che-
mifts, may be difcovered by this means, and many_other
advantages may be obtained from it, as well as great amufe-
ment in the obfervation of the variety and beauty of the

igure.

The moft agreeable way of examining thefe falts, is by
the folar microfecope ; but the mott accurate and fitteit for
making deduétions from, is that by the common double
microfeope. The way is to diffolve a {mall quantity of falt,
of any kind, in water, and add to this about one-fourth
part of f{pirit of wine; this renders the whole a much lefs fit
menitruum for keeping the falt in folution, and confequently
it much more readily concretey from among it. A large
drop of this liquor is to be laid on the furface of a thin and
clear piece of glafs, fuch as may conveniently be laid upon
the fland for receiving obje&s in this microfcope: then this
glafs is to be held till gently heated over a Shear fire, and
when it begins to evaporate, the glafs is to be placed ane

the

SAL

the microfcope, and about athird magnifier ufed to examine
it. The falts will foon be feen beginning to fhvot, and will
form themfelves under the eye into very beautiful figures ;
fome refembling branches of trees, others ruins and fortifi-
eations, and the like; but what are moft to be depended
upon, as effential to the falt, are certain little fingle fhoots,
refembling cryftals ; thefe are determinate in their figure,
the others more vague and uncertain. Thefe will always be
produced the fame from the fame falt, the others fedics
twice from even the different drops of the fame folution,
alike in all refpeéts. Phil. Tranf. No. 172. p. 1075. | See
Table of Microscopic Objeds.

Saxts, or Saults, in the Manege, denote the leaps,
or high airs and vaults of a horfe ; from the French /aut,
of the Latin /altus, a leap, dance, &c.

A flep and a half is a high air, wherein the horfe rifing
makes a curvet between two falts, or caprioles; fo as to
mount before, and fling back with his hind feet.

Two fleps and a falt ave a motion compofed of two cur-
vets, ending with a capriole.

SALT-SILVER is a denomination given to one penny
paid at the feaft of St. Martin, by the tenants of fome ma-
nors, 2s a commutation for the fervice of carrying their
lord’s falt from market to his larder.

SALTUARIUS, in Antiquity, an officer, or fervant,
among the Romans, who had the care and cuftody of a
country-houfe, with lands and woods, and who was to look
to the fruit, the fences, &c.

In Nehemiah, chap. ii. 8. mention is made of an officer
of this kind ; cuffos faltus regis, which the Englifh tranfla-
tors interpret, keeper of the king’s foref? ; but he was more,
having not only the keeping of a forelt, but of a houfe with
a foreft; /altus being here ufed as horti, for a houfe of
pleafure, becaufe gardens are the principal part. In the
laws of the Lombards, faltuarius is an officer who has the

uard of the frontiers.

SALTUM, Ordination per Saltum.
TION.

SALTUS, in Law-books, a high thick wood.

SALT-WORT, in Botany. See Saricornta.

Satt-wort, Black. See GLaux.

Satt-wort, in the Arts and Materia Medica.
Kavi, Kexp, and Sopa.

SALTZBERG, in Geography, a town of Norway, in
the province of Chriftiania, on the Dram ; 14 miles W.N.W.
of Chriftiania.

SALTZBURG, a town of Franfylvania; 6 miles N.W.
of Hermanftadt.

SALVADIGO, a {mall ifland in the Grecian Archi-
pelage} near the coaft of Natolia. N. lat. 37° 6’. E. long.
27° 56.

SALVADOR, a river of Brafil, which runs into the
Atlantic, S. lat. 21° 54/.

Satvapor, St., otherwife called Cividad de Bahia (fee
Bani), the capital of the Capitania of Bahia, to the
northward of Minas Geraes, in Brafil, fituated at the en-
trance of All Saints bay (which fee), and originally the
feat of the fupreme government of Brafil. It confilts of
two parts, one built on low ground near the fhore, where
the commerce is carried on; and the other on a high hill,
which, being confidered the moft healthy, is the refidence
of all the people of confequence. Its population is faid to
be nearly equal to that of Rio de Janeiro, and is ftated at
no lefs than 70,000 fouls. The houfes are conftruéted with
latticed windows and balconies, fimilar to thofe in Rio de
Janeiro. The churches are the principal public buildings,

See OrpDINA-

See

SAL

and are richly ornamented within. The government of the
city is vefted in a viceroy or governor, who is nominated by
the court for three years. fide all law proceedings, civil
and criminal, are brought before the refpeCtive magiftrates,
whofe fentence is in general final; though, in certain cafes,
appeals lie to the court at Rio de Janeiro. The town is
tolerably defended, and alfo the bay. On the fhore are a
royal arfenal, and numerous houfes for ftores, &c. The
cultom-houfe and wharfs are conveniently fituated. Ships
of war have been built here, and many large and fine veffels
for the merchant fervice. The interior of the country
fupplies timber of an excellent quality. The manners and
cuftoms of the people differ little from thofe of the inha-
bitants of the capital; but it is faid, that in the beft fo-
cieties more gaiety and refinement prevail than in Rio de
Janeiro. The tafte for mufic is very general; and the
ladies drefs in the Englifh ftyle: the favourite gem is the
chryfolite. Thefe. females are lefs induftrious than thofe
of the fouthern diftri€ts. The domeftic drefs of the men
confifts of a jacket and loofe trowfers, made of light printed
cotton. Religious proceffions are no lefs common here than
at Rio de Janeiro ; and on great feftivals and rejoicing days
there are various amufements, which continue from mornin
to night. On thefe occafions, the Brafilians are accuftomed
to cover the walls and balconies of their houfes with beauti-
ful filks, manufatured and ornamented for the purpofe.
The climate is always warm, but is refrefhed by the fea-
breeze, and in fome degree tempered by the long abfence of
the fun, the nights being of almoft uniform length through-
out the year. Although Bahia is hotter than Rio de Ja-
neiro, it is more healthfully fituated, and better fupplied
with water. The praétice of bathing is very aon and
mott houfes have conveniencies for this purpofe. This place
is plentifully fupplied with provifions; fifh of various foe
is abundant, and conftitutes a principal article in the diet of
the inhabitants ; poultry is plentiful, but not cheap; vege-
tables and pulfe of every defcription are very abundant.
The markets are well fupplied with all the tropical fruits,
particularly the pine, the mango, and the banana of excel-
lent quality. Preferved fruits are fold, in the ftreets, and
two or three preferved limes in a cup of fyrup may be
bought for a penny. The foil of this capitania is efteemed
the beft in Brafil for the culture of the fugar-cane. Many
fugar plantations, which are reckoned the fineft in the
country, are eftablifhed in this diftri&. A greater quantity
of fugar is fhipped from Bahia than from all the other ports
of Brafil united, and it is in general fuperior in quality.
(See Sugar.) The tobacco of this capitania is peculiar
to it; and, by an exclufive privilege, no other part of
Brafil was allowed to cultivate the fame fort. It has given
rife to much commerce, and has enriched many families.
(See Tosacco.) Cotton, coffee, and rice, are cultivated
in this capitania. The beautiful dye-wood, called Brafil
wood, is fhipped from this port and Pernambuco ; and it is
of a quality fuperior to,that of Rio de Janeiro. The general
commerce of this article is prohibited, as it ts the propert
of the royal houfehold. Fuftic is brought hither from the
interior ; but its indigo is inferior to that imported from
India, and is of no great value as an article either of cultute
or of commerce. Bahia has a confiderable trade with St,
Catherine’s, and other ports on the fea-coaft. Many fine
brigs and {mall veffels are employed in this trade. The im-
ports to Bahia from Europe confift in general of the fame
articles with thofe belonging to the trade of Rio de Janeiro,
This capitania has produced the largeft piece of natiye
copper that has ever appeared, being in weight upwards of
2000

SAL

2000 Ibs. S:.lat. 12° 45’. W. long. 39° 30).
‘Travels in the Interior of Brafil, Lond. 1812.

Sarvapor, Si., a town of South America, in the pro-
vince of Grenada; 70 miles E. of Tunia.—Alfo, a town of
South America, in the audience of Quito; 50 miles N.E.
of Archidona.—Alfo, a town of New Navarre; 50 miles
S.E. of Cafa Grande.

Satvapor, Si., called alfo Banza (which fee), a city
of Africa, the fee of a bifhop, and capital of the kingdom
of Congo; fituated about 150 miles from the fea, on a high
rock,”in whichis an iron-mine. On the eminence is a large
plain, about ten miles in circumference, well cultivated, and
furnifhed with houfes and villages, that are inhabited by
100,000 perfons. The Portuguefe call it the.“ Otheiro,”’
i.e. the profpect or look-out, as it affords a view of all the
adjacent plains. Notwithftanding its elevation, it abounds
with fprings of tolerable water. This plain is well ma-
nured, and fruitful in grain; it has alfo meadows covered
with grafs, and trees of conftant verdure. The air is like-
wife cool and falubrieous. The city is feated in an angle of
the hill towards the fouth-eaft. Don Alfonfo, the firft
Chriftian king, inclofed his own palace, and afligned the
fame to the Portuguefe, with ftrong walls, the gates of
which are never fhut nor have any guards. The city has
twelve churches, befides the cathedral, which is built with
ftone. The territory of the city is about 20 miles in com-
pafs, and belongs wholly tothe king. The inhabitants are
about 40,000, of whom about 4000 are white, who refide
in a quarter by themfelves. 5S. lat. 5° 45! E. long.
14° 32!.

Satvapor, St., or Cuzcatlan, a town of Mexico, in the
province of Guatimala, about 12 miles from the Pacific
ocean, the refidence of a Spamth governor, with little
trade: its environs produce fugar-canes and indigo; 140
miles E.S.E. of Guatimala. N. lat. 14°. W. long.

oO

Saxvapor de Jujui, St., a city of South America, in
the province of Tucuman, near the borders of Peru, at the
toot of a high mountain, which forms part of the eaftern
Andes. A little above the town runs a confiderable river,
which falls into the Leon. (See Jusur.) It contains
about 300 houfes, and is the moft northerly town in the
province; 474 miles N. of St. Jago'del Eftero. -S, lat. 23°
5’. W. long. 66° 2!.

Satvapor de Laye, St., a town of Spain, in Navarre ;
$ miles N. of Sanguefa.

Sarvapor de Bayamd. See BAYAmo.

SALVADORA, in Botany, a genus named by Garcin
in honour of Salvadore, an apothecary at Barcelona, and
originally publifhed, with other botanical obfervations, in
the Philofophical Tranfations for 1749.—Linn. Gen. 64.
Schreb. 88. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 695. Mart. Mill. Dié.
v4. Jufl. 84. Lamarck Did. v. 6. 483. Illuftr. t. 81.
Loureir. Cochinch. 87. Gertn. fil. t. 222.—Clafs and
order, Tetrandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. uncertain.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, cloven
into four, obtufe fegments. Cor. of.one petal ; tube fhort ;
border divided into four, oblong, eaten lobes. Stam.
Filaments feur, inferted below the divifions of the corolla ;
anthers oval. Pifl. Germen fuperior, globular; ftyle very
fhort, or none; ltigma fimple, obtufe, umbilicated, rough.
Peric. Berry {mall, globular, of one cell. Sred folitary,
fpherical, furnifhed with a callous tunic.

Eff. Ch. Calyx four-cleft. Corolla four-cleft.
containing a fingle feed, clothed with a tunic.

1. 8. perfica. Linn. Sp. Pl. 178. Vahl Symb. v. 1.
12. t. 4. Roxb. Coromand., v. 4. t. 26.—Leaves oval or

Vou, XXX!

Mawe’s

Berry

SAL

oblong, Flowers in panicles.—Originally fent by Keenig
from Tranquebar. It is alfo.a:native of the Perfian gulf,
and of moft parts of the Circars, though not common ;
flowering and bearing fruit all the year round. The frunké
of this ¢ree is eight or ten feet high, rather crooked, co-
vered with a rough, deeply-cracked dark, and furnifhed
with numerous, {preading, pendulous branches, like a weep-
ing willow. Leaves oppofite, ftalked, entire, {mooth and
fhining on both fides, veinlefs. /owers in terminal, com-
pound panicles, very numerous, fmail, greenifh-yellow.
BraéGeas minute. Berry {maller than a grain of black
pepper, {mooth, red, juicy, ftrongly aromatic, and tafting
like garden crefles. Seed brownifh-green. The dark of the
root is extremely acrid, and “ promifes as a {timulant,”’ fays
Dr. Roxburgh, “* to be a medicine poflefled of very con-
fiderable powers.”

2. S. capitulata. Loureir. Cochinch. 87.—Leaves ovate,
acuminate. Flowers capitate, axillary.—Native of Cochin-
china. A middle-fized tree, furnifhed with numerous
branches. - Leaves alternate, on fhort ftalks, unequally fer-
rated, extremely rough. F/owers capitate, about eight on
along, common ftalk. Berry yellow, twin at the top.

3. S. bifora. Loureir, Cochinch. 88.—Leaves lanceo-
late or ovate. Flowers in pairs.—Found in woods and.
hedges with the laft, from which indeed it is fearcely dif-
tinguifhable except when in flower. A ¢ree about ten feet
high, with many, twifted, fpreading branches. Leaves al-
ternate, rough, flightly ferrated. F/owers axillary, in

airs, on long italks. Berry yellow, two-lobed, efculent.

SALVADORE, It, in Geography, a town of Etruria ;
17 miles S. of Volterra.

SALVAGE, in the Law of Infurance, originally meant
the thing or goods faved from fhipwreck, or other lofs ; but
at prefent it is more generally underftood to mean the al-
lowance made to thofe by whofe means the fhip or goods
have been faved from the effeéts of fhipwreck, fire, pirates,
enemies, or any other lofs or misfortune. At common law,
the party who has faved the goods of another from lofs, or
any imminent peril, has a /ien on the goods, and may retain
them in his poffeflion till payment of a reafonable falvage ;
and the policy, in cafe of lofs or misfortune, authorizes the
infured to fue and labour for the recovery of the thing in-
fured, to the charges of which the infurers engage to con-
tribute. The regulations which the law of England has
eftablifhed in relation to this fubje& are principally found in
our flatutes, fome of which are of very ancient date. (See
3 Edw. I.c.4. 4 Edw. I. c. 2. .27 Edw. III. c..13.)
But thofe that are now principally in force are found in the
ftatute 12 Ann. ftat. 2. c. 18. and fubfequent acts, made
for the protection of fhips and goods {tranded on the coatts
of this kingdom, The ftatute of Ann. fect. 2. enaéts,
amorig other provifions, that perfons employed in the fal-
vage of fhips or cargoes, &c. fhall, within thirty days after
the fervice performed, be paid a reafonable reward for the
fame by the commander or other fuperior officer, mariners,
or owners of the fhip or goods fo faved; and in default
thereof, the fhip, vellel, or goods fo faved, fhall remain in
cuftody of the colleétor of the cufloms, or his deputy, until
all charges fhall be paid, and until all perfons fo employed
thall be reafonably gratified for their trouble; or good {e-
curity given, to the fatisfaction of the feveral parties that
are to receive the fame. And in cafe the commander or
other fuperior officer, mariners, or owners, of the hip or
goods fo faved, fhall difagree with the faid officer of the
culloms, touching the money deferved by the perfons fo
employed, the commander of the fhip faved, or the owner
of the goods therein, and the faid officer of the cuftoms, may

Oo nominate

m SALVAGE.

nominate three neighbouring juftices, who fhall adjuft the
quantum of the gratuity to be paid to the feveral perfons
acting in the falvage of the fhip or goods; and fuch adjutt-
ment fhall be binding to all parties, and fhall be recoverable
in an aétion at law to be brought by the refpective perfons
to whom the fame fhall be allotted by the juttices. And in
cafe no perfon fhall. appear to make his claim to all or any
of the goods faved, then the chief officer of the cuftoms of
the nearelt port fhall apply to three of the neareft juftices,
who fhall put him or fome refponfible perfon in pofleffion of
fuch goods, fuch juftices taking an account thereof in
writing, to be figned by fuch officers of the cuftoms ; and if
the goods fhall not be legally claimed within 12 menths, by
the right owners, they fhall be publicly fold, or, if perifh-
able, forthwith fold, and the produce of the fale, after all
charges deduéted, with a fair account of the whole, fhall be
tranfmitted to the Exchequer, there to remain for the
benefit of the owner, when appearing ; who, upon affidavit,
or other proof of his right, to the fatisfa€tion of one of the
barons of the coif, fhall, upon his order, receive the fame
out of the Exchequer.

This itatute alfo prefcribes the punifhment to be inflicted
on perfons guilty of plundering or deftroying fhips in dil-
trefs. But this being found infufficient to reprefs thefe bar-
barous praétices, the ftat. 26 Geo. II. c. 19. has enacted
a variety of further regulations for the more effectual
punifhment of offenders, and the better protetion of fhips
in diftrefs. °

On the fubje& of falvage, the fifth fection of this aét
provides, that, in cafe any perfon, not employed in the fal-
vage of the fhip or goods, fhall, in the abfence of the per-
fons fo employed and authorized, fave any fuch fhip or
goods, and caufe the fame to be carried, for the benefit of
the owners, into port, or to any near adjoining cuttom-
houfe, or other place of fafe cuftody, immediately giving
notice thereof to fome magiftrate, or cuftom-houfe, or ex-
cife-officer ; or fhall difcover to fuch magiftrate, or officer,
where fuch goods are wrongfully bought, fold, or con-
cealed, then fuch perfon fhall be entitled to a reafonable re-
ward for fuch fervices, to be paid by the mafter or owners
of fuch veflels or goods; and to be adjufted, in cafe of dif-
agreement about the quantum, in like manner as the falvage
is to be adjufted and paid by virtue of the ftat. 12 Ann.

And by feé. 6, for the better afcertaining the falvage
to be paid in purfuance of this and the former aé&, the
juftice, mayor, bailiff, colleGtor of the cultoms, or chief
conftable, who fhall be neareft to the place where the fhip
or goods fhall be ftranded, fhall forthwith give public notice
fora meetig, to be held as foon as poflible, of the fheriff,
or his deputy, the jultices, mayors, or other chief magi-
ftrates of towns, coroners, or commiffioners of the land-tax,
or any five or more of them, who are required to give aid in
the execution of this and. the former at, and to employ
proper perfons for the faving of fhips in diftrefs, and fuch
thips and effects as fhall be itranded or caft away ; and alfo
to examine perfons on oath touching the fame, or the fal-
vage thereof, and to adjult the quantum of fuch falvage, and
diftribute the fame among the perfons concerned in fuch
falvage, in cafe of difagreement among the parties, or the
faid perfons ; and that every fuch mapiltrate, &c. attending
and ating at fuch meeting, fhall be paid four fhillings a day
for his expences, out of the goods faved by their care or di-
reGtion. Provided (fed. 7.) that if the charges and re-
wards for falvage, direéted to be paid by this and the former

at, fhall not be fully paid, or fufficient fecurity given for
the fame within 40 days after the fervices performed, the
officer of the cuftoms concerned in fuch falvage fhall borrow

or raife fo much money as fhall be fufficient to pay fuch
charges, or any part thereof remaining unpaid, or not fe«
cured as aforefaid, by or upon one or more bill or bills of
fale, under his hand and feal, of the fhip or veffel, or car
faved, or fuch part thereof as fhall be fufficient, redeemable
on payment of the principal fum borrowed, and intereft at
4 per cent. per annum.

From the foregoing extracts it appears, that, by our
law, the falvage of fhips or goods ftranded or caft away is
a reafonable fatisfaction to the perfons employed in faving
and protecting them for their labour; eftimated, not ac-
cording to their own arbitrary will, but by perfons of the
firft refpe€tability in and near the place where the misfor-
tune happens.

Salvage in the cafe of recapture has been fixed by feveral
ftatutes (viz. 13 Geo. II. c. 4. and 29 Geo. II. c. 34.) at
certain rates, according to the interval of time the recap-
tured fhip was in the hands of the enemy. But the regu-
lations now in force were eltablifhed by the laft prize a&.
Accordingly, by ftat. 33 Geo. III. c. 66. § 42. “ If any
fhip or veflel, taken as prize, or any goods therein, fhall
appear, in the court of admiralty, to have belonged to any
of his majefty’s fubjects, which were before taken by any of
his majefty’s enemies, and at any time afterwards retaken by
any of his majefty’s fhips, or any privateer, or other fhip or
veflel under his majefty’s proteétion ; fuch ships, veflels, and
goods fhall, in all cafes, (fave as hereafter excepted,) be
adjudged to be reftored, and fhall be accordingly reftored,
to fuch former owner or owners, he or they paying for fal-
vage, if retaken by any of his majehy’+ foipss one-eighth part
of the true value thereof to the flag officers, captains, &c.
to be divided as the fame act dire&ts: and if retaken by any
privateer, or other fhip or veflel, one-fiath part of the true
value of fuch fhips and goods to be paid to the owners,
officers and feamen of fuch privateer or other veflel, without
any deduction. And if retaken by the joint operation of
one or more of his majeity’s fhips, and one or more private
fhips of war, the judge of the court of admiralty, or other
court having cognizance thereof, fhall order fuch falvage,
and in fuch proportions, to be paid to the recaptors by t
owners, as he fhall, under the circumftances of the cafe,
deem fit and reafonable. But if fuch recaptured fhip or
veffel fhall appear to have been fet forth, by the enemy, as a
{hip or veffel of war, the faid fhip or veffel fhall not be
reftored to the former owners; but fhall, in all cafes,
whether retaken by any of his majefty’s fhips, or by any
privateer, be adjudged lawful prize, for the benefit of the
captors.”

The regulations above cited relate only to the falvage of
Britifh fhips recaptured. Inthe cafe of neutral hips cap-
tured by the enemy, and retaken by Britifh men of war or
privateers, the court of admiralty have a difcretionary
power of allowing fuch falvage, and in fuch proportions, as,
under the circumiftances of each particular cafe, may appear
juft. But there is no pofitive law, or binding regulation, to
which parties may appeal to regulate the rate of fuch fal-
vage. Some falvage in fuch cafes is generally allowed ; and
in practice the rate is ufually regulated by the fame rules as
inthe cafe of Britifh property. :

Before an action willlie for a lofs by payment of falvage,
the amount of fuch falvage mutt have been afcertained
the decifion of the court of admiralty, which alone has jen.
digtion to determine as to the right of falvage in all cafes,
and, in the cafe of the recapture of neutrals, as to the
amount of fuch falvage.

When the falvage, however, is very high, the infured
may abandon, and call upon the infurer as for a total lofs.

By

a

OO

—

em

SAL

By the law of England, according to the opinion of lord
Mansfield, there is neither average nor rere upon bottomry
contraéts ; however, fays ferjeant Marfhal, it muft be ad-
mitted, that, without the benefit of falvage, this contraét
muft partake, in a great degree, of the nature of a wager,
even when the money is Ient upon goods on board of equal
value. If there be a total lofs of the fhip, the lender lofes
all, though all the goods are faved. Marfhal’s Law. of
Infurance, vol. ii. :

SaLvaGE, in Geography, a rock near the coait of Maiffa-
chufetts, lying off Cape Anne.

SALVAGES, a clufter of iflands in the North Atlantic
ocean, N. of the Canaries; the chief of which is high and
rocky, and about a league in circumference. Between this
and another three or four leagues S.W. of it are many
rocks andfands, fome above, and others under water, which
render the navigation of the adjacent feas dangerous, except
on the E. fide of the great ifland, the chief produce of which
is orchilla weed. It is frequented in fummer by barks or
boats from the Canary iflands, in fearch of wrecks, and alfo
of cormorants, or fea-fowl refembling them, which are
caught in their nefts, killed and falted, and carried for fale to
Teneriffe. Thefe uninhabited iflands are dependent on the
ifland of Madeira, and belong to the Portuguefe, who are
very tenacious of their intereit in them, and fevere in their

i t of interlopers. N. lat. 30° 4’. W.long. 15° 54!.

SALVAIGNAC, a town of France, in the department
of the Tarn, and chief place of a canton, in the dittri@ of
Gaillac ; g miles W. of Gaillac. The place contains 1275,
and the canton 3608 inhabitants, ona territory of 145 kiliv-
metres, in g communes.

SALVATELLA Vena, in Anatomy, an old name

iven to a vein of the hand, beginning at the back of the
frtle finger, and running into the commencement of the
vena ica.

SALVATEON de Yguey, in Geography, a town of
Hifpaniola; 72 miles E. of St. Domingo, famous for its

-works and luxuriant paftures.

.SALVATERRA, a town of Portugal, near the union
of the river Erra with the Tagus, in Eftremadura, where
is a royal palace ; 15 miles S. * Santarem.—Alfo, a town
of Italy, in the department of the Upper Po; 18 miles E.
of Cremona.

Satvaterra do Extrema, a town of Portugal, in the
province of Beira, on the borders of Spain; 4 miles N. of
Alcantara. N. lat. 39° 43’. W. long. 6° 36/.

SALVATIERRA, a town of Spain, in the province
of Alava; 14 miles E.N.E. of Vittoria.—Alfo, a town
of Spain, in the province of Leon; 12 miles E.S.E. of
Civdad Rodrigo.—Alfo, a town of Spain, in Aragon; 22
miles W.N.W. of Jaca.—Alfo, a town of Spain, in Gali-
cia, onthe Minho; 7 miles N.E. of Tuy.

SALVATOR Rosa, in Biography. See Rosa.

* SALVATORE, in Geograph » 4 mountain of Naples,
in Lavora; 8 miles N. of Capua.

SALUCO. See Satico.

SALUDA, a river of America, in South Carolina,
which rifes in the Nunic mountains, called at firft Reedy
river, which name it retains during about half its courfe, which
is fouth-eafterly, till it joins the Cangaree, about 5 miles
N.W. of Columbia.

SALVE Reaina, among the Romanilts, the name of
a Latin prayer, addreffed to the Virgin, and fung after com-
plines ; ae alfo upon the point of executing a criminal.

Durandus fays, it was compofed by Peter, bifhop of Com-
poltella. The cuftom of finging the falve regina, at the

eA

clofe of the oifice, was begun by order of St. Dominic,
and firft, in the congregation of Dominicans at Bologna,
about 1237, Gregory IX. firft appointed it to be general.
St- Barnard added the conctufion, O dulcis! O pia, &c.

The falve regina has been fet to mufic by all the great Ro.
man Catholic compofers of the lait century, particularly by
Pergolefi- and Hafle, whofe admirable compofitions were
printed in England about the middle of the lait century, and
in high eftimation among true lovers and judges of mufic.

Satve, Lip. See Pomarum.

SALVER, a flat difh, commonly of filver, or other
precious metal, ufed to fet glaffes on to ferve wines and other
liquors.

The French call it /ous-coupe, under-cup. The Italians ufed
to prefent a falver, with feveral kinds of wines, with this com-
pliment, /i non e buono, fatie lo: if it be not good, make it fo.

SALVER-SHAPED, in Botany, hypocrateriformis, is
aterm appropriated to a regular monopeétalous corolla, with
a horizontal limb, and an elongated tube, as in the Prim-
rofe. See Coroiia.

SALVETAT, La, in. Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the Herault, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftrid of St. Pons; 6 miles N.N.W. of St.
Pons. ‘The town contains 3229, and the canton 5581 inha-
bitants, on a territory of 2074 kiliometres, in three com-
munes.—Alfo, a town of France, inthe department of the
Aveyron, and chief place of a canton, in the diltri& of
Rodez ; 6 miles W. of Sauveterre. The place contains
472, and the canton 4440 inhabitants, on a territory of
1324 kiliometres, in g communes.

SALUGIA, a town of France, in the department of the
Sefia; 4 miles N.W. of Crefcentino.

SALVIA, in Botany, an ancient name, fuppofed to al-
lude to the falutary qualities of the plant. Yet the old
adage, ‘ cur morietur homo cui Sa/via crefcit in horto 2”?
feems rather a joke upon the name, than a teftimony to’its
propriety.—Linn. Gen. 17. Schreb, 23. Willd. Sp. Pl.
v. 1.127. Mart. Mill. Di€&. v. 4. Wahl. Enum. v. 1,
221. Sm. Fi. Brit. 30. Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 1. 13.
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 1. 52. Brown Prodr. 500. Purfh 19.
Juff. 11. Tourn. t. 83. Lamarck Iluttr. t. 20. Gertn,
t. 66. (Horminum; Tourn.t.82. Sclarea; ibid.) —Clafs
and order, Diandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Verticillate,
Linn. Labiate, Juff. Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
fomewhat bell-fhaped, ftriated, gradually dilated upwards,
and comprefled, twe-lipped ; its upper lip ufually with three
teeth ; lower divided. Cor. of one petal; tube dilated
upwards, comprefled ; limb ringent ; its upper lip concave,
comprefled, incurved, emarginate; lower broad, three-
cleft, the middle fegment largeft, roundifh, emarginate,
Stam. Filaments two, very fhort, each bearing two others,
attached tranfverfely, nearly by their middle part, the lower
end of each bearing a gland, the upper an oblong anther.
Pifi. Germen fuperior, Fuur-cleft ; tyle thread-fhaped, very
long, in the pofition of the ftamens; ftigma divided. Peric.
none, the calyx, very flightly converging, contains the
feeds in its lower part. Seeds four, roundifh.

Obf. The peculiar bifurcation of the filaments conftitutes
the effential ae va There are rudiments of two other
ftamens, but abortive in the throat of the corolla. ‘The

land above-mentioned is moltly of a callous nature; in a
Few inftances, however, it feems lke the rudiment of an
anther, being now and then flightly powdery.

Eff. Ch. Calyx fomewhat bell-fhaped, two-lipped. Co-
rolla ringent. iemess ftalked tranfverfely. Seeds four,
Oo2 naked,

SALVIA. e

naked. An extenfive genus of herbaceous, or partly
fhrubby, moftly perennial, plants; with fquare /fems ; op-
polite, veiny, hairy and rugofe, rarely compound, /eaves ;
whorled and racemofe flowers, accompanied by braéeas.
The corolla is ufually blue or purplifh, fometimes fearlet,
rarely yellowifh, often very handfome; the flavour of the
whole plant aromatic, and moftly bitterifh. The /éeds of
many fpeciesare coated with a mucilage, foluble and {well-
ing in water.—Linnzus defines thirty-two Sa/vie in-his Sp.
Pl. ed. 2, to which fix are added in the Mantiffa, and fix
more in the Supplement. Willdenow has feventy-fix in all,
and Vahl one hundred and thirty-feven. Mr. Aiton enu-
merates fifty-nine in his Hort. Kew.; two of them only
being natives of Britain. Mr. Brown has added one, and
Mr. Purth two, tothe number of known fpecies. The in-
augural differtation of Dr. Etlinger, de Salvia, publifhed
at Erlang in 1777, contains much information on the fub-
ject, and is cited in fome of the books above-mentioned, for
feveral fpecies. Four new ones are defcribed and delineated
in the Flora Greca, where alfo are fine reprefentations of
feveral of the Linnean fpecies.

No writer has attempted to divide this genus into fections
or fubdivifions of any kind. We thall defcribe fome of the
moft remarkable f{pecies; particularly thofe of Englifh
growth, and fuch as have any valuable qualities ; taking
Willdenow as the moft popular guide, with refpeé to their
arrangement.

S. agyptiaca. Egyptian Sage. Linn. Sp. Pl. 33. Willd.
n.1. Vahl.n.1. Ait. n. 1. Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 2. 49.
t. 108.—Leaves lanceolate, fharply toothed. Whorls of a
few ftalked flowers. Braéteas ovate, pointed.—Native of
Egypt and the Canary iflands, flowering in our gardens in
June and July, where it is annual in the open ground, pe-
rennial if kept in a ftove. This is a fmall inconfpicuous {pe-
cies, with a bufhy fem, about a foot high, and pale purplifh
flowers, whofe under lip refembles that of a Nepeta. Gouan
fays the flamens are very often four ; and Forfkall took this

plant for a tee.
S. cretica. Cretan Sage. Linn. Sp. Pl. 33. Willd.
n. 3. (S. tenuifolia; Rivin.

n. 3. Wahl. n. 2. Ait.
Monop. fuppl. t. 57: S. cretica anguftifolia; Cluf. Hitt.
vy. I. 343-)—Leaves lanceolate, crenate. Calyx divided
to the bafe. Styles two.—Native of Crete. Sometimes
met with in curious gardens. Willdenow thinks it a mere
variety of the following, but Etlinger, though quoted by
Vahl as of the fame opinion, only fays that fome perfons
thought fo. The plant appears to us diftinG, being {maller,
with narrower leaves, than the officinalis, and long footfalks.
The two flyles are remarkable, but we know not that they
have each two /figmas.

S. officinalis. Garden Sage. Linn. Sp. Pl. 34. Willd.
n. 7. Vahl.n. 4. Ait. n. 6. Woodv. Med. Bot. t. 38.
(S. latifolia et minor ; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 71. S. major
et minor; Ger. Em. 764.)—Leaves lanceolate-ovate,
finely crenate. Whorls of few flowers. Calyx fharply
pointed.— Native of rough ftony ground in the fouth of
Europe ; common in our gardens for above two hundred
years palt, flowering in June and July. The fem is fhrabby.
Leaves duil green, often purplifh, hoary, with an aromatic
flavour well known to every body. Flowers blueifh, an
inch long, with a brown vifcid calyx. There appear to be
feveral varieties of this common plant, one or two perhaps
of which may be entitled to rank as fpecies.

S. triloba. Three-lobed Sage. Linn. Suppl. 88. Willd.
n.g. Vahl.n. 7. Ait. n.8 Sm. Fl. Grac. Sibth. v. 1.
13.t. 17. (S. cretica pomiferz et non pomifera; Cluf.

5

Hitt. v. 1. 343. Ger.\ Em. 765.)—Leaves. ovate, finely
crenate, rugofe; woolly beneath; auricled at the bafe.
Calyx with five acute teeth. Native of Crete and Syria.
Dr. Sibthorp found it common on rough open ground,
throughout Greece and the iflands of the Archipelago.
Gerarde cultivated this plant in 1596, and it flowers in the
open air with us, about Midfummer, though ufually fhel-
tered in winter in a greenhoufe. The habit of the fhrub is
more denfe and hoary than the common Garden Sage, and
the /eaves are diltingnifhed by a pair of round leaflets at their
bafe. Whorls very numerous. Ca/yx almoft equally five-
toothed, much fmaller than in 8. officinalis. _ Corolla pale
purple, an inch long, The young branches of this fpecies,
as well as of the lait, frequently bear large eatable galls, of
which we fhall fay more under the following. ‘

S. pomifera. Apple-bearing Sage. Linn. Sp. Pl. 34.
Willd. n. 10. Vahl. a. 8. Ait. n. 9. ‘Sm..FIl. Gree.
Sibth. v. 1. 12. t.15. (S. cretica frutefcens pomifera, foliis
longioribus incanis et crifpis ; Tourn. Voy. v. 1. 30, with
a figure. )—Leaves lanceolate, waved, crenate, hoary, re-
ticulated with veins ; heart-fhaped at the bafe. Calyx threes
lobed, bluntifh.—Native of open, rough and ftony hills, in
Crete and various parts of the Levant, very common in
Greece, bloffoming in July ; requiring the fhelter of 2
greenhoufe in England, with a ae but not profufe,
fupply of water. A handfome bufhy fhrub, two or three
feet high. The /eaves have a filvery hoary afpeét, and a
grateful pungent {mell like lavender. F/owers large, pale
lilac, in whorls crowded into a denfe {pike at the fummit of
each branch. The calyx has only three lobes, which are
broad, acute, ribbed, tinged with red. This plant derives
its name from the globular galls produced on its young
fhoots, in confequence of the attack of an infect of the
Cynips genus, which are about an inch in diameter, full of
an acid aromatic juice. Thefe are fold in the markets of
Crete, and are much efteemed when candied with fugar.
S« officinalis and triloba bear fimilar excrefcences. i

S. calycina. Broad-cupped Sage. Sm. Fl. Gree.
Sibth. v. 1. 13. t.16. (S. orientalis frutefcens, foliis circi-
natis, acetabulis moluccz ; Tourn. Cor. 10.) — Leaves ovate,
crenate, flat, hoary, reticulated with veins. Calyx three-
lobed, dildted, abrupt, with a {mall point.—Gathered by
Dr. Sibthorp on mount Hymettus, near Athens, flowering
in July. The habit and flavour of this plant are like the
laft; but the /eaves differ materially, in being of a broad,
ovate form, even, without undulations or fegments. The
calyx has wider, inverfely heart-fhaped lobes. Linneus er-
roneoufly applies the fynonym of Tournefort to his S§. aceta-
bulofa, Mant. 25.

S. viridis. Green-topped Sage.
Willd. n. 16. Vahl. n. 77. Ait. n. 12. Sm. Fl. Gree.
Sibth. v.1. 15.t. 19. Jacq. Mifc. v. 2. 366. Ic. Rar.
t. 4. Desfont. Atlant. v. 1. 20. t. 1.—Leaves ovate, ob-
tufe, crenate. Calyx reflexed when in fruit. Bracteas
rhomboid, with a pair of linear appendages at the bafe.—
Found in fields of the fouth of Europe, and the Levant.
A fmall, annual, flightly branched, herb, with fcarcely any
aromatic flavour, and no pretenfions to beauty. The /eaves
are light green. //owers pale purplifh-blue ; their ehords
crowded into a /pike, whofe upper braéeas are fearcely dif-
ferent from the lower, fo that Vahl may perhaps be. more
corre¢t in taking it for the Horminum orientale, annuum, Jati-
vo fimile, coma carens, flore violaceo, of Tournefort’s Corolla,
than Linneus, who confidered it ‘as A. coma viridi of the
fame author’s Jn/litutiones. This difference we, neverthelefs,
conceive to be of no moment, for there is every reafon to

fuppofe

Linn. Sp. Pl. 34.

7+.

SALVIA.

fuppofe the prefent plant a variety of the following ; or ra-
ther perhaps the original {pecies.

S. Horminum. Purple-topped Sage, or Annual Clary.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 34. Walld.n.17. Wahl. n.76. Ait. n. 13.
Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 1. 15. t. 20. (Horminum fyl-
veitre, foliis purpureis; Ger. Em. 771.)—Leaves ovate,
obtufe, crenate.. Calyx reflexed when in fruit. Bra@eas
with appendages at the bafe; the upper ones barren and
coloured. Native of the fouth of Europe. Frequent in
the fields of Greece. It is very commonly cultivated, as a
hardy annual, ia our gardens, flowering in June and July,

“being chiefly efteemed for the either purple or pink hue of

its large upper braGeas, agreeing in that refpeét with the
flowers in the whorls below. Thefe enlarged braéeas, and
perhaps a greater luxuriance in the herbage, appear to us to
indicate a variety of the laft, rather than a diftin@ f{pecies.
S. praienfis. Meadow Sage, or Clary. Linn. Sp. Pl.
. Willd. n. 24. Vahl. n. 96. Sm. Fi. Brit. n. 1.
Engl. Bot.t. 153. Bulliard. t. 357.—Leaves heart-fhaped-
oblong, crenate ; the uppermoft clafping the item. _ Brac-
teas miaute. Summit of the corolla glutinous.—Native of
meadows and paftures in feveral parts of Europe; -rare
in England, occurring chiefly on a lime-ftone foil, and
flowering in July. Theroot is perennial. Stem herbaceous,
ere&t. Leaves oblong, nearly fmooth, doubly crenate.
Flowers large, deep blue, in numerous whorls. Calyx with
three {mall teeth to its upper lip ; the lower in two deep
iegments. ’
S. indica. Indian Sage. Linn. Sp. Pl. 37. Mant. 318.
Willd. n. 26. Vahl. n. 94. Ait. n.22. Curt. Mag.
t. 395- Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 1. t. 78.—Leaves_heart-
fhaped, femewhat lobate; the upper pair feffile. Whorls
very remote, with minute bra¢teas. Lower lip of the co-
concave, with two lanceolate lobes at the bafe.—Said
to be anative of India, but we have no corre& account of
itscountry. In gardens it is a tolerably hardy perennial,
flowering in fummer, but requiring to be frequently re-
newed from feed. The flem is weak and flender, three or
four feet high. Flowers large, and eminently beautiful, in
confequence of their fpeckled lower lip, whofe border foon
acquiresatawny hue. Te upper lip is bright blue.

. verbenaca. Wild Enghfh Clary. Linn. Sp. Pl. 35.
Willd. n. 28.- Vahl. n.79. Sm. Fl. Brit. n. 2. Engl.
Bot. t. 154. Curt. Lond. fafe. 6. t.1. (Horminum fyl-
veltre ; Ger. Em. 771. )—Leaves ferrated, finuated, nearly
fmooth. Corolla much narrower than the calyx; witha
ftri€ture at the top of its tube. —A common herb in paf-
tures and by way fides in England and other parts of Eu-
rope, flowering from June to October. The flem is decum-
bent in its lower part. The herbage is dark green, confi-

ly aromatic. Flowers {mall, deep violet, fix in each

whorl, forming rather clofe f ides, with green ovate bradeas,

fhorter than the flowers. he feeds, when moiltened, be-

come enveloped in denfe mucilage, and are therefore often

ufeful to extract fand, or any irritating particles, which may
to get between the eye and the eyelids.

. multifida. -Many-cleft Sage. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth.
vy. 1. 17. t. 23. (Horminum fylveftre, incifo folio, cafio
flore, italicum ; Barrel. Ic. t. 220.) —Leaves heart-fhaped,
many-cleft, cut, fmooth. Stem leafy, unbranched. Ap-
pends of the ltamens abrupt. Native Bs, pane about

tinople, according to Mr. Ferdinand Bauer, who

it in company with Dr. ang al Root perennial,

woody, throwing up feveral fimple leafy flems, {carcely a
fpanhigh, which are hairy and wilcid. Leaves roughifh at
edgesouly, Spikes folitary, terminal, about two inches
Jong, with Gx pale violet flowers in cach whorl, and broad

braéeas, the length of the briftle-pointed calyx: The ap-
pendage to each ffamen is remarkably fhort and obtufe.

S. clandeflina. Cut-leaved Sage. Linn. Sp. Pl. 36.
Willd. n. 31. Vahl. n. 80. Ait. n.27. Sm. Fl. Grec.
Sibth. v. 1. 18. t.24. Desfont. Atlant. v. 1. 23.—Leayes
pinnatifid, with linear, ferrated, very rugged, hairy feg-
ments. Stems leafy. Calyx pointlefs.—Native of the
north ef Africa; frequent in cultivated fields in the ifland
of Cyprus. Root biennial, flender. Stems numerous,
afcending, a fpan high, flightly branched. Leaves hoary,
very narrow. Flowers paler and more reddifh than in the
lait, with a. longer appendage to each /famen, and imaller
bradeas. The calyx moreover is obtufe, and deftitute of
briftly points. Dr. Sibthorp long ago remarked to us,
that Barrelier’s t. 220, referred by Linnzus to this fpecies,
properly belongs to the laft-defcribed.

S. amethyftina. Amethy‘tine Sage. Sm. Pl. Ic. t. 27.
Willd. n. 39. Vahl. n. 39.—Leaves heart-thaped, acute,
ferrated ; woolly beneath. Whorls without braGteas.
Calyx three-cleft: Corolla downy.—Gathered in New
Granada by Efeallon, the fellow labourer of Mutis.. This
is a flightly fhrubby {pecies, con{picuons for its handfome
large Jiowers, of a rich violet hue, with a velvety. upper

P-

S. formofa. Shining-leaved Scarlet Sage. L’Herit.
Stirp. 41. t. 26 Willd. n. 41. Ait. n. 34.° Curt.
Mag. t. 376. (S. leonuroides ; Gloxin Obf. Bot. 15. t. 2.
Vahl. n. 33. S.nodofa; Fl. Peruv. v. 1.25. te gt. fia.)
—Leaves heart-fhaped, crenate, naked. Whorls axillary.
Calyx three-cleft. Corolla thaggy: — Native of fandy,
argulaceous, or itony ground, at Huanuco in Peru, flower-
ing all the year round, butvefpecially in May and June. It
was fent to Kew in 1783, by M. Thouin, and proves a
hardy greenhoufe fhrub, readily increafed by cuttings.
The folage is deep green, fhining and vifcid, paler beneath.
Flowers fix in each axillary whorl, on long talks, with a
few {mall eccafional bra@eas. Corsila large, of a rich and
brilliant fcarlet ; its upper lip clothed with hairs of the fame
colour. There are feveral other fine Mexican or Peruvian
{pecies of Sage, more or lefs allied to this and the pre-
ceding.

S. jhe Golden African Sage. Linn. Sp. Pl. 38.
Willd. n. 55. Wahl. n. 20. Ait. n. 45. Curt. Mag.
t. 182. (S. africana fruticans, folio fubrotundo glauco,
flore magno aureo; Comm. Hort. -v. 2. 183. t. 92.) —
Leaves roundifh, glaucous; the lower ones abrupt and
toothed at the bafe ; the upper entire. Calyx hairy, point-
lefs ; dilated when in fruit.—Native of the banks of rivulets,
at the Cape of Good Hope ; flowering at various feafons
in our greenhoufes. The flem is buthy, fhrubby. Leaves
hardly an inch long, much {maller than the flowers, which
are oppofite, not whorled, in feveral pairs at the ends of the
branches ; their corolla of a brownifh-yellow, with a peculiar
acid fcent, refembling the flavour of tamarinds. The calyx
has really five lobes, though fome of them are very thallow.

There are feveral Cape.

5. Sclarea. Common Clary. Linn. Sp. Pl. 38. Willd.
n. 61. Vahl. n. 125. Ajit. no. 50. Sm. Fl. Grae.
Sibth, v. 1. 18. t. 25. (Gallitricum, five Herminum;
Ger, Em. 768.) — Leaves oblong-heart-fhaped, rugged,
villous, doubly crenate. Bracteas coloured, concave, longer
than the calyx.—Native of Italy, Syria, and Bithynia.
Oue of the exotic herbs which has beea longeft known in
the Englith gardens, where it is a hardy biennial, flowering
from July to September. The /lem is two or three feet
high. Leaves ae large as the hand, vifcid and flrongly
{cented, like the relt of the plant. Flewers and bradeas

variegated

SALVIA.

variegated with pale purple and yellowifh-white, compofing
long whorled {pikes. Calya with five fpinous teeth. This
plant is fometimes ufed for making wine, whofe flavour re-
fembles that of cowflip or elder flowers, and which likewife
affeéts the head by its narcotic quality.

S. crafffolia. Thick-leaved Sage, or Clary. Sm. Fl.
Grec. Sibth. v. 1. 19. t. 26. S. candidiffima ; Vahl.
n. 130. Sclarea orientalis, foliis rotundioribus candidiffi-
mis; Tourn. Cor. 10.)—Leaves heart-fhaped, crenate,
rugged, woolly on both fides. Stem leaflefs. Bracteas
fhorter than the calyx.—Native of Armenia and Cyprus.
A very woolly, thick-leaved, perennial fpecies, about a
foot high, with pale blueifh flowers, whofe lip is variegated,
foon withering at the margin.

S. argentea. Silvery-leaved Sage. Linn. Sp. Pl. 38.
Willd. n.66. Vahl. n. 278. Ait. n. 53. Sm. Fl. Grec.
Sibth. v. 1.20. t.27. Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. v. 1. 4. t. 6.
(Sclarea orientalis, verbafci folio, flore partim albo, partim
flavefcente; Tourn. Cor. 10.)—Leaves oblong, doubly
crenate, rugged, woolly. Braéteas fhorter than the calyx.
Upper whorls abortive.—Native of Crete. Gathered by
Dr. Sibthorp likewife on mount Parnafflus. That ingenious
- botanift conceived it might be the kind of csSors which
Diofcorides fays grows on mount Ida. A large, biennial,
hoary herb, whofe fem afflumes a panicled form, bearing
many oppofite whorled /pikes, of large white flowers all
turned one way ; their palate yellowith.

S. pinnata. Winged-leaved Sage. Linn. Sp. Pl. 39.
Willd. n. 68. Vahl. n. 12. Ait. n. 54. (S. orientalis
latifolia hirfutiffima vifcofa pinnata, flore et calyce pur-
pureis, inodora; Boerh. Ind. Alt. v. 1. 167, witha plate.)
—‘* Hairy and vifcid. Leaves interruptedly pinnate ; with
oblong jagged leaflets, unequal at the bafe. Calyx in-
flated.””, Vah/.—Native of the Levant. Miller had it at
Chelfea, but we have not often met with the plant, even in
dried colleétions. Boerhaave’s figure is incorreét, as to the
compofition of the /eaves, which are of a dull green, hairy,
not hoary. Flowers in dittant whorls, with a coloured
calyx. The root is defcribed as biennial.

S. ringens. Ringent Sage. Sm. Fl. Gree. Sibth.
v. I. 14, t. 18.—Leaves interruptedly pinnate, rugged,
crenate, fomewhat revolute. Flowering branches panicled.
Corolla bent downwards, recurved.—Native of ftony places
on the fides of mountains in many parts of Greece, where
it was gathered by Dr. Sibthorp and Mr. Hawkins. The
root is woody and perennial. Stems feveral, ereét, a foot
high ; leafy below; naked in the middle; panicled, with
oppofite branches, above. Leaflets ovate; pale and woolly
at the back. Flowers large, without bradeas. Calyx
tubular, purplifh. Corolla pale purple, fingularly bent
downwards, with a long tube, then recurved; its palate
dotted.

S. rofefolia. Rofe-leaved Sage. Sm. Pl. Ic. t. 5.
Willd. n. 70. Vahl. n. 14. (S. orientalis, foliis alatis
minoribus et crénatis, odore’ mari; Tourn. Cor. 11.)—
Leaves pinnate, hoary ; leaflets ferrated. Calyx ringent.
—Gathered by Tournefort in Armenia. An elegant fhrubby
{pecies, with hairy branches, and fimply pinnate /eaves, con-
fitting of two pair of ftalked leaflets with an odd one.
Flowers {everal in each whorl, rather large.

S. Forfkalei. Forfkall’s Sage. Linn. Mant. 26. Willd.
my 796 Vahl. -n. 223.. Ait.’ 1. 67, Sm. Fl. Grec.
Sibth, v. 1. 16. t. 21. Curt. Mag. t. 988. (S. bifida;

Forfk. Zgypt-Arab. 202.)—Leaves lyrate, crenate, rough.

Stem nearly leaflefs. Upper lip of the corolla cloven half

way down.—Native of the Levant. . Dr. Sibthorp found it

in fhady woods on the Bithynian Olympus, as well as about
12

the village of Belgrad, near Conftantinople, flowering in
July. The plant has recently been introduced into our
gardens, and is a hardy perennial, flowering in July and
Auguit, confpicuous for its copious large whorled purple
flowers, whofe palate is white, with purple dots and ftreaks.

S. Sibthorpii, Sibthorp’s Sage. Sm. Fl. Gree. Sibth.
v. I. 17. t. 22.— Leaves heart-fhaped, lobed, crenate,
rugged, rough. Stem almoft leaflefs, branched. Appen-
dages of the ftamens dilated.—Native of Greece and the
ifland of Zante. Dr. Sibthorp, on account of a purple
ftain on the difk of each deaf, took this for the Linnean
S. hematodes ; but it proving different, and very diftinét, we
have dedicated the {pecific name to its worthy difcoverer.
The /fem is twelve or eighteen inches high, with long branches,
befet with abundance of whorls, of {mall, pale purple,
flowers. _ Calyx bell-fhaped. Appendage of each flamen
remarkably dilated, or leaf-like.

5. plebeia. Vulgar Sage. Brown n. 1.—“ Leaves lan-
ceolate, crenate, very minutely downy, all ftalked. Spikes
fomewhat panicled. Whorls diftinét, with {mall braéteas.
The middle fegment of the upper lip of the calyx minute.”
—Gathered by Mr. Brown at Port Jackfon, New South
Wales. We have no fpecimen, nor are we certain where
this {pecies ought to be inferted.

Satvia, in Gardening, contains plants of the under-
fhrubby, herbaceous, and fhrubby kinds, of which the fpe-
cies cultivated are, the garden fage (S. officinalis) ; the
broad-leaved garden fage (S. grandiflora) ; the three-lobed
fage, or fage of virtue (S. triloba) ; the common c
(S. {clarea) ; the filvery-leaved fage or clary (S. argentea) ;
the vervain fage or clary (S. verbenaca); the Indian fage or
clary (S.indica) ; the red-topped fage or clary (S. hormi-
num) ; the yellow fage or clary (S. glutinofa) ; the Mexi-
can fage (S. mexicana) ; the Canary fage (S. canarienfis) ;
the blue-flowered African fage (S. africana); the gold-
flowered African fage (S. aurea) ; the apple-bearing fage
(S. pomifera) ; and the fhining-leaved fage (S. foruaat

In the firft fort the varieties are: the common green fage,
the wormwood fage, the green fage with a vere leaf,
the red fage, the red fage with a variegated leaf, the painted
or parti-coloured fage with red leaves itriped with white, or
white, red, and green mixed, found, fays Johnfon, in a
country garden, by Mr. John Tradefcant, and by him im-
parted to other lovers of plants. There is alfo Spanifh, or
lavender-leaved fage, in which the leaves are linear-lanceo-
late, very narrow, and quite entire, in clufters on the fide of
the {talks ; they are very hoary, and the branches are covered
with a hoary down: the leaves on the upper part of the
ftalk are narrower than thofe of rofemary; the flowers
grow in clofer fpikes, and are of a light blue colour. ,But
the variety with red or blackifh leaves is the moft common
in cultivation ; and the wormwood fage is in greater plenty
than the common green-leaved fage.

The fecond fort is that which is frequently preferred for
tea to all the others ; it is often called balfamic fage.

Of the fourth fort a wine is fometimes made from the herb
in flower, boiled with fugar, which has a flavour not unlike
Frontiniac.

In the ninth fort, the flowers are faid to be ufed in Hol-
land to give a flavour to the Rhenifh wines,

In the fourteenth fort, the branches have often punétures
made in them by infects, producing protuberances as big as
apples, in the fest manner as alld upon the oak, and the
rough balls upon the briar. And it is remarked by Martyn,
that the common fage has the fame excrefcences in the ifland
of Candia or Crete, and that they carry them to market
there under the name of fage apples.

Method

— EE —

SAL

Method of Culture.—Thefe plants are in moft of the forts
raifed without much difficulty or trouble.

Culture in the Sage Kind:—This, in this fpecies and in all
the varieties, may be effected by flips or cuttings of the
young fhoots from the fides of the branches, fometimes
alfo by bottom-rooted offsets, and likewife by feed. Slips
both of the former and the fame year’s growth may be ufed.
Thofe of the firft fort may be employed in April, but the
latter not till May, or later: thefe, however, mott readily
itrike root, and aflume a free growth. But in either cafe,
moift weather fhould be chofen ; and having recourfe to fome
good bufhy plants, a proper quantity of the outward robutt
fide-fhoots, about five, fix, or feven inches long, fhould be
flipped off, trimming off all the lower leaves, then planting
them out in fome fhady border, with a dibble, in rows half a
foot afunder, putting them down almoft to their tops, giving
water direétly, to fettle the earth clofe, as well as to promote
an early emiffion of root-fibres, and repeating the water-
ings occafionally in dry weather; the flips in general
foon emit fibres, and fhoot freely at top: when they
have a tendency to fpindle up with flender fhoots, or
run up to flower, it is proper to top them fhort, in order

to force out laterals below to affume a bufhy growth: they

mofily form tolerably bufhy plants by the autumn, when, or
in the {pring following, they may be removed, with balls of
earth about their roots, and be planted where they are to re-
main, either in four-feet beds, or in continued rows, a foot
and a half afunder, if defigned as a clofe plantation for ufe :
thofe defigned for the pleafure-ground fhould be difpofed in
theborders, &c. fo as to afford variety.

And where there are rooted offsets, they may be flipped
off fi tely, with the fibres to them, either as the plants
itand in the ground, or the bunches of plants taken up, and
divided into as many feparate flips as are furnifhed with roots,
being planted out at once where they are to remain. The
plants raifed from young flips generally form the ftrongett
and moft bufhy plants.

In raifing thefe plants from feed, which is but feldom prac-
tifed, it fhould be fown in April, in a bed of light rich earth,
raking it in: the "plants foon come up; and when about
two or three inches high, they fhould be pricked out, the
ftrongeft in nurfery rows, half a foot afunder, to gain
ftrength till the autumn or {pring following, and then planted
out with balls where they are to ftand.

Likewife in the after-culture of this {pecies and varieties,
all that is requifite is the keeping them clean from weeds
in fummer, cutting down the decayed flower-ftalks in
autumn, and flightly digging between the rows in the fame
feafon, to keep them chen and decent during the winter
months, &c. But where this digging is not done in the
autumn, it fhould not be omitted in the {pring.

With refpeét to the leaves of the fage, they fhould be
gathered with care and attention, not to cut the tops too
clofe, to render the plants naked and ftubby, efpecially
when late in autumn and winter; in which they would be
more liable to fuffer from fevere froft than when the head
is preferved fomewhat full and regular: befides, in this
ftate the plants continue longer in a profperous free growth.
But when, in any old plantation, naked, {tubby, or decayed
parts occur, they fhould be cut out, and any ftraggling irre-
ard wths reduced to order by pacahot pruning in

ing or fummer, by which the plants will more readily
emit freth roots and form full heads. And freth plantations
of fage fhould be formed as the old ones decline. Alfo in
continuing them where the ground is much impoverifhed,
a littl rotten dung fhould be pointed in lightly to
give more vigour to the plants.

SAL

Culture in the Clary Kind—Thefe, in the herbaceous
kinds, are eafily raifed from feed, and in the perennial! forts
by parting the roots. The feed fhould be fown in March,
in any bed or border of common earth, raking it in; and
when the plants have got leaves of two or three inches
growth, they fhould be planted out in fhowery weather,
In rows eighteen inches diitant, and at the fame diftance in
the lines > they foon {trike root, and grow large, furnifhing
large leaves, fit for ufe in autumn, winter, and the follow-
ing {pring. The perennial forts are raifed from feed in the
fame manner, fetting the young plants out in the fummer
in nurfery-rows till autumn, when they fhould be planted
out into the borders, &c. The annual forts may be fown
in {pring in the borders, in patches to remain.

And the roots in the perennial kinds may be parted in
autumn, or early in the fpring, and planted out where they
are to remain, when they will generally fucceed very well.

Culture in the tender Shrubby Kinds.—Thefe are eafily
increafed by cuttings of the young fhoots; they fhould be
planted in pots in the fpring, and plunged in a hot-bed,
where they foon emit roots at bottom and fhcots at top,
and fhould be gradually hardeaed to the full air: but
cuttings planted in fummer will often ftrike without the
aid of a hot-bed, when planted either in pots or in a bed
of natural earth, under frames and lights, or covered clofe
with hand-glafles, and fhaded from the mid-day fun, being
occafionally watered. The young plants fhould- afterwards
be potted off feparately, and managed as other fhrubby
exotics of the greenhoufe.

But the lat fort requires a warm dry greenhoufe in
winter, and to be very fparingly watered in the fummer
months. See Greennouse Plants.

Of thefe different plants, fome are ufeful as culinary
herbs, others for the purpofe of ornament in the borders,
&c. and the tender forts in greenhoufe collections among
others of fimilar kinds.

SALVIA, in the Materia Medica. See Sacre.

SALVIAC, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Lot, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrit of Gourdon ; 6 miles S. of Gourdon. The place
contains 2647, and the canton 11,606 inhabitants, on a ter-
ritory of 1524 kiliometres, in 9 communes.

SALVIANUS, in Biography, a celebrated prefbyter
of Marfeilles, who flourifhed in the fifth century, was pro-
bably born at Cologne, and is faid to have been defcended
from a family of rank, and enjoyed the advantages of a liberal
education, by which he became thoroughly converfant with
profane and facred literature. He married a lady who
was not a Chriftian, but who became, through his means,
a convert to the religion which he efpoufed. We firft find
him in a public capacity in the office of prefbyter at Mar-
feilles. According to Cave he began to flourifh about the
year 440, when he finifhed one of his principal works, viz.
“ A ‘Treatife concerning the Providence of God ;” and
from this time his reputation greatly increafed, and became
widely diffufed. He was living in 495, and had at that
period attained to a good old age. It was at this time
that Gennadius wrote his account of him, obferving, that
he might well be called “a matter of bifhops,’’ fince he
wrote many homilies which were preached by bifhops not
fo well qualified to compofe for themfelves. His works
that remain are written with force and elegance, particularly
when he is declaiming againft the irregular manners of the
times ; fo that he has had the title given to him of « the
Jeremiah of the fifth century.”” The works of Salvianus
that have come down to us confift of “De Providentia et
Gubernatione Dei, deque Jufto ac prefenti ejus Judicio,

Lib.

SAL

Lib. viii. ;”’ «* Adverfus avaritiam prefertim Clericorum et
Sacerdotum, Lib. iv.’ publifhed under the title of Timothy,
and * Epiftole IX.”? Of his works that are loft, an ac-
count will be found in Cave’s Hitt. vol. i.

SALVIATI, : Francisco Ross, called // Salviati,
from the favour and patronage of the cardinal Salviati,
was the fon of Michelangiolo Roffi, and was born at
Florence ia 1510. _He was firft placed as a pupil under
Andrea del Sarto, and afterwards with Baccio Bandinelli.
The cultivation of his talents under thefe two able matters
enabled him to rival in fame the belt artifts, after the deceafe
of the great luminaries who had conduéted painting fo near
to perfection; and he is celebrated by his fellow pupil,
Vatari, as the greateft painter then in Rome. The power
which he exhibited was not fuffered to lie unemployed.
For the church of La Pace he painted the Annunciation,
and Chrift appearing to Peter; and foon afterwards was
engaged by his patron, the cardinal, to adorn his chapel with
a feries of frefcoes, the fubjeéts being taken from the life
of St. John Baptift. He produced a fet of cartoons of the
hiltory of Alexander, as patterns for tapeftries ; and, in con-
junétion with Vafari, ornamented the apartments of the
* Cancellaria with paintings in frefco.

From Rome he went to Venice, where he painted many
pictures, both for public edifices and private collections,
particularly the hiftory of Py{fche for the Palazzo Grimaldi.
He afterwards travelled through Lombardy, and made
fome ftay at Mantua, ftudying with much delight the
works of Julio Romano. At Florence, he was employed
by the grand-duke to adorn the Palazzo Vecchio: in one of
the faloons he reprefented the vi€tory and triumph of
Furius Camillus, a work greatly admired for the truth and
tafte of the imitation, and the vigour and {pirit of the
compolition.

A reftlefs habit, and a difpofition to rove, led Salviati to
accept an invitation to France, made by the cardinal de Lor-
raine in the name of Francis I., then engaged in conitruéct-
ing and adorning his palace at Fontainebleau. » He was re-
ceived with diftin@ion, and politely treated by F. Bima-
ticio, who had the fuperintendance of the works; but
proud and turbulent, he foon became diflatisfied, and re-
turned thefe favours with unkindnefs and ingratitude.
During his ftay in France, he painted a fine picture for
the church of the Celeftines at Paris, of the Taking
down from the Crofs. He foon after returned to Italy,
and there. fell into new difputes with Daniel da Volterra
and Pietro Ligorio; and by continual agitation of mind
peougnt on a fever, of which he died in 1563, at the age
of 53.

Il Salviati poffefied an invention fertile and well ftored
with materials, which he combined with care and originality ;
introducing in his pi€tures magnificent defign of architecture,
and uniting in his execution celerity with corre&tnefs. His
firft character is that of a defigner ; and indeed he was a
complete example of the Roman {chool, of which colourin
by no means forms an agreeable feature, whilft it had fut.
ficient to feparate and fupport the forms. His unhappy
difpofition, and his inclination to debafe and vilify the
works of others, caufed him many enemies, and frequently,
led to the employment of lefs able artifts, whofe talents
were conducted with a more engaging manner, and lefs
captious temper.

SALVING Sueer, in Rural Economy, the drefling of
them with tar and greafe, again{t the feab and other difeafes.
It is a praétice which was formerly confidered as indif-
penfable to the health and fafety of fheep, but which, in
the fouthern parts of the kingdom, according to the Sur-

SAL

vey of Northumberland, is not in ufe; and in fome of the
lefs expofed northern diitriéts it is wholly difregarded ;
even with fome of the hill fheep farmers, it is now faid to
be laid afide without any inconvenience being fuitained on
the account. In refpeét to the material which is employed
in this diftri&, it is a mixture of 12lbs. of butter with four
quarts of tar, well incorporated, by being put together
while warm. This quantity is fufficient for twenty-four
fheep. In Perthfhire, in the north of Scotland, accordin
to Dr. Robinfon, the compofition now in ufe is likewile
tar and butter. Some take two Scotch pints of tar to.a
{tone of butter ; others only five common pints of tar ‘to
that weight; and others in various proportions between
thefe extremes. This quantity fuffices for falying fifty-five
or fixty fheep, at the rate of three-pence or four-pence each,
according as there is more or lefs tar in the mixture. , For-
merly {hepherds ufed tobacco-juice and foap, and in fome
cafes chamber-ley ; but thefe are laid afide as lefs efficacious.
This fort of bufinefs is, in fome places, done in November.
In Perthfhire the ftore-mafters {mear their lambs about the
beginning of Oétober, and if the weather be favourable
they continue their work without intermiffion, till all the
fheep they intend be {meared. In fome places they fmear
only the weaker fheep, in other places the whole. One
man {mears twenty or twenty-four in a day, leaving about
an inch betwixt every fhed of the wool. In regard to the
benefit expected from this practice, it is, that it makes the
fheep hardier and warmer, that it cleans them from vermin
and cutaneous diftempers, aud that it prevents their lofing
the wool. They contend further, that the wool pays very
nearly the whole expence ; the fame number of fleeces of
fmeared and white wool bringing an equal fum in the
market, becaufe what the {meared wool wants in quality it
has in weight ; and laitly, it is urged, that the more butter
there is in the compofition, the grain of the wool is fofter,
and more filky ; that by the practice of {mearing, the young
fheep are raifed on the bone; are preferred in the market ;
and fetch a better price. Notwithitanding all thefe argu-
ments in favour of {mearing, others condemn the practice
totally. However, there is’ little doubt that it forms a
cruft about the animal’s body, and contributes to defend it
from the cold, and thus it may be proper in a ftormy fitua-
tion, while it is unneceflary where there is plenty of fhelter.
See SHEEP. : é
And in Argylefhire, according to the Agricultural Re-
port of that diitriét, the curing or falving Pee fheep with
tar and butter, in O&ober, is a general pra&tice ; but fome
{mear them more than others, according to the difference
of fituations. All fmear the lambs and tups, and fome
fmear all except the old wedders. The purpofe of it is to
defend them from the cold, feab, and vermin, and to increafe
the quantity and mend the quality of the wool. Different
people mix the ingredients in different proportions ; a Quan-
tity from three to four pounds (Englifh) of butter, and one
Scotch pint of tar, is confidered as a proper allotvance for
nine orten fheep. The more butter and the lefs'tar, the more
the wool will be meliorated. Butin the Roxburgh Agricul-
tural Report, it is {tated, that many allow only a2lbs. of butter
to the pint of tar, or a tone of 24lbs. to the 12 pints,
which is very hurtful to the wool. The molt approved
mixture is 34lbs. (Englifh). of butter to the Scotch pint
of tar. The better the butter is the further the falve will
go. The beft is that which appears yellowilh, and rifes
when rubbed againit a board with the finger, as this wathes
better out of the wool, It is found that two pints of butter~
milk, added to fix Scotch pints of tar, and its proportion
of butter, will fmear four {heep more than the fame quan-
tity

SAL

tity of tar and butter willdo by themfelves. If the butter-
milk be a week or two old, it is fo muchthe better. It
makes the tar and butter incorporate more clofely, renders
the falve firm, and draws much finer upon the thigh than
without it. The falve thus prepared is fit for immediate
ufe.

But Mr. Richardfon fays, that there is reafon to believe
that a mixture of tobacco-liquor and {pirits of turpentine
with a little brimftone, anfwers fully as well as tar and
butter, for the great object of {mearing, which is that of
killing the vermin and preventing the fcab. Something
fimilar to this is practifed ia the parifh of Lochlee in
Auguft; the lambs are fmeared in autumn with tobacco-
juice. As tar is not eafily procured, fometimes it might
be of confequence-to the farmer to know that fuch things
may be ufed as a fubititute for butter; but the butter,
when it can be got, is better.

However, though {mearing or falving is thought here to
be of abfolute neceffity, it may perhaps be doubted whether
it might not be difpenfed with, or at leaft done in an eafier
way. In Wales this pra¢tice is unknown, though the
country is colder than this. And it has been given up in
other diftri&s, as feen above. But the writer of the above
report fays, that the ftore-mafters however fpeak of its
utility with confidence, founded, they fay, upon experience.
If this be well afcertained, it would be improper to give up
the praétice. But even on the fuppofition that it ought-to
be continued, fome think that the operation might be per-
formed when the fheep are fhorn (which would be attended
with much lefs expence and trouble), with butter or oil
and a decoétion of tobacco-juice, oak-bark, or broom, with-
out any mixture of tar, fo hurtful to the wool. This de-
cotion would kill the vermin and their eggs, and the
butter or oil would improve the wool, the natural and fuf-
ficent clothing of the animal. If the pra¢tice cannot be
given up now, it probably however may hereafter, when
the breed is more naturalized to our climate.

Tt is obferved, in the Statiftical Account of Linton, in
Scotland, that Columella and Celfus anciently prefcribed
oil for improving the wool. And that a few years ago, a
farmer in Selkirkfhire, being unfuccefsful in the competi-
tion for the premium granted for the beft wool, {meared next
feafon with butter only, without tar, and eafily gained the
premium. This experienced farmer thinks tar of no ufe
but to kill the vermin, which may be effected with other
materials that will not hurt the wool.

The falving of theep is likewife praétifed in molt of the
counties in the north of England, and {till thought indif-
penfably neceffary to the fafety of the animals. In Lan-
cafhire the Rev. Mr. Stainbank, who is extremely correct,
and has beftowed much attention on the fubje¢t, thinks,
that fheep in that diftri& would certainly become fcabbed
without it, as there is a {curf con{tantly forming upon the
ikin of the theep in the beginning of autumn. Mr. Wright,
of Hornby calle, is of the fame opinion; and the cuftom is
general over the whole county. .

The beft and moft proper feafon-for performing the

ation, in the idea of the farmer, is in the early autumn,
about the beginning of November, as it fuits the ewes, and
the feurf then begins to form. ‘The compofition which he
confiders as the belt, is formed from one gallon of common
tar, ten pounds of the belt butter, one pound of foft foap,
and three gills of train oil, by liquefying them over a gentle
fire, and then fetting them by to phon The expence of
falving a theep in this way, with the labour, is about 8d.
each, when of the common fize. ‘The theep are falved all
over in warrow fheds. The South Down and new Lei-
» Vor. XXXI.

S A L

cefter fheep, in Mr. Wright’s pra¢tice, are falved with a
compofition prepared from fixteen pounds of butter to four
quarts of good tar, mixed by gently diffolving the butter
over a flow fire, and then pouring it on the tar, itirring them
well together until the whole is nearly fet. The falving is
performed in the above manner, and is thought to greatly
improye the wool and keep the fheep more healthy.

SALVINI, Anton-Marta, in Biography, a learned
Italian, was born of a noble family at Florence in 1654.
He became profeflor of Greek in his native city, and was
a diftinguifhed member of the Della Crufca, to the perfec-
tion of whofe ditionary no one contributed fo much. He
paffed his life in literary purfuits, and died in 1729, at the
age of 76. During his hfe he was not much known as an
author, but after his deceafe a great number of works from
his pen appeared, either in a feparate form, or inferted among
the writings of other learned men. He difplayed great in-
duftry in tranflations, and gave metrical verfions, comprif-
ing the Iliad and Odyfley of Homer; Hefiod; Theocritus ;
Anacreon; and many of the minor poets and epigramma-
tifts: the Clouds and Plutus of Ariftophanes; parts of
Horace and Ovid; Perfeus; part of the Book of Job and
the Lamentations ; Boileau’s * Art Poetique ;’? Addifon’s
“ Cato” and “ Letters from Italy,’? and other pieces. He
obtained the chara¢ter of a very faithful tranflator ; and itis
faid he has not omitted a fingle epithet of Homer, hence he
was obliged to introduce into the Tufcan language a mul-
titude of compound terms never before hazarded. There
have been publifhed of this author, ‘¢ Sonnets and other
original Poems ;’’ ** A hundred Academical Difcourfes ;”’
‘‘ A funeral Oration for Antonio Magliabecchi,” and other
works. He hada younger brother, a canon of Florence,
who died at an advanced age in 1751, and who was alfo a
diftinguifhed man of letters, and publifhed a work, entitled
« Fafti confolari delle? Academia Fiorentina,’? alfo the
Lives of Magalotti and Migliorucci.

SALVINIA, in Botany, was fo named by Micheli, in
compliment to Antonio Maria Salvini, a Florentine noble-
man, profeflor of Greek, much celebrated for the extent of
his tafte and learning, but of whofe botanical merits we are
not informed.—Schreb, 753. Mich. Gen. 107. t. 58.
(Marfilea; Guettard in Mem. del’Acad. des Sciences fer
1762, 543. t. 29.)—This isthe Marfilea natans of Linneus,
Sp. Pl. 1562, a common plant in the ditches of Italy. We
have not examined its parts of fruétification, which Mr.
Brown, Prodr. Nov. Hcl. v. 1. 167, fays require to un-
dergo a {crutiny, though he does not doubt the genus being
diftin& from Mansivea, fee that article, as well as from the
Azolla of himfelf and Lamarck. The herbage is hairy,
floating, with oppofite, ttalked, two-ranked, ovate, or
rea heart-fhaped, entire, coriaceous /eaves, of a fine
green, cach near an inch long. Fruit globular, in radical
clufters, under water. The flowers are faid to be monoe-
cious, the males in the fame clutter with the females.

SALUM, in Geography, a river of Africa, which tra-
verfes the country of Burfali, or Salum, and runs into the
Atlantic, N. lat. 12° 45!.

SALUMBERGO, « town of Italy, in the Friuli; 13
miles W. of Udina. ,

SALUMKA, a town of Abafcia; 15 miles W. of
Ifgaur. N. lat. 43?20'. E. long. 40° 6'.

SALVO, a town of Sweden, in the province of Wala;
4 miles S. of Wafa.

SALVORA, a fmall ifland in the Atlantic, near the
coatt of Spain. N, lat. q2°29'. W. long. 9°,

SALVORI, Punta v1, a town of Iftria; 3 miles N.

of Umago,
SALURN,

Pp

SAL

SALURN, a town of the county of T'yrol, taken by
the French in 1797; 10 miles N. of Trent.

SALUSANDRIA, in Botany, a name given by fome
authors to the nigella, called in Englifh gith, or fennel-

lower.
# SALUTATION, the aé or ceremony of faluting, grect-
ing, or paying refpeét or reverence to any one.

Salutatio, among the Romans, was daily homage paid by
clients and inferiors to their fuperiors.

s\mong the great, atrium was the place appointed for this
purpofe ; but among people of middling condition, the ve/fi-
bulum only. . See each.

This practice of falutation was not confined to the city,
but took place in the army likewife ; it being ufual for the
private foldiers to go very early in the morning to falute their
centurion, who at their head proceeded to falute the tribune,
and then the tribune with the reft went and faluted the im-
perator, or commander-in-chief. :

The women, too, had their crowds of faluters attending
them every morning.

The manner of receiving thofe who came to pay their
refpects, was to receive thofe of the better fort with a kifs,
and the poorer fort had a {mall entertainment given them,
and were even feafted by fuch as wanted to be thought more
liberal than ordinary.

There is a great variety in the forms of falutation : we fa-
lute God by adorations, prayers, &c.; kings by genuflexion,
&c. In England, we falute one another by uncovering the
head, inclining the body, &c. The orientals falute by un-
covering their feet, laying their hands on their breait, &c.
The pope makes no reverence to any mortal but the emperor
of Germany, to whom he ttoops a very little, when he ad-
mits him to kifs his mouth.

It was believed by the ancients, that the ftatue of Mem-
non, in a temple of Egypt, faluted the fun every morning
at his rifing: the cheat confifted in this, that the ftatue
being hollow, when the warmth of the morning began tc
rarify the including air, it was driven out through a narrow
dué& in the mouth; this made a gentle murmur, which the
priefts interpreted a falutation.

In the Army, the falute is performed by a difcharge of
artillery, or {mall arms, or both; the men prefenting their
arms. The colours likewife falute royal perfonages, and
generals commanding in chief, which is done by lowering
the point to an inch above the ground. In the field, when
a regiment is to be reviewed by the king, or his general,
the drums beat a march as he pafles along the line, and the
officers falute one after another, bowing their half pikes or
{words to the ground, then recover, and take off their hats.
The enfigns falute altogether by lowering their colours.
When his majefty, or any of the royal family are prefent,
when the word of command, “ to fhoulder,” is given, the
officers recover their fwords, and the enfigns raife their
colours.

At Sea, this ceremony is varioufly performed, according
to the circumftances, rank, or fituation of the parties. It
confifts in firing a certain number of cannon, or volleys of
{mall arms, in fiikiae the colours or top-fails, and in one or
more general fhouts of the whole fhip’s crew, mounted in
the matts or rigging for that purpofe.

Ships always falute with an odd number of guns ; galleys
with an even one. A veffel under the wind of another is
always obliged to falute firft.

To falute with mufquets, is to fire one, or two, or three
volleys, which is a method of falutation that fometimes pre-
cedes that of the cannon, and is chiefly ufed on occalion of
feafts.

SAL

After the cannon, they fometimes alfo falute or hail
with the voice, that°is, a joint fhout of all the fhip’s
company three times, which falutation alfo occafionall
obtains where they carry no guns, or do not care to dif-
charge any.

Saluting with the flag, is performed two ways, either b
holding it clofe to “e Thal, a as it cannot Gane or re
ftriking it fo as it cannot be feen at all, which is the mo
ref{pectful falutation. ~

Saluting with the fails, is performed by hovering the top-
fails half-way of the malts. Only thofe veflels which carry
no guns falute with the fails.

When there are feveral fhips of war together, the comy
mander alone falutes.

Father Fournier has an exprefs treatife of fea falutes and
fignals. See Sian.

The principal regulations with regard to falutes in the
royal navy are as follow. ‘.

When a flag officer falutes the admiral and commander-in-
chief ef the fleet, he is to give him fifteen guns ; but when
captains falute him, they are to give him feyentéen guns.
The admiral or atamiriteein chick of the fleet is to return
two guns lefs to flag-officers, and four lefs to captains.
Flag-officers faluting their fuperior or fenior officer, are to
give him thirteen guns. Flag-officers are to return an equal
aumber of suns to flag-officers bearing their flags on the
fame matt, and two guns lefs to the reft, as alfo to
captains. :

When a captain falutes an admiral of the white or blue,
he is to give him fifteen guns; but to vice and rear-admirals,
thirteen guns. When a flag-officer is faluted by two or
more of his majefty’s fhips, he is not to return the falute till
all have finifhed, and then to do it with fuch a reafonable
number of guns as he fhall judge proper. In cafe of the
meeting of two fquadrons, the twe chiefs only are to
exchange falutes. And if fingle fhips meet a fquadron
confilting of mort than one flag, the principal flag only is
to be faluted. No falutes fhall be repeated by the fame ~
fhips, unlefs there has been a feparation for fix months at
leatt.

None of his majefty’s fhips of war, commanded only by
captains, fhall give or receive falutes from one another, in
whatfoever part of the world they meet.

A flag-officer commanding in chief fhall be faluted, upon
his firit hoifting his flag, by all the fhips prefent, with hab
a number of guns as is allowed by the firft, third, or fifth
articles.

When any of his ea fhips fhall meet with any fhip
or fhips bea to any foreign prince or ftate within his
majefty’s feas (which extend to Cape Finifterre), it is ex-
pected that the faid foreign fhips do ftrike their top-fail,
and take in their flag, in acknowledgment of his majefty’s
fovereignty in thofe ea and if any fhall refufe or olfer to
refift, it is enjoined to all flag-officers and commanders to
ufe their utmoft endeavours to compel them thereto, and not
fuffer any difhonour'to be done to his majefty. And if any
of his majefty’s fubjeéts fhall fo much forget their duty, as
to omit {triking their top-fail in paffing by his majetty’s
fhips, the name of the fhip and matter, and from whence,
and whither bound, together with affidavits of the fact, are
to be fent up to the ane of the ad ty, in order to
their being proceeded againit in the admiralty-court. And
it isto be obferved, that in his majefty’s feas, his majelty’s
fhips are in no wife to {trike to any ; and that in other parts,
no fhip of his majefty’s is to {trike her flag or top-iail to
any foreigner, unlefs fuch foreign fhip fhall have firit ftruck,

or

SAL

or at the fame time ftrike her flag or top-fail to his majeity’s
The flag-officers and commanders of his majefty’s fhips
are to be careful to maintain his majefty’s honour upon all
occafions, giving protection to his fubjeéts, and endeavour-
ing what in them lies to fecure and encourage them in their
lawful commerce ; and they are not to injure in any manner
the fubje&s of his majefty’s friends and allies.

If a foreign admiral meets with any of his majeity’s fhips,
and falutes them, he fhall receive gun for gun. If he bea
vice-admiral, the admiral fhall aniwer with two guns lefs.
Tf a rear-admiral, the admiral and vice-admiral fhall return
two lefs. But if the fhip be commanded by a captain only,
the flag-officers fhall give two guns lefs, and captains an
equal number. a

When any of his majefty’s fhips come to an anchor ina
foreign port or road, within cannon-fhot of its forts, the
captain may falute the place with fuch a number of guns as
has been cuftomary, upon good affurance of having the like
number returned, but not otherwife. But if the fhip bears
a flag, the flag-officer fhall firft carefully inform himfelf how
flags of like rank, belonging to other crowned heads, have
given er returned falutes, and to infift upon the fame terms
of refpeG.

It is allowed to the commanders of his majefty’s fhips in
foreign parts, to falute the perfons of any admirals, com-
manders-in-chief, or captains of fhips of war of foreign
nations, and foreign noblemen or itrangers of quality, as
alfo the factories of the king’s fubjeéis, coming on board
to vifit the fhip; and the number of guns is left to the
commander, as fhall be fuitable to the occafion, and the
quality of the perfons vifiting ; but he is neverthelefs to re-
main accountable for any excefles in the abufe of this liberty.
If the thip vifited be in company with other fhips of war,
the captain is not te make ufe of the civilities allowed in the
preceding article, but with leave and confent of the com-
mander-in-chief, or the fenior captain.

Merchant fhips, whether foreigners, or belonging to his
majefty’s fubjects, faluting the admiral of the fleet, fhall
be anfwered by fix guns lefs; when they falute any other
flag-thips they fhall be anfwered by four guns lefs; and if

7 men of war commanded by captains, they fhall
be anfwered by two guns lefs. If feveral merchant fhips
falute in company, no return is to be made till all have
finifhed, and then by fuch a number of guns as fhall be
thought proper; but though the merchant fhips fhould an-
fwer, there hall be no fecond return.

None of his majefty’s thips of war fhall falute any of his
majelty’s forts or caftles in Great Britain or Ireland, on any
pretence whatfoever. Regulations and In{tru@tions for the
Sea Service.

SaLutation, Angelical, is an addrefs, which the Ro-
manifts make to the Virgin, containing the formula in
which the angel faluted her, when he acquainted her with
the myftery of the incarnation.

SALUTATO, Lixo Corvccio Prero, in Biography,
one of the reftorers of literature in Italy, was born in 1330,
at the caftle of Stignano, in Tufcany, His father, a fol-
dier and hero, havirig been exiled by the prevalent fa€tion
in his country, retired to Bologna on the invitation of its
lord, whom he ferved till his death.
education in that city, and by his father’s command ap-

lied himfelf to the ftudy of ie law, which he quitted
the more pleafing and elegant purfuits of rhetoric and
poetry, as foon as he became his own mafter. In the year
he was the colleague of Francefco Bruni im the

i
° of Apottolical fecretary to pope Urban V. It is

Coluccio received his

SAL

probable, that when this pontiff returned to France, Co-
luccio quitted the papal court and married. He had, how-
ever, previoufly to this, acquired fo high a reputation for
eloquence, that various ftates and fovereigns fent him in-
vitations to enter into their fervice, but his attachment to
his native country caufed him to give a decided preference
to the Florentine republic, of which he was, in 1 3759
made the chancellor, an office which he held many years:
during this period he was engaged in almoft every im-
portant tranfaction that had occurred in Italy. Such was
his influence and the force of his eloquence, that Gianga-
leazzo, duke of Milan, was accuftomed to fay, that a fingle
letter of Coluccio did him more mifchief than a body of
athoufand Florentine horfe. In the midit of his public
occupations, he was attentive to the interefts of litera-
ture, which few perfons of his time promoted with more
affiduity. He died in 1406, in the 76th year of his age.
On account of his great merit a public funeral was decreed
to him, and on this occafion the whole city {pontaneoufly
attended, and a garland of laurel was folemnly placed on
his bier. Of his writings, which were numerous, none have
been publifhed, except a treatife «« De Nobilitate Legum ac
Medicine,” a fonnet, fome Latin poems, and two collec-
tions of letters made by Metius avd Rigacci. The letters
contain many curious particulars of the literature and poli-
tics of the time. He wrote a treatife concerning the cor-
ruption of the manufcripts of ancient authors, and the
means of remedying it by the careful collation of different
copies ; and he himfelf colle&ted 600 volumes, which was
a vaft library for the period, confidering that the art of
printing had not been then difcovered. His own compofi-
tions, in profe and verfe, obtained the higheft eulogies from
his contemporaries, who were difpofed to give him rank by
the fide of Cicero and Virgil, to which, by the way, he
had no claim whatever. He was, neverthelefs, a man of
very extenfive erudition, and well acquainted with the litera-
ture then chiefly in efteem. With the Greek language he
was unacquainted, but his reputation as a poet caufed the
Florentines to obtain from the emperor the privilege of
conferring on him the poetic laurel, but from caufes not ex-
plained, this honour, as we have feen, was not beftowed
till after his death.

SALUTATORIUM, in Nunneries, a place where
ie nuns receive the falutation of thofe that come to fee
them.

Salutatorium is alfo ufed for the veftry, or place where
the bifhop was dreffed, and received the falutation of vifitants
before divine fervice. .

SALUTE, an ancient name of a coin made by king
Henry V. after his conqueit in France, on which the arms
of France and England were ftamped and quartered.

SALUTIGERULL among the Romans, were fervants
chiefly employed by the women in carrying falutations to
one another.

SALUTIS Evrxir. See Evixin Salutis.

SALUZZO, in Geography, a town Of France, in the
department of the Stura, late capital of a marquifate in
Piedmont ; fituated at the foot of the Maritime Alps, not
far from the Po, and in fight of mount Vefalius, which
feparates the Maritime from the Cottian Alps. Its fitua-
tion on a hill commands an extenfive profpeét, and renders
the air falubrious. Its ancient palace was once the refidence
of the marquis of Saluzzo, It was elevated into a bilhopric
yi pore Julius II., and depends immediately on the fee
° ome. Befides the cathedral, Saluzzo contains two
churches, and feveral religious houfes. The marquifate
was annexed to the duchy of Savoy in the beginning of

Pp2z the

SA L

the 17th century ; 20 miles S.W. of Turin.
33/- E. long. 7° 29/.

SALUZZUOLO, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Sefia; 18 miles W.N.W. of Vercelli.

SALWARP, a river of England, which runs into the
Severn at Worcetter.

SALWATTI, one of the Papuan iflands, in the Pacific
ocean, near the N.W. coaft of New Guinea, from which
it is feparated by a narrow channel, called ‘* Revenge-
ftrait.””_ This ifland is of an oval form, approaching tri-
angular, about go miles in circumference, populous, and
governed by a raja, but fubje&t to the controul of the
Datch. The people of this ifland and of the neighbouring
one, called Wadjoo, refemble thofe of the main land of
Papua, and are a fingular race, of humble appearance and
great ferocity. They live on fifh, or turtle and fago, the
tree producing this nutritious article of diet abounding in
Papua, but the fubftance is chiefly prepared by the people
of Wadjoo. S. lat. 1° 6! E. long. 131° 15).

SALWEN, a town of Semigallia; 25 miles S.W. of
Seelburg.

SALZ, Suz, Saltz, or Sultz, a fort of brine or
pickle made of falt, diflolved by the coldnefs or moifture
of a celkar.

Satz, in Geography, a river of Germany, which runs
into the Werra, two miles S. of Salz Uffan, in the county
of Lippe. f

SALZA, a river of Baden, which runs into the Rhine,
near Philipfburg.—Alfo, a river of Stiria, which runs into
the Enns, near Reiffling.

Saxza, Great, a town of the duchy of Magdeburg, to
which belong two falt-fprings and 34 falt-pans. The falt
manufactured here, under the direction of a corporation
confifting of the chief proprietors of the falt-works, and
a refident overfeer, is fent by land-carriage to Frofe, on
the Elbe, where it is fhipped off for the falt offices at
Drefden, Meiffen, and other places in the electorate of
Saxony; 12 miles S. of Magdeburg. N. lat. 52°. E.
long. 12°

Sauza, New, a town of Saxony, in the margraviate of
Meiffen ; 19 miles E. of Stolpen.

Saxza, or Sa/zach, a river that rifes in the S. part of
the archbifhopric of Salzburg, on the borders of Tyrol,
and pafling by Hallein, Salzburg, &c. runs into the Inn,
5 miles N.N.E. from the laft-named town.

SALZBURG, a city of Germany, and capital of the
archbifhopric of the fame name, fituated between three
mountains, on the river Salza, which divides the city into
two parts, that communicate by a bridge. This city is
well fortified ; the part to the right of the river being fur-
rounded with eight baftions, and that on the left fide with
three. The mountain-cattle, fituated in the former, is ftrong,
on account of its lofty fituation and its works: this con-
tains the principal arfenal. The ftreets are narrow, and
ill paved, but in other refpeéts the city is well built. The
archbifhop’s palace is {pacious, magnificent, and commo-
dious. Before it is a beautiful fountain, and oppofite to it
another noble palace, called the ** Neuebau,”’ in which the
diet of the country is held, and in which are the meetings
of the feveral colleges, and the archbifhop’s library. The
bifhop’s palace of Chiemfee, the chapter-houfe, and the
apartments for the canons, are elegant buildings. ‘The am-
phitheatre, cut out of a rock, in the W. part of the
city, and 220 feet long, and alfo the ftables on the fide of
the Monehberg, are entitled to particular notice. The
cathedral of St. Rupert, confecrated in 1628, is built of
free-flone and marble; it has five organs, a number of em-

1

N. lat. 44°

SA L

bellifhments, and a grand treafury. The church of St.
Peter is the oldeft in the city, and near it is a monaftery of
Benediétine monks, in which is a fine library. The uni-

verfity church, confecrated in 1707, is alfo a noble build~

ing. The univerfity of Salzburg was founded by arch-
bifhop Paris in 1620. ‘This city is conveniently fituated
for trade ; 69 miles E.S.E. of Munich. N. lat. 47° 47/.
E. long. 13°. p ;

Savzpure is alfo an archbifhopric and principality of
Germany, in the circle of Bavaria, bounded on the N. by
Upper Bavaria, on the E. by Auttria and Stiria, on the
S. by Carinthia and Tyrol, and on the W. by Upper
Bavaria. Its greateft extent from E. to W. is 100 miles,
and 64 from N. to S.
tains and narrow pafles, and confilts wholly of mountains
and vallies.. As no grain is fown here, it derives all its
fupplies of corn from Bavaria; but its hay is of excellent
quality, and affords fubfiftence for breeds of valuable cattle.
Its horfes are highly extolled for beauty, hardinefs, and
vigour. At Hallein, about two miles from the city of
Salzburg, are falt-works, belonging to the fovereign; in
which rock-falt of various colours is converted into the
fineft falt, and in fuch abundance, that the operations of
the fummer feafon furnifh an ample fupply not only for
home confumption, but for all foreign demands. This falt
is exchanged in Bavaria by a compact between the princes
for cora. Here are alfo confiderable mines of gold, filver,
copper, lead, iron, and lapis calaminaris ; and a great quan-
tity of fteel and brafs is manufactured into {words, fabres,
bayonets, mufquets, cannon, and mortars. This arch-
bifhopric contains fix cities, and 25 market-towns. The
peafants being univerfally allowed the ufe of arms are eafily
formed into a military body; and the country being by
oppreffion deprived of its nobility, their eflates are now
in the hands of the church. The only form of religion
that is tolerated is the Roman Catholic ; but Lutherans,
notwithftanding all the attempts of injudicious and intem-
perate zeal to extirpate them, are numerous, In the year
1732, they were perfecuted with fuch violence, that they
obtained leave from the dict to withdraw, and to take
with them their effects: of this indulgence about 30,000
perfons availed themfelves, and removed to the other Pro-
teftant countries of Germany and Pruffia, and even to the
Englifh colonies in America. The favourable treatment
which they received encouraged fubfequent emigrations.
After the extin@ion of the archbifhopric of Magdeburg,

the archbifhops of Salzburg became primates of Germany
without any competition. The lands belonging to this
archbifhopric are of great value; and its annual revenues

arifing from the lands have been eftimated at no lefs than be-
tween three and four millions of guilders. Its military force
confilts only of one regiment of foot, containing 1000 men,
befides 50 halberders, and as many trabants or horfe-guards,
maintained for fupporting the dignity and fplendour of the
court. By an article of the treaty of Campo Formio, the
French republic engaged its intereft to obtain this arch-
bifhopric a the emperor; and by the peace of Luneville.
in 1802, it was fecularized and transferred to the archduke,
who had refigned the duchy of Tufcany. _ At the peace. of.
Prefburg it was annexed to Auftria, and Wurzburg given
to the archduke. \
SALZDALEM, a town of Weltphalia, in the prin-
cipality of Wolfenbuttle, deriving its name from a falt-
work in its vicinity, difcovered in the 13th century. At
prefent it owes its chief diltinction to the f{pléndid and
beautiful feat, built here by duke Anthony Ulrich; 4 miles
N.E, of Wolfenbuttle.
SALZ.-

It is defended on all fides by moun.

4

SAM

SALZ-DELFURT, a town of Weltphalia, in the
bifhopric of Hildefheim ; 8 miles S.E. of Hildefheim.

- SALZ-DER-HELDEN, a town of Weitphalia, in
the principality of Grubenhagen, on the Leine, with a falt-
work; 2 miles S. of Einbeck. .

SALZ-HOMENDORF, or SatzEMMENDORF, a town
ef Weltphalia, in the principality of Calenberg, containing
three falt-{prings, and twelve boiling-houfes, three belong-
ing to the fovereign, and nine to the company. The town
is fubje& to its own magiftracy, and it obtained other rights
and privileges by grant of king George II. in the year
1732; 19 miles W.S.W. of Hildefheim.

SALZKOTTEN, or SottKorr, a town of Weft-
phalia, in the bifhopric of Paderborn, which owes its name
to the falt-fprings found here; 6 miles S.W. of Paderborn.
N. lat. 51° 36!. _ E. long. 81° 22!.

SALZLIEBENHALL, or Sauzeirrer, a town of
Weltphalia, in the bifhopric of Hildefheim, near which are
falt-{prings belonging to the duke of Brunfwick; 11 miles
N. of Goflar.

SALZOLA, atown of Naples, in Capitanata; 6 miles
E.S.E. of Afcoli.

SALZUNGEN, a town of Germany, in the county
of Henneberg, on the Werra, celebrated for its falt-{prings ;
7 miles N.W. of Schmalkalden.

SALZ-USTEN, a town of Weltphalia, in the county
of Lippe, on the Salz, deriving its name from a rich falt-
fpring; 11 miles N. of Detmold.

SALZWEDEL, or SALTWEDEL, a town of Branden-
burg, in the Old Mark, fituated on the Jetze, in a marfhy
foil, and divided into the Old and New Towns by a branch
of the Jetze, each of which has its feparate churches and
magiftracy. It was formerly one of the Hanfe towns.
The principal trade of the inhabitants confifts in brewing
beer, and manufaétures of cloth, ferge, ftockings, &c.
26 miles N.W. of Stendel. N. lat. 52° 40’. E. long.
11° 20).

SatzwepeL, O/d, a town in the Old Mark of Branden-
burg ; 5 miles S. of Salzwedel.

SAM, in Rural Economy, a term ufed provincially to
curdle milk for cheefe, or fet the curd. See Darryine.

Sam-Ground, a term applied to coarfe-ground oats or
barley ufed for fattening different forts of live-ftock, as neat
cattle and hogs, as well as for the feeding of horfes in fome
cafes. It is much ufed in the northern diftri&s. The meal
of this coarfe-ground grain is never fifted, but the whole is
eaten together by the animals. In this way it is found to
anfwer better than when pafled through the fieve for different
purpofes.

SAMA, in Geography, atown of Hindooltan, in Mewat ;
12 miles E.S.E. of Cotputly.—Alfo, a town of Spain, in
the province of Afturias ; 7 miles W. of Oviedo.

Sama, or Schama, a town of Africa, in the diftri@ of
Antz, on the Gold Coalt, where the Dutch have a fort.

Sama, or St. John, a river of Africa, worfhipped as a
divinity by the natives; after traverfing the Gold Coatt, it
difcharges itfelf into the Atlantic, N. lat. 4°51'. E. long.

35
p AMAAB Kung, an ifland in the Red fea. N. lat.
2 19’.

SAMACHINA, a town of Ruffia, in the government

of Irkuth ; 60 miles N.W. of Ilimhk.

SAMACHON, or Amacon, Lake of, in Ancient Geo-
raphy, a lake of Paleftine, near the city of Dan, and the
pring-head of the Jordan, which runs quite through it,
roa lear 100 furlongs N. of the fea of Tiberias or of

According to Pococke it is now no more than

SA M
four miles at its greateft breadth, and in other ‘places not
above two. It is fuppofed to have derived its name from
the thicknefs of its water. Jofephus fays, that the whole
adjacent territory was full of marfhes ; and that the city of
Hazor, where reigned Sabin, one of the kings of Canaan,
was feated upon it, as that of Seleucia hath fince been.

SAMADANG, in Geography, a town of the ifland of
Java, feated on a river, in the interior part of the ifland ;
160 miles S.E. of Batavia. .

SAMADAVA, a town of the Arabian Irak, on the
Euphrates; 115 miles S. of Bagdad.

SAMADERA, in Botany, a barbarous name, Gertn.
V. 2. 352. t. 156. See VITMANNIA.

SAMADET, in Geography, 2 town of France, in the
department of the Landes; 15 miles S. of Mont de Marfan.

SAMADJE, or Samaci, atown of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Irak; 60 miles E.N.E. of Gnerden.

SAMAGALOVA, a town of Ruflia, in the govern-
ment of Tobolfk, on the Tera; 60 miles N. of Kreinfk.

SAMAK, an ifland in the S.W. part of the gulf of
Perfia, about 11 leagues in circumference. N. lat. 26° 40’.
E. long. 48° 35/.

SAMALOUT, atown of Egypt, on the W. fide of
the Nile; 14 miles S. of Abu Girgé.

SAMALUM, in Botany, a name by which Pliny and
fome other authors have called the pul/atilla, or pafque-
flower.

SAMANA, in Geography, an ifland near the E. coaft
of Hifpaniola, 33 miles long, and from feyen to nine broad ;
feparated from it by achannel, called Samana bay. N, lat.
19° 13'. W. long. 69° 12!.

Samana, or Crooked J/land, one of the Bahama iflands,
N. lat. 22° 50’. W. long. 74° 4’.

SAMANAH, or Semanan,. a town of Hindooftan, in
the fubah of Delhi; 85 cofles W. of Delhi, and 42 miles
S. of Sirhund. N. lat. 30° 1'. E. long. 75° 58!.

SAMANAB, atown on the S.E. coaft of the ifland of
Madura. S. lat. 7° 2!. E. long. 113° 58’.

SAMANDRAKI. See Samorrakt.

SAMANEANS, in Antiquity, a kind of magi, or phi-
lofophers, erroneoufly confounded by fome with the Brah-
mins, or Brachmans, who, proceeding from Ariana, a pro-
vince of Perfia, and the neighbouring countries, fpread
themfelves in India, and taught new doétrines. According
to fome writers, the Brahmins, before their arrival, were in
the highett period of their glory ; they were the only oracles
of India, and their principal refidence was on the banks of
the Ganges, and in the adjacent mountains; while the Sa-
maneans were fettled towards the Indus. -Others fay, that
the Brahmins derived all their knowledge from the Sama-
neans, before whofe arrival it would be difficult to prove
that the Brahmins were the religious teachers of the Indians.
The mott celebrated and ancient of the Samanean doétors
was Boutta, or Budda, who was born 683 years before
Chrift. His difciples honoured him as a god ; and his doc-
trine, which confifted chiefly in the tranfmigration of fouls,
and in the worfhip of cows, was adopted not only in India,
but alfo in Japan, China, Siam, and Tartary., It was pro-
pagated, according to M. de Sainte Croix, in Thibet, in
the eighth century, and fucceeded there the ancient religion
of Zamolxis. The Samaneans, or Buddilts, were entirely
deltroyed in India by the jealous rage of the Brahmins,
whofe abfurd praétices and fables they affected to treat with
contempt; but feveral of their books are {till refpeétably
preferved on the coalts of Malabar; and, moreover, we are
told, that feveral of the Brahmin orders have adopted their

manner of living, and openly profefs the greatelt Pi of
their

SAM

their do€trines. L’Ezour Vedam, ou Ancien Comment.
du Vedam, publifhed by M. de S. Croix, Paris, 1779.
See BRAcHMANS, and SCHAMANS.

SAMAR, or SAMAL, in Geography, one of the Phi-
lippine iflands, 120 leagues in circumference, feparated by
a narrow fea from the S.E. extremity of the ifland of
Luson. The foil of this ifland is @xtremely fertile, of eafy
cultivation, and recompenfes the induftry of the agricul-
turi(t at leaft forty-fold ; rice, which, befides other grain, the
Indians fow in great abundance, is wholly appropriated for
the ufe of the parochial clergy, the fettlement of Manilla,
and the governor of the province. ‘The common food of the
natives confilts of a fpecies of potatoe, yams, and a root
named “gaby.’’ Pork is likewife part of their fupply ;
and from the fap of the cocoa, nipe, and cabonegro-trees,
they obtain materials for an excellent fpecies of brandy.
The lait of thefe owes its name to the black colour of its
fibres, which are manufactured into cables, and -different
kinds of cordage. The fubftance of the cocoa-nut is alfo
another article of Indian food. The only inftrument ufed
by the Indians, for the purpofes both of induftry and war,
is a cris, or campilan. Sugar-canes, cabbages, garlic,
onions, melons, Chinefe-oranges, lemons, vegetables, and
feveral other kinds of fruit, little known in Europe, are
cultivated on this ifland. Bees are alfo objects of parti-
cular attention. The woods of Samar fwarm with birds of
almoft every defcription, particularly the common fowl;
and alfo afford, in great plenty, large monkies, roe-bucks,
wild buffaloes, and other quadrupeds. From the folds of
the root of the tall fpecies of the fig-bannan, the natives
manufaéture a fpecies of linen, which is rendered fmooth
and pliable by a preparation of lime ; and the fame fubftance
is ufeful for the purpofes of cordage. The bamboo, which
fhades the rivers, and the nipe and roulan, low fhrubs with
which the woods fupply them, and which anfwer all the
purpofes of nails, ferve for the conftru€tion of their
habitable huts. The inhabitants are faid to be dilftin-
guifhed by their innocent and gentle manners: the deport-
ment of the men is eafy, open and affable; and the women
are gay and lively. Without much propenfity to labour,
they are addiéted to vanity and lying, the only immoralities
which M. De Pages obferved among them. The common
falute between the fexes, and of affegtion among relations,
is here preceded by a gentle afperfion of incenfe on that part
of the face to which the lips are applied. With the cam-
pilan already mentioned, and which is the only edged tool
in ufe among the Indians of Samar, they are dextrous in the
manufacture of the violin and guitar, and alfo in the con-
ftraétion of canvas. To mufic and the mechanic arts they
feem to be peculiarly inclined. The mat is one of the moft
curious productions of art, which they manufacture of ex-
traordinary finenefs, and ornament with defigns and elegant
colours, extraéted from different trees. Silk, cotton, and
the fibres of the fig-bannan, furnifh the Indian with the
raw materials for his beft manufactures in cloth; he makes
a kind of lace, and embroiders his filk ftuffs with furprifing
elegance and addrefs. Every family is provided with a
loom for domeftic purpofes. The natives have a cuftom,
implied in the word ‘maffarer,’’ of cracking the joints,
and rubbing the flefh all over the body, which, as they con-
ceive, tends to promote the free circulation of the blood,
and obviate humours, They alfo rub the limbs of children
with oil ; and inttead of cupping, they ufe fevere pinchings
on the neck and fhoulders, which they continue to exercife
until they have attained their end. They let blood by in-
cifions made in the fkin; and as to phyfic, they are ac-
quainted with the virtues of many flowers, balms, and

SAM

plants, the ufe of which they owe to nature and their own
experience. Their drefs is formed of large trowfers, covered
with a fhirt defcending to the middle of the thigh, anda
handkerchief twifted round the head like a turban; and on
occafions of ceremony they appear with a round hat, and
banyan or bedgown, confilting of filk and cotton. The
women wear an apron, which, after pafling feveral times
round the waift, falls down to the toe, and fome ufe a petti
coat fo fine and tranfparent, that modetty obliges them te
tuck up a corner of it to the fore-part of the girdle, by
which one leg is completely expofed ; their fhift defcende
only to the top of the hip; and the head-drefs refembles
that of the men, excepting only that they roll their hair
high upon the head, fo as to appear like a crown. On ex-
traordinary occalions they wear a gown. The hair of both
fexes is remarkably fine, particularly that of the women ;
they comb it with great care, and anoint it frequently with
oil of the cocoa-nut in order to render it of a deep black.
The nofe is fhort and deprefled; but the writer whofe ac-
count we are citing, did not obferve one ugly or ill-favoured
woman on thefe iflands; the features are fmall, and not
always regular; but they have beautiful eyes, and faces
uncommonly expreflive and interefting. The natives of
Samar have plenty and variety of fifh from their rivers, as
well as the fea-coaft, the latter of which fupplies them
with very elegant pearls. The iron-tree, ebony, and dyein

wood grow in every part of the ifland; and gold-duft is
found in fome quantities in its more interior regions; but
the monks have taken care, from refpeét to the morals of
the people, to take this dangerous branch of traffic into
their own hands. The natives, and efpecially thofe who
refide near the coaft, were formerly Mahometans; but the
miffionary Jefuits have converted them to the religion and
allegiance of Spain. De Pages’ Travels, vol. i. Eng. ed.
N. lat. 11° 15! to 12° 45/. E. long. 124° 15! to 125° §2!.

SAMARA, in Botany, a Linnzan name, apparently
borrowed from Samara, the fruit of an Elm; but we do
not perceive the motive for its application to the genus
which now bears it.—lLinn. Mant. 144. Schreb. 80.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 665. Mart. Mill. Di@. v. g. Ait.
Hort. Kew. v. 1. 263. Juff. 379. (Rapanea; Aubl,
Guian. vi 1. 121. Jufl. 288. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 122.)
—Clafs and order, Tetrandria Monogynia. _ Nat. Ord,
Dumofe, Linn. Rhamni, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Gal. Perianth inferior, minute, in four deep
acute fegments, permanent. Cor. Petals four, ovate, feffile,
with a longitudinal furrow in their lower parte Stam.
Filaments four, awl-fhaped, long, oppofite to the petals,
and funk in the furrow of each ; anthers nearly heart-fhaped.
Pift. Germen fuperior, ovate, half the length of the corolla,
ending in a cylindrical fyle, exceeding its own length;
ftigma funnel-fhaped. Peric. Drupa roundith. Seed foli-
tary.

Eff. Ch. Calyx in four deep fegments. Petals four.

Stamens embraced by the bafe of each petal. Stigma
funnel-fhaped. Drupa with one feed. .
1. S./eta. Bright Samara. Linn. Mant. 199. Willd.

n. 1; excluding Burmann’s fynonym.— Leaves obovate,
obtufe. Flower-ftalks longer than the flowers.—Native of
the Eaft Indies, and of China. A jhrud, or tree, with
many fmooth purplith branches. Leaves alternate,. ftalked,
entire, {mooth, an inch or inch and half long; paler be-
neath. Flowers {mall, yellowifh, many together in axillary
tufts, which are fhorter than the footitalks. Burmann’s
fynonym belongs to a fpecies of Memecylon. His figure,
copied in Lamarck’s ///ufr. t. 74) has the ftamens alternate
with the petals. P

2- oO

|

SAM

2. S. coriacea. Coriaceous Samara. Swartz Ind. Occ.
y. 1.261. Willd. n. 2.—Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, acute.
Flowers nearly feffile—Native of woods, on the mountains
of the fouthern part of Jamaica. Swartz. A tree, whofe
trunk is twenty or thirty feet high; the branches ere@, al-
ternate, angular and {mooth. Leaves longer and narrower
than in the former, acute at each end. Flowers in {mall

tufts, with very fhort ftalks. Fruit the fize of a
pepper-corn. Swartz fays fome individual trees bear male
flowers only.

3. S. pentandra. . Pentandrous Samara. Ajit. n. 1.
Willd. n. 3.—Leaves elliptic-obovate, bluntifh; veiny be-
neath. Flowers five-cleft, with five ftamens.—Native of the
Cape of Good Hope. Introduced at Kew about the year
1770. A greenhoufe forub, flowering in winter. The
faves are three inehes long, coriaceous, rather glaucous,
with tranfverfe veins. FJowers much larger than
either of the preceding, on fhort, thick, tufted ftalks.

4- S. floribunda. Many-flowered Samara. Willd. n. 4.
(Rapanea guianenfis; Aubl. Guian. v. 1. 121. t. 46.)—
Leaves obovate ; not perceptibly veined beneath. Flowers
five-cleft, with five ftamens.— Gathered by Aublet, in
thickets about the favannas of Cayenne and Guiana, bearing
flowers, as well as fruit, in December. A Jbrub, five or
fix feethigh. Leaves larger, broader, and more flefhy, than
in the laft, on broad thick footitalks ; their upper fide fhining,
finely veined; lower opaque, without veins, the midrib
rather lefs prominent than in our third fpecies, with which
Swartz feems to have confounded the prefent. The flowers
are very copious, white, in lateral tufts, on fhortith ftalks.
Fruit violet-coloured, of one cell, but, according to Aublet,
containing five or fix feeds, fo that we prefume the character
of Samara requires amendment ; or elfe that Rapanca of
Aublet is a diftin& genus.

Samara, in’ Botany, and Vegetable Phyfiology, is, ac-
ae to Pliny, the proper appellation of the fruit of the
Elm ; fee his Natural Hiftory, book 16, chap.17. Gertner
therefore ufes this term for a comprefled, fomewhat mem-
branous, capfule, of one or two cells, never fpontaneoufly
buriting, and dilated at the fides or extremity into a leafy
form. The word is liable to the fame exception as Cotyledon,
being ufed for a generic name.

SAMARA, in Ancient Geography, a river of Gaul, now the
Somme, which fee.

SAMARA, in Geography, a river of Ruffia, which rifes
near fort Perevolotikaia, and runs into the Volga, near
Samara, in the government of Simbirfk.—Alfo, a town of
Rufflia, in the government of Upha, at the union of the
rivers Salmifch and Sakmara; 12 miles N. of Orenburg.
N. lat. 53°. E. long. 55° 4'-—Alfo, a town of Ruffia, in
the government of Simbirlk, near the Volga, fituated on a
plain, furnifhed with a ditch and pibitdes, and wooden
towers mounted with cannon for defending it againft the
Tartars ; 76 miles S.S.E. from Simbirfk.’ N. lat. 53° 20’.
E. long. 49° 26/.—Alfo, a {mall river of Ruflia, which
runs into the Volgivod, cight miles from New Mofcow, in
the government of Ekaterinoflav.

SAMARA, a town of the pachalic of Bagdad, near
which are two forts, called Afhouk and Muthouk (the
lover and beloved) about 30 milés from Degel, or the ancient
Apamea. This place became eon fidersble in the ninth
century, as the refidence of feveral caliphs of the houfe of
Abbas. About 400 houfes are the only remaing.

SAMARABRIA, in Ancient Geography, a people of
India, on the other fide of the Indus. Pliny.

SAMARAIN, or Snmin, in Geography, a town of

-yarn, Pacalonga, and Tagal.

SAM

Syria, in the pachalic of Aleppo; 25 miles $.S,W. of
Aleppo.

SAMARAMDA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
India, beyond the Ganges. Ptolemy. :

SAMARANG, in Geography, a town on the N. coaft of
the ifland of Java, and on the E. fide of a river of the fame
name, which takes its rife about three Dutch miles inland,
and falls into the fea about 200 roods below the place,
being at its mouth not more than thirty or forty feet broad.
Before the mouth of this river lies a bank, which is in fome
places compofed of foft mud, and in others of hard fand:
at low water there is fcarcely more than one foot of water
upon it. The tide rifes here, as well as all along the coatt
of Java, only once in twenty-four hours. The fhoalnefs
of the coaft makes the road of Samarang very inconvenient,
both on account of the great diftance at which large fhips
are obliged to lie from the fhore, and of the landing, which
is in a river that cannot be entered be‘ore the half-flood. Sa-
marang is a fortified-town, furrounded by a wall and a
ditch ; it has a very good hofpital, and a public {chool,
chiefly for teaching the mathematics, and likewife a theatre.
Its fortifications, however, are very bad; the walls that fur-
round it being low and ruinous. It has a fmall and neat
church, and a temple of the Chinefe, which is a moderately
large building, with two courts before it ; decorated within
with the gigantic images of their gods, ftrongly gilt, and
exhibiting a fplendid appearance. The warehoufes and
workfhops ftand in a row under one roof, ¢overing a piazza
before them, 300 feet inlength. It has a guard-houfe, and
a government-houfe, formerly the refidence of the governor,
and three canpons or fuburbs, the Chinefe, the Javanefe, and
the Bouginefe. Its garrifon, when complete, amounts to
150 men, befides an independent company of draggons,
under the command of a captain-lieutenant. Samarang is
the feat of the government of Java’s N. E. coaft ; to which
belong all the factories, commonly called refidencies, which
the Dutch company poflefs from Oelopampang, as far as
the province of Cheribon. The fea-coaits belonging to the
government of Samarang extend from Oelopampang to Ta-
gal, 100 German miles in length, and its breadth inland is
different in different parts. It is divided into nine refiden-
cies, wiz. Oelopampang, Sourabaya, Griflee, Samanap
on the ifland of Madura, Rembang, Joana, Japera, Sama-
rang, the chief produce of which diftriét is rice and cotton-
Samarang lies about 230
miles E. of Batavia. The governor of Java’s N. E. coait
has a very lucrative office ; it is eftimated to yield from
80,000 to 100,000 rixdollars, or nearly 20,000/. flerling,
which revenue chiefly arifes from the trade which he is en-
abled to carry on. In 1778, the following goods brought
from Java’s N.E. coaft were fold in Holland, viz. 20,000lbs.
of indigo, at 115. fterling per pound, which coft the com-
pany 2s. gd.; 50,000lbs. of turmeric, and 65,000 lbs. of
cotton-yarn. On the other hand, this colony takes a large
quantity of optum (to the amount of about 136,000/. {ter-
ling annually), filk clothes, India piece-goods, and Euro-
pean manufattures. In 1779, the balance in favour of the
company was about 14,coo/. fterling. 5. lat. 6°57’. E.
long. 110° 39!. Stavorinus’s Voyage, vol. 1i.

€ MARCAND, a celebrated city of Afia, in Inde-
pendent T’artary, the capital of a province in Great Bucha-
ria, called Mawaralaadr, or Samarcand ; fituated in a delight-
ful clime, on a little river named Sogd. It is fuppofed to
be the Marakanda of the ancients. 7h thé time of Alex-
ander it was twelve leagues in circuit, inclofed by a wall,
with twelve iron gates, at the diftance of a league from each

3 other,

SAM

other, and at every interval of two leagues was a fort capable
of containing a body of troops : the walls were ftrengthened
by battlements and towers, and encompaffed by a deep ditch,
through which paffed an aqueduét, that conveyed water to the
city from the {mall mountain-{tream called Sogd, fupplying
every large ftreet with a canal of .water, and every houfe
with a fountain, as well as water for its garden. It was in
this place that Alexander is faid to have murdered Clitus,
and married Roxana. In the year 1220, this city was taken
and plundered by Jenghis Khan. At prefent it is the refi-
dence of a T'artar prince, and carries on a great trade with
Perfia, Hindooftan, Chinefe Tartary, &c. Although lefs
fpacious and magnificent than formerly, and much declined
fince the time of Timour, it is {till large and populous, for-
tified with ftrong bulwarks of earth, containing many fine
buildings, conitructed of ftone from quarries near this place,
and furnifhing various kinds of excellent fruit, fuch as pears,
apples, melons, grapes, and in fuch plenty, as to. fupply
Hindooltan, and great part of Perfia. The filk-paper that is
manufaétured here is the molt beautiful in Afia, and much
valued through the Eaft. This manufaéture is faid to have
been known A.D. 650. The province of Samarcand Mah-
werlaadr, or Mawar-ul-nera (which fee), is fituated E. of
Bucharia, and extends to the borders of Cafhgur, being
being about 500 miles long from E. to W. and 450 from
N. to S. It was formerly full of flourifhing cities, moft of
which are now fallen into decay. . Samarcand is fituated,
aceording to the obfervations of Ulugh Beig, in N. lat.
39° 37! 23", and, according to the ftatement of major Ren-
nell, in E. long. 64° 15). ‘

SAMARIA, in Ancient Geography, a country and town
of Judea. The town was fituated on mount Sameron, called
alfo Samaria, and was the relidence of all the kings of Ifrael
from Omri, its founder, until the overthrow of this king-
dom. All of them contributed to aggrandize and adorn it,
till it became the largeft and ftrongelt town of the kingdom
of Samaria, i. ¢. of the ten tribes of which it was the capital.
It fuftained feveral fieges againft Benhadad, king of Syria,
but that which it refifted againft Salmanazar, king of A{f-
fyria, lafted three years, after which he took it, and utterly
deftroyed the kingdom. (2 Kings, ch. xvi.) The country of
Samaria comprehended the tribes of Ephraim and of Ma-
nafleh, on this fide of Jordan, and its inhabitants were called
Samaritans. (See the article.) Jofephus, in his « Antiqui-
ties,’ fays, that Samaria was captured by Hyrcanus, fon of
Simon, one of the Maccabees, who pillaged it, razed its
foundations, and caufed torrents to overflow its ruins ; but
Aulus Gabinius, proconful of Syria, began to re-eltablith it,
and Herod the Great completed the work, reftored its an-
cient luftre, built here a temple, and called it «* Sebafte,”’
in honour of “Auguftus. (See Senaste.) The city’ of
Samaria is feldom mentioned in.the N.T. otherwife than in
conneétion with the country of which it was the capital.
(See Luke, xvii. 11. John, iv. 4, It is mentioned in A&s,
viii. 1, 2,3.) Samaria is never called Sebafte in the N. T.
though ftrangers hardly know it by any other name.
St. Jerom fuggelts that Obadiah was buried at Samaria.
Here were alfo fhewn the tombs of Elifha, and of St. John
the Baptift. There are many ancient medals ftruck at Se-
bafte or Samaria: and fome bifhops of this city fubfcribed
to the aéis of ancient councils.

SAMARIANA, a town of Afia, in Hyrcania, accord-
ing to Strabo. ;

SAMARIEN, in Geography, atown of Auftria; 6 miles
W. of Horn.

SAMARITANS, an ancient fect among the Jews ;

SAM

{till fubfifting in fome parts of the Levant, under the fame
name. :

Its origin was in the time of Rehoboam; under whofe
reign, a divifion was made of the people of Ifrael inta two
diftinét kingdoms. One of thefe kingdoms, called Judah,
confifted of fuch as adhered to Rehoboam, and the houfe
of David ; the other retained the ancient name of Ifraelites,
under the command of Jeroboam. The capital of the
of thefe latter was Samaria ; and hence it was that they were
denominated Samaritans.

Some affirm that Salmanazar, king of Aflyria, having
conquered Samaria, led the whole people captive into the
remotelt parts of his empire: and filled their places with
colonies of Babylonians, Cutheans, and other idolaters.
Thefe finding themfelves daily deftroyed by wild beafts, it
is faid, defired an Ifraelitifh prieft to inftru& them in
the ancient laws and cuftoms of the land they inhabited.
This was granted them; and they thenceforth ceafed to be
incommoded with any bea{ts. However, with the law of
Mofes, they {till retained fomewhat of their ancient idolatry.
The rabbins fay, they adored the figure of a dove on mount
Gerizim. » As the revolted tribes had no more of the ferip-
tures than the five books of Mofes, fo the prieft could bring
no others with him befides thofe books written in the old
Pheenician letcers, which, upon the return of the Jews, Ezra
changed for the Chaldee, which we now call the Hebrew
letters.

Upon the return of the Jews from the Babylonifh capti-
vity, and the rebuilding of Jerufalem and the temple, the
religion of the Samaritans received another alteration on
the following occafion. One of the fons of Jehoiada, the
high-prieft, whom Jofephus calls Manaffeh, married the
daughter of Sanballat the Horonite; but the law of God
having forbidden the intermarriages of the [fraelites with
any other nation, Nehemiah fet himfelf to reform this cor-
ruption, which had fpread into many Jewifh families, and
obliged all that had taken ftrange wives immediately to part
with them. (Nehem. xiii, 23—30.) Manafleh, unwilling to
furrender his wife, fled to Samaria; and many others in the
fame circumitances, and with fimilar difpofition, went and
fettled under the proteétion of Sanballat, governor of Sa-
maria. Manaffeh brought with him fome other apoftate
priefts, with many other Jews, who difliked the regulations
made by Nehemiah at Jerufalem ; and now the Samaritans,
having obtained an high-prieft, and other priefts of the de-
{cendants from Aaron, were {oon brought off from thé worfhip
of the falfe gods, who were as much enemies to idolatry as.the
beft of the Jews. However, Manafleh gave them no other
{criptures befides the Pentateuch, left, if they had the other
{criptures, they fhould then find that Jerufalem was the only
place where they fhould offer their facrifices. From that time

the worfhip of the Samaritans came much nearer to that of

the Jews, and they afterwards obtained leave of Alexander
the Great to build a temple on mount Gerizim, near the city
of Samaria, ‘in imitation of the temple at Jerufalem, where
they practifed the fame forms of worthip. ;

To this mountain and temple the Samaritan woman of
Sychar refers in her difcourfe with our Saviour, John, iv. 20.
The Samaritans foon after revolted from Alexander, who
drove them out of Samaria, introduced Macedonians in their
room, and gave the province of Samaria to the Jews. This
circumt{tance contributed inno {mall degree to increafe the
hatred and animofity between thofe two people. When any
Ifraelite deferved punifhment on account of the violation of
{ome important point of the law, he prefently took refu
in Samaria or Schechem, and embraced the worfhip at the

temple

s
;
4

SAM

temple of Gerizim. When the affairs of the Jews were
profperous, the Samaritans did not fail to call themfelves
Hebrews, and of the raceof Abraham. But when the Jews
fuffered perfecution, the Samaritans difowned them, and
alleged that they were Pheenicians originally, or defcended
from Jofeph, or Manaffeh his fon. This was their praétice
in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes.
. WNotwithftanding the charge above-mentioned, it is cer-
tain, the modern Samaritans are far from idolatry ; fome of
the moft learned among the Jewith doGtors own, that they
obferve the law of Mofes more rigidly than the Jews them-
felves. They have a Hebrew copy of the Pentateuch, dif-
fering in fome refpe€ts from that of the Jews; and written
in different charaéters, commonly called Samaritan charac-
ters; which Origen, Jerom, and other fathers and critics,
ancient and modern, take to be the primitive charaGter of
the ancient Hebrews; though others maintain the con-
. The point of preference, as to purity, antiquity,
&c. of the two Pentateuchs, is alfo much difputed by the
modern critics. See PeNTATEUCH.

Origen, Jerom, and Epiphanius inform us, that the Sa-
maritans rejeéted all the facred writings, except the five
books of Mofes.

The Samaritans are now few in number; though it is
not very long fince they pretended to have prieits defcended
direGtly from the family of Aaron. They were chiefly found
at Gaza, Neapolis or Schechem (the ancient Sichem or
Naploufe), Damafcus, Cairo, &c. They had a temple, or
chapel, on mount Gerizim, where they performed their facri-
fices. They have alfo fynagogues in other parts of Palettine,
and alfo in Egypt.

Jofeph Scaliger, being curious to know their ufages,
wrote to the Samaritans of Egypt, and to the high-prieit of
the whole fe&, who refided at Neapolis. They returned
two anfwers, dated in the year 998, of the Hegira of Ma-
homet. Thefe anfwers never came to the hands of Scaliger.
bc are now in the library at Paris, and have been

lated into Latin by father Morin, prieft of the Oratory ;
and printed in the colleGion of letters of that father in
England, 1662, under the title of “ Antiquitates Ecclefiz
Orientalis.’? M. Simon has inferted a French tranflation,
in the firft edition of “ Ceremonies et Cotitumes des Juifs,”’
by way of fupplement to Leo de Modena.

In the firft of thefe anfwers, written in the name of the
aflembly of Ifrael, in Egypt, they declare that they cele-
brate the paffover every year, on the fourteenth day of the
firft month, on mount Gerizim, and that he who then did the
office of high-prieft was called Eleazar, a defcendant of
Phinehas, fon of Aaron. At prefent they have no high-

rieft. In the fecond anfwer, whichis inthe name of the

igh-prieft Eleazar, and the fynagogue of Schechem, they
declare, that they keep the Libba in all the rigour with
which it is enjoined in the book of Exodus; none among them
ftirring out of doors but to the fynagogue. They add, that
on that night do not lie with their wives ; that they be-
gin the feaft of the paflover with the facrifice appointed for
that purpofe in Exodus ; that they facrifice no where elfe
but on mount Gerizim; that they obferve the feafts of har-
velt, the expiation, the tabernacles, &c. They add farther,
that they never defer circumcifion beyond the eighth day ;
never marry their nieces, as the Jews do; have but one wife ;
and, in fine, do nothing but what is commanded in the law :
whereas the Jews frequently abandon the law to follow the
inventions of their rabbins.

Atthe time when they wrote to Scaliger, they reekoned
one hundred and twenty-two high-priefts ; affirmed that the
Jews had no ‘i of the race of Phinchas; and that

Vor. XXXII.

SAM

the Jews belied them in calling them Cutheans ; for that they
are defcended from the tribe of Jofeph by Ephraim. The
truth is, the Jews impofe abundance of things on the Sa-
maritans: they frequently confound them with the Saddu-
cees, as if they were infeéted with their errors. . Rabbi
Benjamin, who lived in the r2thcentury, confirms the belt
part of what we have faid of the Samaritans: he obferves,
they had prieits of the tribe of Aaron ; and who never mar-
ried with any but thofe of the fame tribe : that they facrificed
on mount Gerizim, where they had an altar of {tone, raifed by
the Ifraelites after pafling over Jordan. He adds, that they
are of the tribe of Ephraim; that they change their habit
to go to the fynagogue, and wafh before they put it on.

SAMARITAN CharaGers, or Letters. See LutTer and
HeEsrew. ;

Samaritan Medals. Inthe cabinets of antiquaries.we
find fome medals, ufually called Samaritan medals; the in-
{criptions and legends of which are Hebrew ; but the cha-
taéter different from the Hebrew of our bibles, which is
the fquare Hebrew, or Chaldee: and it is hence, viz. from
the character, not from their being ftruck by the Samari-
tans, that they are denominated Samaritan.

Thefe medals have been infinitely canvafled by the critics,
both Jewith and Chriftian, particularly rabbi Alafcher,
rabbi Bartenora, rabbi Azarias, rabbi Mofes, father Kir-
cher, Villalpandus, Waferus, Coringius, Hottinger, father
Morin, Walton, Hardouin, Spanheim, &c.

The learned Jefuit Souciet, in an exprefs differtation on
the Samaritan medals, rejects all Hebrew medals, whofe in-
{criptions are in Chaldee charaters, as {purious ; and allows
of none to be genuine but the Samaritan. Of thefe there
are four kinds. i

The firit bear exprefsly the name of Simon, and the fub-
ject for which they were itruck, viz. the deliverance of Je-
rufalem. The fecond kind have not the name Simoa, but
only the deliverance of Sion, or Jerufalem. The third kind
have neither Simon nor the deliverance of Sion ; but only
the epochas, firft year, fecond year, &c. The fourth clafs
have neither any infcriptions, nor any thing whence one may
judge of the time when they were ftruck.

The three firft kinds were certainly {truck after the’return
from the Babylonifh captivity, and in the time of Simon
Maccabeus, after Jerufalem had been freed from the yoke
of the Greeks. But though ftruck after the captivity,
father Souciet obferves, their charaéter fhews itfelf to be
that of the ancient Hebrew, which was ufed before the cap-
tivity, and the ufe of which was loft by the people, during
their fojourn in Babylon and Chaldza; but was again re-
ftored after their return, on the fame footing as before. He
adds, that the infcriptions are pure Hebrew, fuch as it was
{poken before the captivity: that the charater, therefore,
is the true ancient Hebrew charaéter : that it was the cuf-
tom to write each language in its proper charaéter: that if
they had departed from this rule, they had doubtlefs ufed
the new charaéter they brought with hietn from Babylon :
that there could be no other reafon, but that of fettling all
things on the fame foundation they were on before the de-
tteuBtion of Jerufalem, that could have induced them to ufe
this charaéter on their coins. And, laftly, that thefe medals
were not ftruck by the Samaritans, but by the Jews, and in
Jerufalem.

F. Souciet is very full on all thefe points, and, to the
proofs drawn from medals, he adds two others foreign there-
to: the firft drawn from the refemblance of the Greek let-
ters, introduced by Cadmus the Phernician, with this He-
brew character, which was the fame with that of the Pha-
nicians, as the language of thofe people was the fame with

Qq that

SAM

that of the Hebrews. The fecond, drawn from feveral va-
rious readings in the feriptures, which cannot be well ac-
counted for otherwife than by fuppofing, that the books
written before the captivity were in the fame charaéters with
thefe medals, and which fhew, that it is the conformity
which certain letters have to that chara&er, that has deceived
the copyiits.

From the whole he concludes, that this character of the
medals is the true ancient Hebrew character ; and, that to
judge of the various readmgs of the Hebrew text, and the
differences of the ancient Greek and Latin tranflations, either
from themfelves, or from the Hebrew text, recourfe mutt
be had to this charater. :

Samaritan Chronology. See Sacred CHRONOLOGY.

SaMARiTAN Pentateuch. See PENTATEUCH.

SAMAROBRIVA, Amiens, in Ancient. Geography, 2
town of Gaul, which in the time of Czfar was a place or
paflage over the river, as its name indicates, and in which
were held the ftates of Gaul. It was the eapital of the
Ambiani in the time of the Notitia Imperii, and a place
where arms were fabricated. See AMIENS.

SAMAROVSKOI, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in
the government of Tobolfk ; 176 miles N. of Tobolfk.

SAMARRA, a garment worn by thofe condemned by
the Romifh inquifition to be burnt ; fuch are impenitents,
and thofe who confefs themfelves guilty of herefy, but re-
pent, and renounce their errors behease the execution.

It isakind of frock, made of fackloth, of a faffron co-
lour, and painted with flames pointing downwards ; fome-
times the unhappy fufferer’s picture is drawn to the life on
it, and fometimes devils are painted on it, dragging, as it
were, the perfon along with them to hell: on their frock
there is likewife put the crofs of St. Andrew, of a red co-
lour onthe back and heart : itis otherwife called /ambenito,
or bleffed fackcloth, and famaretta.

SAMARSKAIA, in Geography, a fortrefs of Ruffia,
in the government of Upha; 4o miles W. of Troitzk.

SAMATA, atown of Egypt, on the left bank of the
Nile; 7 miles N.W. of Dendera.

SAMATAN, a town of France, in the department of
the Gers; 17 miles S.E. of Auch. N. lat. 43°29'. E.
long. 1° 1'.

SAMAVAT, called the celeftial city, is a town of the
Perfian empire, in the pachalic of Bagdad, near the Eu-
phrates, about 90 miles acrofs the defart from Mefhed Ali,
containing a population of about 300 Arabs, under the go-
vernment of an independent fheick, who levies exorbitant
contributions on all the pilgrims that take this route to the
holy cities. ‘Lo the fouth of Samavat, the banks of the
Euphrates are uninhabited.

SAMAUMA, a town of Brafil, in the government of
Para; 25 miles S.W. of Para.

SAMBA, a fea-port of South America, in the province
of Carthagena; 30 miles N.E. of Carthagena. N. lat. 10°
40!. W. long. 75° 16/.

SAMBAC, in Botany, an Arabian name. See JASmINUM
and NycTANTHES.

SAMBACH, in Geography, a town of Bavaria, in the
bifhopric of Bamberg ; 4 milesS. of Bamberg.

$A MBACOONG, afmall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea.
N. lat. 4° 6’. E. long. 117° 24!.

SAMBALACA, in Ancient Geography, a.town of In-
dia, on the banks of the Ganges, according to Ptolemy,
placed by D’ Anville N.W. of Palibothra, towards the 27th
degree of latitude.

SAMBALLAS, in Geography, the name of a numerous
clufter of iflands near the coalt of America, in the Spanifh

SAM

main: three of thefe clufters are called «* Cavefas,”’ « Mula-
tas,” and ** Sagua.’? Thefe extend, in a {cattered ftate, at
unequal diftances, alomg the northern fhore of. the ifthmus
of Darien: and moit of them are feparated by navigable
channels, affording occafionally good anchorage in fair andy
ground, and good landing, either on the iflands or the main ;
and alfo good fhelter from the wind. ‘ Thefe iflands cae
mottly low, flat, and fandy, covered witha variety of £
and abounding with various, kinds of fhell-fifh ; and fome of
them fupply {prings of frefh water, and convenient places
for careening fhips. The long channel between the Sam-
ballas and the ifthmus is from two to four miles in breadth,
extending from Point Samballas to the gulf of Darien;
and the coaft of the ifthmus abounds with fandy bays, with
many brooks of frefh water. N. lat. 9° 26. W. long.
78° 25!

SAMBALLAS Point, or Point San Blas, a cape of Ame-
rica, on the N. coat of the ifthmus of Darien. N. lat. 9°
36’. W. long. 79° 14!.

SAMBAN, a town of the Birman empire, on the Ira-
waddy, famous for its iron manufaéture; 8 miles S. of
Meaday.

SAMBARA, the name of a tyrant in Hindoo legends,
dettroyed by Kama, the god of love, in punifhment of in-
dignities offered by him to his wife Reti, a perfonification of
affection, who had been reduced, in one of her avataras, or
incarnations, to the fituation of cook to the tyrant Sam-
bara. (See Retr.) This mythological legend is farther
noticed under our article PrapyaMNna. It is frequently
alluded to in Hindoo poetics, where Kama is called the de-
ftroyer, or foe of Sambara. Thefe epithets occur as names
of the god of love in our articles Kama and RapHa. _

SAMBARRAH,, in Geography, atown of Hindooftan,
in the circar of Bilfah; zomiles E. of Bilfah.

SAMBAS, afea-port town of the iflandof Borneo, and
capital of a kingdom of the fame name, fituated on the W.
coaft, and much frequented by the Chinefe, who carry
piece-goods from Malacca and Johore, in exchange for
gold, pearls, and bees-wax. The land is fertile, and in
fome places diamonds are found. N. lat. 2° 20, E. long.
109°. :

SAMBASTI, in Ancient Geography, a people of India,
near the Indus, who, according to Diodorus Siculus, were
vanquifhed by Alexander the Great.

SAMBATELLO, in Geography, a townof Naples, in
Calabria Ultra; 3 miles N. of Reggio. ‘

SAMBAUOURA, a town of Africa, in Satadoo. N.
lat. 15°55’. W. long. 10° 33’.

SAMBELONG Is.tanps, two or three iflands in the
Indian fea, among the Nicobar iflands, N. of the Great Ni-
cobar. , N. lat..41° 20!. E. long. 100° 36.

SAMBENITO. See Samarra.

SAMBER, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the
circar of Jyenagur, near a falt-lake; 30 miles W. of
Jyepour. Aus

SAMBHA, in Hindoo Mythology, a fon of Krifhna, by
one of his wives named Jambavanti, who, in the extravagant
allegories of that whimfical people, is related to have been
the daughter of a bear, and won by fome ic exploit
on the part of Krifhna. ‘This has been thought conneéted
with fome aftronomical allegory ; Krifhna being the fun.
Several children are {tated to have been the offspring of this
connection. Sambha ftole a daughter of a Kuru rajah,
which gives rife to feveral battles in which the thief is made
prifoner. The differences were healed for the time, but ap-
pear to have laid the foundation of the future wars deferibed

in

j
i

SAM

in the Mahabarat, fee that article ; JamBa, and the three
articles following it.

SAMBHU, a name of Siva, the deftru@tive power of
the Hindoo trimurti, or triad. (See Srva and Triaturti.)
Siva is often called by the name of Sambhu, which 1s faid to
be an abbreviation of Swayambhu, or the felf-exifting. See
SwWaYAMBHU. :

SAMBLANCEY, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Indre and Loire; 10 miles N.W. of
Tours. Wey

SAMBO, in the Hiffory of South America, denotes the
offspring of a Negro man with an Indian woman, or of an
Indian man witha Negro woman. His colour is nearly that
of agrif or cobb, the produce of a Mulatto and Negro.
The Sambo is well formed, mufcular, and able to-endure
fatigue ; but all his faculties and inclinations are directed to
vice. The mere name of Sambo fignifies in the country an
idler, drunkard, cheat, thief, and even an aflaffin. Of ten
crimes that are committed, eight always pertain to this clafs
of Sambos. Depons’ Travels.

SAMBOANGAN, a town on the S.W. coaft of Min-
danao, where the Spaniards have a garrifon of 150 men,
under a military governor. N. lat. 6° 45’. E. long.
122° 11. :

SAMBOROUGH, a fmall ifland near the S. coatt of
Nova Scotia, with a light-houfe. N. lat. 44° 30! W.
long. 63° 32!.

SAMBORS, a town of Auftrian Poland, in Galicia;
42 miles S.S.W. of Lemberg.

SAMBRA, or Samaa, in Ancient Geography, a town of
India, on the other fide of the Ganges. ‘

SAMBRACATE, an ifland of Arabia Felix, in the
Indian fea. Phy.

SAMBRE, in Geography, ariver of France, which rifes
in the department of the Aifne, and joins the Meufe at
Namur.

Sampre and Meu/z, one of the 13 departments of the

ion called the Reunited country of France, compofed
ef a part of Namur, of Brabant, and of Luxembourg,
fituated in N. lat. 50° 20’, and bounded on the N. by the
departments of the Ourthe, Dyle, and Jemappe, on the
E. by the departments of the Ourthe and the Foretts,
on the S. by thofe of the Forefts and Ardennes, and on
the W. by thofe of the Ardennes and Jemappe. Its terri-
torial extent in kiliometres is 4605, or about 229 fquare
leagues, and its population confifts of 165,192 inhabitants.
According to Haflenfratz, its length in French leagues is
20, andits breadth 15. It is divided into four diftriats or
circles, viz. Namur, with 72,682 inhabitants; Dinant, having
375321; Mache, 34,205; and St. Hubert, 20,984; 21 can-
tons; and 488 communes. According to Haflenfratz, the
number of its circles is 4, and that of its cantons 26;
and its population comprehends 150,754 inhabitants. Its
capital is Namur. Its contributions in the 11th year of
the French era amounted to 1,333,152 fr. and its expences
to 223,173 fr. This department is hilly, but moderatel
fertile ; the circle of St. Hubert is almoft covered a |
forefts. It has good paftures, iron mines, and other
minerals.

SAMBROCA, in Ancient Geography, a river of Spain,
in Tarragonenfis.

SAMbU, in Geography, a town of South America, in
the province of Darien ; 42 miles S.W. of St. Maria de
Darien.

SAMBUCA, atown of Sicily, in the valley of Mazara;
32 miles N.N.E. of Sacca.

Samauca, in Ancient Mufical Inflruments. The fambuca

SAM

is faid to have been invented in Syria by a perfon of the name
of Sambicus, and it is pretended that it was ufed by the
firft Sybil; Suidas, however, afferts it to have been invented
by Ibycvs.

Atheneus defcribes it as an acute inftrument with four
itrings. Porphyry pretends that it was of a triangular
form, and that its ftrings were of different lengths, St.
Jerom, St. Ifidor, and many others, affure us that it was a
wind inftrument. How unprofitable, alas! is all the in-
formation we are now able to acquire concerning the mufical
inftruments of the ancients: we are not only ignorant of
their form and fpecies, but even uncertain of their names,
The prophet Daniel is the firft who fpeaks of fymphony as
an inftrument, and of the fambuca, when he defcribes
the magnificence of Nebuchadonofor, at the time when he
commanded every one to fall down and worfhip the. golden
calf. ‘

-Sampuca Lincea, an inftrument of more modern times,
invented in the 16th century by Fabio Colonna of Naples,
defcended from the illuftrious Roman family of that name.
This inftrument had 500 ftrings, and the inventor in defcrib-
ing and recommending its ufe as a perfec inftrument, pub-
lifhed a tract in 4to. at Naples in 1618. It was not only
to exprefs the three genera of the ancients, but to have
diftinG ftrings for the major and minor tones and femitones
of the modern diatonic genera. This impradicable inftrument
has beea defcribed by Merfennus, lib, 6. Harmonicorum,
prop. 13, and Walther has given his divifions of a tone into
five parts, in his plates, tab. ix. fig. 7. i> ;

SAMBUCUS, the name of an ancient engine of war,
ufed by Marcellus in befieging the city of Syracufe.

It was fo big, that Plutarch, in the life of that general,
obferves, two {hips were required to carry it.

Sambucus, in Botany, a generic name occurring in the
works of Pliny and other ancient authors, evidently adopted
from cauCvxr, anin{trument of mufic, * in the conftruétion
of which,” fays De Theis, ‘the wood of this tree, on
account of its hardnefs, was ufed.’? — Linn. Gen. 147.
Schreb. 198. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.1494. Mart. Mill. pa.
y.4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 335. Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth. vy. 1.
207. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2.170. Michaux Boreali-Amer.
v.1. 181. Purfhv.1.129. Tournef.t. 376. Jul, 214.
Lamarck Illuftr. t. 211. Geertn. t. 27. —Clafs and order,
Lawes Trigynia. Nat. Ord. Dumofe, Linn. Caprifolia,
Juff,

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, very {mall,
five-cleft, permanent. Cor. of one petal, wheel-fhaped,
concave, cloven into five, obtufe, reflexed fegments, Stam.
Filaments five, awl-fhaped, the length of the corolla; an-
thersroundifh. Pi. Germen inferior, ovate, obtufe ; ftyle
none, but a {welling gland jn its place; ftigmas three, ob-
tufe. eric. Berry roundifh, of one cell. Seeds three, con-
vex on one fide, angulated on the other.

Eff.Ch, Calyx fuperior, in five fegments.
cleft. Berry with three feeds.

1. S, Ebulus. Dwarf Elder. Danewort. Linn. Sp. Pl.
85° Engl. Bot. t. 475. Curt. Lond. fafc. 3. t. 18.

oodv. Suppl. t. 260. (Xapasmxrns Diofe.)—« Cymes with
three principal branches. Stipulas leafy. Stem herbaceous.’’
Not uncommon throughout Europe in walte places by the
fide of hedges, occafionally occurring in Great Britain, and
flowering in July. Root perennial, creeping. Stems herba-
ceous, finple, ereét, three feet high, brittle, roundifh, fur-
rowed, rough, leafy. Leaves oppofite, unequally pinnate,
dark green, rather {mooth, veined, ferrated ; leaflets unequal
at the bafe, and more frequently glandular. Stipulas ter-
rated, large. Cyme terminal, its branches hairy and many-

QOqg2 flowered

Corolla five-

SAMBUCUS.

flowered. Flowers all ftalked, of a dull blood-red or lilac
colour. Berries globular, purplifh-black, with three, fome-
times four, feeds. The whole plant is extremely naufeous
and violently cathartic, being ftronger and more unpleafant
than the Common Elder. | Moles will not conie where the
leaves of either {pecies are laid, and no cattle will eat the
Dwarf Elder at leaft. The Englifth name Danewort owes
its origin to an antiquated notion that this noxious plant
{prung from the blood of the Danes. }

A variety of this is fometimes obferved, fmaller in all
its parts, and with cut leaves, which is confidered by
Miller as a diftin& fpecies, and called by that author S.

humilis.
2. S. canadenfis.. Canadian Elder. Linn. Sp. Pl. 385.
Mant. 358. Thunb. Japon. 128. “ Schmidt. Arb. t. 142.”

—«‘ Cymes with five principal branches. Leaves imper-
fetly bipinnate. Stem fhrubby.””—Native of North Ame-
rica and -Japan, flowering from June to Auguft. This is
faid to rife twenty feet from the ground in America, but in
our gardens it is feldom more than half fo high. Linneus
confidered it “a middle fpecies between Eéulus and nigra,
having the habit of the latter, but pinnate leaves, with the
lower leaflets ternate, and all more of an ovate form. It
commonly perifhes down to the earth in winter. Cymes and
Stipulas as in the Common Elder, the latter not expanded into
leaflets, as in Ebulus.”—Flowers {mall, f{trong-{melling.
Berries globular, red, the fize of Coriander feed, faid to
be efculent and {weet.—Linnzus, in his Mantifla, hazards a
conjecture that it may be only a variety of S. Ebulus.

3. S. nigra. Common Elder. Linn. Sp. Pl. 385. Engl.
Bot. t. 476. Woody. Med. Bot. t.78. Fl. Dan. t. 545.
(Axzn; Diofce.)—‘ Cymes with five principal branches.
Leaflets ovate, ferrated. Stem a tree.””’—Extremely com-
mon in hedges and groves in all parts of Europe, and par-
ticularly in this country. It flowers in June, and ripens its
berries copioufly in September.—A low buthy tree or /brub,
furnifhed with numerous, oppofite, round, grey, {mocth
pithy branches. Leaves oppofite, unequally pinnate ; leaflets
generally five, fmooth. Stipulas fcarcely any. Cymes ter-
minal, in five principal branches, many-flowered. Flowers
milk-white, fragrant, generally ftalked. Stamens divaricated.
Berries globular, dark purple, {weetifh, but unpleafant to the
tafte in a crude {ftate.

There are two Britifh varieties of the Common Elder ;
one of them with cut leaves, and hence called Parfley-leaved
Elder. The derries of both are whiter and more pleafantly
flavoured than in the original fpecies. They are equally
with that in great repute as affording a moft excellent do-
mettic wine. ‘The properties of this highly ufeful tree are
fummed up in the following compendious, yet fatisfactory,
manner by the author of Englifh Botany, who has moreover
now fuggefted an obfervation to us ‘ that the fummer is efta-
blifhed when the Elder is in flower, and departs with the
ripening of its fruit.’

«This tree is, as it were, a whole magazine of phyfic
to ruftic praétitioners, nor is it quite neglected by more re-
gular ones. Ointments are nate of the green inner bark,
which is alfo a ftrong purgative : the dried flowers infufed
in water are ufed in fomentations, or in tea, though in the
latter capaeity they are weakening to the nerves: the
berries are boiled into a rob, which is really ufeful in fore
throats and catarrhs, and aéts as a gentle laxative in febrile
diforders. The leaves laid into the fubterraneous paths of
the mole drive it away ; and an infufion of them is extremel
ufeful for curious gardeners to {prinkle over the buds aPnieh
flowers as they wilh to preferve from minute caterpillars, as
few infeéts can bear the Elder. The Phalena Sambucaria,

however, feeds on this plant, and the colouring of its deli-
cate wings feems to imitate the bloffoms.”

4. S. gaponica. - Japan Elder. Willd. n. 4. Thunb.
Japon. 125.— Cymes with three principal branches. Sti-
pulas none.’’—Native of Japan.—Stem thrubby. Branches
hollow, {mooth, oppofite, round, fpreading. Leaves op-
pofite, on fmooth ftalks, unequally pinnate ; leaflets in three,
five, or feven pairs, ovate, acute, {mooth, white, and car-
tilaginous at the margin. Cymes terminal, more than twice
compound, trichotomous, without braéteas, compofed of
white fowers. Berries unknown.

- S. racemofa. Red-berried Elder. Linn. Sp. Pl. 386.
Jacq. Colle&. v. 1. 36. Ic. Rar. t. 59.—“ Flowers in com-
pound, ovate clufters. Stem a tree.’?—Native of mountains
in the fouth of Europe, flowering in April. The trunk of this
elegant ¢ree rifes to the height of nine or ten feet. Branches
numerous, grey dotted with white, folid. Leaves oppofite,
ftalked, unequally pinnate, fmooth; leaflets lanceolate,
acute, ferrated, light green. F/owers yellowifh-white, in
thick, terminal, erect cluflers. Berries round, cluttered, of
a brilliant red colour. The feeds, which are greedily de-
voured by little birds, are yellow, and imbedded in an acid
pulp.

Michaux enumerates another {pecies of Sambucus, which
he calls pubens, hinting that it is very nearly akin to race-
mofa.

Samsucus, in Gardening, contains hardy deciduous trees,
with fhrub and herbaceous perennials, of which the fpecies
cultivated are, the common elder (S. nigra) ;- the red-
berried elder (S. racemofa) ; the dwarf elder (S. ebulus) ;
and the Canadian elder (S. canadenfis).

In the firft fort there are varieties with white or green
berries, with variegated leaves ; and the parfley-leaved elder,
which has the leaflets narrower, and cut into feveral fegments,
which are again deeply indented on their edges regularly, in
form of winged leaves; the ftalks are much fmaller, and
the fhoots are fhort ; the leaves have not fo ftrong an odour,
and the berries are a little fmaller. There are alfo the gold-
ftriped-leaved, the filver-{triped-leaved, and the filver-dutted
elder.

The third was formerly called wallwort or walewort,
and danewort, and differs from the firft fort in being herba-
ceous, in having a creeping root, and narrower leaflets,
more numerous, and fometimes lobed. There is a variety
alfo with cut leaves, in which the roots do not creep fo much,
nor the ftems rife fo high: the leaves have feldom more than
feven leaflets, and towards the top only five, longer and nar-
rower than in the above, deeply cut on their edges, and end-
ing with winged acute points.

Method of Culture.—The tirft and fecond forts may be
readily increafed from cuttings, or by fowing their feeds; but
the former being the mott expeditious method, it is generally
aig The feafon for planting the cuttings is any time

rom the autumn to the {pring ; in doing of which, there is
no more care neceflary than to thruft them about fix or eight

inches into the ground, as they take root readily, and ma
afterwards be sintad out where they are to remain, which
may be upon almoit any foil or fituation, as they are ex-
tremely hardy; if their feeds be permitted to fall Yas the
ground, they often produce spa: of plants the fucceed-
ing fummer, They are often planted for fences, on 2c-
count of their quick growth; but as their bottoms become
naked in a few years, as well as for feveral other reafons,
they are not by any means proper for that purpofe. In this
intention, however, the cuttings fhould be planted in one
or two rows, where they are to remain. And if they be
arranged and put in chequer-ways, they will 2 the
‘ ence

SAM

fence ftronger, and more immediately fenceable againft cattle
or other animals. Allfo in all cafes where they are defigned
merely as a fence, they fhould be cut and trained only to a
very moderate height, being afterwards kept clofe and re-
gular by an annual clipping. t

But this fort of plants fhould not ever be planted near
habitations, as at the feafon when they are in flower they are
faid to emit fuch a ftrong fcent as to occation violent pains
in the heads of thofe who abide long near them.

The firit fort fucceeds in any foil or fituation, and the
third is increafed rapidly, wherever it is once planted, by its
creeping roots; the fourth puts out roots from cuttings
almoft aseafily asthe common fort ; but being liable to in-
jury from fevere frofts, it fhould be planted in a fheltered
fituation, and rather dry foil. All the feveral varieties of
thefe plants fhoot ftrong, and are very foft while in their
young growth, but become woody as they advance in age,
which old wood is hard and folid, becoming fit for various
ufeful purpofes.

All the different forts afford diverfity in large ornamental
plantations, the common forts being only thinly introduced.

The fruit of the common fort is frequently made ufe of
for the purpofe of making wine from it. And the bark,
buds, leaves, as well as the flowers, are not feldom em-
ployed medicinally in various intentions with the greateft
advantage.

Samsucus, in the Materia Medica, &e.
and Exper ; and alfo the preceding articles.

SAMBULOR, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of
Afia, towards Mefopotamia, celebrated on account of a
temple dedicated to Hercules. Tacit. Annal. 1. 12. c. 13.

SAMBUNARA, in Geography, atown of Africa, with
a gold mine to which it gives name, in the kingdom of
Bambouk ; 60 miles S. of Galam.

SAMBURGH Heap, a cape of Scotland, at the S.E.
extremity of the ifland of Shetland. N. lat. 59° 44/. E.
long. 1° 39’. :

SAM US, in Ancient Geography, a river of India, which,
according to Arrian, fell into the Ganges.

SAMCOCK, one of the Ladrone iflands, in which fhips
may obtain good water. On the fummit of this ifland is a
heap of granite rocks, from whence there is an extenfive pro-
fpe& of all the paflages leading ike the Ladrones. ‘The
Chinefe pilots look out from thence for veffels coming from
fea towards their ports. N. lat. 22°9'. E. long. 112° 41’.

SAMCUR, a town of Perfia, in the province of Adir-
beitzan ; 87 miles W. of Tauris.

SAME, a town of Cephalonia; 8 miles N.E. of Ce-
phalonia.

SAMEE, a town of Africa, in Kajaaga, on the Senegal ;
20 miles E. of Joag.

SAMEGA,, in Ancient Geography, a city of Judea, taken
by Hyrcanus, according to Jofephus, probably the fame as
the Shema. Joh. xv. 26.

SAMEL Bricks. See Baicx.

SAMEN, in Geography, 2 mountainous province of Abyf-
finia, celebrated for its iron. A large chain of rugged moun-
tains, in which is the Jews’ rock, the higheft eminence,
reaches from the fouth of Tigré down near to Walldwobba,
the low, hot country, that bounds Abyflinia on the north,
It is about 80 miles in length, in few places 30 broad, and in
forme much lefs. It is in great part poflefled by Jews, and
there Gideon and Judith, king and queen of that natien,
and, as they fay, of the houfe of Judah, maintain ftill their
ancient fovereignty and religion from very early times.

See Esutus

Samen, or Gefenay, 1 town of Switzerland, and capital

SAM

of a landvogtey, in the canton of Berne, on a river of the
fame name ; 35 miles E.S.E. of Laufanne.

SAMER, a town of France, in the department of the
Straits of Calais, and chief place of a canton, in the diftric
of Boulogne ; two pofts S.S.E. of Boulogne. The place
contains 1608, and the canton 9652 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 200 kiliometres, in 19 communes.

SAMEREIN, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 4 miles
N. of Knitterfeld.

SAMERIUS, Henry, in Biography, a learned Jefuit,
was born at Manche, a {mall city in the duchy of Luxemburg,
in the year 1540. He entered the fociety at the age of 21,
in their college of Cologne, and during the progrefs of his
{tudies became diltinguifhed for a deep knowledge in hiftory
and chronology. Le was well qualified for the duties of a
miflionary into Proteftant countries, by the addrefs with
which he could affume a borrowed charaéter. It wason this
account, that, when Mary queen of Scotland, then a prifoner
in England, hadexpreffeda defire to havea prieft ofthe Jefuits?
order to attend upon her, he was fent into this country in
the chara&ter of a phyfician. Under this difguife he gained
accels to that princefs, and attended her fome years, acer
ing privately as her confeflor. At length he had fome
reafon to believe, that the agents of Elizabeth began to fuf-
pect him, and he made his efcape to the continent. After
this he was fent as a miflionary into the United Provinces ;
where, on the capture of Steenwyck, in Overyffel, by the
Englith auxiliaries in the year 1592, he was difcovered and
thrown into prifon. Through the grace of count Maurice
he obtained his liberty, and permiffion to retire to his native
country. He died at Luxemburg in 1610, in the 7oth
year of his age. As an author, his chief work was en-
titled «* Chronologia Sacra ab orbe condito ufque ad
Chriftum natum,”1608. This work is faid to poflefs the
merit of correéting a vaft number of errors which had been
made by preceding writers. Gen. Biog.

SAMGANOODKA Hanrzour, in Geography, a har-
bour on the N. coaft of the ifland of Oonala ka, in the
North Pacific ocean. N. lat. 53° 55'. W. long. 166° 30.

SAMGUNGE, a town of Bengal ; 20 miles S.E. of
Tflamabad.

SAMI, in Botany, the Sanferit name of the Adenanthera
aculeata, of the wood of which the Brachmans, who de-
vote themfelves to the prieftheod, are in certain fe&s con-
{trained to kindle a fire by the procefs of attrition. This
is done on entering their facerdotal office by means of a
fimple machine called Arani, which is thus conitru€ted and
ufed: a piece of plank of a foot in length, and half that in
diameter, has a {mall conical hole or focket in the upper
fide, into which is introduced the end of a pin, about a feot
long and an inch in diameter, the other end of which forms
a moveable handle: this is held fteady in the left hand of the
operator, who with a bow, having its ftring twice wound
loofely round the upright pin, twirls it quickly backwards
and forwards with his right hand. The pin and focket fitting
clofely, the attrition of the two pieces of hard wood foon
produces fire. The flat piece of wood is ufually laid on the

round, or floor, previoufly purified by a plaftering of cow-
i and appropriate prayers, &c. and fteadied by the foot
of the operator, as well as by the preffure of the upright
pin. Every officiating Brachman, it is faid, ought to offefs
one of thefe machines, with which to light the fire Fr his
own funeral pile, as well as for his nuptial ceremonies and
the obfequies of departed anceftors, and for the performance
of folemn facrifices. See of this under the articles SAONIKA
and Srapua.

The important element of fire t moft myftically con-

7 templated

SAM

templated by the enthufiaftic Hindoo, who in its phenomena
fees profundities without end; and from his pronenefs to my-
thologize every thing, has furrounded the regent or perfo-
nification of fire, Pavaka, with a vat mafs of allegory,
phyfical, theological, aftronomical, &c. including what ap-
pears to our prefent perceptions whimfical and ridiculous.
Fire being a fymbol of the fun, and the fun of their
fupreme being, Brahm, and of his prefervative and deftruc-
tive energies, perfonified in Vifhnu and Siva, a myftic has
vaft fcope for his enthufiafm in contemplating the phenomena
of this all-pervading element. Under our articles 0’, Pa-
VAKA, a name of Agni, the igneous god, PARVATI, SIVA,
Surya, and others thence referred to, inftances of this exu-
berance will be found.

It may be here obferved, that fire being fo curioufly,
and, to the ignorant, fo wonderfully produced, by the
operation of the Arani, that the inftrument and the procefs,
as well as the produét, are objects of admiration and fuper-
ftition. Volumes of legends might be produced from the
Puranas, and other romantic works, of continued igneous
allegory. Siva, as well as Pavaka, being a perfonification
of Bre, and a cone being its type, as the form naturally af-
fumed by afcending flame, that figure is alfo a type of Siva.
The pin of the Arani terminates in a cone ; but an inverted
cone is a fymbol of Vifhnu, who, as well as fire, is alfo a
pertatibiccas of water, which, in its natural property of
defcent, affumes the fhape of an inverted cone. Thus this
part of the Arani reminds the myftic of Siva, as well from the
form of its termination, as from its ereé pofition ; and alfo
of Vifhnu from the pofition of its cone: but principally of
Siva, whofe peculiar emblem the linga, or phallus, is thus
doubly exhibited in both form and pofition ; while the other
portion of the Arani, the hollow conical receptacle, is no
lefs ftriking to fuch vifionaries, as the figure of the facred
Yoni, the moft myfterious of forms, the fymbol of the
Sakti, or confort of the generative Siva, Of thefe wild
allegories, thefe ‘loves of the triangles,”’ the enquirer will find
further inftances under the articles Linea, Your, and Merv,
the latter being a je re poe mountain; and as all fuch
mult, when infulated, be of a conical or pyramidal form, it
is, with all fuch mountains or hills, and all pyramids and
cones, fymbolical, like the phallus of the Greeks, of Siya,
the Jupiter generator of the Hindoo Pantheon.

The produce of the fi€tion of two fuch cones is thus molt
myfterious, and is in the eftimation of the Saktas, or adorers
of, the female principle, facred to the confort or energy of
Siva, (fee SaAxra,) who is hence worfhipped under the
name of Sami, or Sami-devi, meaning the goddefs of the
Sami tree. Another of her names is Rami; and thefe two
names joined, as they are in fome mythological legends,
produce, as nearly as etymologifts can expect, the Semiramis
of the Greeks; and in truth there are many coincidences
in the tales of the heroines, as well as fimilarity in their names.
See Sami-pevi, and Rami.

In the article Parvati is mentioned under what a variety
of names that multiform goddefs is worfhipped. Being a per-
fonification of nature, fhe is almoit as varied as her archetype.
It is mentioned alfo, that under many of her names and at-
tributes fhe clofely refembles the Juno of the Greeks.
Samos was the reputed birth-place of the latter, and was
peculiarly facred to her, and fhe was hence called Samia.
Parvati, in Aer name of Samia, is annually recalled to life
by ceremonies erformed to her honour under the Sami tree,
a fpot peculiarly facred to her. In the evening of a parti-
cular day, fet apart for thefe ceremonies, fires are there
lighted, offerings are made of rice and flowers, and fometines
of fpirits ; the votaries fing her praife, and in praife of the

4

SAM

tree ; fome of the leaves of which, and fome of the earth
from the confecrated f{pot, are carried home, and kept till the
feftival of the enfuing year.

A fynonime of the Sami, is Siva, and it is facred of courfe —

to the united pair. Saktaphala, or the flower of the Sakta,
is another. Babul is a vulgar name by which it is commonly
known. The gum of this {pecies of mimofa is more tranf-
parent than that of the Nilotic or Arabian. Another
{pecies is called Ladjalu, meaning the modef or bafbful: this
is, of courfé, our fenfitive plant. See Lapsa.

Sami, in Geography, a town, or rather a {mall village, of
Africa, in the kingdom of Ludamar ; 84 miles E. of Be-
nowm. It is fituated within two days’ journey of Goomba,
the frontier town of Bambara.

Sami [furam, a pafs of Hindooftan, from the Carnatic
to the circar of Cuddapa, on the N. fide of the river Pennar ;
16 miles N.E. of Cuddapa. .

SAMIA Terra, inthe Materia Medica, an earth of the
marle kind, found in the ifland of Samos, and much ufed
both in medicine and in the pottery of the ancients.

It is of two kinds, a white dull-looking one, called the
collyrium Samium, and a brownifh and glittering one, called
the afler Samius.

The collyrium Samium is ftill to be found in the place from
whence they had it, and from whence it has its name; and is
a very fine and pure earth, of a clofe, equal, and regular
texture, and yet remarkably light. It is of a fine bright
white colour, and of a {mooth, even, and glofly furface.
It is foft to the touch, adheres firmly to the tongue ; it is
eafily broken between the fingers, and does not at all ftain
the hands ; but drawn along a rough furface, leaves a fine
clean white line. It melts flowly in the mouth, and does
not ferment withacids. Thefe are the charaéters by»which
it is to be diftinguifhed from the white earths ; to which may
be added its manner of lying in the earth; which is not, as
that of moft of the other earths, in a continued ftratum, or
bed, but in the perpendicular fiffures, and horizontal
cavities in the {trata of ftone, in the manner of the European
earths, called the medulle favorum, but in fubftance very
different from them all. .

The other kind of Samian earth, called afer Samius, is
{till found in the place from whence they had it, and lies in
the fame manner in which they have defcribed it, in a hori-
zontal cavity between two rocks.

It is a loofe, lax, and crumbly earth, of a mixed colour,
between a dufky white and a pale brown, and all over
fpangled with {mall glittering particles. It is of a loofe and
incoherent ftru€ture, bat ufually breaks away into flat
pieces, and feems fomewhat of an ob{curely laminated make.
It is of a dry dufty furface, falls to pieces very readily
between the fingers, and though it duits the hands, does not
at all {tain them. It melts very readily in the mouth, and
when thrown into water parts immediately, with a hifling
noife, into a number of flaky pieces, and from thence
moulders into a loofe powder. It makes no effervefcence
with acid menftrua, and when its glittering particles are
feparated, and ftriétly examined, they are found to be fo
many thin flakes of that fpecies of foflils called /elenites.

This, as well as the other fpecies, or collyrium, was pre-
pared by calcination and wafhing, and ufed by the ancient
phyficians internally in fluxes and hemorrhages, and ex-
ternally in inflammations. ‘Thefe were alfo fome of the moft
valued earths in the Roman pottery.

There is alfo a Samian flone, Aso; Sxuios, taken out of the
mines in the fame ifland. It is white, and fticks to the
tongue when applied to it; it is held aftringent, and cool-

ing 3

salted

ee

2 eal? Dele. 5

ae

eae

SAM

ing ; and is alfo ufed by the goldfmiths to burnifh their gold,
and give it a greater luitre. aaigay

SAMIARII, among the Romans, were a kind of fur-
bifhers, who, with Samian earth, polifhed the arms of the

rxtorian foldiers, and emperor’s life-guards.

SAMIAVERAM, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,

in the Carnatic ; 10 miles N. of Tritchinopoli.
- SAMICUM, in Ancient Geography, a territory in Tri-
phylia, fituated near the coafts, N.W. of Lepreum. Near
it are a temple of Neptune, held in great veneration, and
two grottoes, confecrated, the one to the nymphs “ Affi-
grides,” and the other tothe « Atlantides.”

SAMI-DEVI, in Mythology, a name of the Hindoo
goddefs Parvati, meaning the goddefs of the Sami tree,
under which fhe is annually worfhipped, with appro-
priate ceremonies, as mentioned under the article Sam.
She is alfo called Sami-Rami, whence, and from other coinci-
dences, fhe has been thought the fame with the Semiramis of
the Greeks. Her appearance in this chara¢ter arofe from a
mutilation of her fpoufe Mahadeva, or Siva, who, by the
imprecation of an offended Muni, was deprived of his linga
or phallus ; and her wanderings and lamentations on this oc-
cafion have reminded an ingenious etymologift (Mr. Wil-
ford, fee Afiatic Refearches, vol. iv.) of the wanderings
of Dematur, and the lamentations of Bacchus, as noticed in
the latter part of the fecond column. of our article Munt.
The world being thus deprived of its vivifying principle,
generation and vegetation were at a ftand; gods and men
were alarmed ; and having difcovered the caufe of it, fearched
for, and found, the facred linga, grown to an immenfe
fize, and endowed with life and motion. Having wor-
fhipped the facred pledge, they cut it into thirty-one pieces,
each of which, polypus-like, became a perfect linga. The
Devatas, or gods, left one and twenty of them on earth,
carried nine to heaven, and one to the inferior regions, for
the benefit of the inhabitants of the three worlds. To
fatisfy Devi, and reftore all things to their former fituation,
Mahadeva was born again in the chara¢ter of Balefwara, or
Ifwara the infant; but fuddenly became a man, under the
title of Lilefwara, or Ifwara who gives delight ; and after
various adventures met his confort, then in the chara¢ter of
Sami-Rami, who, by the fweetnefs of her voice, in chanting
her own metamorphofis and that of Lilefwara, attraéted
the notice of her former and future fpoufe, in his prefent
charatter, till now entirely indifferent to the female fex.
The goddefs foon became Lilefwara, and happily re-united
to her lord? Under our articles Iswara and Lireswara,
fome particulars conneéted with thefe names of the Hindoo
god and goddefs will be found; and under almoft all, at
any rate under fome hundreds of the articles of this work,
relating to the mythology of Egypt, Greece, Italy, and
India, fomething may be difcovered having reference to
them under fome one or other of their various names, attri-
butes, incarnations, or adventures.

SAMIE’, in Geography, a town of Thibet; 24 miles
8. of Laffa.

SAMIEN, a {mall ifland in the North fea, near the
coaft of Lapland. N. lat. 68° 42’.

SAMILITAM, a river on the W. coal of New
Mexico, 12 miles from Point Artila on one fide, and fix
farther to Copalita river. At its mouth is an Indian town,
where a fhip’s company may find provifions and freth water.

SAMINGAVA, a town OF Fapats in the ifland of
Xicoco ; 22 miles S.W. of Ovutfi.

SAMINTHUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Peloponnefus, on the confines of the Argolide and Laconia,
according to Thucydides.

SAM

SAMIR, a town of Paleftine, in the mountains of the
tribe of Judah, according to the book of Jofhua.

SAMIRA, or SeRRAMENRAI, in Geography, a town
of the Arabian Irak, on the Tigris, built by the caliph
Motaflem VIII., and made the place of his refidence.
Scarcely any thing of notice remains in this decayed town
but its mofque, to which pilgrims frequently refort ; 79°
miles N.N.W. of Bagdad. N. lat. 34° 20!. E. long.
43° 7'-

SAMI-RAMI, in Mythology, a name of the Hindoo
a Parvati, which fee ; fimilar, perhaps, to Sami-devi ;
ee that article.

SAMISAT, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in the government of Marafch, on the Euphrates; 30 miles
E. of Marafch. N. lat. 37° 10!.. E. long. 37° 20’.

SAMISENA, in Ancient Geography, a country of Afia,
in Galatia, towards Bithynia, according to Strabo.

SAMLAND, in Geography, a province of Pruffia,
bounded on the N. by the Baltic and the Curifch Haff, on
the E. by Pruflian Lithuania, on the S. by Natangen, and
on the W. by the Baltic ; about 70 miles long, and 20 broad ;
abounding in large foreits and lakes, with a foil generally
fandy, and principally producing barley and rye. The
forefts-abound with junipers, and the lakes with fith. Its
capital is Konigfberg.

SAMLET, Satmutus, in Ichthyology. See Samo.

SAMMA, in Geography, a town on the S. coaft of the
ifland of Bourro. S. lat. 3° 50’. E. long. 127° 15/.

SAMMADE, a town of France, in the department of
the Landes; 9 miles S.S.E. of St. Sever.

SAMMAEL, in Fabulous Mythology, an evil angel,
who, as the rabbins pretend, deceived Eve, mounted on
the old ferpent; they add, that he is the angel of the dead,
the prince of the air, and the chief of the demons. Other
rabbins reprefent him as the prince of the angels, and be-
lieve that ke is to prefide at the laft judgment; on which
account they prefent offerings to him on the day of folemn
expiation, to appeafe his anger.

SAMMAN, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the
province of Nedsjed ; 120 miles S.S.W. of Cathem.

SAMMANGER-FIOERD, a bay of the North fea,
on the coaft of Norway, 16 miles long, and 14 wide; its
entrance is 12 miles S. of Berghen.

SAMMARTINO, a town of Italy, in the department
of the Mincio; 11 miles W. of Mantua.

SAMMATTI, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Nyland; 24 miles N. of Eknas.

SAMMEE, a town of Africa, in Bambara; the largeft
on the banks of the Niger. N. lat. 14° 4/. W. long.

Mia gls

SAMNITES, in Antiquity, an order of gladiators, armed
by the Campanians after the fathion of the country of the
Samnites. They wore a fhicld broad at the top, to defend
the breatts and fhoulders, and growing more narrow toward
the bottom, that it might be moved with the greater con-
venience; they had alfo a fort of belt coming over their
brealts, a greave on their left foot, and a crefted helmet on
their heads. Livy, lib. ix.

Samnites, a confiderable people of Italy, who in-
habited the country called Samnium ; which fee. They were
defcendants of the Sabines, and Strabo fays exprefsly that
they were called Sabellins, and that the Greeks called them
Samnites. From them proceeded the Hirpini, Lucani, and
Brutii. The Samnites were, like the Sabines, fram whom
they fprung, a warlike people; and engaged in frequent
contelts with the Romans, In the year of Rome 420,
they attacked the Sidicini, a people of Aufonia, on ae

other

SAM

other fide of the Liris, but upon their recurring for fuccour
to the people of Campania, the Samnites turned their arms
againit the latter, who, being an effeminate people, were
defeated in two pitched battles, and their metropolis Capua
was befieged. The Campanians, thus diftrefled by the Sam-
nites, furrendered themfelves and their country to the Roman
republic. The Roman fenate interpofed, and difpatched
ambafiadors to intreat the Samnites, as friends, to. {pare a
province which belonged to Rome. The Samnites, how-
ever, paid no regard to the meflage, but prepared for
ravaging Campania. This infult incenfed the Romans, who
declared war againft them. The fucceeding conteit was
fevere ; and though the Samnites were defeated by the
conful Valerius, the Romans owned that they had never
engaged with a more intrepid enemy ; nor would they have
known that they had gained the victory, if the Samnites had
not deferted their camp in the night, and abandoned it to the
conquerors.. In a fubfequent engagement, the Romans,
under the command of Decius, obtained a complete victory,
and plundered their camp, after having cut in pieces above
30,000 of the enemy. The Samnites having raifed new
forces, appeared before Sueffulo, a town fituated between
Nola and Capua; but they were again defeated by Valerius
with great lofs. Notwithitanding repeated defeats, the
Samnites renewed their hoftilities ; and under the command
ef Pontius, an experienced and able officer, gained fo
decifive an advantage over the Romans, that they were con-
firained to fue for peace. At length the conful fignified to
the Samnite general, that they intended to lay down their
arms, and pafs under the yoke. This intimation was fol-
lowed by a conference, the refult of which was, that the
Romans promifed to quit Samnium, to evacuate the places
where they had planted colonies, and to fuffer the Samnites
to live in peace according to their own laws. In order to
fecure the performance of this convention, the Samnites de-
manded 600 Roman knights as hoftages, with this con-
dition, that they might cut off their heads, if the republic
did not perform the conful’s promifes. As foon as the
terms were made known, forrow and rage filled the hearts of
the Roman foldiers ; but whilit the legions were lamenting
their hard fate, the confuls paffed firft under the yoke,
{tripped of their habits, and half-naked ; the inferior officers
followed according to their rank, and at laft the foldiers,
one by one. The Samnites infulted them as they paffed ;
and if any Roman returned merely a fierce look, he was
immediately knocked down or killed. The Romans declared
this treaty null; and foon formed an army confifting almoft
wholly of volunteers, burning with rage againit the Sam-
nites ; and having marched from Rome to the neighbourhood
of Caudium, where their army had fuffered Sieace they
prepared to furrender the officers in due form to the Sam-
nites. But preferring an open war to this aét of vengeance,
and demanding a fulfilment of the treaty, they releafed the
hoftages, and defired them to return, unmole(ted, to their
camp. The Romans renewed the war; and the Samnites
having furprifed Fugellz, a Roman colony, offered quarter
to all who fhould lay down their arms; upon which many
fubmitted; but the Samnites not thinking themfelves
obliged to keep their word with any of the Roman name,
caufed all who had furrendered to be burnt alive. The
Samnites fuffered a difaftrous defeat at Apulia, and few of
them efcaped alive. At length Lucania, whither the Sam-
nites had retired, was taken, and Papirius, afterwards
conful, infifted that all the foldiers in the place, to the
number of 7000, fhould, unarmed, and with one garment
each, pafs under the yoke, and Pontius at the head of them.
Thefe conditions were accepted, and the Rémans had the

SAM

pleafure of retaliating upon Pontius and his Samnites, the
ignominy which he had made them and their confuls un-
dergo at the Caudine forks. They alfo recovered the hof-
tages which had been delivered up to the Samnites, as fe-
curities for the executior of a fhamefultreaty. After feveral
fucceffive defeats, the Samnites obtained a renewal of their
alliance with Rome; neverthelefs they foon renewed their
hoftility ; and having fuftained great lofs both of men and
territory, they were at length driven out ‘of their own
country, and took refuge in Hetruria. Uniting with the
Hetrurians, Umbrians and Gauls, they prepared for war
again{t the republic, and were defeated by Fabius and At-
tilius, &c. in feveral engagements. The war with the Sam-
nites having furnifhed the Roman generals with 24 triumphs,
counterbalanced by many fevere loffes of men and money,
the republic became tired of engaging the fame enemy ; and
therefore confented, in the year of Rome 467, to enter
into an alliance with them for the fourth time. In the year
of the city 486 the Samnites loft all in a fingle battle, and
thus terminated a bloody war, which had latted 72 years,
and procured for the Roman generals 30 triumphs.

We know nothing of the language of the Samnites, ex-
cept from two medals, bearing two infcriptions. On the
one isa head, probably that of a chief, with ‘ Embratur,”’
denoting, in Latin, ‘Imperator ;’’ and on the other is the
word “ Saminius,’”? which Pellerin takes for the name of the
Samins.

Strabo informs us that no father of a family could difpofe
of his children in marriage at his own pleafure; but the
ftate chofe ten beautiful young females and ten comely and
virtuous young men. The moft diftinguifhed of the latter
married the molt beautiful of the former, and thus in fuc-
ceffion till the whole number was difpofed of.

SAMNIUM, in Ancient Geography, a country of Italy,
the central part of which is part of the Apennine, between
the Marfi and Peligni to the N.W..,. the Frentani to the E.,
Apulia to the S.E., Lucania to the S., and Campania to
the S.E. Its limits, however, have varied at different
periods, and have. been differently ftated by geographers.
The principal rivers of Samnium were the Sagrus, which
ran to the eaft; the Vulturnus, which purfued a fouthern
courfe for a confiderable interval, and then ran weftward
into the fea; the Trinius and Tifernus, which flowed eait-
ward into the Adriatic fea; the Tamarus, &c. Its prin-
cipal towns were Alinum, /&fernia, Alife, Bovianum,
Caudium, Sapinum, Volona, Palumbinum, Aculanum,
Cominium, Romalea, Aquilonia, Morgantia, Ferentum,
and Beneventum.

SAMOCRAT, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the
welt branch of the Nile; 6 miles S. of Faoué.

SAMOIEDES.. See Samoyenes.

SAMONIUM Promonrorium, in Ancient Geography,
a promontory on the eaftern part of the ifle of Crete, ac-
cording to Ptolemy. It is called «¢ Samonium Orientale”
by Strabo and Mela, and “ Sammonium’’ by Pliny.

SAMOENS, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Leman, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri@ of Bonneville; 34 miles W. of Geneva. The
place contains 3129, and the canton 5569 inhabitants, on
a territory of 1924 kiliometres, in 4 communes. p

SAMOGITIA, a province of Poland, bounded on the
north by Courland, on the eaft by Lithuania, on the fouth
by Pruffia, and on the weft by Pruffia and the Baltic;
about 150 miles long, and go broad. This country for-
merly belonged to Lithuania, and, together with that pro-
vince, was.governed by one duke or fovereign, or formed
an eligarchy, In the year 1304 Samogitia was ceded he

¢
“

SAM

the Teutonic knights, from whom it was taken within
about four years. In 1411 the knights were promifed that
it fhould revert to them, after the death of king Uladiflaus
Jagello, and the great duke Alexander. In the year 1413
the inhabitants embraced the Chriftian religion; and a
bifhop’s fee, with other ecclefiaftical offices, was erected in
this duchy. The country is woody, and has many fertile
fpots. Its cattle are numerous, and its horfes are excellent.
Its forefts abound with bears andelks. Bees are much cul-
tivated, and yield a great quantity of honey and wax. The
inhabitants are robuit and clownifh, but reprefented as
honeft and juit in their dealings. A fingular cuftom is faid
to prevail here, which is, that no young woman is permitted
to walk abroad in the night without a light in the hand,
and two bells at the girdle. The province is fubdivided
into 25 diftriéts: its chief towns are Rofienne and Med-
niki. .

SAMOLUS, in Botany,.a:name in Pliny, for a plant
ufed by the ancient Gauls to cure difeafes of oxen and
hogs; hence, according to De Theis, its name is derived
from /an, falutary, and mos, a hog. Others have fuppofed
the herb in quettion to be a native of Samos, in which ifland
Valerandus, a botanift of the time of the Bauhins, is faid to
have gathered what is now called Samolus Valerandi, but
which it would be difficult to prove that of Pliny.—Linn.
Gen. 89. Schreb. 119. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. g27. Mart.
Mill. Di&. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 259. Ait. Hort. Kew.

v. I. 365. Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 428. Juff.
97- Tourn. t. 60. Lamarck Iiluftr. t. ror. Gertn.~
t. 30. (Sheffieldia; Forft. Gen. t. 9. Juff. 96. Labill.

Noy. Holl. v. 1. 40.)—Clafs and order, Pentandria Mono-
gynia. Nat. Ord. Precie, Linn, Lyfimachie, Jufl. Pri-
mulaceis affine, Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth half fuperior, in five deep,
ereét, permanent fegments. Cor. of one petal, falver-
fhaped; tube fhort, wide, the length of the calyx; limb
nearly flat, in five deep, obtufe fegments, with five inter-
mediate, converging fcales at their bafe. Stam. Filaments
five, fhort, oppofite to the fegments, and inferted at their
bafe; anthers converging, concealed by the fcales. Pi/.
Germen half inferior; {ttyle thread-fhaped, the length of
the ftamens; Higma capitate. Peric. Capfule ovate, en-
compafled by the calyx, of one cell, {plitting half way into
five valves. Seeds numerous, fmall, ovate, inferted upon a
large, globofe, central receptacle.

Ei Ch. Corolla falver-thaped, five-cleft, with five in-
termediate fcales. Stamens inferted into the tube, oppofite
to each fegment. Capfule half inferior, of one cell, with
five teeth.

Obf, Mr. Brown elfteems the five {cales to be imperfect
ftamens. ;

1. 8. Valerandi. Common Brookweed, Water Pimper-
nel. Linn. Sp. Pl. 243. Willd. n. 1. Ait. no 1. Br.
mn. 1. Purhh v. 1. 158. Fl. Brit. n. 1. Engl. Bot.
t. 703. Curt. Lond, fafc. 4. t. 20. Fl. Dan. t. 198.
Bauh. Hift. v. 3. 791. (Anagallis aquatica rotundifolia ;
Ger. Em. 620.)—Stem ereét. Leaves all obovate or ob-
long, obtufe. Clufters corymbofe. Braéteas about the
middle of the flower-ftalks. Capfule nearly globofe.—Na-
tive of watery places in moft parts of Europe, as well as of
North America, Afia, and Africa, flowering in fummer.
A pale, {mooth, rather fucculent, perennial Al about a
foot high, with entire /aves; and copious, {mall, white,
inodorous flowers. The capfule is more inferior than fu-

rrior. Mr. Brown obferves that in the fouth of Africa
this {pecies differs’ from its general appearance in being
covered with minute white fpots.

- Vor. XXXI.

SAM

2. S. titteralts. Shore Brookweed. Br. n. 2. Ait.
pn. 2. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 833. (Sheffieldia repens;
Linn. Suppl. 135. S.incana; Labill. Nov. Holl. v. 1.
40. t. 54.)——‘* Stem round, branched, leafy. Radical
leaves {patulate; {tem-leaves nearly lanceolate. Segments
of the calyx acute.’’—Native of moft parts of New Hol-
land. Brown. A plant of various appearance, more flen-
der in every part than the former, but with larger flowers ;
the herbage fometimes rather hoary.

3. S.junceus. Rufhy Brookweed. Br. n. 3.—* Stem
erect, nearly fimple, round, almoit leaflefs, with diftant
feales. Radical leaves obovate or fpatulate. Clutter of
few flowers. Segments of the calyx acute.’’—Gathered by
Mr. Brown on the fouth coaft of New Holland. em

4. S. ambiguus. Ambiguous Brookweed. Br. n. 4.—
« Stem ereét, round, panicled. Leaves diftant, linear or
awl-fhaped. Clutfters lax. Calyx nearly inferior, obtufe,
concave at the bafe.’”,—From the fame country. Brown.

SAMO-POULO, in Geography, a {mall ifland near the

welt coaft of the ifland of Samos.
_ SAMORE-HILL, a mountain of Ireland, on the bor-
ders of Sligo and Leitrim, and in maps fometimes placed
in one, fometimes in the other. It is to the north of Lough
Gilly, and within a few miles of the town of Sligo.’

SAMORIA, a town of Hungary, in the ifland of
Schutt ; 8 miles S.E. of Prefburg. dah

SAMOS, a town of Hungary; 10 miles N.N.E. of
Cefchan.— allo, a river which rifes in Tranfilvania, 18
miles S. of Colofvar, and runs into the Theyfs, 12 miles N.
of Eited, in Hungary.

Samos, a name given by the ancients to three diftin®
iflands; wiz. one fituated near Thrace, called Samos of
Thrace, or Samothrace, now ‘* Samandrachi;’’ the fecond,
called by the Greeks Samos the fteep, now Cephalonia ;
and the third lying near the coat of Lonia, of which we
fhall here give an accouut. Some authors affirm that the
name Samos, which has fuperfeded other appellations, was
derived from a hero, who was born here. Others fay, that
the Greeks, calling all elevated places Samos, have thus
defignated an ifland, which prefents confiderable eminences,
infomuch that it was a land-mark all over the Archipelago.
It was formerly confecrated to Juno, who is faid to have
been born here, on the banks of the river Imbrafus, under
the fhade of an agnus-caftus, or chafte tree, a fhrub com-
mon in this ifland, as well as in the other iflands of the
Archipelago. ‘The magnificent temple that was erected
here in honour of this goddefs is totally annihilated, and the
greatelt part of the ancient {plendour of the ifland is loft,
Samos was alfo the cradle of Pythagoras, of the poet Cha-
rilus, of the mathematician Cohon, contempurary of Archi-
medes, of Timanthus, one of the moft famous painters of
ancient Greece; and it was in this ifland that Herodotus,
flying from tyranny, fought an afylum, and compofed in
this agreeable retreat the firft books of his hiftory. But with
the ftate of flavery into which this ifland has funk, genius
and talents have difappeared. The inhabitants, however,
are reprefented as the mildeft and the mott witty of the
Greeks; and their country is faid to pollefs every thing ne-
ceflary to render it flourithing ; good harbours, the beit of
which is that of Vathi, on the north fide, a pofition of the
ifland very advantageous for trade, a fertile foil, a falubrious
climate, a pure air, and abundance of water. The fertility
of Samos was anciently proverbial, and the pofleflion of it
was much fought for. At, Samos it was commonly faid,
that hens gave milk. The ancients found every thing ex-
cellent here, except the wine, which forms one of the befl

Rr revenues

SAM

revenues of the ifland; its mufcadine wines, properly ma-
naged, being capable of attaining the qualities of thofe of
Cyprus. Athenzus reports, that the fig-trees, apple-trees,
and rofe-trees, and alfo the vines, bore fruit twice in a year.
Pliny takes notice of the pomegranates of Samos. Wald fowl,
partridges, woodcocks, {nipes, thruthes, wood-pigeons, turtle-
doves, wheat-ears, &c. abound here. Although Samos has
no rabbits, it has hares, wild boars, goats, and fome deer.
Cattle are bred here, but they have fewer fheep than goats.
Samos has fome iron-mines, emery ftone, and plenty of ochre.
Its mountains confift- of white marble. They have ample
fupplies of melons, lentils, French beans, &c. The bread
of the poor is made of equal parts of wheat, barley, and
white millet. Some mix only barley and millet, which is
plentiful: wheat is exported. The pine-trees are very pro-
ductive of pitch. The filk is very fine, and the traffic of
this article is confiderable. The honey and wax are excel-
lent. According to Pliny, the Samians were accounted
the inventors of pottery. This ifland is about ten leagues
in length, and half as much in its greateft latitude. Its
length, however, is interrupted by a narrow cape, which
ftretches very far towards the fouth, called Cape Colonni,
and a few fragments of which have been feparated by the
fea: théfe are called Samo-poulo, or Little Samos. Great
Samos.is itfelf but a fragment more confiderable, detached
from the continent, from which it is feparated only by a
channel that is fearcely half a league in width. This little
ftrait is known to navigators under the name of Little
Bogaz: the Great Bogaz of Samos, nearly two leagues in
breadth, lies to the weit, between that ifland and the {mall
Fournis iflands, fo called becaufe at a diftance they have the
figure of roofs of ovens: they were anciently called “ Corfee
infule.’”? This is a paflage much frequented by fhips fail-
ing from Conttantinople to Syria and Egypt; and they
there find good anchorage. There are four nunneries upon
the ifland, and above 300 private chapels; yet the popula-
tion does not exceed 12,000 perfons, the ifland, as Tourne-
fort fays, being entirely in the hands of churchmen, pof-
feffors of monalteries. The fwarms of Caloyers and Greek
papas have made a defart of this fine iland, where the whole
qualification neceffary to become a prieft, and live by the
induftry of others, is a talent of being able to repeat mafs
from memory. The bifhop of Samos, who is alfo bifhop
of Nicaria, enjoys an annual income of 2000 crowns, and
has, befides, a confiderable revenue from the important
fervices he renders to the iflanders, in blefling for them their
water and their cattle in the month of May. All the pro-
duce of the dairies on that day belongs to him. He has
alfo two beafts out of every herd. Thus circumftanced,
one need not wonder at the change that has taken place be-
tween the ancient and the moderr population of Samos.
Tournefort fays, that Samos jis infetted with wolves, and
that tigers fometimes arrive from the main land, after
crofling the Little Boghaz. In crofling the Boghaz between
Samos and Icaria, voyagers have been ftruck by the extra-
ordinary intenfity of the deep blue colour of the fea; and
this circumftance, which is as diftinguifhing a charaéteriftic
of the Archipelago as the brightnefs of the fky, has been
noticed by no writer éxcept our enchanting bard :

« He that has fail’d upon the dark blue fea,
Has view’d at times 1 ween a full fair fight.’
nile Byron’s Childe. Harold.
N. lat. 37° 43’. E. long. 16° 50’.
Samos, a town of Spain, in the province of Galicia; 18
miles S.E. of Lugo.
Samos, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Pelopon-

SAM

nefus, in the Elide—Alfo, a town of the Peloponnefus, in
Meffenia.—Alfo, a town of Afia, in Lycia.

SAMOSATA, a town of Afia, and capital of Coma-
geni; fituated on the right bank of the Euphrates. It was
the refidence of. Antiochus, when Pompey granted to him
this province, and which his fucceffors enjoyed until the
time of Tiberius, who reduced it to a Roman province.

SAMOSATENIANS, Samosartent, in Ecclefiafiical
Hiflory, a fe& of ancient Antitrinitarians, thus called from
their leader, Paulus Samofatenus, bifhop of Antioch, under
the emperors Aurelian and Probus.

They are alfo called by St. Augultine Pauliani, and by
the fathers of the council of Nice, Mavaiznéare. See
PAULIANISTS. » Fi

St. Epiphanius will have the Samofatenians to be reak
Jews, without any thing more than the name of Chriitians =
adding, that they ufe the fame arguments againit the myf-
tery cf the Trinity that the Jews do; pleading againit it,
with them, on pretence of maintaining the unity of the
Godhead: though they do not obferve the ceremonies of
the law,

SAMO-SIERRA, in Geography, a mountain of Spain,
which forms the boundary between Old and New Caitile.

SAMOSVIVAR, a town of Traniilvania, on the
Samos; 18 miles N. of Colofvar. N. lat. 47° 9! E.
long. 23° 24!.

SAMOTHRACE, now called Samandraki or Man-
draki, in Ancient Geography, a {mall ifland of the /Egean
fea, at fome diftance to the north of Lemnos, over-againft
the mouth of the Hebrus. This ifland was alfo called Dar-
dania, becaufe, according to Pliny and Paufanias, Dardanus
retired hither, and alfo Leucafia and Leuconia. It derived
its name Samothrace from a colony of Thracians, joined to
fome fugitives from Samos. It became celebrated for the
worlhip of the Cabirian gods, in the mytteries of which all
the heroes of antiquity were initiated. This ifland was for-
merly governed by its own kings: in procefs of time, the
government became republican; and this form terminated,
when the ifland was {ubdued by the Perfians. Alexander
reitored to it its ancient privileges; but his fucceflors made
it dependent. The Romans reitored its liberty; but in the
time of Vefpafian, this, like the other {tates of Greece, was
reduced to the condition of a Roman province. Perfeus, king
of Macedonia, fought an afylum in the temple of Cattor
and Pollux in this ifland, when he fled from the purfuing
vengeance of the Romans. Having lott its liberty, its
other advantages have been of little avail: its ancient cele-
brity cealed. It is eight leagues in circumference.—Alfo,
a town fituated in this ifland, according to Ptolemy.

SAMOTMAT, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Sus, near the coait of the Atlantic. ;

SAMOTRAKI, a {mall ifland of the Mediterranean ;
4 miles W. of Corfu.

SamoTRAKI, or Samandraki, an ifland of the Grecian
Archipelago, fituated between the ifland of Stalimene and
the coatt of Romania, anciently called « Samothrace” (which
fee). The town of the fame name has a fpacious harbour.
N. lat..g0° 18/. E. long. 25° 19%

SAMO'TZIE. See Zamoscir.

SAMOUN, or Samien, the name of a burning windin
Arabia, and particularly near the city of Mecca, which has
occafionally {uffocated people in the middle of the ftreets.

SAMOUTTY, in Geography, a town of Hindocttan,
in Malwa; 16 miles S. of Bopaltol. ,

SAMOYEDES, or Samorepes, a people inhabiting the
N.W. part of Ruflia, towards the Frozen fea. Of their
origin and hiltory little is known. Leading a romantic life

in

4

f

‘

,

SAMOYEDES.

in bleak and favage defarts, without the arts of writing
and chronology, they endeavour to fave from oblivion the
memory of their tranfaGtions and heroes only by fongs;
which, perhaps, with fome truth for their foundation, are
embellifhed with fo many fabulous additions, that even this
mode of tradition affords us no means of becoming ac-
quainted with their ancient ftate. When the victorious
Roffians, in the progrefs of their conqueits, came up to
this people, they found them already out of their paternal,
probably more fouthern, feats, of which they had been-de-
prived at a much earlier period by the Tartars, and no
where in their peculiar condition: a great part of them
having feparated in their flight, from their correlative
ftems. The prefent home, as it may be called, of the

« proper Samoyedes,” is found on the coafts of the Frozen*

ocean, from about the 65th degree of north latitude up to
the fea-fhore. Nova Zembla, indeed, is not inhabited by
them; but eaftward acrofs the Yenifley extend’ the coafts
on which they fwarm up to the 75th degree of latitude.
In thefe regions, the coldeft, rudeit, and moft defolate of
the earth, dwell the Samoyedes, folitary and fcattered, from
the White fea to the other fide of the Yeniffey, and almoft
up to the Lena, both in Europe and in Siberia. They
call themfelves «« Nenetfch,”’ perfons, or “ Chofovo,”? men,
The origin of their ufual appellative is uncertain. Thofe
on the weftern fide of the Ural, or the “« European Samoy-
edes,”’ were tributary to Ruffia fo long ago as the year
1525, and confequently long before their Siberian relatives.
The regions in this part, over which they ftray, are about
and between the rivers Mefen and Petfchora, in the govern-
ments of Archangel and Vologda, where they live inde-
pendently, in a ftate of {eparation from other nations. The
*¢ Siberian Samoyedes,”’ on the eaftern fide of the Uralian
mountains, are in the government of Tobolfk, along the
coafts of the ftraits of Waigat, or Vaigat, about the exit
of the Oby and the Yeniffey, and in the parts contiguous to
the Lower Lena. Colleétively, fays Mr. Tooke, they are
more numerous than the Oftiaks, but like them only fingly
and difperfed in the prodigious traéts of country occupied
in common by them. (Tooke’s Ruff. vol. i.) See Ostraks.

Chantreau, in his * Ruffian Travels,’’ has defcribed both
the Oftiaks and the Samoyedes. He reprefents the former
as of middle ftature and of a flender make. Their com-
plexion is livid, and their features inexpreffive. They
are dirty as hogs, cowardly as the timid dove, and
fimple beyond what words can exprefs. They are much
addiéted to fuperftition, in which they are encouraged’ by
their prieits, who give themfelves out for forcerers, capa-
ble MF einteolling He Ubdints: of diving into futerity, and
of abfolving by certain magic fpells a man overwhelmed
by iniquities and crimes. Thefe Oftiaks, to whom nature
appears to have given only the form of men, poffefs an un-
grateful foil, are induftrious, hofpitable, faithful to their
engagements, and have a horror at theft. Among them
the cares of the family devolve on the women, as does the
labour of filhing, from which they draw their only fupport.
The drefs of both fexes is a kind of bag of the in of
fith or rein-deer, prepared as our tanners prepare their hides.
The women veil themfelves, and are right in doing fo.
The Ottiaks live folely on fith, with which nature has
ftocked their rivers in abundance, and of which they catch
more than fufficient to fupply their wants. Their utenfils,
arma, and oils, are made of the bones, finews, and fat of
fith. They are all pagans, and their worthip correfpunds
with their Tntelleétual aculties. The bear is to them the
molt terrible enemy, but his {kin is an objeét of adoration.

Like the Kalmucks, they have Jurtes, winter villages, and
fummer camps.

‘The Samoyedes are neighbours to the Oftiaks, from whom
they differ very little in manners, cuftoms, and drefs, but
much in their perfons. Their faces are round, and fome-
times agreeable. ._They are of a robuft contftitution, but
they are lefs civilized than the Oftiaks, and -are impa-
tient under the- yoke of the Ruffians, which hangs very
lightly upon them. Their women do not ufe the veil, have
no flirts, but wear drawers both day and night. They
are far from being beautiful, and in our opinion would be
not a little improved by the ufe of the veil. The Samoyedes
are as dirty as the Oltiaks, and itill lefs nice in what they
eat. Even an animal in a ftate of putrefaGion does not of-
fend them. A Samoyede treats his wife.worfe than an Oftiak
does. The latter makes her labour, but condefcends to
make her a companion, whereas the Samoyede confiders her
only a fervant. Yet it often happens that this wife has
brought a portion, which is the only riches of her hufband.
It is faid, that new married wives fometimes continue vir-
gins for a whole month, though lying every night at the fide
of their hufbands. If this be a fa@, the hufbands mutt
be very cool, or the wives mutt poffefs few attra@ions.
Like the Oftiaks they have forcerers, who pretend to be
very knowing. Thefe forcerers ufe a tabor, or an inftru-
ment very, like it, either to make his conjurations, or to
aflift him in the fongs, by which he fucceeds in turning the
heads of his credulous countrymen. The Samoyedes too
have their Bog. There is not a Jurte where one may not
be found, and not a feafon of the year, when a rein-deer is
not faerificed to this fuppofed divinity.

Thofe Samoyedes who live in the government of Arch-
angel, are quite feparated from the reft of their tribe, and
in a manner excluded from any intercourfe with them,
They have alfo a different dialect, though they agree per.
feétly in their religion and cultoms. They are all very
poor, fimple, and undefigning ; but their tawny complexion,
long eyes, and puffed cheeks, make them appear very dif.
agreeable to ftrangers. In fize and make they refemble
the Laplanders; like them they ufe rein-deer to draw their
fledges. They know not what bread is; and they live in
huts and caverns: but in other refpeéts nature has diftin-
guifhed this fpecies of men very vilibly from that of the
Laplanders. The upper jaw of the Samoyedes is more
prominent, advancing as far as their nofe: and their ears
are placed remarkably high. Neither men nor women
among them have any hair but upon the head; and their
nipples are as black as jet. The Laplanders are not parti-
cularifed by any of thete figns. ‘The Samoyedes have very
little kan wledge of a fupreme being ; but pay their adoration
to mis-fhapen wooden images of men, beatts, fifhes, birds,
&c. They alfo worfhip the heads of bealts of prey, par-
ticularly thofe of bears, whith they put up in the woods
and fervently pray to them; that being an animal of which
they are extremely afraid, They acknowledge a good and
bad principle: and indeed the horrid climate in which they
live, feems in fome meafure to excufe that belief, fo an-
cient among fo many people, and fo natural to the ignorant
and unfortunate. ‘Their priefts, whom they call /bamanns, or
hodefniks, are chofen from among fuch as are molt advanced
in years; and they imagine that thefe men can reveal to
them the will of their gods, foretell future events, and per-
form all kinds of magical operations. Neither theft nor
murder is ever heard of among them; being almolft with-
out paffions, they are without injuftice. They have not
even in their language any term to exprefs vice and virtues

Rr Their

SAM

Their extreme fimplicity has not yet allowed them to form
abftrufe notions: mftin@& alone dire&ts them. | Their mar-
riages are attended with no other ceremony than merely
an agreement between the parties. Moit of them have
but one wife; though polygamy is not prohibited among
them. Like the Oltiaks, they call their new-born children
by the name of the firft animal they meet; or if they hap-
pen to meet a relation, he generally names the child. The
Samoyedes, male and female, are clothed alike; and as
they are equally difagreeable in their features, and the men
have no beards, it is fomewhat difficult to diftinguifh one
fex from the other. Their winter drefs is made of rein-
deer fkin, with the hairy fide outwards ; and generally the
cap, coat, gloves, breeches, and itockings, are fewed to-
ther, fo that the whole fuit makes but one piece. In
ummer they drefs themfelves with fifh-fkins; and, inftead
of thread, they ufe the tendons of wild beaits cut into long
filaments. They all fubfift by hunting and fifhing; the
fleth of rein-deer, bears, feals or fea-dogs, fowls, dried fith,
and turnips, being their ufval food. They fometimes boil
their flefh meats, but commonly eat them raw ; a practice
which has made fome unjuftly call them man-eaters, and
accufe them of devouring their deceafed friends, and pri-
foners taken in war. They eat even the raw entrails of
any beafts, according te Yfbrant, Ides, and Le Brun.
Their hunting weapons are bows and arrows, and javelins
pointed with bone; though they have alfo fome darts
bearded with iron. When they find it difficult to fubfift
in one place they immediately remove to another. Their
fummer huts are made of nothing but the bark of birch-
trees; but in winter they are covered with fkins of rein-deer.
Their whole fubftance confifts in tents, clothes, and rein-deer.
Till the reign of the czar Iwan Bafilowitz, the only magif-
trate among them was the oldeit man in the family or vil-
lage to whom the reft were fubje&t. But in the year 1563,
one Anika Strogauow, a man of fubitance, and of fome
confequence in his country, which was near Archangel, ob-
ferving that thofe people came yearly down a river which
falls into the Dwina, with exceeding fine furs, ordered his
fon and fome of his fervants to follow them to their homes,
and bring him word who they were and where they lived.
They did fo; and on their return Anika reported to the
government what he had difcovered. Some of thote favages
were afterwards carried to Mofcow, where every thing filled
them with admiration. They looked upon the czar as their
god, and readily agreed that all their countrymen fhould
pay him a yearly tribute of two fables a-piece. _ Colonies
were foon eltablifhed, and forts erected, beyond the Oby
and Irtifh ; and in 1595, a Coflack was fent, with a party
of foldiers and a few cannon, who conquered their country,
as Cortez fubdued Mexico. By degrees the habitable
places were occupied by Ruffian governors, troops, and
traders; and the Ruffian laws were introduced. The Sa-
moyedes made two attempts to fhake off the yoke, but
were foon reduced. Their furs, which they difpofe of to
the Ruffians for trifles, are the finelt in the whole empire.

SAMBP, in America, a name given to a fort of bread
made of the maize, or Indian corn. :

They firfl water the corn for about half an hour, and
then beat it in a mortar, or grind it in a hand-mill; they
then fift out the flour, and winnow the hufks from it;
they then mix this into a thin pafte with water, and bake
it in flat loaves, which they call famp-loaves, or famp-
bread.

Befide this they have another difh prepared of this corn,
which they efteem a great delicacy, and call by the name

SAM

of famp, without the addition of loaf or bread. To make
this, they only bruife or grind the corn to the fize of rice,
and then winnowing away the hufks, they boil it gently
till it is thoroughly tender, and then add to it milk and
butter and fugar: this is not only a very wholefome, but
a very pleafant difh. It was the firlt diet of our planters
when newly fettled there, and is ftill in ufe, as an innocent
food in ficknefs as well as health.

The Indians, who feed on this fort of food, are found
never to be fubjeét to the itone, and to efcape feveral other
painful difeafes. ‘

The Englifh have found a way of making a very good
fort of beer of the grain of this Indian corn: they do this
either by ufing the bread made of it, or elfe by malting
it as we do our owncorn. When they make the beer of
the maize-bread, they break or cut it into lumps as big as
a man’s fift; they mafh thefe in the fame manner that we
do malt, and boil up the wort in the fame manner, either
with or without hops. Phil. Tranf. N° 142.

SAMPACCA, in Botany. See Micnexta.

SAMPAKA, in Geography, a large town of Africa,
in Ludamar, formerly belonging to the king of Bambara;
but with other towns as far as Goomba, given up, for the
fake of peace, to the Moors. At this town Mr. Park
lodged in the houfe of a negro, who underftood and prac-
tifed the art of making gunpowder; 55 miles E. of Be-
nowm.

SAMPARA, a town onthe W. coaft of the ifland of
Celebes. S. lat. 2° 21'. E. long. 112° 27/.

SAMPAT, a river on the S. coaft of the ifland of
Borneo. S. lat. 3° 18/, E. long. 112° 27/. ,

SAmpat, the name of a fabulous bird, introduced amon
the mythological machinery of the Hindoos, and princi-
pally in the Ramayana, where it is made to refilt the
tyrant Ravana in his rape of Sita. The faithful bird loft
his life in the attempt, and had magnificent obfequies per-
formed in his honour, by his grateful matter Rama. Sam-
pat was endowed with fupernatural prowefs, which it feems
was feated in one of the long feathers of his tail: de-
prived of this he became like other birds. Ravana having
treacheroufly gained this fecret, gained alfo an ealy victory
after plucking the potential feather. Another name of
this bird is Jettahi-pakfha, or Jatayu. One of his names
fignifies king of the vultures; but in pictures he is feen in
gaudy plumage, more like a parrot or peacock. Of Rama,
the Ramayana, Sita, &c. fee thofe articles.

SAMPEL, in Geography, a river of Brandenburg, which
runs into the Ukeley, 4 miles S. of Plate.

SAMPFREA, one of the fmaller Shetland iflands of
Scotland; 3 miles S. of Yell. N. lat. 60°46’. W. long.
1226)

SAMPHIRE, in Botany. See Sampine.

SaMPHIRE, Golden, a {pecies of the inula; which fee.

Sampuire, Prickly, a RES of the echinophora ; which
fee.

Sampuire, in Rural Economy, the common name of a
plant of the weed-kind, which is often found on land in
the vicinity of the fea-fhores, and which is troublefome to
extirpate. Marfh-famphire, thri‘t, and other fimilar plants,
moftly prevail on falt-marfhes, when they become fit for
fecuring againit the fea. See Sarr-Mar/h.

SAMPHORA, among the Ancients, were horfes marked
with the letter © on their legs.

SAMPIERO, in Geography, a town of the department
of Liamone, or ifland of Corfica, in the diftri& of Ajaccio,
The canton contains 3461 inhabitants.

SAMPIGNY,

SAM

SAMPIGNY, atown of France, in the department of
the Meufe; 4 miles S. of St. Mihiel.

SAMPIRE, in Botany, fuppofed to be a corruption of
St. Pierre; the name of an herb ufed for pickling, moftly
called Samphire. The genuine fort is Crithmum mariti-
mum, gathered, as Shakfpeare has recorded, on Dover
cliffs; but the moft common Samphire is SALIcoRNIA ;
fee that article. ;

SAMPIT, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Borneo,
fituated on the S. coaft; near a river of the fame name;
140 miles W. of Banjer-Maffin.

SAMPLE of Grain, Seeds, &c. in Agriculture, the
fmall portion of any fuch articles, which is taken to and
exhibited in the markets or other places for the purpofe of
felling different quantities of them by. The fample fhould
always a perfeGily in every particular with the portion
that is fold to be delivered according to it. Good famples
of the grain kind fhould conftantly be full, plump, and
witheut any fort .of fhrivelled appearance, having a proper
degree of clearnefs and fairnefs in the coats or {kins of the

ins. In thofe of the feed kind the great recommenda-
tions are brightnefs, finenefs of bloom, and the ready and
eafy fliding of them over each other in the hand. In hops,
befides the bloom and mealinefs, the fmell is to be taken
into the account. See Grarn and Seep.

Different forts of famples may fuit different purpofes and
intentions of the purchafers, according to the nature of the
ufes to which they are to be put, as in fowing, grind-
ing, malting, and other proceffes. It may farther be
noticed, that culture and feafons alfo produce differences
in the famples for thefe applications. Barley after a wet
feafon has been found to malt belt, in Effex, from turnip
Jand ; and in a dry one from ftrong land. The fame is the
cafe in grinding, &c.

SAMPOGNA. See Zampocna. 7

SAMPOO, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Eaft In-
dian fea, near the S. coalt of Java. S. lat. 8° 23/. E.
dong. 112° 26'.

SAMPSEANS, Sampsz, in Leclefiaftical Hiflory, an-
cient feétaries; the fame, according to St. Epiphanius,
with the Elcefaites.

The Sampfeans were not properly either Jews, Chrif-
tians, or Gentiles ; though they took their name from the
Hebrew, femes, fun; as if they adored the fun.

They acknowledged one only God, wafhed themfelves
often, and were attached, in almoft every thing, to the re-
ligion of the Jews. Many among them abf{tamed wholly
from esting of fieth.

Scaliger, after Epiphanius, will have the Sampfeans to
be thefame withthe Z/feni. In reality, the Licc/aites, Samp-
feans, Moaffalians, an Lifes, appear to be no more than
fo many different names for the fame feét; unlefs, perhaps,
the firfe added fomething to the opinions of the latt.

SAMPSON, Tuomas, in Biography, was born about
the year 1517, and educated in the univerfity of Oxford.
He afterwards applied to the {tudy of the law, and in his
purfnit of this profeflion he was converted from the Popith
to the Proteftant religion, and became himfelf fo zealoufly
attached to the reformed faith, that he converted many
others to it, among whom was Jolin Bradford, the famous
martyr ig queen Mary’s reign. In 1549 he was admitted
to holy orders by Cranmer and Ridley. He became rector
of All-hallows in London, and was a very popular preacher
during the reign of king Edward, in w ich he received
fome other preferment. Upon the acceflion of queen Mary
he withdrew into concealment, but felt a confiderable in-
tereft for his fuffering brethren, and employed himfelf, in

SAM

connection with Richard Chambers, in collecting money
from the citizens of London for the benefit of poor
fcholars in the univerfities, who had imbibed the reformed
doGrines. At length the part which he took in this
bufinefs being difcovered, he found it neceffary to quit the
kingdom. He went to Strafburg, where he applied him-
felf clofely to theological ftudies, in which he was affifted
by the learned Tremellius. He returned to his native
country at the acceflion of Elizabeth, and was again hailed
asa popular preacher. In 1560 the queen offered to pro-
mote him to the dignity of bifhop, on a vacancy in the fee
of Norwich, but he declined the honour, becaufe he could
not conform to the habits and ceremonies ufed at the in-
duGion ; which, in his cafe, had been difpenfed with at his
ordination. In 1561 he was initalled dean of Chrift-church;
Oxford, an office which he retained till the year 1564,
when he was cited, on account of his known Puritan prin-
ciples, before the tribunal of archbifhop Parker, the refult
of which was the expulfion of Mr. Sampfon from his
deanery. The archbifhop was aétuated in this bufinefs
either from principle, or with a defire of pleafing perfons
in power, as he became the friend of Sampfon, and obtained
for him fome profitable employment, and even petitioned
the fecretary Cecil in his favour, urging upon him, ‘ that
as the queen’s pleafure had been executed upon him for ex-
ample to the terror of others, it might yet be mollified to
the praife of her clemency.’? After this he obtained the
maiterfhip of the hofpital of William de Wigiton, at
Leicetter, a prebend in the cathedral church of St. Paul’s,
London, and fome other preferment. In 1574 he had a
paralytic feifure, which led him to a refignation of his
le€&turefhip, and he retired to his hofpital, where he died in
1589, in the 72d year of hisage. He was author of feveral
pieces highly efteemed in their day, but which have no claim
to be enumerated, being moitly adapted to the times in
which he flourifhed.

Sampson, in Geography, one of the Scilly iflands.

Sampson, a county of Fayette diltrict, in North Caro-
lina, bounded N. by Johnfon county and S. by Bladen ;
containing 6719 inhabitants, includmg 1712 flaves; the
court-houfe is 36 miles from Fayetteville.—Alfo, a town
of North Carolina; 20 miles E. of Fayetteville.

Sampson’s Poff, in Ship-Building, a large pillar or ftan-
tion placed up diagonally on each fide againft the quarter-
deck beam, and next afore the cabin bulkhead, with its
lower end tenoned into a chafe on the upper deck. It is
ufed to bring the fifh-tackle to, when fifhing the anchor, &c.
This name isalfo given to the pillar immediately under the
hatchways, having {cores on each fide, as {teps, to go up
and down by. ‘This pillar is of fo much larger feantling
than the other pillars, as not to be too much weakened
by the {fcores.

SAMPSUCUS, in Botany, an old name for the Mar-
joram, or OniGANnum ; fee that article.

SAMPUNIA, a pneumatic inftrument of mufic among
the ancient Hebrews, like our common bag-pipe.

SAMPUTA, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the
province of Tlafcala; which fee.

SAMSO, a town on the W. coalt of the ifland of Ce-
lebes. N. Jat. o8 11’. FE. long. 119° 38'.

SAMSOE, an ifland of Denmark, between North Jut-
Jand and Zealand, 12 miles long from N. to S., and at ite
greatett breadth four, and in fome places hardly one, from
i. to W. The foil is renerally fertile, and produces par-
ticularly good peas. The inhabitants carry on fome com-
merce in {mall veffels. N. lat. 55° 56'. IE. long. 10° 40
. SAMSON, in Scripture Hiflory, a judge of the Lraclites,

9 and

SAM

and celebrated for the extraordinary tranfa@tions by which
he checked the pride of the Philiftines, their oppreffors, was
born at Zorah, belonging to the tribe of Dan, about the
year 1155 B.C. He was the fon of a perfon called Ma-
noah, whofe wife, till fhe became pregnant with Samfon,
had long been barren. When fhe had, probably, given up
all hopes of a child, it was announced to her that fhe fhould
conceive and bring forth a fon, who would prove in{ftru-
mental in commencing the emancipation of his country from
the yoke of their tyrants. Upon the birth of the promifed
child, his parents called him Samfon; and as he advanced
in years, we are informed that he exhibited early marks of
extraordinary endowments. When arrived at the age of
manhood, he conceived an affeGion for a young woman
among the Philiftines, and requefted his parents to procure
her for him in marriage. They accordingly accompanied
him to Timnath, the place of her refidence; and while they
were pafling through the vineyards, Samfon was attacked by
a young lion, which he quickly dettroyed. The terms of
his intended marriage having been fettled to the fatisfaction
of all parties, Samfon returned to his father’s houfe, where
he remained while the requifite preparations were making for
the folemnization of the nuptials. At the appointed time
he fet out, with his parents, to Timnath, in order that he
might complete the contraét: in his road he found that a
fwarm of bees had made their comb in the carcafe of the
lion which he had formerly flais. He took away a part of
it, for the fake of the honey which it contained, and which
he ate as he travelled on, prefenting his father and mother
with a portion of it. At the marriage feaft he propofed a
riddle to the young Philiftines, on the folution of which a
wager was to depend. This riddle, in allufion to the lion
and the honey, was, ‘‘ out of the eater came meat, and out
of the fierce came {weetnefs.’’ Seven days were given for
the young men to unravel the meaning of thefe words : after
the expiration of three or four days without fuccefs, they
applied to Samfon’s wife, defiring her to obtain from her
hufband the proper clue, and at the fame time threaten-
ing her, if fhe did not, to inflict the fevereft punifhment
upon her and all her kindred, as perfons who had introduced
a itranger among them to plunder them of their property.
Samfon yielded to her importunity, and difclofed to her the
myftery on the morning of the feventh day, and fhe com-
municated it to her countrymen, who, by this means, won
the prize. Filled with indignation at the treacherous arts
by which the fecret had been drawn from him, he took his
revenge on the Philiftines, and deferted his wife.

When his refentment had fubfided, he went to feek.his
wife, but was then denied accefs to her by her father, who
told him, that, confidering his fudden defertion of his daugh-
ter asa proof that fhe did not poflefs his heart, he had given
her in marriage to another. At the fame time, dreading,
however, the effects of his anger, he offered Samfon her
fifter, who, as he faid, was younger and handfomer. This
offer he did not accept, but departed with a determination
of vengeance on a people who had offered him fuch infults.
With this view he collected three hundred jackalls, and let
them loofe among the ftanding corn of the Philiftines, hay-
ing previoufly fattened to their tails burning torches, by
which means their crops of corn, their vines, and their olive-
trees were deflroyed. When the Philiftines found that this
device for the deftru€tion of their property had been pro-
jected by Samfon, and attributing it to his refentment for
the injuries which he had fuftained from his wife and her
father, they in their wrath arofe in a tumultuous body and
fet fire to his houfe, caufing both thofe wretched perfons to
perith in the flames, as the original authors of their calamity.

5

SAM

This favage a&t of vengeance Samfon amply retaliated, by
falling on them, when they were aflembled on fome public
occafion, and making a great flaughter: he then withdrew
to a faftnefs in a rocky mountain belonging to the tribe of
Judah.

The Philiftines now raifed an army, and marched again{t
the men of Judah, who did not dare to meet them in the
field ; but, upon remonttrating again{t the injuttice of their
invafion, received a promife that holtilities fhould not be
commenced, provided they would deliver Samfon bound into
their hands. To this they agreed, having firlt prevailed
upon Samfon to fubmit to be bound and led away towards
his enemies. So foon as he was brought within fight of the
camp of the Philiftines, they rent the air with fhouts of joy,
fuppoling that now their dreadful enemy was in their power.
Their triumph, however, was of very fhort duration, for
Samfon burit his bonds afunder, and with no other weapon
than the jaw-bone of an afs, which lay upon the ground, at-
tacked the exulting foe with fuch irrefiftible fury that he
foon killed a thoufand of them, and put the reft to igno-
minious flight. Some time afterwards Samfon went in dif-
guife to Gaza, one of the principal cities of the Philittines,
where he was foon recognized: the citizens inftantly faften-
ed the gates of their town, and thinking they had him quite
fecure they prepared to kill him, But Samfen, apprized of
their defigns, arofe at midnight, and by the exertion of his
bodily ftrength tore up the pofts on which the gates of the
city were hung, and carried both to a confiderable diftance
from the place, on the top of a hill within fight of Hebron,
where they appeared a monument of his wonderful deliver-
ance, both to the Ifraelites and Philiftines. Some time after
this, Samfon became enamoured of a woman named Delilah,
whom the Philiftines made ufe of as an inftrument for be-
traying him, and after fome vain attempts, fhe at length
found that his great {trength depended entirely upon his hair,
faying, that if he were deprived of that, he fhould become
as weak as other men. She now caufed his hair to be cut
off, and then gave him up into the hands of his enemies, who
put out his eyes and carried him away to Gaza, where he
was thrown into chains, and condemned to the fervile em-
ployment of grinding corn in the common prifon. In_this
fituation he continued a confiderable time, fubje& to a thou-
fand infults, till at length his hair was again grown, and his
ftrength reftored with it, when a great feftival was to be
celebrated by the Philiftines, in honour of their god Dagon,
and by way of thank{giving, for his having delivered their
dreadful enemy into their hands. On this occafion, all the
lords of the Philiftines, and fome thoufands of men and
women, being aflembled either in the temple of that idol,
or, as fome think, in a building ereéted for the purpofe, Sam-
fon was fent for, that they might exult over him, and gratify
themfelves by expofing him to abufe and derifion. With this
view he was placed in the centre, between the two pillars
which fupported the roof of the building, and he refolved
to humble the pride of the oppreflors of Ifrael, though the
aét would prove fatal to himfelf. He earn tore away
the pillars of the building, and the whole aflembly was
buried in the ruins. This happened about the year B.C.
1117. Samfon had been twenty years a judge in Ifrael.

SAMSOOM, in Geography, a diltriét and town of Ar.
menia, in the mountainous and rugged country S. ef Moofh,
It is inhabited by two Curdifh tribes, named Samanee and
Moofee, who united amount to about 18,000 or 20,000 fouls.
Thefe people form a {mall independent republic, named Ba-
lagee, and are faid to be a mott favage and illiterate race.
Some of them profefs Iflamifm, but the majority have no
religion. They are brave and hardy, like all ae

on

iat tlhe

SAM

fond of hberty, and attached to their native foil. "Their

ftrong hold is fituated on the fummit of a lofty and inac-

ceflible mountain, having a branch of the Tigris flowing at

its bafe: it is impregnable to the attacks of the neighbour-

ing chiefs, by whom thefe peopie are feared and hated. They

ene a {mall quantity of corn, hemp, and tobacco, make
' wine and brandy, and have abundance of fine fruit. Kin-
neir’s Perf. Emp. p. 330. :

SAMSOUN, a fea-port town of Afiatic Turkey, on a
bay of the Black fea. It was originally founded by a colony
of Greeks, and called “ Amifus.’’ It afterwards fell to the
kings of Pontus; 50 miles N.W. of Tocat. N. lat. 41° 4!.
E. long. 36° 20’. ‘

Samsoun Kalafi, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the pro-
vince of Natolia, anciently “ Priene ;”” 16 miles N.N.W. of
Milets..

SAMUDRA, in Hindoo Mythology, a perfonification of
the fea, who is called the lord of rivers. Hindoo writers
f{uppofe the fea to move or flow with great rapidity, and the
{wiftnefs of Samudra is proverbial. Perhaps, however, the
allufion may be to its momentum, rather than its velocity.
This perfonification of the fea is frequently mentioned in
Hindoo books. Nadit is another name of Samudra, and
Sagara; under which latter article of our work, and under
Soma, farther mention will be found on the fubje& of this.
We have never feen any picture or defcription of the perfon
or attributes of Samudra, and know not therefore how he
is reprefented in thofe particulars. His proverbial {wiftnefs
occurs in a tranflation from the Ramayana, under our article
Tara.

SAMUEL, in Scripture Hiflory, an eminent prophet and
judge of Ifrael for feveral years, was the fon of Elkanah
and Hannah, of the tribe of Levi, and of the family of
Kohath. (1 Sam. i. 1, 2, 3, &c. 1 Chron. vi. 23.) Whe-
ther Samuel was a pricit or not has been the fubject of dif-
pute. By thofe who maintain the negative, it is alleged
that he was not of the race of Aaron, and that other per-
fons who were not priefts wore the ephod, and offered facri-
fices in extraordinary cafes, and confecrated kings. After
the death of Eli, the high-prieft, Samuel was acknowledged
as judge and governor of all Ifrael. He commenced the
exercile of his judicial office at about 40 years of age, and
maintained it during his whole life. Towards the clofe of
his life, he appointed his fons to the fubordinate office of
judges but as they abufed their truft, the elders of Ifrael

plied to Samuel, requefting him to appoint a king over
them: and foon after Saul was induéted into this office,
during whofe reign he retained a confiderable degree of au-
thority, both with refpect to Saul himfelf, and to all the
people. The laft authoritative at which he feems to have
pertormed was that of anointing David, and invefting him
with the royal authority in the place of Saul. After this
aét he retired to Ramah, and dwelt there during the re-
mainder of his life, affociating with the prophets, who
formed 2 kind of community under his conduét. Samuel
died at the age of 98 years, about two years before Saul,
AM. 2947, B.C. 1057; and was buried at Ramah. (1 Sam.
KRG ry The body of Samuel is faid to have been tranf-
ported from Paleftine to Conftantinople, ia the time of the
ys sag Arcadius. The Roman martyrology places his
feftival on the zoth of Auguft. Concerning the ftory of
the witch of Endor, to whom Saul applied in order to know
the event of a war in which he was engaged, by raifing the
gholt of Samuel, we refer to the article Wireu of Endor.

To Samuel have been alcribed the book of Judges, that
of Ruth, and the firlt of the two books that bear his name.
Ik is very probable that he compofed the 24 firft chapters

SAM

of the firft book of Samuel, as they contain nothing but
what he might have written, and in which he had not a great
fhare. Neverthelefs, in thefe 24 chapters there are fome
additions, which it is likely were inferted after his death.
The two firft books of Kings bear the name of the books of
Samuel ; but it muft be obferved that he could not have been
the author of the fecond of thefe books, which contains an
account of tranfaGtions that happened after his death; nor
could he have written the latter part of the firft, fince his
death is mentioned in the 25th chapter. It has been fup-
pofed, that as Samuel was the author of the firft 24 chap-
ters, the work was finifhed by Gad and Nathan. This is
the opinion of the Talmudilts, which feems to be founded
on i Chron. xxix. 29. But in order to juftify this opinion,
it ought to be proved, that the books of Samuel, Gad, and
Nathan, mentioned in this paflage, were the fame with that
of the firft book of Kings: whereas thefe were three dif-
tin@ books, which contained the life and ations of thefe
three prophets. Diodorus of Tarfus, Theodoret, St. Atha-
nafius, and St. Gregory, have obferved, that the four books
of Kings are only an hiltorical abridgment of feveral books
or memoirs cf the prophets, which are cited in feveral places
of them. Grotius afcribes this abridgment to Jeremiah,
fome to Ifaiah, and moit to Ezra. Dupin has mentioned
feveral circumftances which fhew that the books of Samuel,
or the two firft books of Kings, are neither Samuel’s, nor
Gad’s, nor Nathan’s. As for the two laft books, which are
thofe only called by the Hebrews Malachim or Kings, fince
they contain the hiftory of the kings of [frael and Judah,
down to the captivity, which is related in the laft chapter,
they could not have been -finifhed till after that time.
Several paflages which fhew that the kingdom of Judah
was {till in being, ferve to render it probable, that this hif-
tory was compofed out of feveral memoirs, or rather, that
he who digefted and wrote it, has inferted thofe things in it
which he found in the more ancient records without chang-
ing the forms of expreflion. The Talmuditts attribute this
work to Jeremiah, others to Ifaiah, but the generality to
Ezra. The firft book of Samuel, or of the four books of
Kings, comprehends the events that occurred under the go-
vernment of Eli the high-prieft, Samuel the prophet, and
the reign of Saul. The fecond is the hiftory of David’s
goverment. The two lalt books of Kings contain the
hiltory of Solomon, and afterwards the reigns of the feveral
kings of Ifrael and Judah down to the deltruétion of Ifrael
and the captivity of Judah. The four books contain the
hiltory of almoft 600 years.

Samuel began the chain of the prophets, which was never
broken from his time to that of Zechariah and Malachi.
(A&s; iii. 24.) Befides the true hiftory of Samuel, there
are feveral traditions concerning this prophet among the
Orientals. See D’Herbelot, Bibl. Orient. p. 735 and 1021.
See alfo the Hiftory of the Afghans in the fecond volume
of the Afiatic Refearches, p. 119, &c. Dupin’s Canon.

SAMULCOTTA, in Geography, a town of Hindoof-
tan, in the circar of Rajamundry; 24 miles E. of Raja-
mundry.

SAMULIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Carlefyria. Ptolemy.

SAMUMA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Oude; 15 miles N.E. of Goorackpour.

SAMUND, a town of the Middle Mark of Branden-
burg; 4 miles S. of Potzdam,

SAMUR, ariver of Perfia, in the province of Schirvan,
anciently * Albanus,’? which rifes in the mountains of
Lafgeftan, and flows into the Cafpian. It is not above
three feet in depth, but exceeds 300 in breadth; and its

waters

SAM

waters are obferved to increafe in the day, and diminifh in
the night.

SAMURA, a town of Perfia, in the province of Schir-
van, on the Cafpian fea; 15 miles S. of Derbend.

SAMYDA, in Botany, cxuvdz, an ancient Greek name,
fuppoled to belong to the Birch; but its etymology, and
its application to the prefent, chiefly American, genus, have
aot been explained.— Linn. Gen. 216. -Schreb. 298.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2.624. Mart. Mill. Di@. v. 4. Ait.
Hort. Kew. v. 3. 60. Juff. 439. Lamarck Illuftr.
t. 355. Gertn. Suppl. t.224. (Guidonia; Plum. Gen. 4.
t. 24.)—Clafs and order, Decandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord,
uncertain. Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, coloured
on the inner fide; tube bell-fhaped, with ten furrows ; limb
in five ovate, flat, obtufe, wide-fpreading fegments, two of
them.tipped with a point. Cor. Petals none. Netary of
one leaf, conical, abrupt, about as long as the calyx, and
inferted into the bafe of its limb, marked with from eight
to eighteen furrows, its blunt orifice being furnifhed with
as many teeth. Stam. Filaments none; anthers oblong,
ereét, {mall, as many as the teeth of the ne€tary, and in-
ferted upon them. Pf. Germen fuperior, ovate; ftyle
awl-fhaped, ercét, the length of the ne€tary ; ftigma capi-
tate, obtufe. Peric. Capfule roundifh, furrowed, thick,
coriaceous, of one cell, and four or five valves. Seeds nu-
merous, nearly ovate, obtufe, perforated at the bafe, at-
tached to the valves, each inferted with a pulpy tunic.

Eff. Ch. Calyx deeply five-cleft, coloured. Petals
none. Neétary bell-fhaped, bearing the ftamens. Capfule
fuperior, of one cell, with four or five valves. Seeds with
a pulpy tunic.

1. S. nitida. Glofly Samyda.. Linn. Sp. Pl. 557.
Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. 1. (S.n..13; Browne Jam. 217.
t. 23. f. 3, Guilandina.)—Stamens eight or ten. Leaves
heart-fhaped, {mooth.—Native of Jamaica. Introduced at
Kew in 1793, but has not yet flowered.

2. S. macrophylla. Broad-leaved Samyda. Willd. n. 2.
—* Stamens eight. Leaves ovate, acute, fmooth; the
origin of their veins villous at the under fide. Corymb ter-
minal.’??—Native of the Eaft Indies. Branches round,
fmooth, fcarred, yellowifh. Leaves often fix inches, or
more, in length, obfcurely crenate, their ribs villous.
Flowers {mall, in a ttalked, nearly terminal, corymb.
Willd. : :

3. S. multiflora. Many-flowered Samyda. Cavan. Ic.
v. I. 48. t.67. Willd. n. 3.— Stamens eight. Leaves
elliptic-oblong, toothed ; tapering at each end; downy be-
neath. Stalks axillary, aggregate, fingle-flowered.—Na-
tive of Hifpaniola. eaves alternate, pointed, about two
inches long and one broad. Flowers {mall.

4. S. ae Villous Samyda. Swartz Ind. Occ. v. 2.
758. Willd. n. 4.—Stamensten. Leaves ovate, pointed,
downy, with fhallow ferratures; oblique at the bafe; vil-
lous beneath. Flower-ftalks axillary, folitary.—Native of
mountains in Jamaica, flowering in the fpring. A branched
forub, fix feet high, with fpreading downy branches. Leaves
three inches long, alternate, on fhort downy ftalks. Flowers
twice or thrice the fize of the laft, white, downy. Pulp of
the feeds red or {carlet.

5. S. glabrata. Smooth Samyda. Swartz Ind. Occ.
v. 2. 760. Willd. n. 5.—Stamens ten. Leaves elliptic-
lanceolate, obtufe, fmooth and fhining, nearly entire.
Flower-ftalks axillary, folitary.—Native of lofty mountains
in the fouthern part of Jamaica, flowering in October and
November. A nearly fmooth, branched, fpreading /brub,
ten or twelve feet high. Leaves f{carcely an inch apd a half

SAN

long, on fhortifh ftalks. Flowers white, nearly feffile, al-
mot as large as thofe of S. villofa; the tube of their calyx
longer than the limb.

6. S. fpinefcens. Thorny Samyda. Swartz Ind. Oce.
v. 2. 762. Willd. n. 6.— Flowers terminal. Stamens
ten. Leaves lanceolate-ovate, obtufe, crenate, fmooth.
Branches fpreading, at length fpinous. Calyx divided to
the bafe.—Native of Hifpaniola, flowering in December

and January. A fhrub, with horizontal lateral branches, —

whofe points become {trong thorns. Leaves two or three.
inches in length, tapering at the bafe, ftalked, chiefly abeut
the ends of the fhoots. ower pale, rather {mall, in fhort,
denfe, downy, terminal c/u/lers, or /pikes.

7. S. pubscfeens. Downy Samyda. © Linn. Sp. Pl. 557.
Willd. n. 7.—Stamens twelve. Leaves ovate; downy be-
neath.—Native of South America. An obfcure fpecies,
unknown to us, as well asto Dr. Swartz. See his Fl. Ind,
Occ. v. 2. 759

8. S. ferrulata. Elm-leaved Samyda. Linn. Sp. Pl.
558. Willd. n. 8. Ait. mn. 2. Jacq. Coll. v. 2. 328.
t.17. f. 1. (Guidonia ulmi foliis, flore niveo; Plum.
Gen. 4.)—Stamens eighteen. » Flowers folitary. “Leaves
ovate-oblong, downy, finely ferrated.—Native of the Welt
Indies. Cultivated by Sherard at Eltham in 1723, accord-
ing to Hort. Kew. It flowers in the ftove about July.
The whole plant is finely downy, efpecially the backs of
the Jeaves, which are veiny, rather acute; on fhort, thick,

villous falks. Flowers white, large, axillary, on fhort thick

fialks, folitary, not aggregate.

g: S. rofea. Rofe-coloured Samyda. Sims in Curt.
Mag. t. 550. Ait. n. 3. (S. ferrulata; Andr. Repof.
t. 202. Guidonia ulmi foliis, flore rofeo; Plum. Gen. 4.)
—Stamens twelve or more. Flowers aggregate. Leaves
oblong, very obtufe, finely ferrated, downy on both fides.
—Native of the Weft Indies, from whence it was fent to
England by the late Mr. Alexander Anderfon.. This
fhrub blooms copioufly in the ftove during the fummer
months. The drooping ranches bear many axillary flowers,
which are but half the fize of the laft, and red on both fides,
feveral of them growing together, on fhort fimple /alés,
from the bofom of each leaf. We are convinced that Lin-
neus confounded two diltiné& plants of Plumier, under his
S. ferrulata.

We think it fafeft to omit Willdenow’s 8. polyandra, n.q,
which is Meliflaurum diftichum of Forlter, Nov. Gen. t. 72.
There is much confufion between the prefent genus, and
Juffieu’s Anavinga, which is Ca/earia of Jacquin, and whofe
fruit is alfo figured in Gertner’s Suppl. t. 224. Thefe
genera are perhaps diftinét, but we have not materials to
define the limits of each.

SAMYDACA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
in Carmania. Steph. Byz.

SAN, in Geography, ariver of Poland, which runs into
the Viltula, at Sandomirz.—Alfo, a river of China, which
rifes in the frontiers of Tartary, N. lat. 40° 20’. E. long.
117° 14/5 and runs into the gulf Leao-tong, N. lat. 39° 9!.
E. long. 117° 28!.

San, or Zanah, a town of Egypt, on a canal which runs
from the Nile into the lake Wenselale anciently called
“« Tanais ;”” 26 miles E. of Manfora. N. lat. 30° 55’. E.
long. 32° 7/.

San Blas, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 59 miles E. of
Havanna.

San Carlos, a town of South America, in the province.
of Venezuela, which owes its exiltence to the firft mif-
fionaries of this province, and its increafe and beauty to the
activity of its inhabitants. Its white population is moftly

compofed

epi

,

SAWN

compofed of Spaniards from the Canaries, who by their
difpofition. to labour, excite the emulation of the Creoles.
Live ftock form the great mafs of the riches of its inha-
bitants; cattle, horfes, and mules, being im great abua-
dance. Indigo and coffee are almoft the only articles of
cultivation. The quality of the foil is faid to give an ex-
_quifite flavour to the fruits, particularly to the oranges,
which are celebrated throughout the whole province. The
city is large, handfome, and well divided. They reckoned
9500 inhabitants. The heat of this place is very great,
and would be intolerable, if it were not counteracted by
the violence of the north-eaft wind. San Carlos is in 9° 20!
of N. lat.; 60° N.W. of Caraccas, 28 leagues S.S.W..-of
Valencia, and 20 leagues from.St. Philip. Depons.

San Diege, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 50 miles
W.S.W. of Havanna.

San Felice, a town of Spain, ia the prevince_of Leon;
12 miles N.N.W. of Civdad Rodrigo.

Saw Felipe. See St. Felipe. ‘

San Fernanda of Apura, atowa of South America, in
the government of Varinas, fituated on the right bank of
the river Apura. The property of almoit all the inha-
bitants confiits in common fields, and breeding-farms for

cattle and mules. They cultivate very few articles. The
climate is hot, but healthy; the water is excellent. The
city, which is not large, is tolerably well built. The po-

pulation amounts to almoft 6000 fouls.

Sawn Giuliano. See GiuLiano.

Sawn Jayne, a city of South America, in the government

of Varinas; fituated on a hillock of fand, at the confluence
of feveral rivers which empty themfelves into the Apura,
about 12 leagues after their union. The inhabitants are
for three months fo environed by water, that they can
neither leave nor return to their houfes without canoes.
This city, confifting of mean edifices on a fandy and dry
foil, lies in N. lat. 7° 50'; 75 leagues to the S. of Ca-
raccas.
_. Sas duan, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 15 miles
S.S.W. of Havanna.—Alfo, a town of the ifland of Cuba;
42 miles W.N.W. of St. Jago.—Alfo, a town of the above
land; 15 miles S.W. of Villa del Principe.—Alfo, a
town of Spain, in the province of Seville; 40 miles W. of
Seville. See Juan.

San Lorenzo, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 105 miles
S.W. of Havanna.

San Luis, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 25 miles S. of
Spiritu Santo.

Saw Marco, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 70 miles
N.W. of Villa del Principe. f

Saw Miguel, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 50 miles
5.W. of Havanna.—Alfo, a town of the fame ifland; 40
miles N. of Trinidad. See Sr. Miguel, &c.

San Palo, a Small ifland near the weft coaft of the
ifland of Lugon. N. lat. 14° 45’. E. long. 120° 10!.

Saw Pedro, a town of Spain, in'Old Caftile; 15 miles
N.E. of Soria.—Alfo, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 35
miles S. of Havasna.—Alfo, a town of Spain, in the pro-
vince of Bifcay ; 20 miles S, of Santander.—Alfo, a tewn
of the ifland of Cuba; 65 miles S.W. of Havanna.

* Saw Pedro de Mayolon, a town of the ifland of Cuba;
62 miles N. of Trinidad. .

Sax Pedro d’ Arlanza, a town of Spain, in Old Caftile ;
40 miles E.S.E. of Burgos.

Sam ‘Rogue, atown of Spain, in Bifcay ; 16 miles §.S.E.
of Santander.—Alfo, a town of Spain, in the province of
Seville | miles N. of Gibraltar. F

antini, Giuserrs, in Biography See Man-
tix1 of London. ——_ :
. Vou, X¥XXT.

SAN

Saw Martini, Giovanni. See Martini of Milan.

SANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in the
Greater Armenia. i ei ew

Sana, in Geography, a river of Bofnia, which runs into
the river Unna, oppofite to Novi.

Sana, a city of Arabia, in the province of Yemen,
fituated at the foot of mount Nikkum, on which are ftill
vilible the ruins of a caftle, which the Arabs fuppefe to
have been built by Shem. On one fide is the cattle, and
on the other fide a rivulet; and near it is the “ Buftan el
Metwokkel,” a {pacious garden, which was laid out by
Imam Metwokkel, and has been embellifhed, fays Niebuhr,
by the reigning Imam. The walls of the city, conftruéted
of bricks, exclude this’ garden, which 3 inclofed within a
wall of its own. The city, properly fo called, is not very
extenfive ; as a perfon may walk round it in an hour. The
city-gates are fever. Sana has a number of mofques, fome
of which have been built by Turkifh pachas; and as gar-
dens occupy a great part of the fpace within the walls, it
appears to be more populousthan itis. It has only twelve
public baths, but many noble palaces, built by the Imams,
feveral of which belong to the royal family, who are very
numerous. The materials of thefe palaces, which are con-
ftruéted in a ityle of archite@ure different from ours, are
burnt bricks or hewn ftones; but the houfes of the common
people are built of bricks that have been dried in the fun.
Glafs windows are very rare. Mot of the houfes, inftead
of windows, have fhutters, which are opened in fine weather,
and fhut when it is foul. In this cafe, the houfe is lighted
by around wicket, filled with a piece of Mufcovy glafs: fome-
of the Arabians ufe {mall panes of itained glafs from Venice.
At Sana, as well as other cities of the Eaft, are great fim-
feras or caravanferas for merchants and travellers. Each
different commodity is fold in a feparate market: in the
market for bread, none but women are to be feen, and their
little fhops are portable. The feveral claffes of mechanics
work in particular quarters in the open ftreets. Writers go
about with their defks, and make out brieves, copy-books,
and inftruét fcholars in the art of writing ; all which is done
at the fame time. There is one market in which old clothes
are taken for new. Wood for fuel is very fcarce: pit-coal
and peat are ufed for this purpofe. Fruits are very plen-
teous at Sana. Here are more than twenty different {pecies
of grapes, fome of which the Arabs preferve by hangin
them up in their cellars throughout the whole year; nad
fome are made into wine, and others are dried, fo that the
exportation of raifins from Sana is very confiderable. One
fort of thefe grapes has no ftones, In the caftle are two
palaces, the mint, and a range of prifous for perfons of
different ranks. The reigning Imam -refides in the city,
but feveral princes of the blood royal live in the cattle.
The battery is the moft elevated place ; and upon this are
feven {mall cannons, partly buried in the fand, and partly
fet upon broken carriages. Thefe, with fix others near
the gates, which are fired to announce the return of the
different feftivals, are the whole artillery of the capital of
Yemen,

The fuburb of “ Bir el Affab” is nearly adjoining to the
city, on the ecaft fide: the houfes of this village are {cat-
tered through the gardens, along the bank of a {mall river.
Two leagues northward from Sana is a plain, named
“ Rodda,”’ overfpread with gardens, and watered by a
number of rivulets. By means of aqueduéts from mount
Nikkum, the town and caftle of Sana are, at all times,
fupplied with abundance of excellent frefh water, Jews are
not permitted to live in the city of Sana; but they live by
themfelves in a village, named * Kaa el Lhud,” near Bir el
Allah. Their number ee to 2009, In Yemen, how-

5

ever,

SAN

ever, they are treated more contemptuoufly than in Turkey ;
yet the beft artifans are Jews, particularly potters and gold-
{miths, who come into the city, to work in their little Hhicgle
by day, and retire at night to their village. Thefe Jews
carry on a confiderable trade. The difgrace of one of their
moft confiderable merchants, named Oroeki, who had gained
the favour of two fucceflive Imams, drew upon the other
Jews a fevere perfecution ; fo that the government ordered
14 fynagogues, which the Jews had at Sana, to be de-
molithed + and all the houfes in their village above 14 fa-
thoms in height were deftroyed, and they were forbidden to
raife any of their buildings above this height for the future.
The Banians in Sana are reckoned to be about 125: they

ay 300 crowns a month for permiffion to live in the city.

he heirs of a deceafed Banian are obliged to pay from 40
to 50. crowns; and if the deceafed leaves no near relations
in Yemen, his whole property devolves to the Imam. The
Tmam goes in great pomp, attended by a numerous pro-
ceffion, to the mofque every Friday; and during divine
fervice, the city-gates are fhut. The Imam treats the
ftrangers who vifit Sana with great hofpitality, which is
fometimes abufed by the interefted and felfifh. He fent to
Niebuhr and each of his companions a fuit of clothes, with
a letter to the dola of Mokha to pay them 200 crowns as a
farewell prefent, Their clothes were like thofe worn by the
Arabs of diftin@tion through Yemen. They wear the fhirt
over wide drawers of cotton cloth. The ‘ jambea,” a fort
of crooked cutlafs, hangs by a broad girdle; and a veft
with ftraight fleeves is covered by a flowing gown. To
ftockings the Arabs are ftrangers; they only wear on their
feet and legs a fort of half-boots or flippers. The military
force of Sana confifts ordinarily of 4000 infantry and 1000
cavalry. Sana is 125 miles N.N.E. from Mocha. _N. lat.
15° 20!. E. long. 44°9/. Niebuhr’s Travels. See Yemen.

Sana, or Sann. See SANEN.

Sana, or Zana, a town of South America, in Peru,
and capital of a jurifdi€tion, in the bifhopric of Truxillo.
The jurifdi€tion extends about 75 miles along the fea-coait.
The foil is level and fertile; but the heat is fometimes al-
moft infupportable. The town is fituated in a pleafant
valley, fertile in fruit and corn, and adorned with the moft
beautiful flowers, for which reafon it has been fometimes
called ‘* Mirafloris :” it is, however, in a ftate of decay;
80 miles N. of Truxillo.

SANADA, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ;
Bo miles N. of Jedo.

SANADON, Noet-Etrenne, in Biography, was born
at Rouen in 1676. He was early initiated into the fociety
of the Jefuits, of which he afterwards became a profeffor at
Caen, and other places. After nine years he was removed
to the college at Paris, where he filled the rhetorical chair
for fix years; and in the courfe of that period he publifhed
a colledtion of Latin poems, by which he acquired confider-
able reputation. The want of health caufed him to quit the
metropolis, and he went to Tours, where he aéted as pre-
fet of the claffes. In 1726 he was appointed preceptor to
the prince of Conti; in 1728 he became librarian to the
college of Louis le Grand; and in 1733 he died regretted,
as well on account of his literary talents as his amiable qua-
lities in private life. He was elteemed one of the moft ele-
gant Latin poets of his time, and in that language com-
pofed odes, epigrams, culogies, and various other’ pieces,
which, after his death, were collected and publifhed to-

ether. A colle&tion of his difcourfes, on various occa-
fons, was alfo publifhed, which difplay his powers as an
orator, One of his firft publications was a tranflation of
the * Pervigilium Veneris,’’ with notes. But he is chiefly
known by his verfion of the works of Horace, entitled

SAN

“ Traduétion des CEuvres d’ Horace avec des Remarques,””
which firft appeared in 1727, Paris, 2 vols. gto. Itisa
profe tranflation, but is more ornamented and poetical than
that of Dacier and others. He printed with his own tranf-
lation the original Latin, in which he took great liberties in
his various readings, and in changing the order of the poems}
but his moft noted effort of ingenuity was the ‘* Carmen Se-
culare,’’? which from a number of detached odes he formed
into a grand conneéted piece of lyric compofition. In his
various alterations he frequently makes remarks, that dif-
play much tafte and critical fagacity ; but he is apt to in-
dulge his fancy in purfuing fuppofed allegories and allufions
to the events of the Auguitan times.

SANAFIR, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Red
fea; go miles S.E. of Tor. N. lat. 27° 45!. E. long.
45° o'.

SANAG, a town on the weft coaft of the ifland of
Lombok. S. lat. 8° 27!.. E. long. 115° 15!.

SANAGA, a town of Walachia; 50 miles N.N.E. of
Bucharett.

SANAIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in the
interior of Media.

SANAISCHARA, in Hindoo Mythology, a name of
Sani, the Hindoo regent of the planet Saturn: the name
means /low-moving. See SAnI. .

SANAKA, one of the earlieft produtions of Brahma
for the purpofe of peopling the world. On this occa-
fion he is faid to have produced four perfons, viz. Sanaka,
Sananda, Sanatana, and Sanatakumara; who, proving
refractory, caufed their parent to mourn. To comfort
him, Siva iflued from a fold in his forehead, and endow-
ing Brahma with additional ftrength, he produced other
beings, as related under the articles Rist and Rupra.
Thefe fables have probably fome allufions to cofmogony,
not eafily explained nor worth explaining. The four per-
fons named above have fometimes three others aflociated
with them, and are all called children of Brahma: fome-
times they are called Sanakadika, or the children of Sanaka.
The names of the other three are Jata, Vodu, and Pancha-
ficha : but none of them are mentioned very often in Hindoo
writings.

SANALIA, in Surgery, a name given by fome authors
to thofe tumours, commonly called meliceres.

SANAMUNDA, in Botany, a name applied by Clu-
fius and other old botaniits to feveral fhrubs of the Daphne,
Pafferina, and fimilar genera, which feems to allude to their
purgative and fcouring qualites. Thefe are, as phy-
ficians fay, of the moft heroic kind, and would prthighy
require much heroifm in the patient who fhould be their
unfortunate victim.

SANAN, in Geography, a town of Afabia, in Yemen;
36 miles N.N-W. of Abu-Arifch.

SANAOS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor,
in the Greater Phrygia. Strabo.

SANAPARA, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 20
miles N. of Mahmudpour.

SANARICA, a town of Naples, in the province of
Otranto; 12 miles N.N.E. of Cervera.

SANASBYGOTTA, a town of Bengal, and chief town
of the circar of Bootifhazary ; 68 miles NE. of Purneah.
N. lat. 26° 38’. E. long. 88° 28.

SANASHYGOTTA, a town of Morung; 75 miles
E. of Amerpour. -

SANASHYGUNGE, a town of Bengal; 86 miles
N.N.W. of Dacca.—Alfo, a town of Bengal; 56 miles
N.E. of Nattore.

SANATES, among the Romans, an appellation given
to thofe people in the neighbourhood of Rome, who havin

é revels

S A.N

revolted, foon fubmitted themfelves again; on which ac-
count they had equal privileges wita the other citizens,
there being a law in the Twelve Tables ordaining ut idem
juris fanatibus quod foretibus fit. ;
WeANATODOS. in eee ni tea oe given by
le of Sicily to the fpungy excrefcence found on the
ae oe degasiete, and more ufually called the bedeguar.
This they greatly efteem in all venomous bites, and ufe it
in fine powder, both internally and externally, in many parts
of that country. They ufe no other remedy for the bite of
a viper: the wound is {carified, and fome of the powder is
fprinkled on, and large dofes of it are alfo given internally
in ftrong wine. ,
dn the bite of a mad dog they apply it to the wound,
foftened into a fort of poultice with oil, or with ftrong
wine ; and they give it in repeated dofes internally in broths,
and other weak fluids. They give it alfo in continual fe-
vers, and in many other cafes, particularly in the colic. It
is faid, that a fingle dofe of a drachm of it in red-wine, takes
off all the pain of the colic in an hour. { t
There feems a very old opinion on the fide of this medi-
cine, in the cure of a bite from a mad dog ; for Pliny tells
us, that the root of the wild-rofe, from the ftalks of which
this fubftance grows, was revealed in a dream for the curing
of this terrible difeafe. People, who have found out fome one
virtue ina plant, are generally ready to attribute a great
many more to it; but though too much may be faid in
praife of tHe virtues of this fubftance by the people of that
part of the world, it is well worth trying whether it does
not contain fome of them, as it is a thing very common
among us, and eafily had in any quantities.
SANAUBSJA, in Geography, atown of Spain, in Catalonia;
12 miles N.N.E. of Cervera.
SAN BENITO, or Saco Benito. See SAMARRA.
' SANBORNTOWN, in Geography, atownthip of Ame-
rica, in Stafford county, New Hampfhire, at the confluence
of Winnipifiogee and Pemigewaflet rivers ; incorporated in
1770, and containing 2884 inhabitants. Some pieces of
baked earthenware have been found in this place, from which
it is f{uppofed that the Indians had acquired the potter’s art ;
45 miles N.W. of Portfmouth. ¢
SANCAHA, a town of Abyflinia; 20 miles N.W. of
Tcherkin. ;
SANCATTY, a town of Hindooftan, in Dowlatabad ;
23 miles N. of Beder.—Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in
latabad ; 30 miles N.N.W. of Beder.
SANCERGUES, a town of France, in the department
of the Cher, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of
Sancerre; g miles S. of Sancerre. The place contains
60, and the canton 8411 inhabitants, on a territory of 3774
iaieaeteel in 19 communes.
SANCERRE, a town of France, and pre place of
a diftri&t, in the department of the Cher; 12 miles N.E. of
Bourges. The place contains 2511, and the canton 14,740
inhabitants, on a territory of 2724 kiliometres, in 18 com-
munes. N. lat. 47° 20'. E. long. 2° 55'.
SANCEY /’ Egli/e, a town of France, in the department
of the Doubs ; 9 miles W. of St. Hypolite.
SANCHEVILLE, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Eure and Loire; 12 miles N.W. of Cha-
teaudun. a
SANCHEZ, Francois, or Sandius, in Biography, was
a native of Las Brocas, in Spain, and has been Ps eae b
his own coontrymen with the pompous title of «le pére
la langue Latine, et le doéteur de tous les gens de lettres.”
He wrote, 1. Anexcellent treatife, entitled Minervx, aut de
caufis Lingua Latinz,”’ which was publithed at Amfterdam
in t714-. 2. The Art of Speaking, and the Method of

SAN

Tranflating. And 3. Several other learned pieces on grant-
mar. He died in the year 1600, in his 77th year. This
author is to be diftinguifhed from a phyfician of the fame
name, who died at ‘Touloufe in 1632, who was a Chriftian,
though he had been born of and educated by Jewifh parents.
His works were colleGted under the title of «« Opera Me-
dica : his jun@ti funt tra@atus quidam philofophici non in-
fubtiles.”? Thefe were printed in 1636. ;

SancHez. See Sanctius.

SANCHONIATHON, an ancient Pheenician hifto-
rian, was a native of Berytus. It is not at all afcer-
tained at what time he flourifhed. He is however com-
monly referred to the age of the Trojan war. He is par-
ticularly known for a hiftory which he compofed in the Phee-
nician language, partly from the records of cities, and partly
from the regiiters and infcriptions preferved in the temples
of Pheenicia and Egypt. It was tranflated into the Greek
language by Philo of Byblos, in the time of Adrian, of which
verfion there are fome fragments in Porphyry, « De Abfti-
nentia,” &c. Dodwell, in an exprefs treatife, has attempted
to fhew that the hiftory of Sanchoniathon never exifted, and
Dupin has attempted entirely to deftroy the credit of the
fuppofed fragments; but other learned men confider them
as authentic. According to Suidas, Sanchoniathon wrote
a treatife on the religious inftitutions of the Pheenicians ;
another on the phyfiology of Hermes; and a third on the
Egyptian theology.

SAN-CHOUI, in Geography, a town of China, of the
third rank, in Chen-fi; 1 5 miles N.E. of Ping.—Alfo, a
town of the third rank, in Quang-tong ; 25 miles W. of
Canton.

San-cuour Hotuz, a town of Corea; 570 miles E. of
Peking. N. lat. 41°9/. E. long. 226° 52/.

SANCIAN, or Cuanc-rcHUEN-cHAN, an ifland in the
Eaft Indian ocean, near the coaft of China, which is the
burial-place of the famous Francis Xavier. 'The five villages
contained in the ifland are chiefly inhabited by fifhermen ;
40 miles S.W. of Macao.

SANCOINS, a town of France, in the department of
the Cher, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of
St. Amand; 13 miles S.W. of Nevers. The place contains
1400, and the canton 7001 inhabitants, ona territory of 385
kiliometres, in ten communes. N, lat. 46° 50!. E. long.

Sol

SANCOL, a town on the E. coaft of Mindanao. N. lat.
6° 37'. E.long. 126° 15'.

SANCORI. See Sancont.

SANCOTY Heap, the E. point of Nantucket ifland, on
the coait of Maflachufetts. N. lat. 41° 15', W. long.
69° 58’.

SANCROFT, Wirtiam, in Biography, an eminent
Englith prelate of the 17th century, was born at Frefing-
field, in Suffolk, in the year 1616. He was initiated into the
elements of grammar learning at Bury St. Edmund’s, and
at the age of eighteen he was entered of Emanuel college,
Cambridge, where he foon diltinguifhed himfelf in various
branches of literature. He took his degrees, and was in
1642 chofen fellow of his college. This fituation he re-
tained till the year 1649, when, refufing to conform to the
withes of the governing powers, he was ejeéted, upon which
he withdrew to the continent, and travelled a confiderable
time in France and Italy. He was at Rome in 1660; but
when meafures were ripe for the refloration of Charles LL.
he returned to England, and was chofen one of the univerfity
preachers at Cambridge, He was fiortly after appointed
chaplain to the bifhop of Durham, who prefented him to the
rectory of Houghton-le-Spring, as well as a prebend ip
his cathedralchurch, In 1661 - was employed in making
S{2 alterations

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alterations and emendations of the liturgy, and in the fol-
lowing year he was created doétor of divinity at Cambridge,
and uA ed mafter of Emanuel college. In 1664 he was
promoted to the deanery of York, which he held only ten
months, and is faid to have expended upon the buildings two
hundred pounds more than he received for the duties of his
office, At the clofe of the year he was removed to the
deanery of St. Paul’s, which induced him to refign his rec-
tory and the mafterfhip of Emanuel college. One of the
firit objects of his attention was the repair of the cathedral,
which had fuffered great dilapidations from the fanatics
during the civil wars ; and afterwards he was occupied upon
the means of rebuilding that edifice, after it had been de-
ftroyed by the dreadful fire of London. In 1668 the king
prefented him to the archdeaconry of Canterbury, which he
refigned after he had held it two years; but being chofen
prolocutor of the lower houfe of convocation, he was, while
in that ftation, unexpettedly raifed to the archiepifcopal fee
of Canterbury. This church preferment he obtained from
his known attachment to high principles with regard to the
royal prerogative ; but it is probable that in the event he
difappointed the king and his brother, inafmuch as his in-
tegrity would not allow him to facrifice his religion to
pleafe his patron. He is faid to have attended Charles IT.
on his death-bed, and to have fpoken to the dying king with
a degree of freedom that was {carcely to be expected. In
1686 he was nominated the firft in king James’s commil-
fion for ecclefiaftical affairs ; but he refultd to act under it,
though he did not feel ftrong enough to remonitrate againft
its illegality. In a fhort time after this, he afforded evi-
dence of his zeal to countera& the king’s infidious defigns
for promoting the interefts of popery, by refufing, in his
capacity of one of the governors of the Charter-houfe, to
admit as penfioner in that hofpital a papift, though ftrongly
recommended by the court. In 1688 he fhewed his refo-
lution, by refufing, with fix other bifhops, to order the read-
ing of the king’s declaration of indulgence, and by figning,
in conjunétion with them, a petition to his majefty, contain-
ing their reafons for refifting the authority which he affuned.
For this petition, as we have before feen, (fee James,)
they were committed to the Tower, and tried at the bar of
the king’s bench ; but were acquitted, to the great joy of the
people at large, though tothe difappointment and mortifica-
tion of the court. During the fame year, the archbifhop,
in the circular letter which he fent to the clergy of his
diocefe, exhorted them to cultivate a good Heist iodestee
with the Proteftant diffenters, and he endeavoured to promote
a plan which might, he thought, induce them to join the na-
tional church. In the autumn, when James had received
intelligence of the defigns of the prince of Orange to bring
an army into England in fupport of the liberties of the
people, he fent for archbifhop ancroft, and the other bifhops
who were in London, to afk their advice in that emergency ;
thefe plainly told him, that he mutt inftantly fhew a difpo-
fition to a complete change in the meafures of government,
by redrefling the grievances of the nation, and by calling a
free and regular parliament. The king was, however, {till
obftinate, and in a few days he fent for the archbifhop, de-
firing him to fign a declaration of abhorrence of the prince of
Orange’s undertaking, which, however, he declined, and on
the withdrawing of ihe fovereign, Dr. Sancroft concurred
with the lords {piritual and temporal, who affembled at
Guildhall on the 11th of December, in figning a declaration
to the prince of Orange for a free parliament, the fecurity
of the laws, liberties and properties of the people, and a
due indulgence to Proteftant diffenters. Archbifhop San-
croft had thus far given his countenance and fupport to the
meafures neceflary toe oppofing the fteps taken by James to

SAN

eftablifh arbitrary power, and the Popifh religion ; but where
the church was fecure, he feems to have been alarmed at the
part which he had taken, and refolved to wait the confe-
quences in inactivity and filence. For this behaviour he is
condemned by Burnet, who denominates him “ a poor-f{pirited
and fearful man, who aéted a very mean part in all this great
tranfaction.”” His conduét certainly juftifies the oppro-
brium of the hiftorian, who in the cafe of the archbifhop can
{carcely be thought an impartial writer, as Sancroft had
refufed to confecrate Burnet, becaufe he had been fo zealous
in behalf of the revolution.

After the convertion had declared the throne vacant,
and the government was fettled upon king William, San
croft refufed fubmiffion to the new fettlement of the crown.
Accordingly, after the convention had been converted into a
parliament, by a bill paffed in January 1689, and they were
proceeding to call over the members’ names in the houfe of
lords, that the new oaths of allegiance and fupremacy might
be tendered to them, the archbifhop declined coming to the
houfe, and his example was followed by feven other prelates.
On the rit of Auguift, the time allowed by parliament for
the clergy to take the oaths having expired, and the arch-
bifhop refufing to qualify, he was fufpended ab officio; and
on the 1ft of February following he was deprived. He,
neverthelefs, refided unmoletted at Lambeth till the nomina-
tion of his fucceffor, Dr. Tillotfon, upon which he received
an order to quit the palace in ten days. ‘This was in May
1691, but he had made up his mind that he wo6uld not re-
move till he was ejected by law ; he was accordingly cited
to appear before the barons of the exchequer to anfwer a
writ of intrufion, and as he avoided putting in any plea,
judgment was pafled againft him. On the evening of the
fame day he withdrew to a private houfe near the ‘Hemple,
and in a few weeks afterwards he retired to the country,
where he {pent the remainder of his days. Hedied in No-
vember 1693, in the 78th year of hisage. He was reckoned
an excellent, as well as a general fcholar: of his inte-
grity he gave the itrongeft evidence, by facrificing his high
dignity rather than violate his confcience. His character is
thus drawn by Dr. Birch. ‘ Upon an impartial examina-
tion of his condu& and charaGter, he will appear to have been
flow, timorous, and.narrow-fpirited, but at the fame time a
good, honeft, and well-meaning man. He was laborious m
his ftudies, and had amafled a vaft colle&tion of papers,
having written perhaps more with his own hand than any
perfon of his time. But the three fermons which:he pub-
lifhed give us a very low idea of his tafte and judgment, and
are more’ fuitable to a difciple of bifhop Andrews, thana
contemporary of Dr. Tillotfon.”’

Befides thefe fermons, the other publications of Dr. San-
croft confift of a Latin dialogue, compofed partly by him-
felf, and partly by two friends, entitled, “ Fur Predeftinatus,
five, Dialogifmus inter quendam Ordinis Predicantium Cal-
viniftam et Furem ad Laqueum damnatum’ Habitus :”
“Modern Politics taken from Machiavel, Borgia,’’ &e. :
“ Familiar Letters.’? His collections in MS. were pur-
ne by bifhop Tanner, and prefented to the Bodleian
ibrary.

SANCTIFICATION, the a& of fanctifying, or making
a thing holy, and feparate to God.

The reformed divines define fanétification an aé&t of God’s
grace, whereby a man is renewed inwardly, his defires and
affections are alienetied from the world, and the man put in
acourfe of dying to fin, and living to righteoufnefs. See
SAINT.

The /andifying of the fabbath, among the Jews, is of divine
right or inititution. By /andifying the fabbath, is meant,
the fpendingit in prayer, praife, &c. not in worldly rn

he

ad

“a.

SAWN

The firft petition in the Lord’s Prayer is, Hallowed, i.e.
Sandified be thy name: by which is meant, let thy name be
ever accompanied with blefling and praife. The meaning of
this phrafe may be belt underitood by its oppofite, 7. ¢. pro-
faning the name of God, by vain fwearing, blafpheming,
aferibing his name to idols, and-ufing it in a heedicfs man-
ner, and on trivial occafions: by furnifhing wicked men and
infidels with occafion for blafpheming it by a wicked life,
&e. &c. :

SANCTION, Sancrio, the authority given to a judicial
aé&; or that whereby it becomes legal and authentic.

The word is formed from the Latin /ancire, to eftabli/h.

The royal affent gives the fanétion of itatutes, to all bills
in parliament that have pafled each houfe.

Sanction of a law. Sce Law.

Sanction, Pragmatical. See PRAGMATIC.

SANCTI VITI Cuorea. See Virus’s Dance.

SANCTIUS, Jasrer, commonly denominated Sanchez,
in Biography, a learned commentator on the fcriptures in
the'16th and 17th centuries, was born at Cifuentes, in New
Caftile, about the year 1553. He became a member of the
fociety of Jefus when he was about feventeen years old, and
cultivated the different branches of literature and fcience with
fuch fuccefs, that he was felected by his fuperiors to teach
the learned languages and the belles-lettres in the colleges
belonging to his order at Oropefa, Madrid, and other places.
After prefiding in thefe departments during thirty years, he
was appointed profeffor of facred literature in the college
at Alcala. Here he fpent thirteen years in commenting
on the facred fcriptures, and the refult of his labours met
with a favourable reception, not only from the Catholics but
alfo the Proteitants. Among the latter, our countryman
Poole_has made frequent reference to his judgment in his
« Synopfis Criticorum.”? In 1628 Sanétius was called
from Alcala, to fill a fimilar profefforfhip at Madrid, but
he died before he could enter upon the duties of his office,
when he was about 75 years of age. His works are com-
mentaries in the Latin language, on almoit all the books in
the Old Teftament, and on the A&s of the Apoftles.

SANCTORIAN Tastes, are ufed to fignify fuch re-
gilters as exbibit the quantities of perfpiration, its propor-
tion to ftool or urine, &c. We have fuch tables from the
obfervations of Dr. Lining, at Charleftown, South Caro-
lina. See Phil. Tranf. N° 470, and 475.

SANCTORIUS, Sancronius, in Biography, an inge-
nious phylician, who greatly diftinguifhed himfelf by his
experiments on the infenfible perfpiration, was born in the
year 1561, at Capo d’Iitria, a town on the borders of the
gulf of Triétte. He ftudied medieine at Padua, where he
received the degree of doétor of piiyfic, and then went to
Venice, where he fettled, and entered into the praétice of
his profeffion with confiderable fuccefs. In the year 1611,
however, he was recalled to Padua, by an appointment to
the profeflorthip of the theory of medicine in that .univer-
fity ; an office which he immediately undertook, and gave
am to a large concourfe of auditors for the fpace of
thirteen years. His profeffional reputation was now fo
high, that he was frequently fent vs to Venice by the

le of diitinétion in that city ; and, finding his health
impaired by the fatigue of tliake journies, he refigned his
chair at Padua, in order to dedicate all his time to medical
prattice. His refignation was accepted, but the gratuity
was continued; and with this teflimony of the public
efteem, he removed and {ettled finally at Venice. He had
attained the age of fixty-three, and lived twelve

years in the enjoyment of reputation and emolument at Ve-
nice, where he died in 1636, at the age of feventy-five. He
was buried in the cloilters, and a ftatue of marble raifed to

3

SAN

his memory in the church of a religious order in that city.
He bequeathed an annuity to the college of phyficians at
Venice, who, in gratitude for the gift, inftituted an annual
oration to commemorate his benevolence.

SanGtorius firft called the attention of phyficians to the
fun@tion of cutaneous and pulmonary tranfpiration, the im-
portance of which in the animal economy he demonttrated,
by proving the extraordinary proportion of fubitance, or
weight, which was loft in the courfe of twenty-four hours
by this infenfible exhalation. By weighing the quantity of
ingefia, that is, of the folid and liquid fubitances taken into
the body, within this given period, and alfo the fenfible and
ponderable difcharges which were emitted within the fame
{pace of time, he found that “ the infenfible tran{pira-
tion alone was wont to exceed confiderably all the fenfible
difcharges put together.”? (De Statica Medicina, feét. i.
aph. 4.) He calculated, in fa@, that ‘* if the meat and
drink of one day amounted to eight pounds, the infenfible
tran{piration ufually conititated about five pounds :”
(Aphorifm 6.) and of chis he eftimated that about Aalf
a pound pafled off from the lungs by refpiration. (Aph. 5.)
In another place, he eftimates thefe more fpecifically ;
aflerting, that “in the {pace of one night about fixteen
ounces of urine, four of digetted matter by ftool, and forty
or more of infenfible perfpiration, are ufually difcharged.’’
(Aph. 59.) And that “ in many perfons as much is evacu-
ated in one natural day by infenfible perfpiration, as in the
courte of fifteen days by the bowels.”? (Aph. 60.) He alfo
itates, ** I have found the infenfible perfpiration to be about
forty ounces in feven hours, during fleep ; but only ¢aventy
while awake.” Aph. 20. fect. iv.

It is natural, when any new funtion or ation is dif-
covered, to afcribe to it immediately a great influence in the
common operations of the fyitem, which we have hitherto
been able to explain imperfeétly ; and accordingly Ganéto-
rius referred moft of the deviations from health to irregu-
larities and impediments in this infenfible perfpiration. Fie
affirms in his 42d aphorifm, that “the firlt fymptoms of
difeafes are more furely detected from a change in the per-
{piration than from diforder of the funétions ;’”? and he has
drawn up many aphori{ms, detailing the caufes, internal and
external, by which the perfpiration is deranged, as. well as
the effects which follow this derangement, and efpecially the
retention of the perfpirable matter. From thefe views he
regulated the principles both of diet and medicine, and the
modes of preferving the health and curing difeafes.

We have already itated, that there are many found ob-
fervatidns among the aphorifms of Sanétorius, and that he
conferred a benefit on medical {cience, by dire¢ting the ob.
fervation of medical men to the funétions of the {kin, (fee
Mepicine, Hiflory of); but unfortunately, the doétrines
were extended much too far; and, coinciding with the me-
chanical principles, which were coming into yogue after the
difcovery of the circulation, as well as with the chemical
notions, which were not yet exploded, they contributed to
complete the eftablifhment of the humoral pathology, under
the fhackles of which the practice of medicine continued
almoft to our own times. The evils which refulted from this
pathology we have taken many occafions to point out; and
the difcuffion would be out of place here. See efpecially
the articles Humonat Sathology, and Mintany Fever.

The treatife of Sanctorius, entitled «© Ars de Statica
Medicina,’ was firft publifhed, in a {mall duodecimo, in
1614, at Venice; but it has fubfequently pafied through
more than twenty editions, including tranflations, with va-
rious commentaries. ‘The Latin ftyle of Sanétorius is ele-
gant and perfpicuous. He publifhed fome other works ;
viz. * Method) vitandorum Errorum omnium, qui in Me-

dicina

SAN

dicina contingunt, Libri xv.”” Ven. 1602; of which a
Geneva edition of 1631, comprifed alfo an effay «* De In-
ventione Remediorum.” «* Commentaria in primam: Fen.
primi Libri Canonis Avicenne,’’ 1625. ‘ Commentaria in
primam Se&ionem Aphorifmorum Hippocratis,” 1629.
And “ Commentaria in Artem Medicinalem Galeni,” 1613.
All his works were colleéted, and publifhed together, in four
volumes, 4to. at Venice, in 1660.

Sanétorius was the author of feveral inventions. Befides
his ftatical chair, by which the quantity of food taken was
weighed, he invented an inftrument for meafuring the force
of the pulfe ; and feveral new inftruments of furgery. He
was the firft phyfician who attempted to meafure the heat
of the fkin by a thermometer, in different difeafes, and at
different periods of the fame difeafe. And he was an
avowed enemy to empirics and empirical noftrums, as well
as to all occult remedies. See Eloy, Di&. Hift. de la Med.
and Sanétorii Ars de Stat. Medicina.

SANCTUARIUM, in Lcclefiaftical Writers, the fame
with Brandeum.

SANCTUARY, among the Jews, was the holieft and
moft retired part of the temple of Jerufalem ; in which was
preferved the ark of the covenant ; and into which nobody
was allowed to enter but the high-prieft, and that only once
a-year, to intercede for the people.

The fan€tuary, called alfo fanéum fan@orum, or holy of
holies, is {uppofed to be a type or figure of heaven, and of
Jefus Chrift the true high-prieft, who is afcended thither to
make interceflion for us.

Some will have it, that the whole temple was called the
fan€tuary : and that the fanétum fanétorum, where the ark
was kept, was only a little chapel or oratory in it.

To try orexamine a thing by the qweight of the fan@uary, is
to examine it by a juft and equal fcale ; becaufe, among the
Jews, it was the cuftom for the priefts to keep {tone weights,
to ferve as ftandards for regulating all weights by ; though
thefe did not differ from the royal or profane weights.

Sanctuary, in our Ancient Cuffoms, denotes an afylum,
or place privileged by the prince for the fafeguard of mens’
lives, who were guilty of capital crimes.

In Scotland they call the fanétuary girtholl, or gyrthol.
The Saxons alfo call it frodmortel, and fridftoll.

Till Henry VIII. all our churches and church-yards
were fanétuaries; and proteéted perfons accufed of any
crime (except treafon, in which the crown, and facrilege, in
which the church, was too nearly concerned) who fled to
them ; and who within forty days after went in fackcloth,
and confeffed themfelves guilty before the coroner, and de-
clared all the particular circumftances of the offence ; and
who thereupon took the oath in that cafe provided, viz.
that they abjured the realm, and would départ from thence
forthwith, at the firft port that fhould be affigned them,
and would never return without leave from the king: by
this means they faved their lives, if they obferved the con-
ditions of the oath, by going with a crofs in their hands,
and with all convenient fpeed, to the port afligned, and
embarking ; for if, during thefe forty days’ privilege of
fanétuary, or in the road to the fea-fide, they were appre-
hended and arraigned in any court for this felony, they
might plead the privilege of fanétuary, and had a right to
be remanded, if taken out again{t their will. But by this
abjuration their blood was attainted, and they forfeited all
their goods and chattels. During this time, if any layman ex-
pelled them, he was excommunicated ; if a clerk, he was made
irregular ; but after forty days no man might relieve them.

The immunity of thefe privileged places was very much
abridged by the ftatutes 27 Hen. VIII. cap. 19. and
32 Hen. VIII. cap. t2. And now, by the ftatute

SAN

21 Jac. I. cap. 20, all privilege of fan& » and abjur-
ation confequent ciemanpeel 4 utterly 04 sta and
abolifhed. :

St. John’s of Beverley had an eminent fan@tuary, called
by the Saxons, a feat of peace: fo had St. Martin’s-le-Grand,
in London. Ripon had the like granted by Whitlafe,
king of the Mercians: fo had St. Burien’s, in Cornwall,
granted by king Athelftan, anno 936; and Weitminfter
had the like, granted by Edward the Confeffor.

Sancrvary is alfo ufed, in the Romifh church, for the
chancel, or that part of the church in which the altar is
placed, encompafled with a rail or baluftrade.

SANCTUM SANCTORUM. See Sancruary.

SANCY & Bas, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Mofelle ; 9 miles W. of Thionville.

SAND, in Mineralogy. The name of fand is given to
all mineral matter that exifts in minute detached grains, and
is denominated from the prevailing fub{tance, as filiceous
fand; iron fand, &c. Sand is generally formed from the
difintegration of hard ftones or rocks by the agency of
water, and the particles of filiceous ftones, poffefling a
greater degree of hardnefs than moft other kinds. The
ee part of the fand which exiits on the fea-fhore, or is

pread on the furface of the earth, is filiceous. Argillaceous
ftones, or calcareous {tones intermixed with alumine, when
reduced to minute parts, form a kind of pafte or mud by
intermixture with water, the particles uniting or cementin
together as the mixture becomes dry. When a bed of
filiceous fand{tone rifes to the furface, the particles become
feparated by the action of the atmofphere and other caufes,
and form a loofe fandy foil; fometimes fo deftitute of
mixture with other earths, as to be entirely unfit for vege-
tation. There are alfo certain regular beds of fand above
and below chalk-rocks on the ealtern fide of our ifland,
which, wherever they rife to the furface, form fandy tra&s,
as at Woburn, in Bedfordfhire. Such beds of fand are
probably original depofits, like many of the other ftrata
that cover the globe. We are not to conclude that all
fand is the product of decompofed rocks; a large portion
of it is an original formation, particularly that which com-
pofes many fand{tones. Romé de Lifle, in his Cryital-
lographié, obferved this circumftance, and has ftated, that
the fand is much too angular, and the grains too regular in
fize, to admit the fuppofition that they were formed by the
deftru€tion of pre-exifting rocks. ‘ A bed of perfeétly
tranfparent and cryftalline fand was found at Neuilly, in
France, each grain of which, when examined with a lens,
was a perfeé fix-fided prifm, terminated by two fix-fided
pyramids. The tranfparency and perfeétion of the cryftals
prove that they were not mechanically formed and brought
from a diftance. They are the refults of original chemical
or cryftalline formations. The fands at Creil, at Nevers,
and Etampes, and other parts of France, are fo pure, as
to be sings in the glafs manufactory of St. Gobelin.’?.
The fame writer ftates, that he received a quantity of fand
from Cayenne, compofed of perfect microfcopic garnets,
with twenty-four trapezoidal faces. Some of the fands of
Egypt contain alfo numerous rare eryftals, parti-
cularly of fapphires ; fome perfectly tranfparent, and others
as green as emeralds. Sand, principally compofed of fili-
ceous earth, isemployed for divers important ufes. Mixed
with quick-lime it forms mortar. In the fabrication of
pottery-ware, a certain quantity of filiceous fand is necef-
fary to give it confiftence, and to enable it to ftand the
aGtion of fire. The further vitrification that the filex
undergoes communicates a degree of hardnefs and folidi
which pottery coul@ not otherwife acquire. Siliceous
is an article of prime importance in the en
glafs.

——&<— O

q

SAND.

glafs. When pure it forms the bafis of the moft beautiful
tran{parent flint and crown-glafs.

The furface of the globe prefents immenfe countries
covered with fand, as the defarts of Africa, and thofe of
northern Afia. According to Patrin, a French mineralogitt,
the great rivers which he has feen in northern Afia, the
Iztifch, the Ob, and the Yenifley, have their beds at pre-
fent furrounded by fandy defarts, which are in many parts
from four to five hundred feet above the level of the plains.
Thefe maffes of fand, which cover fuch an immenfe extent,
were formed from the ruins of the higher parts of central
Afia, brought down by inundations. “ Extenfive traéts
of cultivated ground are fometimes converted into fandy
defarts: the procefs is taking place at prefent, and has
been well deferibed by Cuvier. During very high winds, the
fand on the fea-fhore is driven inland, covering the ground
to a certain diitance; and leaving an elevated ridge at the
further boundary ; (ucceeding winds blow this forward,
and at the fame time bring frefh fand to fupply its place.

«© In the fixth volume of the TranfaGions of the Irith
Academy, an account is given of the encroachment of the
fand over fome parts of Ireland. Trees, houfes, and even
villages, have been covered or furrounded during the lait
century. The roofs, {till rifing above the wafte, atteft the
period and the progrefs of defolation. The loofe fands of
Egypt are thus fpreading over the plains that border the
Nile, and burying the monuments of art, and the remem-
brance of former cultivation. Palmyra, in Afia Minor,
that once fupplied an abundant population with food, now
fearcely affords a few plants to the camel of the wandering
Arab. By planting and irrigation man can fix limits to the
moving waftes of fand ; but defpotic power, more deftruc-
tive than the winds of the defart, unnerves the arm of in-
duftry, and dafhing the cup of enjoyment to the ground,
configns flourifhing and fertile diftriéts to eternal fterility
and folitude.” (Bakewell’s Introduétion to Geology.)
‘The fandy defarts of Arabia, in that part between Hit and
Tahiba, are covered with a kind of loofe gravel, in which
are found bivalve fhells.

Sanp, Auriferous. The greateft part of the gold of com-
merce exiits in fmall grains on the fands of rivers. In this
fate it has been found in {mall quantities in Cornwall, and
in large quantities in the county of Wicklow, in Ireland.
The fpace where the gold was collected is of limited ex-
tent, not exceeding 300 yards along the banks of a brook
which runs from the mountain in that county. The brook
is only fix or feven feet wide ; and before the fearch for

Id began in 1796, had formed its channel down to the

urface of the rock. The banks of this fmall f{tream, in
the above limited {pace, are compofed of a ftratum of fand
and gravel about five feet thick, which repofes on a rock
of flate ; the latter is interfeéted by veins of quartz. It is
from this fandy ftratum that the particles of gold were ex-
tratted by wafhing. Ten thoufand pounds Irith were
paid for the

rage rate paid per ounce was 3/. 16s., making the total
amount equal to 2666 ounces. ‘The ore was fo pure, that
its fpecific gravity was 19, and 24 grains yielded, when
affayed, above 224 grains of gold. The greater part of it
was entirely free from {tony matter; but fome of it was
attached to quartz, ora fine-grained iron-{tone, and fome-
times the old was diffeminated in thefe minerals. Several
males of gold, exceeding one ounce weight each, were
found in the fand. One was difcovered which weighed
ounces, and another of 22 ounces, which is faid to be the

lrg mafs of native gold found in Europe.
Id is found in the fands of Spain and Portugal. Many

gold found in the firft two months: the ave-,

of the rivers in France, as the Rhine, the Rhone, and the
Garonne, furnifh auriferous fand. In the fouthern parts of
Afia, the fands of many of the rivers contain gold. The
Pactolus, a {mall river in Lydia, is celebrated by the an-
cient writers for the quantity of gold which it afforded, and
is fuppofed rich in gold at the prefent time. The greateit
quantity of gold which the ancients poflefled was obtained
from Africa. The gold from that country {till forms a confi-
derable article of commerce. It is always in the {tate of
minute grains, called gold-duit, and is extra&ted from the
fands of rivers. There are three or four parts remarkable
for the quantity of gold they afford. The firitis that part
of the country which lies between Darfur and Abyflinia.
The gold collected there is brought to market by the
negroes in the quills of the oftrich or vulture. This is
probably the country (Ethiopia) from which the ancients
derived their gold.

The fecond principal fource of gold-duft in Africa lies
to the fouth of the Great Defarr of Zara, or Sahara, in
the weftern part of that continent. The gold is collected
from the fands of that extenfive flat country, bounded by
the mountains that give rife to the rivers Senegal, Gambia,
and the Niger. - Bambouk, which is fituated to the north-
welt of thefle mountains, furnifhes the greater part of the
gold which is fold on the weitern coaft of Africa, as well
as that which is brought to Morocco, Fez, and Algiers, and
to Cairo and Alexandria in Egypt. <A third region of
Africa, which furnifhes auriferous fand and gold-duit, lies
on the fouth-welt coaft, between 15 and 22 degrees of fouth
latitude, nearly oppofite to Madagafcar. Nearer to the
equator, the Gold Coat fupplied the Portuguefe, and after-
wards the Dutch, with immenfe treafures in gold-dutt from
auriferous fand.

Gold is alfo found in the fands of rivers in North and
South America, particularly in the Portuguefe fettlements
of the Brazils.

It has been obferved, that gold is moft abundant in the
fand of rivers, when the waters are at the loweft, and par-
ticularly foon after floods; from which it is inferred, that
the gold is carried down along with the earthy matters
which are {wept off by the violence of the currents. It has
been fuppofed, too, that the gold found in the beds of
rivers has been detached by the force of the waters from
the veins of the primitive rocks which are traverfed by
thefe currents, and, according to this opinion, attempts
have been made to trace the fource of thefe auriferous fands
in the hope of difcovering the native repofitory of that pre-
cious metal: but thefe attempts have ufually failed; for it
appears that the gold is peculiar to Spagna foil through
which the itream is carried, and is limited to the very {pot
where it has been colleéted. This point feems to be full
eltablifhed by the obfervations of naturalifts. 1. The foil
of certain plains through which rivers flow, frequently con-
tains, to acertain depth, and in particular places, particles
of gold. 2. The bed of the auriferous rivers yields a
greater proportion of gold after the plains which are tra-
verfed by thefe rivers have been flooded. 3. It has been
very generally obferved, that gold is found in the fand of
rivers in a very limited f{pace. When the fand of thefe
rivers is examined higher up, and nearer to their fource, no
gold is found; fo that if this metal were derived from the
rocks which are abraded by their currents, the quantity
would be greatett neareft to their fources; but obfervation
has proved the contrary. ‘Thus, the river Oreo contains no
gold but in that part of its courfe between Pont and the
place where it joins the Po. The river 'Tefin affords no
gold till it has traverfed lake Major, where its courfe ae

lave

SAND.

have been retarded, and where all the heavy particles of
matter which it carried along with it from the primitive
mountains, muft have been depofited. The quantity of
gold collected on the Rhine near Strafburg, is greater than
what is found near Bafle, which is more in the vicinity of the
mountains. No gold has been difcovered in the fands of
the Danube during the firlt part of its courfe; it is only in
the places below Efferding, which are traverfed by that river,
that the fands become auriferous. A fimilar remark is ap-
plicable to the river Ems: the fands of the upper part of
that river, as it traverfes the mountains of Stiria, contain
no gold; but from the place where it enters the plain at

Steyer, till it joins the Danube, the fands are auriferous, and
fufficiently rich to be wafhed with advantage.

As a farther illu{tration of the natural repofitories of
gold being limited to particular fpots, other faéts may be
noticed. The river Nera, in the bannat of Temefvar, in
Upper Hungary, has been long known to yield gold-dutt.
The {trata onthe banks of this river are, about a foot of
vegetable mould; two feet of loam; next pebbles and cal-
careous earth, one foot and a half; then pebbles, with pieces
of other rocks, mica, garnets, and iron-fand, three feet. This
laft is the ftratum which affords the gold-duft. In exa-
mining the extent of the gold-impregnated ftratum, a fhaft
was funk to the depth of one fathom and a half; thirty
loads of fand were dug out from this pit, and being wathed,
yielded two grains of gold: Another fhaft was funk
twenty-eight fathoms nearer to the foot of the mountains,
and the fame quantity of fand being dug out and wafhed,
produced only half a grain of gold. At the diftance of
twenty-two fathoms to the fouth, another fhaft was funk,
but the ftrata througk which it was carried were entirely
different. This gold-impregnated {tratum not only becomes
poorer as it approaches the mountains, but it has been alfo
obferved to become richer in proportion to its depth under
ground. The iron with which the gold is accompanied in
this ftratum, isin the form of black fhining particles, which
are attracted by the magnet.

Mott of the auriferous fands, in all parts of the world, are
of a blackifh orreddith colour, aud ferruginous. From this
circumftance, naturalifts have concluded that the gold in
thefe fands is derived from the decompofition of auriferous

rites.

Me was obferved by Reaumur, that the fand which ac-
companies the gold of moit rivers, and efpecially that of the
Rhine and the Rhone, refembles the gold fand of Ceylon.
It is compofed of particles of iron, and {mall grains of
rubies, corundum, and hyacinth. ‘Titanium has alfo been
difcovered in the fame fand.

Green fand of Peru, or copper fand, an ore of copper,
exilting in {mall grains; it is compofed of that metal,
combined with the muriatic acid. See Copper.

Iron fand, an ore of iron, in very minute grains, which,
according to Werner, are not magnetic when at a depth in
the earth, but become fo by expofure to the atmofphere.

Volcanic fand confifts of minute grains, generally of a
black colour, thrown out of the craters of volcanoes in
fueh immenfe quantities, as to darken the air, and cover the
furface of the ground to a valt extent with a new foil.
During one eruption of Etna, a {pace of one hundred and
fifty miles in circuit was covered with volcanic fand to the
depth of twelve feet. Volcanic fand is fometimes cryttal-
line. ‘Towards the conclufion of an eruption, the fand changes
its colour, and is generally a white powder, improperly
called afhes. It confilts of white pumice, in a finely com-
minuted tate. See VoLcano.

in reference to the various practical purpofes to which

fand has been applied, it has been fometimes diftinguifhed
into pit-fand, river-/and, and fea-fand. —

e ufe of fand in building is as an ingredient in mortar ;
which fee.—For this purpofe, pit-fand is of all others the
beit ; and of pit-fand, the whitett is always the worit. OF
river-fand, that found in the falls of waters is bett, becaufe
molt purged : and fea-fand is the wortt.

Pit-fand, as being fat and tough, is moft ufed in walls and
vaults. River-fand ferves beft for rough cafting.

All fand is good in its kind, if, when Facies and handled,
it crackles; and if, being put on a white cloth, it neither
ftains nor makes it foul. “That fand is naught, which, mixed
with water, makes it dirty and muddy, and which has been
long in the air; for fuch will retain much earth and rotten
ne Hence fome ‘mafons wath their fand before they
ufe it. ,

The fand of Puzzuolo, de Lorme obferves, is the beft
in the world ; efpecially for maritime buildings. See Poz-
ZOLANA. é bblp

The fand of which glafs is made is white and gritty, and
full of little fparkling grains. :

Sand feems to have been the firft fubltance added to proper
falts for making of glafs. Jofephus, Tacitus, Strabo, Pliny,
Agricola, &c. all mention this, and tell us of the ftores
from which the fand for this ufe was brought being inex~
hauftible. See Grass. ove

» The fand ufed by founders is foffile : it is properly a yel-
low fat earth, of which they make their moulds for the
catting of {mall work ; whence it is they fay, cafling in fand.

The plumbers alfo ufe fand to mould feveral of their
works, particularly large fheets. To prepare the fand for
thefe fheets, they wet it lightly : then itir and work it with
a ftick ; and then beat and plane it. See PLumBery.

Sand, particularly Lynn-fand, is ufed as a body for the
fluxes and grounds of enamel. See Fivx.

Sanp, in Agriculture, a well-known fubftance of the fof-
file kind, found in minute concretions, forming together a
fort of powder, the particles of which have all a tendency
to one determinate fhape, and appear regular, though more
or lefs complete concretions; not to be diffolved or dif-
united by water, or formed into a coherent ma{fs by means
of it, but retaining their original forms, tranfparent, yitri-
fiable by extreme heat, and when pure, not diffoluble in, or
effervefcing with, acids.

Thefe fubftances, in the ftate of nature, are varioufly
blended and intermixed with other materials, particular
with flakes of talc, &c.and according to thefe and their di
ferent colours, are fubdivided into feveral kinds, as red,
white, &c. And from their having in fome cafes, as foils, a
degree of tenacity or heavinefs, while in others they are
light, and without any cohefion, they have been further diftin-
guifhed by farmers into heavy and b/owing fands. See Som.

Dr. Lifter has divided the fands of this country into
two clafles: firft, the fharp: or rags, confilting of {mall
tran{parent pebbles, naturally found on the mountains, and
not calcinable : thefe he farther divides into fine and coarfe,
and {ubdivides each, according to their colours, into white,
grey, reddifh, brown, &c. Second, the foft or {mooth,
which he fubdivides into that with flat particles, broken fromr
lime-{tones, that with filver-like particles, and that with gold-
like particles. a on

It is remarked, that the great ufe of fand is in making
clayey earth or foil more fertile, and fit to fupport vegeta-
bles, &c. as thefe earths alone are liable to rn and ga-
ther into hard, coherent mafles, as is apparent in clay ; and
earth, when thus embodied, and, as it were, glued together,
is not difpofed to nourifh vegetables ; but if with fugh _

and,

SAND.

fand, &c. in fuch hard particles as are not diflolvable in water,
but which ftill retain their figures, be intermixed, they will
keep the pores of the earth open, and the earth itfelf loofe
and friable, and by that means nourifh plants in a more
perfeét manner. Grounds that are of a fandy or gravelly
nature, readily admit both heat and moifture; but they are
liable to thefe inconveniencies, that they let them pafs away
again with equal expedition ; they are, of courfe, extremely
apt to burnin dry, hot feafons, but have the property of
quickly recovering with the leaft rain. They have likewife
the property of being more early than the more heavy forts
of land.

Likewife common fandis a very good addition by way of
manure to all forts of clayey lands, as it renders them more
open and loofe. The bett fand for the farmer’s ufe is that
which is wafhed by rains from roads, or hills, or that which
is taken from the beds of rivers: the common fand that is
dug in pits never anfwers well. Sand mixed with dung is
much better than laid on alone: and very fine manure is
mad 73 covering the bottom of fheep-folds with feveral
loads of fand every week, which are to be taken away, and
laid on cold ftiff lands, impregnated as they are with the
dung and urine of the fheep. Befides clayey land, there is

fort of ground very improveable by fand, which is
that of the black boggy land, on which bufhes and fedge
grow naturally, and which is cut into turf in fome places.
Six hundred loads of fand being laid upon an acre of this
land, according to the Chefhire meafure, which is nearly
double the ftatute acre, were found to meliorate it {fo much,
that without ploughing, it yielded good crops of oats or
tares, though before it would have produced fcarce any
thing. If, after this crop is taken off, the land be well
dunged, and laid down for grafs, it yields large crops of
fweet hay. It is obferved, that once fanding this fort of
land will improve it for a great number of years ; and that
fome land in Chefhire has been, by this means, rendered of
twelye times its former value to the owner. ‘The bogs of
Treland, when drained, have been rendered very fruitful
land, by mixing fand in this manner among the earth of
which they confift. Add to this, that in all thefe boggy
lands, the burning them, or firing their own turf upon them,
is alfoa great advantage. The comuion peat, or turf-afhes,
mixed with the fand for thefe purpofes, add greatly to its
virtue. In the wet, coarfe, rufhy bottomed lands, it is alfo
faid to have a great effect in deftroying fuch coarfe plants,
and in bringing the {ward into a fine itate of herbage. It
fhould be fpread out over the furface in an even manner, but
not too thickly.

In the above county, the introdu@tion of fand as a manure
or drefling for ftiff tay dati is one of the chief improve-
ments which has lately been made, and the practice is yet
only in ite infancy, though the fuccefs which has conftantly at-
tended it, will, it is fuggetted by the writer of the account
of the agriculture of he diftriét, probably render it more

The utility of this fubftance in this way, though
it was formerly little known, was but rarely had recourfe to
until within the laft thirty years, when it became employed
upon a large fcale by Mr. Corbett, both in its raw ftate, and
in mixture with dung on bis fward or grafs lands. ‘his
example, and the fuccefs attending it, led to a more frequent
application of it, and the praétice has fince been adopted
on many large dairy farms ia the more centrical parts, where
opportunities were afforded, which are by no means uncom-
mon, as deep beds of fand are frequently met with under
the clay, which prevails as the furface layer or ftratum.

The fort of fand which is here thought the moft bene-
ficial in this way on fuch lands, is commonly that of a red

Vor. XXXL.

colour, received from the oxyd of iron contained in its parts,
and which is foft and un@uous to the feel: Though no exaé&
chemical examination of it has been made, yet it undoubt-
edly includes a large proportion of aluminous earth, in
combination with its filiceous particles, but no calcareous
matter has been found in the portions of it which have been
examined.

There are two ways, it is fuppofed, in which fand may be
beneficial when applied on fuch lands as a manure, which are,
firft, that of increafing the quantity of the earthy bed already
prefent, and fecondly, that of its well-known property of
altering the texture and difpofition of the land in iuch cafes.
The latter method is believed to be the more efficacious, as
the fand has a tendency to lighten and open fuch foils by va-
rious means in mixing with them, and to bring them more
to the ftate of a loam, which is moft fuitable for vegetation
in general. This fort of aétion is conceived to be the coun-
terpart to that of marle, as applied to light fandy lands.
In the different inftances the intention of the cultivator is
the fame, that of reftoring the land to the medium or loamy
condition, which experience has fhewn to be the moft bene-
ficial; and marle, by ftiffening the foil, has this effect in the
one cafe, and fand, by opening and lightening it, in the other:
The fand is incorporated with the clayey land in various
ways, as by being wafhed into its cracks and clefts after
dry and frofty weather, by uniting withit in the moift ftate
caufed by heavy rains, by its property of finking into it in
confequence of its weight, and the {mallnefs of its par-
ticles, &c.

Mr. Manley, who has, it is faid, made ufe of it on fuch
lands with the greateft benefit in different refpects, at Merton,
remarks, that “ where there is a piece of {trong clay-land
in tillage, and the farmer has an opportunity of covering it
over with fand, about twice as thick as in a common fet of
manure, the foil will be pulverized and opened by this means,
will give better crops when in tillage, and when laid down
will produce a finer herbage, le{s liable to be parched in dry
weather, or trod down in wet feafons.’’ It is further fug-
gefled, that it is excellent management in the farmer, to lay
a bed or coat of fand, a foot in thicknefs at leaft, before his
cattle are tied up for the winter, where he intends to depofit
the dung to be thrown out of the cow-houfes. The dung
thus thrown out fhould be repeatedly levelled over the
fand, and another coat of the latter laid over the dung about
the end of February ; upon which, the reft of the dung pro-
duced by the cattle, previoufly to their being turned to
grafs, fhould be put. As foon as poffible after this period
the whole fhould be turned, and formed into a compoft,
being mixed well where it lies, or cut down in breafts, filled
into the dung-carts, and carried away to fome fituation on
or near the land where it is intended to be ufed. It fhould
there be laid in a heap of at leaft two yards in thicknefs.
When it has remained two or three months in this ttate, it
will be in proper condition for putting upon the land ; and
will be found, on the whule, one of the moft ufeful manures
that can be employed by the cultivator, efpecially in cafes
where there is a prevalence of clayey matter in the land.

Sand may likewife be put in the grips, beds, or gutters,
behind the cattle in the cow-houfes, into which the dung
and urine are difcharged, with very great advantage in many
cafes, both in increafing the quantity and improving the
pepe for different ufes. A red fort of {and is in ule for
this purpofe in many different fituations, with much benefit
to the removal of the dung and the taking up of the liquid
matters, as well as augmenting the manure-heap.

Sap, in Gardening, an earthy fubftance that is frequently
made ufe of in the culture of different forts of flowers and

it plants

SAND.

plants which require adry ioil. ‘Phe gardener cannot fuc-
ceed in the growth of many forts of flower plants without
having recourfe to this fubftance in the forming of his beds
and other compartments which are neceflary. Compofitions
are alfo frequently formed with it in thefe intentions, fo that
it becomes a very ufeful material to the florift in many dif-
ferent points of view. It is highly neceflary in the culture
of many bulbous-rooted plants.

Sanp, Indian. The fubftance commonly called Jndian
fand is famous for anfwering to the magnet. It is brought
into feveral parts of Europe, and is faid to be gathered on
the fea-fhore in Perfia. After it is gathered it is boiled in
water, to wafh away the impurities it may contain ;\ and when
dried it is fent abroad in form of a black powder, confiftmg
of grains of different fizes. Some of thefe grains are very
rough in every part of their furface, and others’ have one
fide only rough, the others perfe@tly fmooth and glofly.
Their figure is very irregular, and refembles that of the

ins of common fand; only the grains of this Indian fand
are ufually fmaller than thofe of our common fands.

Thefe little lamps have neither tafte nor fmell, and are
fo friable, that they. are eafily reduced to an impalpable
powder by rubbing. Some of the particles are ttrongly
attraéted by the loadftone, and others are fo inaétive as to
be fcarcely at all affected by it. ‘Thofe particles which are
of the deepeft dutky black, are moft of all affected by the
loaditone ; thofe which are not affe€ted by it, feem rather
of the colour of lead, of a blueifh-black and fhining ; thefe
are in the greateft quantity, and the others are felected from
among thefe by the Icaditone.

There are feveral parts of the world which afford this
fand, but with fome difference in the figure of its grains
and their magnetic virtue. Befide Perfia, it is found on the
fhores of Virginia; another fort of it is found about Italy;
and very common at Leghorn: this is very magnetic.
There aré two forts of it found in the river Eberin Haffia,
of wehich’one is like the Italian, but the other confiits of
larfe grains, almoit as big as hempfeed, but having very
little’ virtue. A’ very ftrong: fort is found ia Dalmatia,
near old Ragufa; and probably future enquiries will
fhew, that there are yet many more kinds of it, differ
ing im ftrength and fize. Phil. Tranf.. N° 432,) p. 201:
See Macnet.

Sanp, Sea. See Sra-Sand.

Sanp, Shelly, in Agriculture, a fort of calcareous fand,
found in large banks or beds in many fituations on the borders
of the fea. It is obferved by Dr. Anderfon, in his Eflays
on Rural Affairs, that on many parts of the fea-coafts great
beds of fhells are to be found which have been broken into
fach {mall parts as to aflume the appearance of fand. And
that thisis a rich and valuablemanure that deferves to be highly
prized by thofe who are within reach of it ; but it is too often
negle&ted and unobferved, as this kind of fand has on many
occafions very much the appearance of ordinary fand. And
it is ftated that this may readily be difcovered by pouring a
little agua-fortis, or any other mineral acid, upon the fand
which you with to examine. The author here properly fug-
gefts, that many perfons make this trial with vinegar inttead
of the minerabacids, but which ought never to be done, asit
often happens that vinegar makes no fenfible effervefcence
with calcareous fub{tances.. He would therefore advife every
country gentleman to keep a phial of ve Nang or muriatic
acid, always by him for making trials of calcareous fub-
ftances: the expence is next to nothing. And he is per-
fuaded, from the want of it alone, many perfons have failed
to make difcoveries of calcareous matters that might have
been of high importauce to themfelves and families. Tf it

contain hells, an effervetcence will enfue, and the proportion
of calcareous matter contained in any fort of fand may be
afcertained by a proper procefs. Nor ought this trial ever
to be omitted before the fand is employed as a manure; be-
caufe a very {mall proportion of fhells will make it effervefce
violently, fo that the degree of effervefcence is no proof of
its purity, and becwfe the proportion of fhells varies in all
poflible degrees. It is added, that if the fhells are broken
into very {mall fragments, and if the proportion of fand be
inconfiderable, it will be nearly as valuable as lime, and may
be driven to a greater diltance with profit. If the propor-
tion of ordinary fand be very great, the expence in ufing it
will be greater, as the quantity muft be confiderably inereafed.
But as it may for the moft part be procured at little expence,
thofe who are poffefled of it, are ufwally able to employ itin
great quantities, in which cafe it will produce amazing
effects, efpecially upon ftrong clayey’ lands or others that
are very heavy. It is likewife fuppofed that a much fmaller
quantity of calcareous matter in this {tate will producea
more fenfible effect than when it isin any fort of carthy
marle, becaufe it admits of being more equally fpread u
the ground, and more intimately mixed with the foil; thofe
therefore who are upon the fea-coait, ought to fearch forit
with care, as they will ufually obtain an mvaluable tre:
when they difcover it. The writer fuggelts, that thi
of fand is much more common on the ait coatls of |
than is ufually imagined. All along the coait of 4
efpecially about St. Andrew’s, the fand upon the fho
richly impregnated with fhells, but it has never there been
employed as a manure. On the north coaft of Aberdeen-
fhire fhelly fand abounds, and has beea of late employed as
a manure with the greateft fuccefs, by a gentleman diltin-
ifhed for his knowledge and public {pirit in that corner.
fr is likewife found in Banffshire, where it has peer
with the hichett fuccefs. And all along the coaft of Suther-
land and Caithnefs, the fand upon the fhore contifts almott
entirely of thells. He thinks that thefe treafures will enrich
potterity, although they are at prefent in a great meafure
negleG@ed. ' He mentions them here to induce his country-
men not to’ negle@ a treafure of fuch ineftimable value.
But on the welt coatts of Scotland, and among the iflands,
fhelly fand much more abounds, andits effeéts as a manure
are much more generally known, than on the eatt coatts; fo
that itis there univerfally employed as the moit efficacious
manure with which they are acquainted, Its effets upon
fome of their heathy mofly foils, appear tobe in fome cafes
little fhort of enchantment. And he afferts that the ingenious
Mr. Craik in Dumfriesfhire employed this manure for alo
time, and in greater quantities, than any other perfon in Scot-
land, and has been highly benefited by it. cbor imgme
It is ftated that farmers in many places in the fouthern
parts of the ifland might probably avail themfelves of fimi-
lar advantages, if they were attentive to examine the creeks
and bays of the fea-coafts? In the Agricultural Report of
Argylethire, it is noticed, that the thell-fand found in many
of the bays in that diftri€, has been long ufed as a
manure for corn and meadow-lands, which it greatly ame-
liorates. By this manure, not only the quantity of grafsis
greatly increafed, but its quality alfo mended. It anfwers
wellon any foil, but particularly on {tiff clay, and on mofly
and fpongy land, as (befides its effet asa manure ) it deftroys
the tenacity of their parts, and helps to pul the one
and drain the other. Its value as a manure depends on the
proportion which the fhell bears to the fand ; which in fome
places is greater, and in others lefs. The beft fand is found
on fome of ‘the iflands, particularly in Oronfay, from which
it is frequently carried to the continent. Perhaps this is or

S$ AN

beft and cheapeit manure that we have for hay-meadows.
There is alfo a bank of good fand on Elan-Davar, at the
mouth of Campbelton harbour. The fhores of Kilfinan, in
Cowal, alfo abound in fhell-fand. Even fea-fand, which does
not appear to have any mixture of fhells, is found to be be-
bo i efpecially to mofs or clay grounds: fome of the
farmers in Kintyre apply it to fuch lands with great advan-
tage. On the fhore of Dunaverty, in Kintyre, and in fome
bol places, fome coral is thrown afhore ; which proves an
excellent and lafting manure, but the quantity is not fo con-
fiderable as to be of any extenfive fervice.

Sanp-Bags, in the Military Art, are bags of earth or fand,
ufed in fortification. See Sacks of Earth.

The {maller fand-bags hold about half a cubical foot of
earth, and ferve to be placed upon the fuperior talus of
the parapet, to cover thofe that are behind, who fire
threugh the embrafures, or intervals, which are left be-
twixt them.

Sanp-Bath, in Chemifiry, See Batu.

Sanp-Box Tree, in Botany. See Hura.

Sanp-E£¢/. See AmMMopyTEs.

Sanp-Flood, in Agriculture, a term Ggnitying the cover-
ing of land with fandy materials, either by winds or the over-
flowing of rivers. The firft is a fort of difafter incident to
the lands of Suffolk, and fome other parts of the kingdom,
which are fometimes covered with vaft quantities of fand,
rolliag upon them like a deluge from fandy hills in their
Pe Violent winds break through the turf that
covers thefe hills, and then the fand, lying loofe and naked, is
foon carried, down upon the plains, where it covers and
buries the grafs, and in ayery little time deftroys the light
turf, and mixing itfelf with the fand underneath, becomes one
bed of this dry matter never to be covered with turf again.
A large body of fand being thus got together, nothing
fiops its progrefs; but at every ftorm it rolls over more and
more ground, fo that in a few years it extends itfelf a vatt
way, efpecially where the ground over which it pafles is of
the fame fandy nature, and only covered with a thin turf.
It is obferved, that in fome parts of Suffolk the ground en-
courages this change fo greatly, that a bed of fand thus
loofened from a neighbouring hill, and covering only a few
acres at firit, will ultimately deluge a large quantity, not
being arrefted by rifing grounds or any other means. And
it has been fuggefted, that the beft way of ftopping its pro-
grefs is by ha of furze, planted one over the other ; as
they become levelled, thefe, when well kept up, will by
degrees ftop or divert the progrefs; and fome who have
tried it with refolution, after they have had the fand raifed
twenty feet high, have found it ftop its increafe, and then,
having manured this adventitious Pa with dung, found it
as good as that which made the furface before.

t is likewife ftated in an early volume of the Philofophi-
cal Tranfaétions, that about Thetford the’ villages were
wholly deftroyed by this means about ninety years ago,
and the branch of the river Oufe, called then Thetford river,
fo blocked up by it, that yery {mall veflels only could go up
it, where very large ones ufed before. The river has been
of great fervice in flopping its progrefs into Norfolk, where
otherwife its courfe would have carried it, and its extenfive
fpreading fide-ways, in proportion to its going forward,
would have made it bury great quantities of land in a few
yer - The molt probab Sastre asto the caufe of this

ge fort of deluge in thefe parts of the kingdom is, that
this portion of the county of Suffolk lies eaft-north-eaft of
a part of sae gress level of the fens, and is by this expofed

tov peltuous winds, which acquire more than ordinary
[taf sags palling over fo large a tra&t of country unin-

3. AN

terrupted: the ftorm feems to be one great caufe of the
mifchief, and the fandy nature of the foil the other. There
are old ftories in the country, of fuits at law commenced
among the farmers, for Spee blown out of the owner’s
pofleffion ; but the people who gain this fort of wandering
land are the greateft fufferers. A little fand fprinkled by
the winds over a tra& of land, where there is a bed of fand
under the turf, foon gets through that obftacle; and what
was at firft only a thin coat of fand, becomes then a deep
plain of it, capable of being blown away to the depth
of eight, ten, twenty, or more feet, and 1s carried over
every thing in its progrefs before the winds when once taken
up by them.

Befides, it likewife fometimes happens that much mifchief
is done by fand being conveyed upon lands, by the over-
flowing of rivers, in the vicinity of the fea or other places.
Where the lands thus covered are of the low boggy or
fwampy kind, the fandy material thus thrown over them
may be of confiderable advantage, by rendering them more
firm and folid, as well as by bringing up a better fort of
herbuge ; but in other cafes, as where they are in a ftate of
fine {ward, and fufficiently firm, much injury muft be done
by the fand deftroying the good grafly furface, and render-
ing it bare and patchy. In-this cafe it fhould be removed
as foon as poffible, and put upon the grounds in the neigh-
bourhood which are fuitable for it, being only left very thin
on fuch fwards, and then immediately forced in as much as
poflible by repeated bufh-harrowing ; and in fome cafes,
perhaps, rolling with a heavy roller may be found neceflary
to bring the furface into a proper condition again. And
where the farmer has any coarfe rough Jands near, that are
much infefted with ruthes or other fimilar plants, the fandy
fubitances thus thrown up may be of great advantage when
removed upon them, in bringing them into an improved ftate
of {ward. f

Sanp-Gavel, a payment due to the lord of the manor of
Rodley, in the county of Gloucetter, for liberty granted to
the tenants to dig faud for their common ufe.

Sanp /fland, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Indian
fea, near the eaft coaft of Madagafcar. S. lat. 12° 40!. E.
long. 50° 4o!.

Sanp-Lands, in Agriculture, a term ufed by farmers to
fignify fuch grounds as confift wholly or moftly of pure
fand ; and they have different appearances, according to the
nature of the fandy material, as white, blackifh, reddifh,
or yellowifh, and are very different in the nature and fize of
the particles of which they are conftituted, fome being
harfher, and fome milder, and fome very light, feeming to
be almoft mere fandy duit. The grey, black, and afh-
coloured fand-lands are the worft, and are generally found
on heaths and commons. Gravelly lands approach much to
the nature of thefe; and thofe which confift of the largeft
ftones, and are mixed with the harfheft fands, are, of all,
the mott barren and infertile.

It is obferved, that the moft fuitable forts of manure for
them is either clayey marle, or fuch clay as will break with
the froits. ‘The dung of neat cattle is alfo a good manure
for fuch lands; and many ufe chalk, mud, and the half,
rotten ftraw from dung-hille, with much advantage. Where
thefe lands are over-run with broom, furze, and fagh fort of ,
weeds, marle is advifed by fome to be laid on in great
quantities, ‘This is the praétice in Staffordfhire, and they
get rid of thefe troublefome weeds, and procure good crops
of corn, though at a confiderable expence in fe firft in-
ftance.

But in addition to the above crops, fand-lands of the
medium quality are wie of growing barley, clover,

Tt 2

wheat,

SAN

wheat, peafe, oats, potatoes, carrots, and parfnips. It is
even remarked by the author of the Suffolk Agricultural
Report, that on the fandy diftriGs, the management varies
proportionably with the badnefs of the foil; but in one fea-
ture it is univerfal, that turnips are every where the pre-
paration, the bafis for both corn and grafs. There is no
fand fo light, that will not yield, by means of dung or
fheep-fold, this crop. After turnips, barley is generally
fown, then grafs-feeds fucceed, but with variation on bad
fands: trefoil and ray-grafs are chofen, becaufe their dura-
tion equals the views of the farmer; they are left from two
to four years, and when broken up, a dajflard-fallow for
rye. The difcrimination between good and bad farmers, in
this arrangement, depends entirely on this point: good ones
contider every thing as fubfervient to fheep, confequently
leave their grafles as long as poffible; but bad ones, ina
hurry for corn, and an immediate advantage, plough too
foon. All thefe fandy diftri&s are invariably fheep-farms,
(rabbits only excepted) ; the flocks feed in winter on tur-
nips, and in fummer on thefe layers. On the better fands,
frequently the layers are broken up, and peafe planted to
great advantage by hand-dibbles; and this is fucceeded by
a better crop of wheat than when fown on fuch layers, kept
bare by feeding all the fummer. Two rows are dibbled on
each flag, and they come up fo regularly as feldom to want
hoeing. And it is added, that buck-wheat forms in fome
very poor fpots a variation; and {mall pieces of tares are
fometimes feen: but the fyftem he has defcribed holds good
in general. And that in Stamford hundred, on their poorer
fand-foils, they are excellent farmers, as well as on the richer
loams: their courfe is, turnips, barley, trefoil and ray-
grafs, peafe dibbled, barley ; which is admirable manage-
ment.

The moft proper crops for arable land of this kind are
white oats, tares, turnips, carrots, and buck-wheat. The
natural produce, in weeds, is quick-grafs, forrel, broom,
furze, fern, and heath.

And it has been very properly fuggefted by Mr. Middle-
ton, that on very dry light fands, the great work of tillage,
fuch as ploughing, harrowing, manuring, &c. fhould be
executed as much as poffible in damp moilt weather, er
even in rain, efpecially the laft ploughing and harrowing in
of the feed. And this practice is ftated to have always fuc-
ceeded on a farm of dry burning land, called Dunkirk, ad-
joining the town of Hertford. It is likewile further con-
firmed in the Agricultural Survey for the County of Glou-
cefter. It is alfo ftated by an old writer, Mortimer, that
in Herefordfhire they are much fubje& to mofs growing
upon their fand-lands, and that they make a great improve-
ment by burning it on the ground, and mixing the afhes with
lime, which they plough in; and that they generally fow
them with rye after this manure, which yields a very great
increafe upon them, and brings on a very geod kind of grafs,
if they are laid down after a crop or two.

Mr. Deveral of Nottinghambhire, in the fourth volume of
Communications to the Board of Agriculture, ftates, in
refpe€t to the breaking up and converting of this fort of
Jand to grafs, that he has in his occupation, under leafe, a
field of eight acres of good fand-land, worth 24s. per acre
. annum, which had been in grafs fifty years, and was

leemed by many not worth ploughing. In 1786 he, by
= pa of the agent, ploughed it up to take fome crops,

nd return it to grafs after one fallow. He firft fowed it

with Poland oats, and had 56 bufhels (Winchefler) per

acre: thefe were cut early, and brufh or ftubble turnips

fown, which were good, and eaten on the land by both

fheep ang bealls, until the firft of May 1787, whem he
5

SAN

fowed barley, which proved likewife d, producing 48
buthels (Winchefter) per acre. In 1788, finding the turf
not fufficiently reduced, he again fowed Poland oats only,
and he had a crop equal to the firft, and again good
ftubble turnips. In 1789 he fallowed and manured with
fifteen three-horfe carts-loads of manure, and ten quarters
of lime, per acre: the turnips were unufually good, and
fed on the land. In 1790 he fowed barley and grafs-feeds :
the barley was good, yielding 56 bufhels per acre. This
land has been in grafs ever fince, and is, he afferts, much
improved by ploughing.

And Mr. Thomas Smith of Oxfordfhire began the cul-
ture of a field of fandy foil by paring and burning, and
fowed it with turnips; but where furze grew, he was very
unfuccefsful. The turnips, although they came up, did
not grow to be of any fervice; but when they fhot the
cata lest it turned red, and never flourifhed, which made
him fufpicious of the land not bearing out. He therefore
laid upon it 50 loads of dirt per acre, which he procured out
of a road lying near, that had been mended with lime-itone.
This proved ufeful, but did not make it equal to the parts
where the turnips grew well. The oats that were fown
upon it the fpring foliceiing| teltifying that there wanted
fomewhat more to be done, and feeing the road-dirt had
been fomewhat ufeful, and it lying very near, he laid ona
quantity the winter following, which proved quite fufficient
to rectify this foil; as it bore the year after a good crop of
Marlborough peafe, the next year wheat, and afterwards
winter vetches, fucceeded by a crop of turnips in the fame
year. It was then fown with oats, and laid down as the
other, only with the addition of a bufhel of ray-grafs to the
acre. After this procefs, it proved as ufeful fand as any
upon the farm; and when he left it, was worth a guinea

r acre.

Alfo, in Suffex, Mr. Thomas Baldock had a piece of
ground on Burwafh Down, a dry bank of poor gravel,
fandy top, and the under {tratum covered with heath, furze,
&c. and very ftony; being itubbed and pared, and the
turf and ftubbings burnt and laid in ridges, was ploughed
up, ard all re See ftones carted off, to the amount of
three or four hundred loads, and ufed for mending the
roads. ‘The land was then itirred and turned three times
more ; frefh ftones pulled up, and carted off ; and now, it
being got a good depth, (eight or nine inches,) the ridges
of oiaes having been moved, and the grourd ou which they
lay being well and deep ploughed, and cleared of ftones,
the afhes were {pread over all the ground, with 1600 bushels
of very good {tone lime. The piece was twelve acres,
which was well and deeply harrowed, and lay with a fine
deep mould, (except the many {mall ftones,) lke an onion-
bed. This being the middle of July, it was fown with red
and green-rooted turnips, which fprung very quick, as in
four or five days they made their appearance above ground.
Early in Auguft they were hoed, and the middle of Sep-
tember they were again hoed, and then carefully fet out to a
diftance of about fixteen inches. There happened many

eod fhowers, and the weather was pretty good to the end
of Oober. This brought them on apace, and before
Chriftmas they appeared a very fine crop. A trial was
made, from which it appeared that 25 or 26 tons grew on
each acre of ground. Thefe turnips were fed off by fheep,
penned on the ground, and in fuch a manner as to manure
the foil as evenly as poflibly ; fome few indeed were carted
off. The fheep finifhed feeding off in April; the ground
was kept ploughed after the theep, and the latter end of
May ploughed again ; in June, 1000 buthels of lime were
{pread over it, and ploughed in, and turnips fown in pe

SAN

end of the month. They did well; the crop was very
large, and fed off after the 13th of November, till a little be-
fore Lady-day, and ploughed after the fheep as before.
Early in April the ground was ploughed, and then fown
with barley and feeds ; four bufhels ger acre of barley, and
two gallons and a half acre of trefoil. This crop
fprung well, both barley and feeds: the barley was rather
fhort, but yet a pretty good crop, four quarters and a half
per acre. The barley being cut and carried off, in the be-
ginning of September, the feeds afferded fine keep for fheep
till the middle of OGober ; they then were taken away, and
the feeds fhut up for the winter. In the next {pring and
fummer they profpered very much, and produced a fine
crop of hay, near two loads per acre, which were cut and
hayed the beginning of July. The field was ploughed up
as foon as the hay was carried off, ftirred again twice, and
fown with white wheat in the beginning of O@ober, two
bufhels fer acre. This crop turned out well, three quar-
ters and a half per acre. As now he was very defirous to
lay this piece down to grafs, he chopped up the ftubble,
which being carted off in November, the field was ploughed
up to lie the winter. In March it was ploughed again ;
and having a pretty good compoft, got previoufly ready
the year before, it was brought up in waggons, and con-
fifted of good frefh mould 200 cart-loads, of good farm-
yard dung 250, and about 100 of very rich foil, contain-
ing fcourings of neceffary vaults, foil holes, f{weepings,
feouring of mud-holes from the wafh of the town and
ditches, befides fome foot and afhes. This compoft, and
1000 bufhels of lime, laid in a heap the autumn before,
were both fpread everly over the ground, and well and
deeply harrowed in, and the piece fown with barley two
bufhels and a half per acre, and this likewife well harrowed
in. The feeds were then fown, hay, and moft other forts,
in great plenty. ‘The barley and feeds came up well and
quickly, profpered through the fpring, and came on fur-
prifingly ; and at harveft the barley was a fine crop, fix
warters per acre, and feeds fuch as he had {carcely ever
een any before, fo very thick and itrong. The field was
fed off till the end of O&ober, then laid up for the winter ;
and in March following it was fed clofe with 200 fheep, till
the beginning of April, and then laid in for mowing. In
the Beginning of July the grafs was mowed and hayed, and
it was a mo digital crop. near three loads of moft excel-
lent hay per acre. The after-grafs was very great, and fed
off with cattle, horfes, and fheep. This turned out ex-
pv men ood grafs-ground, and he has taken five fummer
crops o Se fince the firft, and at a medium more than
two loads of hay on an acre. One fummer the drought
checked it much, and the produce was but little better
than a load of hay per acre. One good drefling of compoft
and lime was put on about two years ago. ‘This piece of
poor fandy common, though very expenfive, has paid, he
thinks, as well or better than any piece of land of which
he has minutely taken notice. he twelve years have
cott yor near Gol. per acre; the crops and feeds may be
fairly eftimated at 120/. per acre. He has little doubt
but that the commons on the fouth of England might turn
to a good account, if they could be managed in a fimilar
method.

Sanp-Piper, in Ornithology, a name given by Mr. Pen-
nant to the tringa of Linnawus; becaufe molt of the fpecies
belonging to this genus are converfant about fhores, and
their note is whiftling or piping.

Sanp-Snake. See Ammonytes.

Saxv-Swallow, in Ornithology. See Hinuxno Icahn

SANDA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania,

SAN

upon the borders of the country of the Cantabri, weit of
Flaviobriga, and north-eaft of Juliobriga.

Sanpa, in Geography, a {mall ifland annexed to the
parifh of Southend, county of Argyle, Scotland, is fituated
near the Mull of Kintyre, in the northern channel. It ex-
tends about a mile and a half in length, and half a mile in
breadth, and is particularly famed in ancient Scottifh hif-
tory, as the ordinary place of rendezvous for the Danifh
fleets, in their excurfions to the coafts of Scotland: hence it
acquired the name of Avona Porticofa, and is ftill fometimes
called Aven. Sanda is neverthelefs the more ancient, as well
as the more common appellation, as appears from St. Co-
lumba’s Life by Adomnan. In this ifland are the remains
of an old Popifh chapel, dedicated to St. Columba. The
ifland is almott entirely appropriated as paiturage for fheep,
as are likewife two {mall iflets adjoining to it on the ealt.
The found of Sanda abounds with fifh of various kinds, which
are caught in great quantities by the inhabitants of the Mull
and of Sanda. About a league from this ifland lies a very
dangerous rock, on which veflels are frequently wrecked.
Sinclair’s Statiftical Account of Scotland, vol. vii. Syo.
1792. Carlifle’s Topographical Di@ionary of Scotland,
4to. 1813.

SANDABAD, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Trak ; 21 miles S.S.W. of Hamadan.

SANDABADA, in Ancient Geography, the name of
one of the rivers of India which difcharged themfelves into
the Indus. Ptolemy.

SANDAHL, in Geography, a town of the Birman em-
pire, on the Irawaddy, occupied by the keepers of the royal
elephants ; 4 miles W. of Ava. :

SANDAKAN Bay, a bay on the eatt coaft of the
ifland of Borneo. N. lat. 5° 42!. E. long. 118° 20%.

SANDAL, a lake of Ruffia, in the government of
Olonetz, about 24 miles long and 2 broad; 48 miles N. of
Petrozavodik.

SanDAL, Sandalium, cavdadsov, in Antiquity, a rich kind
of flipper, worn on the feet, made of gold, filk, or other
precious ftuff, ufed by the Roman and Greek ladies ;
confifting of a fole, with a hollow at one extreme to em-
brace the ankle, but leaving the upper part of the foot
bare.

Terence {peaks of this fandal, ‘* Utinam tibi comauligart
videam fandalio caput :’”? I wifh Jhe would break your head
with her fandal.

Apollo was fometimes called Sandaliarius, fandal-maker ;
the reafon of which appellation has given great perplexity
to the critics. Some derive it from a ftreet called Sandali-
arius, chiefly inhabited by fandal-makers, in which that
god had a temple; but others, with more probability, de-
rive the name of the flreet from that of the god, and take
Apollo to have been thus called from his effeminate drefs, as
if he wore women’s fandals.

SANDAL is alfo ufed for the fhoe or flipper worn by the
pope, and other Romifh prelates, &c. when they offi-
ciate; being fuch as 1s fuppofed to have been worn by St.
Bartholomew.

Alcuin obferves, that there was fome difference between
the fandals of bifhops, priefts, and deacons. Monks were
not allowed to wear fandals, except in travelling ; as is ob-
ferved by Du-Cange, Salmafius, &c.

Sanna is alfo the name of a fort of flipper full worn by
feveral congregations of reformed monks.

It confitte of no more than a mere leathern fole, faftened
with latches or buckles, all the reft of the foot being left

bare.
The

SAWN
The Capuchins wear fandals, the Recolleéts, clogs ; the

former are of leather, the latter of wood.

Sanpax Bricks. See Brick.

Sanpat-Wood, in Botany. See SANTALUM and SraruM.

SANDALA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Jemarrow.

SANDALARIUM, or Sanpararius Vicus, in An-
cient Geography, the fourth quarter of Rome, in which was
a temple of Apollo, built by Auguitus.

SANDALIGERULI, among the Ancients, fervants
whofe bufinefs it was to carry their matters’ or mittreffes’
fandals.

SANDALIUM, in Ancient Geography, a country of
Afia, in Pifidia—Alfo, an ifland of Afia, on the coaft of
Ionia, and of the three ‘ Trogilia”’ of Pliny. ;

SANDALO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the de-
partment of the Lower Po; 13 miles S.E. of Ferrara.

SANDANUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Thrace,
towards the country named Pallené, according to Plutarch,
who fays, that Philip was ftruck by an arrow, in attempting
to force the paflage of this river.

SANDAPELONES, among the Romans, a kind of
porters, who were employed in carrying the bier called
fandapila. Prtifc. in voc.

SANDAPILA, among the Romans, a fort of bier
ufed for carrying out the bodies of people of low circum-
ftances.

It was not a bed, but a kind of wooden cheft, made of a
few boards nailed together, and was ufually burnt along
with the body.

SANDARACA, in Ancient Geography, a port of Afia,
in Bithynia, on the Euxine fea.

SANDARACH,, in the works of fome of the ancients,
aname by which the yellow matter colleéted on the legs of
bees is called; others of them called it erithace, and fome
ambrofia. We ufually efteem this to be wax; but the ex-
periments of Reaumur, and others, evidently prove, that it
is not real wax ; though it contains the matter of which wax
is to be made: it is only the farina of flowers, colle&ed
into lumps, and probably ferves the bees as food; and after
it has afforded them nourifhmert, fuffers fome change in
their bowels, by which it is converted into the fubftance we
call wax. See Pain d’abcille.

SANDARACH, Sandaracha, in Natural Hiffory, &c. a na-
tive mineral ; or a preparation of orpiment, made by fufing
it by a clofe fire into a red friable mafs. See Orpi-
MENT.

Sandaracha is the fame with what is by fome otherwife
called realgar. See Arsenic, Ores of, {pecies 3, and § v.
and vi. under ArsENIC.

It is fometimes alfo called fandaracha Grecorum, in op-
pofition to the gum fandarach. Some diftinguifh two forts
of Grecian fandarach: the natural, which is the firft above
defcribed ; and the fa@itious, which is only cerufle exalted
by the fire, and burnt into a kind of minium. Both the
one and the other are poifons.

Sanparacu, Gum, or Sandaracha Arabum, a refinous
juice oozing out of the trunk and thick branches of feveral
kinds of juniper, in the warmer climates, and particularly
on the coafts of Africa, by incifions made in the heats of
the fummer.

This juice concretes into femipellucid, pale yellowith
tears or globes, refembling maftich, but larger: the refin,
thus formed, has a light agreeable {mell, but no confider-
able talte ; it diffolves in reétified {pirit, and in oils both
exprefled and diftilled; but being nearly a pure refin, yields
little or nothing to watery liquors.

SAN

The {mall or common juniper yields very little fandarach ;
but its fruit yields oils, waters, falts, {pirits, and extraéts
of fome repute in medicine.

The gum fandarach is an ingredient in varnith, and hence
has been called vernix. With this, melted in oil of turpen-
tine, is made the faCtitious varnifh now ufed by painters
and cabinet-makers. It is allo reduced into an impalpable
powder, called pounce, ufed to prevent paper from im-
bibing ink.

Gum fandarach has been fometimes given internally in
diarrheeas and hemorrhages, its dofe being from ten grains
to halfadrachm. It is alfo fometimes prefcribed in gonor-
rhoeas and the fluor albus; but it has been chiefly employed
externally in corroborant, nervine, traumatic applications.
With us it is hardly ever ufed for any medicinal purpofes.

The bett is in fine white tears, free of duit; the lifh,
Swedes, &c. drive a confiderable trade with it. 10)

Some will have it that the gum of the juniper is not the
right fandarach, but that of the oxycedrus, or lefler cedar.

SANDARESUS, a gen, the chief property of which,
according to Pliny, is its being pellucid, and containing in
its fubftance a kind of gold-coloured globules; which are
likewife tranfparent, when feen betwixt one and the fire.

SANDARLIK, in Geography, a town of Afiatic
Turkey, in the province of Natolia, fituated on the N.
fide of a bay called the * Gulf of Sandarlik ;” 4 miles S.
of Pergamo. N. lat. 38°56’. E. long. 26° 53!. ma

SANDARUS, in the Materia Medica, the original
name of the gum, which later ages have, by corruption of
the name, called fandarax, or fandaracha. ‘The latter name
is peculiarly improper, as it confounds this innocent gum
with a poifonous mineral of the arfenic or orpiment kind.
See SANDARACH.

SANDASTER, in Natural Hiflory, a kind of
mentioned by Pliny, with gold-coloured globules in it that
fhone like ftars, and were in number and difpofition not un-
like the feven itars. r

SANDAU, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Leitmeritz ; 6 miles W.N.W. of Leypa.—Alfo,
a town of the duchy of Magdeburg, on the Elbe; 48 miles
N.N.E. of Magdeburg.—Alfo, atown of Bohemia, in the
circle of Pilfen; 12 miles N.W. of Pilfen. :

SANDAVA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Dacia.
Ptolemy. f

SANDAY, in Geography, one of the iflands of Orkney,
Scotland, is fituated to the north of the Mainland of Orkney,
between the iflands of Stronfa and North Ronaldfay. Its ex-
treme length, from fouth-weft to north-eaft, is about twelve
miles ; and its medium breadth aboutamile andahalf. Inpoint
of fhape it fomewhat refembles the letter Y, but its coaft, on
all its fides, is extremely irregular, being much indented by
the inroads of the ocean. pat it is difficult to compute
its fuperficial contents; which, however, are ftated by
Barry at nineteen {quare miles. Except on one fide, where
the ground rifes into a ridge of moderate height, this ifland
may be charaéterifed as flat and level throughout its whole
extent. The greater part of the foil here is of a fandy
nature; and from this circumftance, it would appear, the
prefent name of the ifland was originally derived. Almoft
two-thirds of Sanday are under ae cultivation; and
though the farmers are extremely defective in their modes of
hufbandry, they neverthelefs raife a quantity of grainy not
only fufficient for home confumption, but capable of furnifhs
ing above a thoufand bolls annually for exportation, even in
years when the crops are but moderately plentiful. Here, as
in moft of the Orkney and Shetland ifles, the {mall farmers are
employed during fummer in the manufacture of kelp, which

is

SAWN

is very abundant on the fhores of this ifland; and occa-
fionally in fifhing, for which latter employment uo fituation
can be more favourable than Sanday. This, however, has
not yet had the effe@ of producing among the inhabitants
fifhermen by profeffion exclufively, though there can be
no doubt that tifhing would bea more profitable occupation
than tilling fuch trifling farms as they ufually poffefs.

From the long, ftraggling figure of this ifland, and the
fiatnefs of its fhores, it is peculiarly dangerous to fhips navi-
gating this part of the Northern ocean. Barry itates that
within the lait 50 years, upwards of half a million of pro-
perty has been loft by the numerous wrecks which have
taken place on Sanday, and the {mall ifland of North Ro-
naldfay. What contributes much to thefe accidents, is the
frequency of fogs; but the want of places of fafety, to
which refort may be had in tempeftuous weather, cannot be
weeds for there are two harbours in Sanday only, Rettle-

on the fouth, and Otterfwick on the north, that, at all
times of tides, are equally fafe and acceflible. As thefe
harbours lie nearly oppofite to each other, and are feparated
only by a narrow, though beautiful plain, the fea, in the
high tides of {pring and harveit, fometimes feems to threaten
the divifion of the ifland intotwe. Indeed, if tradition may
be believed, feveral encroachments have already been made
here by the ocean at no very diftant period; one of which
is faid to have formed the bay of Otterfwick, or Odinf-
wick, now a league in length, by overwhelming an extenfive
traét of forett-land; and the many roots of trees that are,
in fpring tides, occafionally feen in this place, on the recefs
of the water, give, it muft be owned, fome colour of truth
to the tradition. ‘To this inftance may be added another ;
Runnabreck, a rock, which is now two miles from the fhore,
is reported to have formerly conftituted a part of the ifland.

Sanday contains neither marble nor whinftone, fo common
in the other Orkney iflands; and free-ftone is only found
in one diftriét, oppofite to Edday, whofe foundation is
chiefly free-ftone. Towards the welt fide of the ifland, for
the {pace of 200 feet, the fhore confifts of a fhelving rock,
that bears fome marks of having once been in a liquid ftate,
and undergone fome degree Ai calcination. This place is
called Heclabir; as fome think, from the refemblance it is
fuppofed to have had to the famous Icelandic volcano on
mount Hecla; but if any fuch has ever exifted here, tra-
dition is filent refpeGting it. Thefe rocks confift principally
of pudding-ftone, or breccia.

anday 1s divided into two parifhes, viz. the united parifh
of Crofskirk and Burnefs, and the parifh of Ladykirk,
which together contain, according to the parliamentary re-
turns of 1811, 372 houfes, agd 1797 inhabitants. Hiltory
of the Orkney ands, by the Rev. Dr. Barry, 2d edition,
with correétions and additions by the Rev. James Headrick,
Lond. 4to. 1808. Carlifle’s Topographical Diétionary of
Scotland, 4to. 1813. Sinclair’s Statiftical Account, vol. vii.
_ SANDBACH, a town of Germany, in the county of
* Wertheim ; 10 miles $.8.W. of Afchaffenburg.

SANDBACH, a market-town ina parifh of the fame name,
hundred gf Nantwich, deanery of Middlewich, and county
palatine of Chethire, England, is fituated on an eminence
near the river Wheelock, at the diftance of 25 miles E. by
W. from the city of Chetter, and 162 miles N.W. from
London. Here is a good corn-market held on Thurfday,
and there is another for butcher’s meat on Saturday, befides
which there. are two annual fairs, on Ealler Tuefday, and
the Thurfday before the roth of September. The firft-
mentioned market and the fairs were granted by queen Eli-
zabeth in 1578, at the requeft of fir John Radcliffe, At
the September fair, in the year 1651, a party of the king’s

SAN

horfe, (Whitelocke fays a thoufand,) on their retreat from
the battle of Worcefter, were attacked here by the country
people, who killed many of them, and took a number of
prifoners. Sandbach was formerly noted for the excellence
of its ale, and alfo for the manufadture of worfted yarn and
ftuffs for country wear. The church is an ancient ftruéture,
containing fepulchral memorials to the families of Jackfon of
Bechton, Leigh, Moulfon, and Powis. The Leverfage cha-
pel, or oratory, was confirmed to the family of Leverfage in
1589. Here is a free-fchool, founded in1718 by Francis
Wells, efq. who endowed it with lands, now yielding a clear
annual rent of 20/., which, joined to the intereft of other
donations, is appropriated for the education of 20 boys in
reading, writing, and arithmetic.

The parifh of Sandbach comprifes the townfhips of Sand-
bach, Arcliffe, Bechton, Bradwell, Haflal, Wheelock,
Church-Hulme, Cotton, Cranage, Gooltrey, Leefe, and
Tremlow. The town of Sandbach itfelf contains, according
to the late population cenfus, 529 houfes, and 2311 inha-
bitants. The manor anciently belonged to a family of its
own name, from which it pafled, by female heirs, firft to
the Leghs of Booths, and afterwards to the Radcliffes,
It is now the property of lord Crewe, whofe anceftor, fir
Randle Crewe, purchafed it from fir John Radcliffe in the
reign of queen Elizabeth. Adjoining to the town is a feat
called Abbey-Field, the property and refidence of Jobn
Ford, efq., which is faid to have been formerly a cell to the
abbey of Dieulacres.. Lyfons’s Magna Britannia, Cheshire,
vol. il. 4to. 1810. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. ii.
by John Britton and E. W. Brayley, Lond. 8vo. 1801.

SANDBERG, a mountain of Silefia, in the principality
of Schweidnitz ; 4 miles S.S.E. of Waldenburg.

SANDE, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira;
3 miles N. of Lamego.—Alfo, a town of Norway, in the
province of Aggerhuus ; 10 miles from Stromfoe.

SANDECZ, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Cracow, belonging to Aultria; 42 miles S.E. of Cracow.

SANDEFIOERD, a fea-port town of Norway, in the
province of Chriltiania, with a good harbour and wharf;
6 miles S. of Tonfberg.

SANDEL Boscn, or Sundana Jfland, an ifland in the
Eaft Indian fea, about 80 miles from E. to W., and from
15 to 16 in breadth. S. lat. g° 35! to 10° 15’. E. long.
119° to 120!.

SANDELAH, a town of Hindooltan, in Oude; 23
miles N.W. of Lucknow.

SANDEMANIANS, in Leclefiaflical Hiflory, a modern
fe& that originated in Scotland about the year 1728 5 where
it is at this time diitinguifhed by the name of Gla/fites, after
its founder Mr. John Glafs, who was a minilter of the
eftablifhed church in that kingdom ; but being charged with
a defign of fubverting the national covenant, and fapping
the foundation of all national eitablifhments by the kirk judi-
catory, was expelled by the fynod from the share of Scot-
land. His fentiments are fully explained in a tract publithed
at that\time, entitled, «The Teltimony of the King of
Martyrs,’”’ and preferved in the firlt volume of his works,
In confequence of Mr. Glafs’s expulfion, his adherents
formed themfelves into churches, conformable in their intti-
tution and difcipline to what they apprehended to be the plan
of the firft churches recorded in the New Teltament. Soon
after the year 1755, Mr. Robert Sandeman, an elder in one
of thefe churches in Scotland, publifhed a feries of lettors
addrefled to Mr. Hervey, o¢cafioned by his ‘Pheron and
Afpafio, in which he onikaeses to thew, that his notion of
faith is contradictory to the feripture account of it, and
could only ferve to lead men, profefledly holding the doc-

7 trince

SAN

trines commonly called Calvinittic, to eftablifh their own
tighteoufnefs upon their frames, inward feelings, and various
aéts of faith. In thefe letters Mr. Sandeman attempts to
prove, that faith is neither more nor lefs than a fimple affent
to the divine teftimony concerning Jefus Chrift, recorded in
the New Teftament ; and he maintains, that the word faith,
or belief, is conftantly ufed by the apoftles to fignify what is
denoted by it in common difcourfe, viz. a perfuafion of the
truth of any propofition, and that there is no difference
between believing any common teftimony, and believing the
apoftolic teltimony, except that which refults from the nature
of the teftimony itfelf. This led the way to a controverfy,
among thofe who were called Calvinifts, concerning the
nature of juftifying faith; and thofe who adopted Mr.
Sandeman’s notion of it, and who took the denomination of
Sandemaniaus, formed themfelves into church order, in ftriét
fellowfhip with the churches of Scotland, but holding no
kind of communion with other churches. The chief
opinions and praétices in which this fe& differs from other
Chriftians, are, their weekly adminiftration of the Lord’s
Supper; their love-feafts, of which every member is not
only allowed but required to partake, and which confilt of
their dining together at each other’s houfes in the interval
between the morning and afternoon fervice; their kifs of
charity ufed on this occafion, at the admiffion of a new
member, and at other times, when they deem it to be necef-
fary or proper; their weekly colleétion before the Lord’s
Supper for the fupport of the poor, and defraying other ex-
pences; mutual exhortation ; abftinence from blood and
things ftrangled ; wafhing each other’s feet, the precept
concerning which, as well as other precepts, they under-
ftand literally ; community of goods fo far as that every one
is to confider all that he has in his poffeffion and power as
liable to the calls of the poor and church, and the unlaw-
fulnefs of laying up treafures on earth, by fetting them apart
for any diflant, future, and uncertain ufe. They allow of
public and private diverfions fo far as they are not connected
with circumftances really finful ; but apprehending a lot to
be facred, difapprove of playing at cards, dice, &c. They
maintain a plurality of elders, paftors, or bifhops, in each
church, and the neceflity of the prefence of two elders in
every aét of difcipline, and at the adminiftration of the
Lord’s Supper. In the choice of thefe elders, want of
learning, and engagements in trade, &c. are no fufficient
objection ; but fecond marriages difqualify for the office ;
and they are ordained by prayer and fafting, impofition of
hands, and giving the right hand of fellowfhip. In their
difcipline they are ftri€& and fevere, and think themfelves
obliged to feparate from the communion and worfhip of all
fuch religious focieties as appear to them not to profefs the
fimple truth for their only ground of hope, and who do not
walk in obedience to it. We fhall only add, that in every
church tranfaétion, they efteem unanimity to be abfolutely
neceflary. From this abftraét of the account which they have
publithed of their tenets and practices, it does not feem to be
probable that their number fhould be very confiderable, nor is
it any matter of furprife that this fect fhould have declined.
SANDERAY, in Geography, one of the wettern iflands
of Scotland, comprehended in the parifh of Barray and county
of Invernefs, is fituated between the iflands of Watteriea and
Pabba, in N. lat. 56° 52!. It is diltant about five miles
from the ifland of Barray; is two miles in length, and
nearly the fame in breadth. The inhabitants are eftimated
at about fifty in number, and are chiefly occupied in the
paftvrage of black cattle and fheep. On this ifland are the
remains of one of thofe antiquarian curiofities denominated
Duns. Tradition alcribes its formation to the Danes. Sin-

SAN

clair’s Statiftical Account of Scotland, vol. xiii. 8vo. 1794.
Carlifle’s Topographical Di¢tionary of Scotland.

SANDERLING, or Curwixter, in Ornithology, is the
charadrius calidris of Linnzus ; its body is of a more flender
form than that of others of the fame genus, its bill is an
inch long, weak and black ; the head and hind part of the
neck are afh-coloured, and marked with oblong black ftreaks,
the back and fcapulars are of a brownifh-grey, edged with
dufky white ; the whole under fide of the body is white,
flightly clouded in fome places with brown ; the tail confitts
of twelve fharp-pointed feathers of a deep afh-colour, and
the legs are black. This fpecies is found, in large flocks,
on the Cornifh fhores.

SANDERS, Nicuotas, in Biography, an Englith
Catholic prieft, was born at Charlewood, in Surry, and re-
ceived his claffical education at Winchetter college, whence,
in 1548, he was eleéted to a fcholarfhip of New College in
the univerfity of Oxford. In 1557 he was promoted to the
profefforfhip-royal of canon law in the univerfity. _ Being
zealoufly attached to the papal communion, he was deprived
of that office after the acceffion of queen Elizabeth, and in
1560 was compelled to feek for fafety in exile. He now
went to Rome, where he was ordained prieft, and created
doétor of divinity. After this he was patronized by car-
dinal Hofius, whom he accompanied when he went in the
capacity of legate to prefide in the council of Trent, as
well as to his bifhopric in Poland. Returning from that
country he went to Louvain, where he was appointed to the
profeflorfhip-royal of divinity. Here he publihed, in 1571,
his treatife **De Vifibili Monarchia Ecclefiz, &c.’? in
which he contends for the fuperiority of the popes over
general councils, and endeavours to maintain the higheft pre-
tenfions of the Roman fee. On account of this work he
was taken under the immediate patronage of pope Pius V.,
who would unqueftionably have given him fome fubttantial
marks of his favour, had not the death of his holinefs taken
place. By Gregory XIII. Sanders was fent to Spain ona
miffion, and from this country he was induced, by the
warmth of his zeal for the popifh caufe, to undertake a kind
of military miffion into Ireland, with the defign of encou-
raging the Catholics who had taken up arms againft queen
Elizabeth. Fortunately government was too firmly fixed
to be fhaken by their efforts, and Sanders had the mortifi-
cation to be a witnefs of their ill fuccefs andruin. In thefe
circumftances, well knowing that if he fell into the hands of
the Englith, he would be probably doomed to fuffer punifh-
ment as a traitor, he made his efcape, and wandered among the
woods and mountains till death put an end to his mifery, in the
year 1583. He was author of a work entitled * De Qrigine
ac Progreflu Schifmatis Anglicani, Lib. iii.”” which was pub-
lifhed in 1585 at Cologne, and has been frequently reprinted
in Catholic countries. Bayle, in {peaking of this work,
fays ‘it difcovers a great deal of paflion and very little ac-
curacy, two qualities which generally attend each other,”
The errors and mis-itatements contained in this work have been
noticed by bifhop Burnet. Sanders was author allo of
“De Clave David, feu regno Chrifti;’? ‘De Martyrio
quorundam tempore Hen. VILI. et Eliz.;’’ «The Life
and Manners of the Heretic Thomas Cranmer ;”’ and fome
controverfial pieces.

Sanvers-Blue.

Sanpers-/Vood,
SAUNDERS, F .

SANDERSLEBEN, in Geography, a town of Ger-
many, in the principality of Anhalt-Deflau, on the Wipper ;
16 miles SE. of Quedlinburg. N, lat. 51° 38’. E. long.

11° 37'.
SAN.

See VERDITER.

in Botany. See Sanvatum, and

, SANDERSON.

SANDERSON, Rosert, in Biography, a learned Eng-
lith prelate, was born at Rotheram, in Yorkfhire, in the
year 1587. He was educated in the grammar-fchool of his
native town, where he difcovered confiderable talents, and
an uncommon fhare of diligence. In his 13th year he was
fent to Oxford, where he was admitted into Lincoln college.
Here he generally devoted eleven hours a day to clofe ttudy,
by which means he was enabled, at an early period of life,
to go through a whole courfe of philofophy, and to obtain
a moit accurate and intimate acquaintance with all the moft
celebrated claffical authors. In 1604 he was admitted to
the degree of B.A., and’ two years afterwards he was
eleGed fellow of his college. In 1608, having taken his
degree of M.A., he was chofen reader of logic in his college,
and he difcharged the duties of that office with fuch ability
that he was re-chofen to it during the fucceeding year. He
alfo diltinguifhed himfelf greatly in the capacity of college
tutor. In 1611 he was admitted to holy orders by Dr. King,
bifhop of London, who at firlt ordained»him deacon, and
afterwards prieft. Two years after this he was chofen fub-
reGtor of Lincoln college, which office he held feveral years.
In 1614 he offered himfelf as a candidate for one of the
proétorthips of the univerfity, which he did not at that time
obtain. But by the publication of his le&tures on logic in
the following year, under the title of * Logice Artis Com-
pendiom,” he acquired fo high a reputation, that at the next
election he was chofen fenior pro€&tor without oppofition.
Th this fituation he conduéted himfelf fo well as to fecure
univerfal refpeét and efteem. In 1617 he took his degree
of B.D., and in the following year he was prefented to the
valuable re€tory of Wibberton, near Bofton, in Lincoln-
fhire. This living he foon refigned.on account of the un-
healthinefs of the fituation, and about the fame time he was
prefented with the reGtory of Boothby Pannell, in the fame
county. Soon after his acceptance of this benefice, he re-
figued his fellowfhip, and married. About the time of his
marriage he was made prebend of the collegiate church of
Southwell. Not fatisfied merely with the afliduous exercife of
his pulpit fervices, he rendered himfelf efteemed and beloved
by the affeétion and regard for the welfare of his parifhioners,
which he difcovered in his paftoral and friendly vifits. He
laboured inceflantly in endeavouring to reconcile differences,
and in preventing law-fuits, both in his own parifh and in the
néighbourhood ; he confoled the dejeéted by his advice and
cheerful difcourfe ; and liberally communicated pecuniary
afliftance to thofe who were in want. “Thus,” fays his
biographer, “he went on in an obfcure and quiet privacy,
doin: daily both by word and deed, as often as any
oceafion offered itfelf; yet not fo obfcurely, but that his
very great learning, prudence, and piety, were much noted
far ga by the bifhop of his diocefe, and by moft of the
nobility and gentry of that county.”

In the year 1625 Mr. Sanderfon was chofen one of the
clerks in convocation for the diocefe of Lincoln; as he was
alfo in all the fubfequent convocations during the reign of
king CharlesI. Your years afterwards he was initalled into
a prebend in the cathedral church of Lincoln. In 1631 he
was appointed one of the chaplains to the king. During
his firit month’s attendance at court in his new capacity, the
king put to him many cafes of confcience, which he was

led to folve in a manner that gave his majetty entire
fatisfaction. At the end of the month the king told him
« he théuld long for next November, for he was refolved to
have a more intimate acquaintance with him when the month
and he returned.’””, When the time arrived, it is {aid that the
king was never abfent from his fermons, and was accultomed
to é » “ L carry my cars to hear other preachers, but I carry

Vor. XXXII.

my confcience to hear Mr. Sanderfon, and to a& accord-
ingly.”” In the year 1636, when the court was at Oxford,
Mr. Sanderfon, who was in his majeity’s fuite, fhared in
the honours which, on that occafion, were conferred on
feveral of the clergy and others by being created doétor of
divinity. In 1642 he was appointed by the king regius-
profeflor of divinity of Oxford, and canon of Chriit-church,
but he was prevented by the civil wars from entering on his
profefforfhip till four years afterwards, and even then he
held it undiiturbed only little more than twelve months.
Tn the year 1643, when the parliament f{ummoned the famous
aflembly of divines to meet at Weftminfter, for the purpofe
of deliberating on ecclefiaftical affairs, Dr. Sanderfon was
nominated one of that body; but he declined taking his
feat among them, and afterwards refufed to take, at firft the
Covenant, and then the Engagement. ‘The confequence of
his refufal to take the covenant, was the fequettration of
his rectory in 1644; but fo great was his reputation for piety
and learning, that he was not deprived of it. He was the
principal agent in drawing up “* The Reafons of the Uni-
verfity of Oxford againft the Solemn League and Covenant,
the Negative Oath, and the Ordinances concerning Dif-
cipline and Worfhip :”? and when the parliament had fent
propofals to the king for a peace in church and ttate, his
majefty defired that Dr. Sanderfon, with others, fhould
attend him, and give him advice how far he could, with a good
confcience, comply with them. This requeft was not, at
the time, complied with; but in the years 1647 and 1648,
the opportunity was given him of being with the king when
he was at Hampton Court and at the Ifle of Wight. While
he was at the former place, by the king’s defire, he drew
up a treatife containing his fentiments on the propofal which
parliament had made for the abolition of epifcopacy, as in-
confiftent with monarchy. What he wrote upon the fubjeét
was publifhed in 1661, under the title of « Epifcopacy, as
eftablifhed by the Law’of England, not prejudicial to Regal
Power.” In 1648 Dr. Sanderfon, on account of his ad-
herence to the royal caufe, was ejeted from his profefforfhip
and canonry at Oxford by the parliamentary vifitors, and
withdrew from his living of Boothby Pannell. He was not,
however, fuffered to remain longin quiet, he was carried away
prifoner by the parliament party to Lincoln, for the purpofe
of being exchanged for Mr. Clarke, a Puritan divine, who
had been thrown into prifon by the royalifts. He was ac-
cordingly releafed and permitted to go back to his living,
but he was frequently fubjeé to ill-treatment, to danger, and
lofs of property. Dr. Sanderfon was fo often applied to
for the refolution of cafes of con{cience, that his corre-
fpondence on queltions of this nature occupied at leaft the
proportion of an entire day ina week. At the requeft of
the Hon. Mr. Boyle he fet xbout a work on cafes of con-
{cience, under the title ** De Obligatione Confcientix.’’
On the reftoration of kiag Charles 11. Dr. Sanderfon was
reinftated in his profeflurfhip, and in the canonry of Oxford,
and very foon afterwards he was nominated to the bifhoprie
of Lincoln, and was confecrated in O&ober 1660, when he
was upwards of 73 years of age. In the following year he
was one of the commiflioners at the Savoy conference, and
he had a principal hand in the alterations which were made in
the liturgy. No man ever deferved a bifhopric more than
Dr. Sanderfon, as no man could take more pains in diftri-
buting, for the beft of public purpoles, the wealth with
which he was now endowed. He died in 1663, having en-
joyed his high dignity a little more than two years. He was
a man of great piety, and of the molt unblemifhed manners.
His great learning entitled him to a confiderable rank among
hig contemporaries, and he poflefled an extenfive acquaintance

Uu with

SAN

with the fathers, fchoolmen, cafuittical and controverfial
divinity, and with ancient as well as modern hiftory. He
poflefled a very extraordinary memory, and could repeat
almoft the whole of Horace and Juvenal and Perfius, and he
was accuftomed to fay that he took as much delight when
alone in the repetition of an ode in Horace, as others do in
playing a tune on fome iaftrument. He was held in high
efteem among his contemporaries, particularly by the cele-
brated Dr. Hammond, who fpeaks of him in terms of peculiar
commendation. His attachment to the church of England
was fincere and zealous, but he was fteadily averfe from all
harfh meafures again{t the Puritans. His principal works,
befides thofe already mentioned, are, “‘ Phyfice Scientie
Compendium ;”? « Sermons ;”’ ‘* Nine Cafes of Confcience
refolved ;?? “De Juramenti Promifforii Obligatione Pre-
leGiones Septem ;” “ Difcourfe concermng the Church,”
in various particulars; ‘* The Hiftory and Antiquities of
the Cathedral at Lincoln,” publifhed in Peck’s “ Defiderata
Curiofa.’’ Biog. Brit.

Sanverson, Rogert, an antiquary of confiderable note,
was a younger fon of Chriftopher Sanderfon, a juttice
of the peace for the county palatine of Durham, who had
fuffered for his attachment to the Stuart family during the
civil war. He was born July 27, 1660, at Egglefton-hall,
in that county, and entered a ltudent of St. John’s college,
Cambridge, under the tuition of Dr. Baker, April 7, 1683.
He remained in the univerfity feveral years, and was con-
temporary with the celebrated Matthew Prior. Removing
to London, he afterwards turned his attention to the law,
and was appointed clerk of the rolls, in the Rolls chapel.
He contributed largely to the compilation of Rymers’s
Feedera, and was exclufively concerned in arranging the
three concluding volumes, from 18 to 20, which he fuc-
ceflively dedicated to kings George I. and II.

In 1704 he publifhed a tranflation of “« Original Letters
from William III. whiift Prince of Orange, to Charles II.,
Lord Arlington, and others, with an Account of the
Prince’s Reception at Middleburgh, and his Speech on that
Occafion ;”” dedicating the book to lord Wooditock. He
alfo wrote “ A Hiltory of Henry V.”’ in the way of annals,
in nine volumes, of which the firft four have been loft, and
the others ftill remain in manufcript amongft his papers.
In 1714 he became a candidate for the place of hiltorio-
grapher to queen Anne, and received a very handfome offer
of affiftance from Matthew Prior, at that time ambaflador to
the court of France. His fuccefs, however, was prevented
by the change of miniftry which fucceeded on the queen’s
death. On the 28th of November, 1726, he was appointed
ufher of the high court of chancery, by fir Jofeph Jekyll,
the mafter of the rolls. He fucceeded, in 1727, by the
death of an elder brother, to a confiderable landed property
in Cumberland, the North-Riding of Yorkfhire, and Dur-
ham. After this, though he continued chiefly to refide in
London, he occatfionally vifited his country feat at Armath-
waite caltle, a manfion pleafantly fituated on the banks of the
Eden, about ten miles from Carlifle. He was married four
times: for the lalt time to Elizabeth Hickes of London,
when he had completed his 7oth year. He died Dec. 25,
1741, at his houfe in Chancery-lane, in the 79th year of his
age, and was buried in Red-Lion-Fields. He was a devout
man, well read in divinity, attached to the forms of the
church of England, and very regular in his attention to
public and private worfhip. He was flightly acquainted
with the Hebrew language, and converfant in the Greek,
Latin, Spanifh, Italian, and French. He made a choice
colleétion of books in various languages, and left behind
him feveral volumes of MSS., relating chiefly to hiftory,

SAWN

and the court ef chancery, and including a tranfcript of
Thurloe’s State Papers. He kept a diary, in which he
noted down, with minute attention, the flirhteft occurrences
of his life. As he left no iflue, his eftates defcended, on
the death of his laft wife, in 1753, to the family of Margaret,
his eldett fifter, married to Henry Milbourne, of Newcaftle-
upon-Tyne ; whofe great-grandfon, William Henry Mil-
bourne, was high fheriff of Cumberland in 1794.

SanveErson’s Hope, in Geography, a cape on the coaft of
America, in Davis’s Straits. N. lat. 66° 20'. W. long. 67'.

SANDEVER, or Sanprver, called alfo the gall and
the axungia‘of glafs, is the recrement of glafs; or the white
porous {cum or fediment that arifes in large crucibles em-
ployed in the manufa&ture of glafs.

This fubftance appears to be a confufed mafs, confifting
of all thofe falts contained in common alkalies, which readily
melt at fomewhat lefs than a glafs-making heat, and are
either naturally confiderably ans or have little if any
affinity for filex, and do not unite in the compofition of glafs,
but being fuperficially lighter, rife to the top. There is
another heterogeneous fubttance alfo, called fandiver, which
fometimes is found at the bottom of the pots, and is taken
out when the whole is worked off. The nature of this is
very different from the other, and confifts apparently of a
vitrified mafs of arfenic and earthy impurities. But the
{cum, or proper glafs-gall, is almoft entirely faline. When
laded out and cooled it forms a white crumbly mafs, fome-
times quite white, and at other times brown and fouled,
and ftrongly faline, but net very uniform in its compofition,
being fometimes merely falt, often very bitter, probably
as common falt or fulphate of potafh predominate. Glafs-
gall is very volatile ina {trong fire, fo that it is conftantly
difperting from off the furface of the glafs in a denfe vapour,
at firft thick and black, afterwards whiter, which very
powerfully corrodes the top of the crucible in its paflage.
If the fafion were continued long enough, the whole
would be difperfed nearly in this way, but it is generally
fcummed off with iron ladles, and fold to metal-refiners as
a powerful flux. As part of the alkali itfelf certainly is
diffipated by the continuance of fire, partly before it can
unite with the filex, partly from the glafs itfelf, much of
the corrofion of the pots muft be owing to this circum-
{tance, and probably it mutt alfo unite in part with the
glafs-gall, which renders it flightly deliquefcent. Atn
abundance of this glafs-gall is one of the greateit incon-
veniences that the glafs-maker can meet with, for it re-
quires a confiderable time of very ftrong heat before the
whole can be diffipated, or if the glafs be wrought before
it is thoroughly purged of this material it is full of bubbles,
unfound, and has a cloudy gelatinous appearance. Glafs
made with potafh is more likely to fuffer from glafs-gall
than the foda-glafles, for the potafh-glafles are harder, and
do not run fo thin as the others, and the glafs-gall arifing
from them does not fo eafily diflipate in the fire.

This fubflance is ufed as a flux in aflays of ores, and in
the fufion of filings of gold or filver, in the fame manner as
borax is. It is alfo faid'to increafe the malleability of
metals.

It is reported by many authors of great credit, that this
falt, in its genuine form, and no way differing from fuch as
is feparated from glafs, is thrown out in great abundance in
the eruptions of the burning mountains, and lies about in
lumps of a {pungy texture and great fize, or in {maller folid
ones, among the {ciarriand afhes thrown out at thofe times.
The more firm and folid pieces are the moit pure, and are
generally of a fine white; the others not unfrequently
are tinged blueifh or yellow, and have fometimes fome of

the

SAN

the melted matter of the fciarri blended among the mafs,
and filling up fome of the cavities. In the catalogue of the
{pecimens of fubitances thrown out of mount Aftna in one
of its eruptions, and fent as a prefent to the Royal Society,
we find mention of feveral pieces of fandiver, but without
any particular defcription. Phil. Tranf. N° 53.

SANDFLETH, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Bremen, near the Wefer; 11 miles S. of Carlfburg.

SANDGATE, a {mall place of England, in the county
of Ken‘, clofe to the fea, defended by a caftle; upon
which about 16 guns are mounted; 11 miles S. of Dover,
and 73 E.S.E. of London. —N. lat. 51° 15'._ E. long.
1° to’. ‘

SanpGATE, a townfhip of America, in the ftate of Ver-
mont, in Bennington county, containing 1187 inhabitants.

SANDHAMN, a fea-port town of Sweden, in Upland,
where all veilels paffing to or from Stockholm are examined ;
tomiles E. of Stockholm.

SAND-HEAT, or Sanp-Baru, denotes one of the
chemiits’ fires ; confifting of hot fand, in which herbs, flowers,
&c. are infufed in a cucurbit.

The fand-heat is efteemed gentle, digeftive, and alterative
of many bodies. See Batu, in Chemifiry.

SANDHED, in Geography, atown of Sweden, in Dale-
earlia ; 5 miles S.E. of Fahlun.

SANDHEM, 2 town of Sweden, in Weft Gothland ;
18 miles N.W. of Jonkioping.

SANDHILL Bay, a bay at the S.E. end of the ifland
of St. Chriltopher.

SANDHOVEN, a town of Brabant, and chief place of
a diftri& ; 7 miles E. of Antwerp.

SANDICOUPAN, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ;
12 miles W.N.W. of Bangalore.

SANDILAN, a {mall ifland of Scotland, near the W.
coaltof Mull. N. lat. 56° 30’. W. long 6° 8’.

SANDILLON, a town of France, in the department
of the Loiret ; 9 miles S.E. of Orleans.

SANDINEN, a {mall ifland on the E. fide of the gulf
of Bothnia. N. lat. 65° 3'. E. long 24° 57/.

SANDINI, Astuowy, in Biography, an Italian eccle-
fiaitical hiftorian, was born in 1692. OF his early life we
have no account : by his talents he recommended himfelf to
the patronage and efteem of his bifhop, cardinal Rezzonico,
who was afterwards pope, by the name of Clement XIII. ;
and through the fame intereft he obtained the pofts of libra-
rian, and of profeflor of ecclefialtical hiftory, in the univerfity
of Padua. He died in that city in 1751, in the 59th year
of his age. He is known principally as an author by a
work, entitled “* Vite Pontificum Romanorum,” which is
highly {poken of as abounding in learning, and very curious
be, i i The beft edition is that of Ferrara, in 1748.
In the fame year the bifhop of Augfburg, landgrave of
Hefle-Darmitadt, caufed it to be printed, under the title of
“ Bafis Hiltorie# Ecclefiaftice.’? He alfo wrote “ Hif-
tori Familie Sacre ;’’ “ Hiltoria S. S. Apoftolorum ;’”
«* Difputationes XX ex Hiltoria Ecclefiattica ad Vitas
“asd aaa Romanorum,” and certain “ Differtations,’”’ in
defence of the “ Hiftorie Familie Sacre.”

SANDISFIELD, in Geography, a hilly townfhip of
Berkhhire county, on the Conneéticut line ; 22 miles S. by
E. of Lenox; incorporated in 1762, and containing 1848
inhabitants.

SANDIVER. See Sanneven.

SANDIUS, Cunistornuen, in Biography, known under
the name of Van Den Sand, a learned Pruflian Unitarian
divine, was born at Konigfburg in the year 1644. He was
educated for the miniftry, and removed from his native

SAN

place to Amfterdam, where he died in 168c, at the early
age of thirty-fix. He was author of “ Nucleus Hiftoriz
Ecclefiaftice,” giving an account of the Arians: this work
was firft publifhed in 1669, in 2 vols. 8vo. It was after-
wards printed, in an enlarged-form, at Cologne, in 1676:
and then in London, in 1681. His next work was pub-
lifhed in 1671, entitled “* Tra@tatus de Origine Anime.’
And in 1677 he fent into the world « Note et Obfer-
vationes in G. J. Voffium de Hiftoricis Latinis,’’ in which
his great learning, judgment, and accuracy, are faid to be
very advantageoufly difplayed. Among his other works
may be mentioned ‘ Centuria Epigrammatum ;’? “ Inter-
pretationes paradoxe IV. Evangeliorum ;” « Confeffio
Fidei de Deo Patre, Filio, et Spiritu Sanéto, fecundum
Seripturam ;”? ‘ Scriptura Sacre Trinitatis Revelatrix :’
and among the numerous manufcripts which he left behind
him, a treatife was found, that was afterwards given to the
world under the title of « Bibliotheca Anti-Trinitariorum,
five Catalogus Scriptorum, et fuccin@ta Narratio de Vita
eorum Auctorum, qui preterito et hoc Sxculo, vulgo recep-
tum Dogma de tribus in unico Deo per omnia AXqualibus
Perfonis vel impugnarunt, vel docuerunt folum Patrem
D. N. J. Chrifti effe illum verum feu altiffimum Deum.”
“¢ This curious work,” fays the biographer of Sandius,
“ prefents us with a long catalogue of Unitarian writers,
and of the works which they compofed, nearly in the
chronologicalorder. Befides enumerating the produétions
of the refpective authors, it gives an account of the different
editions, of the tranflations of them which have been pubd-
lifhed, and fometimes of the occafions on which they were
written.”? Annexed to the Bibliotheca’? are feveral
intereiting documents, which throw a good deal of light
on the ecclefiaftical hiitory of the Unitarians in Poland and
Lithuania.

SANDNES, in Geography, a town of Norway, in the
province of Chriftianfand ; 36 miles N.E. of Chriftianfand.

SANDNESS, a town of the ifland of Shetland, on the
W. coalt; 15 miles W.N.W. of Lerwick. N. lat. 60°
22', W. long. 2° 4!.

SANDO, one of the fouthern Javanefe iflands, N. of
Niphon.—Alfo, a fmall ifland in the gulf of Bothnia. N.
lat. 62° 3'. E. long. 21° 24!

SANDOE, one of the Faroe iflands in the North fea,
about 10 miles long and 5 broad. On the S. fide of the
ifland are fome rocks, and a dangerous whirlpool. N. lat.
61° 35’. W. long. 6° 4o!.

SANDOLE, a town of Hindooltan, in the circar of
Guntoor ; 20 miles S. of Guntoor.

SANDOMIR, or Sanpvominz, a town of Auttrian
Poland, and capital of a palatinate, fituated on an eminence
near the Viftula, not far from its confluence with the fea.
It has been the favourite refidence of Cafimir the Great, and
other kings of Poland. It is well fortified both by nature
and art; and it contains feveral colleges, and a provincial
court of juttice ; 80 miles E.N.IE. of Cracow. N. lat. 50°

'. E. long. 21° 50!. ;

SANDONI, Pirro Gruserrr, in Biography, a good
compoler of the Bologna {chool. In 1709 he fet Apottolo
Zeno’s Artaxerxes, which was performed with applaufe at
Verona. He was fo powerful a compofer on the harpfichord,
that he was compared to Handel. He was hufband to the
celebrated opera finger Cuzzoni, by fome thought the fineft
finger that ever exiled, Laborde. See Cuzzonn

SANDORAN, in Gengraplys a {mall ifland on the E.

fide of the gulf of Bothnia. lat. 63° 30. E. long,
i210.
SANDORICUM, in Botany, altered from the Malay

Uu2 appellation

5 AN

appellation of this tree, Sandorii—Rumph. Amboin. v. 1.
168. Cavan. Diff. 359. Schreb. 802. Willd. Sp. Pl.
ve 2.556. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Jufl. 265. Lamarck
Tluftr. t. 350.—Clafs and order, Decandria Monogynia.
Nat. Ord. Melia, Juff.

Gen. Ch.- Gal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
fhort, with five teeth. Cor. Petals five, lanceolate, {pread-
ing. Neétary a cylindrical tube, the length of the petals,
with ten marginal teeth. Stam. Filaments none; anthers
ten, oblong, within the mouth of the nectary. Pi/?. Ger-
men globofe, in the bottom of the calyx; {tyle thread-
fhaped, the length of the neétary ; ftigma thick, furrowed,
with ten recurved rays. eric. Berry roundifh, depreffed,
five-lobed, fucculent, of one cell. Sceds five, large, convex
on one fide, angular on the other. .

Ef. Ch. Calyx five-toothed. Petals five. Netary
cylindrical, abrupt, with the anthers in its orifice. Berry
with five feeds.

1. S. indicum. Indian Sandori Tree. Cavan. Diff. 359.
t. 202, 203. Willd. n. 1. Rumph. Amboin. v. 1. 167.
t. 64. (Hantol; Lamarck Dict. v. 3. 69.)—Native of
the Philippine and Molucca iflands. A Jarge and lofty
tree, whofe wood is red at the heart. ‘The /eaves are alter-
nate, on long downy /la/ks, ternate, ovate, broad, pointed,
entire ; {mooth above; downy and rufly beneath. FYowers
white, in compound axillary clujflers. Fruit the fize of a
{mall orange, furrowed, downy, yellow when the down is
rubbed off ; its pulp acid, containing five large bitter /eeds.
The unripe fruit is candied by the inhabitants of Amboyna.
In a ripe ftate it ferves as an acid fauce for fifh, or other
animal food. ‘The aromatic root of the tree, bruifed, and
infufed in vinegar and water, with a little powdered ginger,
is reckoned an excellent remedy for a dangerous colic, or

ain in the fide, prevalent in Amboyna. Rumphius.

SANDOW, in Geography, a town of Brandenburg, in
the New Mark, on the Pleifle; $8 miles S.E. of Franckfort
on the Oder.

SANDOWN, atownhhip of America, in Rockingham
county, New Hampfhire, taken from Kinglton, and incor-
porated in 1756; containing 504 inhabitants.

Sanpown Bay, a large bay of the Englifh channel, on
the E. coaft of the Ifle of Wight, between White Cliff and
Dunnofe, having a {mall fort to guard the coatt.

Sanpown Ca/lle, a fortrefs of England, in the county of
Kent, built by Henry VIII. near Deal. See Sanpwicu.

SANDRABATIS, in Ancient Geography, a country of
India, on this fide of the Ganges. Ptolemy. M. d’Anville
places it W. of Jomanis, and N. of mount Vidius, and
thinks that it is the country now named Scanderhad, toward
lat. 26° 15!.

SANDRART, Joacuim pe, in Biography, was born at
Franckfort in 1606, and at the age of 15 went to Prague,
where he was inftruéted by G. Sadelee in engraving, but
was advifed by hiin to become a painter. He therefore
placed himfelf with G. Houthorit at’ Utrecht, and under
his inftru€tion acquired confiderable power. He went to
Rome and Venice, and at the latter place copied feveral
pictures of Titian and P. Veronefe.. At the former he
was employed by the prince Juftiniani and the cardinal Bar-
berini, and after a long refidence there returned to his
native country. Towards the latter part of his life he
refided at* Nuremberg, where he eftablifhed an academy,
and compofed feveral works on art, particularly his lives
of the painters, under the title of “ Academia Artis
Piétorie,” in 1683. By this work he is better known
than by his paintings, which, poffefs no ftriking degree of
charaéter. He died at Nuremberg in 1688, aged 72.

SAN

' SANDRY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the
cirear of Kottah; 30 miles W. of Kottah.

SANDSEE, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of
Aichftatt ; 16 miles N. of Aichftatt. » x

SANDSIO, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Smaland; 25 miles S. of Wexio.

SANDSKAR, a {mall ifland in the N. part of the gulf
of Bothnia. N. lat. 65° 33/. E. long. 23° 30/.

SANDSLAKE, ariver of Norway, which runs into the
Aardelsfiord ; 25 miles N.N.E. of Stavanger.

_SANDSTING, a town on the S.W. coat of the ifland
of Shetland. N. lat. 60° 15'.. W. long. 1° 48!

SANDSTONE, in Mineralogy, Fr. grés, is effentially
compofed of grains, or particles of fand, either united bya
mixture with other mineral fub{tances, or adhering without
any vifible cement. The grains or particles of fanditone
are generally quartz, fometimes intermixed with felfpar or
particles of flate. When the cementing matter is lime,
fuch fanditones are called calcareous fanditones : frequently
the cementing matter is oxyd of iron intermixed with alu-
mine. The particles of fand in fandftones vary greatly in
fize, fome being fo minute as fearcely to be vifible in other
fanditones. The grains or particles are of confiderable magni-
tude. Geologifts have generally admitted that all fandttones
have been formed mechanically, from the debus of pre-exift-
ing rocks, broken down and cemented together ; but this
opinion appears to have been too hattily formed. Some
fanditones are highly cryttalline, and the particles adhere
clofely without any vifible cement: we have no more
authority for confidering fuch rocks to be mechanical
formations, than we have for confidering granite to be fo,
which is univerfally admitted to be the rele of a cryftalline
procefs. In fact, fome very {mall-grained granites differ
little from fandftone; and among the rocks which have
been claffled as primary, there*are fome which alternate with
a fine-grained granular quartz-rock, diflering in no refpeét
from fome of the cryttalline fanditones occurring among
fecondary rocks. _ Indeed, when we confider that quartz,
felfpar, and mica together, or two of thefe fubftances, fre-
quently form fine-grained granular rocks, there is no dif-
ficulty in admitting that quartz, or felfpar alone, may forfn
rocks of a fimilar kind, which is known to be the fa&. The
highly cryftalline fanditone occurring amongft the rocks
called fecondary, may be claffed withthe precedirg, and called
ctyltalline fandftone. There are other fanditones which
are, in a confiderable degree, cryftalline, but contain alfo
frag:nents and water-worn pieces of other rocks: thefe
mult be regarded as partly of mechanical formation. The
third kind of fand{tones contains fmooth rounded pebbles,
and fragments united by a friable cement: fuch fandftones
have evidently been formed mechanically from the fand and
materials of former rocks cemented together. It ‘might
perhaps be proper to call fuch rocks tertiary, as fome geo-
logiits have propofed. Sandftone is generally diftinétly
itratified; and fome kinds which contain a confiderable
quantity of mica fplit into thin lamine, which are ufed for
flates in fome parts of England, particularly in the Welt
Riding of Yorkthire.

Siliceous fanditones frequently contain organic remains ;
but thefe are principally of vegetables, and the fubftance of
the plant is entirely penetrated with filex.

Sand{tone forms a very confiderable part of rocks deno-
minated fecondary, and generally alternates with beds of
coal and fhale in coal dittriés.

The lowelt of the principal beds of fanditone has been
called by Werner, and the Secstat geologifts, the old red
fand{tone, «It generally refts on rocks of flate or grey-

i

wacke,

SAN

wacke, and is covered by thick beds of lime-ftone. It is
frequently coarfe-grained, confiiting of particles of quartz,
and fometimes of felfpar, cemented by iron-fhot clay, that
gives it the red colour from which its name is derived.
According to many geologifts, the red fandftone, which
extends on the weitern fide of England, from Penrith in
Cumberland to Shropfhire, belongs to this formation.

The number and variety of fandftones in the fecondary
ftrata are very great, and the diverfity of quality fits them
for the various purpofes of building-itones, grind-ftones,
filtering-ftones, &c. See STONE.

Flexible fandftone (fee Quarrz, Elaflic), a {pecies of
calcareous ftone, which poflefles a confiderable degree of
flexibility when moiit, has lately been difcovered in the
county of Durham: on what peculiar arrangement of the
particles this depends has not been afcertained. The
flexible fanditone from Brafil contains numerous particles of
elaftic mica, from which this property in that ftone is pro-
bably derived.

SANDSTONE, in Agriculture, a fort of itony mate-
rial, which is conftituted of numerous congeries of minute
particles of fandy matter, combined together by fome fort
of natural cementing fubftance. It readily decompofes,
crumbles, and falls down, in many. cafes, fo as to mix with
the mould or earthy matters about it, and form the foils of
different parts of the country. One kind of fandy land is
evidently produced in this way, which is often of a reddifh
appearance, and very productive. But there are fome other
defcripions of it. See Som, end Quarry.

SANDSVOR, in Geography, a town of Norway, in the
province of Aggerhuus ; 35 miles S.W. of Chriftiania.

SANDVLIET, or SantvLieT, a town of Brabant ;
11 miles N.N.W. of Antwerp.

SANDVOE, a bay on the N. coaft of the ifland of Shet-
land. N. lat. 60° 53'. W. long. 1° 47!.

SANDUSKY Laxeg, a lake of North America, on the
S.W. fide of lake Erie, 17 miles long, and 7 miles at its

teft breadth. From the N.W. part of this lake, there
is a portage of one’ mile and a quarter to Portage river, a
{mall river that runs into lake Erie. The fort ftands op-
polite to the gut. N. lat. 41° so’. W. long. 83° 3! 30!

Sanpusky River, a navigable water of the {tate of Ohio,
which rifes near a branch of the Great Miami, between
which isa portage of nine miles. Purfuing a N.E.
courfe, it difcharges itfelf into the S.W. corner of San-
dufky lake. This is a confiderable river, and. has fine level
land with banks. Its {tream is gentle all the way to its
mouth, where it is large enough to receive floops from the
lake. By the treaty of Grenville, Aug. 3, 1795, the
Indians ceded to the United States a traét of land, ‘fix miles
f{quare, upon Sandufky lake, where a fort formerly ftood,
and two miles {quare at the lower rapids of Sandufky river.

Sanpusky Sfland, an ifland in lake Erie, a little S.E.
of the Bafs iflands, and nearer to Sandufky bay:

Sanpusky Town, a town fituated on the S.W. coaft of
lake Eric. N. lat. 41° 47!.. W. long. 82° 28/.

SANDWEED, in Agriculture, a name provincially

iven to the weed, fometimes termed pick-pur/e.

SANDWICH, in Geography, a borough town, and one
of the ancient Cinque-ports, is fituated on the fhore of the
North fea, in “ms half hundred of Eattry, lathe of
St. Augultine, and county of Kent, England, at the
diftance of 68 miles E. by S. from London. The precife
date of the origin of this place is uncertain, but the pro-
bable opinion is, that it took its rife from the decay of the
Portus Rutupenfis, or haven of Rutupi#, in the fifth or
fiath century. (See Reeurven and Ricuzonoucn.) Its

SAN

prefent name is a modification of its Saxon appellation,
Sondwych, which denotes its low fituation, as built on the
fea-fands. Somner, in his “ Treatife on the Roman Ports
and Forts in Kent,” afferts, that it was likewife called
*¢ Lunden-wich, either as fituated at the entrance to the
port of London, or from being the place of general refort
of the merchants trading to and from that city ;?? but Boys,
who wrote ‘ Collections for a Hiftory of Sandwich,??
contends, that the names Lunden-wich and Portus Lon-
dinenfis, mentioned in fome Saxon laws and charters, refer
either to London itfelf, or to fome port on the banks of the
Thames ; and this appears by far the moft probable opinion.
Sandwich is firft mentioned in written record by Eddius
Stephanus, in his life of Wilfred, archbifhop of Canter-
bury, who is therein ftated to have “ arrived happily and
pleafantly in this port about the year 655.’? From that
time both the town and haven gradually advanced to im-
portance ; but after the commencement of the Danifh in-
eurfions, the former, in particular, frequently fuftained very
confiderable damage. According to the Saxon Chronicle,
Sandwich was attacked by the Danes, as well from the fea
as by land, in the year 851, on which ‘occafion they were
completely defeated, and nine of their fhips were feized by
the victors. They returned, however, fhortly afterwards,
in greater force, and pillaged Sandwich and all the country
for many miles up the interior. The fame fcene of defola-
tion was renewed by Anlaf in 993, or 994, when he arrived
at Sandwich with go fhips, and a large army of combatants.
Another body of Danes came hither in the year 1007, and
after plundering this town, failed along the coalts of Kent
and Suflex, ravaging the fame with fire andfword. In the
following year, king Ethelred affembled a fleet at this port
to oppofe king Sweyne ; and here alfo that monarch himfelf
remained for feveral days with his fleet in July 1013, before
he fet fail for the northward. In ror4, Canute, when leaving
England, touched at this port, and put on fhore all his Eng-
lifh hoftages, after cutting off their hands, ears, and nofes ;
and on his return, in 1016, he landed here with that army,
by whofe valour he was enabled to feat himfelf, without a
rival, on the throne of England. Nine years afterwards,
when he wasin full pofleffion of the {ceptre, he granted the
port of Sandwich, and all its revenues, to the monks of
Chrift-church,’ in Canterbury. He appears alfo to have
greatly improved and extended the town, which thencefor-
ward became very flourifhing and populous. Edward the
Confeflor refided at Sandwich for feveral weeks in 1049, on
which occafion he conftituted it a principal Cinque-port,
and a hundred of itfelf. In 1052, that monarch fitted out a
fleet here to oppofe the defigns of Godwin, earl of Kent,
and his fons, who, notwithftanding, are ftated to have en-
tered this port in the courfe of the fame year, and to have
failed thence through the ancient channel of the Wantfume
towards London. :
In 1357, Edward the Black Prince landed at Sandwich,
with his royal prifoners, John, king of France, and his
fon Philip ; abe in 1372, Edward III. affembled at this
town and port an army of 10,000 archers, and 3000 lan-
cers, witha fleet of 400 fail, andembarked for the relief of
Thouars and the reft of Poitou; but after having: been fix
weeks at fea, he was compelled to return. King Richard 11.
his fucceflor, iflued an order under the great feal, for inclot-
ing and fortifying Sandwich, which, from the means of annoy-
ance afforded by its fhipping, was confidered to be a princi-
al objeét of French vengeance. At that period, indeed, the
ens were meditating an invafion of England, and in order
to protedt their troops from the Englith archers, had formed
a turretted wall of wood, 3000 paces in length, and wii >
ect

SANDWICH.

feet in height, which they could take to pieces and fet up
again at pleafure. Part of this wall was conveyed to Sand-
wich, and con{truéted there, as Lambard obferves, “ to our
great fafetie and their repulfe.’’ In the 16th year of the
reign of Henry VI., the French landed and plundered the
town, which they did alfo in the 35th year of the fame
monarch’s reign ; but thefe depredations not anfwering the
whole of their purpofe, Charles VIII. of France refolved
to deftroy Sandwich altogether, with which view he dif-
patched hither four thoufand men, who landing in the night,
after a long and bloody con‘ict gained polfeffion of the
town, fet fire to it, and put molt of the inhabitants to the
{word ; and to add tothefe calamities, it was again ravaged
by the'earl of Warwick in the fame reign. ‘To prevent the
recurrence of {uch difafters, Edward IV. « new-waulled,
ditched, and fortified the town with bulwarks, and gave
befides for the fupport of them 100/. yearly out of the
cultom-houfe here ; which, together with the induftry and
efforts of the merchants who frequented this haven, the
goodnefs of which, in any florm or contrary wind, when
they were in danger from the breakers or the Goodwin fands,
afforded them a {afe retreat, in a very fhort time reftored it
again to a flourifhing ftate; infomuch, that before the end
of that reign, the clear yearly receipt from the cultoms
here to that king amount to above the fum of 16,000/. or
17,000/., and the town had 95 fhips belonging to it, and
above 1500 {ailors.”’ Hatted’s Hiftory, &c. vol. x. 8yo.

But this profperity was only of fhort duration, for in the
reign of king Henry VII. the river Stour, or, as it was at
this place anciently called, the Wantfu:ine, began to decay,
in confequence of colleétions of light fand driven in by the
fea ; and though meafures were taken to check the evil, it
continued to increafe rapidly, and in the reign of Henry
VIII. was very greatly augmented by the finking of a large
fhip at the very mouth of the haven, Leland, who vilited
Sandwich fhortly after this event, defcribes the town in thefe
words. ‘ Sandwich, on the further fide of the Sture, is
neatly welle walled, where the townd {tandith moft in jeo-

ardi of enemies. The refidew of the town is dichid and
mudde waulled. Ther be in the town LIII principal gates,
III paroche chyrches, of the which fum fuppofe that S.
Marye’s was {umtyme a nunnery. Ther is a place of
Whit freres, and an hofpital without the town, fyrit or-
dened for mariners defefyd and hurt. Ther is a place wher
the monkes of Chrift-church did refort when they were lordes
of the towne. The caryke that was funk in the haven yn
pope Paulus tyme, did much hurt to the haven, and gether
a great banke.” Itinerary, vol. vii. fol. 127.

In confequence of the events above-itated, the corpora-
tion of Sandwich, in the reign of Edward VI. applied to
the protector Somerfet, for powers to amend the haven,
which they faid was then fo utterly deftroyed and loft, that
the cultoms of the port were fcarcely fufficient “ to fatisfy
the cuftomen his fee.”? This gave occafion to two different
commiffions, one granted by king Edward, and the other by
queen Elizabeth, to enquire into the ftate of the haven.
The refult was, anattempt to improve it, by cuttinga new
canal through the grounds between the town and Sandowne
caftle, which, however, was foon abandoned, ona repre-
fentation being made of its inadequacy to produce the re-
quifite effet. From that time all the efforts of the ma-
giltracy to procure public aid to reitore the haven, have

roved abortive.

Under thefe circumitances, as the harbour had become
ufelefs to all veffels except fuch as were of very {mall bur-
then, the town itfelf muft foon have been ruined, had it not
been fingularly preferved, and raifed again to profperity and

4

opulence, by the fettlement here of a colony of Flemifh
manufacturers, whom perfecutions for religious opinions had
forced to fly from their native country. Thefe itrangers re-
ceived the protection of queen Elizabeth; and though
much objtruéted by the jealoufy of the native tradefmen, and
the avarice of the corporation, very foon rofe to a flourifhing
condition.

_About thirteen years after their arrival, the queen madea
vifit to the town to infpeét the manufa¢tories, and continued
here three days. In the reign of James I. trade had again
increafed fo much, that the cuftoms amounted to 2926/.
annum ; but they afterwards experienced a confiderable di-
minution, by reafon of the eftablifhment of the company
of merchant adventurers, and the appropriation to them of
all the trade to Germany and the Low Countries ; and
though the defcendants of the Dutch and Walloon manufac-
turers ftill continued here, they foon entirely gave up the
manufactures which they had originally carried on and mixed
with the other inhabitants, in the general occupations of the
town. A gradual increafe, however, both in the popula-
tion and buildings within the liberty, has fince taken place,
and though the haven can now be regarded as little more
than the outlet of the Stour, the exports and imports are
confiderable. The exports are corn, grain, flour, feeds,
hops, wool, malt, apples, pears, leather, oak, bark, afhes,
&c. The imports are grocery, furniture, linen, woollen,
and other fhop-goods from London ; and iron, timber, lead,
coals, falt, wine, fpirits, glafs, grindftones, and other ar-
ticles, from Wales, Scotland, Norway, Sweden, and the
ports of the Baltic.

In Domefday-book, Sandwich is deferibed as a borough
held by the archbifhop of Canterbury, for the clothing of
the monks, and as yielding the like fervice to the king as
Dover. It then paid to the archbifhop a rent of forty pounds,
befides contributing forty thoufand herrings for the monks’
dinner ; but in the year 1290, thefe immunities were given
up to king Edward [. in exchange for fome lands in another
part of Kent. That monarch confirmed to the inhabitants a
weekly market, and other privileges which had been granted
to them by Henry III.; as did Tikewife king Edward IIT.
who firft incorporated the town by the name of the ** Mayor,
jurats, and commonalty of the town and port of Sandwich.”
This charter continued in force till the thirty-fixth year of
the reign of Charles II., when a new charter was granted,
which was furrendered to James II., but was afterwards
reftored, and is ‘now the deed under which the town is go-
verned. By it the corporation is made to confift of a mayor,
twelve jurats, twenty-four common councilmen, 2 tteward,
recorder, town-clerk, and inferior officers. ‘The mayor and
jurats are ex officio juftices of the peace. The former is alfo
coroner within his jurifdiction, and may appoint adeputy to
a&t for him in that capacity. All the municipal eleétions,
decrees, and ordinances are made by the whole body cor-
porate, ata common aflembly, convened by the found ef a
brafs horn of great antiquity. The two regular and fixed
common aflemblies mect, one on the firft Monday after the
fealt of St. Andrew; to elect the mayor, and the other on
the following Thurfday, for the election of officers: all
other meetings of the corporation are held at the pleafure of
the mayor. Formerly the court of general feffions and gaol
delivery fat here quarterly, but now only half-yearly. Here
are two weekly markets, on Wednefday and Saturday ; alfo
an annual fair, which commences on the 4th of December,
and la{ts for feveral days.

Sandwich, as one of the Cinque-ports, has enjoyed the
privilege of fending twomembers, ufually itiled barons, to
parliament, fince the g2d year of king Edward IIIf, The

right

SANDWICH.

right of eleétion was formerly vefted in the mayor, jurats,
and refident freemen only ; but by the laft decifion of the
houfe of commons, freemen, non-refident, were declared
equally entitled to vote as thofe inhabiting within the bo-
rough, provided they did not receive alms. The number
of voters, refident and non-refident, is about 850, and the
mayor is the returning officer. R

The fcite of Sandwich, as already hinted, is extremely
low and flat; and the country around, with the exception
of the ridge on which Richberough caftle ftands, partakes,
to a confiderable diftance, of the fame level character. In
all the lower parts of this traét, at the depth of a few feet,
rounded flints, pebbles, fea-fand, and fhells of various kinds,
are conftantly found ; and every where beneath the town,
at the depth of from forty to fifty feet, is a ftratum of
flint. The latter, when penetrated, gives iffue to a copious
ftream of water, much fuperior in purity to that of the
fprings which lie between it and the furface. From thefe
the town is in part fupplied ; but the principal fupplies are”
derived from the river Stour, and from a {mall ftream that
rifes near the village of Eaftry, and is conveyed into the town
by a canal about three miles long, called the Delf, which
was formed under letters patent granted by king Edward I.
in the thirteenth year of his reign. The houfes in Sand-
wich are moftly very irregular in their conftrution, and are
chiefly difpofed in narrow and inconvenient ftreets. Confider-
able improvements, however, have been effected here under an
a& of parliament pailed in 1787, for new paving, lighting,
watching, and cleanfing the town. In ancient times it was
divided into eight wards, but thefe were increafed to twelve
in 1437) and the fame number is ftill continued. Each
ward is under the immediate jurifdi€tion of a jurat, who
nominates a conftable and a deputy conftable. Great part
of the town-walls yet remains nearly entire; and till lately
five entrance-gates were ftauding alfo.

The public buildings of Sandwich are the guild, or
court-hall, the three parifh churches of St. Clement, St.
Peter, and St. Mary, and a*free grammar-fchool. The

uild-hall was ereéted in the year 1579, and confifts of two

ories, the lower one of which is the court-hall, and the
higher the council-chamber. In the upper {tory are kept
the cucking-ftool and wooden mortar, formerly ufed in this
town for the punifhment of {colds; alfo the armour for the
trained bands. St. Clement’s church is a very {pacious
edifice, divided into a nave, chancel, and aifles, with a
maflive tower, rifing from four femicircular arches, in the
centre of the building. This laft portion of the church is
much more ancient than any of its other parts, as is evident
from the round form of its arches, the heavy character of
its mafonry, and the flyle of its decorations, all of which
evince an early Norman origin. The nave is feparated from
the aifles by pointed arches, refting on {mall pillars, and
has a ceiling of oaken planks. ‘The font, which is of an
oftagonal fhape, and apparently very ancient, confifts of a
fhaft and bafe raifed on two fteps. The exterior of the
bafin is charged with thields and rofes, in alternate ranges ;
and the thaft difplays ee niches between graduated but-
treffes, feulptured at the angles with grotefque faces,
flowers, foliage, &c. A few ancient wooden {talls remain
in this church, and there are numerous fepulchral inferiptions,
but none of any intereft. St. Peter’s church is evidently
the work of different periods. Part of it is of confiderable
antiquity ; but tie tower and fouth aifle, having fallen down
in 1661, were rebuilt, foon after that period, chiefly with
the old materials. In this church are feveral ancient tombs,
fupporting effigies. One of thefe is fuppofed to com-
memorate fome individuals of the Ellis family, a member

of which, Thomas Ellis, a merchant of this town in the
reign of Henry V., is recorded to have founded a chantry
here. St. Mary’s church is a large building, and originally
confifted of a nave, chancel, and two aifles, but the fouth
aifle has been deftroyed. The fepulchral monuments here
are numerous, though not particularly remarkable. South-
ward from this church formerly ftood a chapel, dedicated,
as Hatted fays, to St. Jacob, but more probably te St.
James: it is now entirely demolifhed, but the cemetery
annexed to it continues to be ufed as a place of burial.
The free grammar-fchool of this town was founded by
fubfeription in the reign of queen Elizabeth, principally
through the ative exertions of fir Roger Manwood, then
recorder of Sandwich, and afterwards chief baron of the
Exchequer, who bequeathed to it a confiderable endowment
in lands for its perpetual fupport. Several other indivi-
duals have contributed large donations for the fame pur-
pofe. Among the firft matters here was Richard Knolles,
author of * The Hiftory of the Turks,’? who has been
highly praifed by Dr. Johnfon; but he appears to have
been foon difmiffed, on account of negligence in his fchool
duties. Befides the free fchool, Sandwich has a charity
{chool, founded about the year 1711, in which thirty boys,
and a like number of girls, are educated. The manage-
ment of this {chool belongs to the mayor and three truttees,
one nominated from each parifh.

The monattic eftablifhments in Sandwich were, a priory
and three hofpitals ; St. John’s, St. Thomas’s, and St. Bar-
tholomew’s. The priory was founded in the year 1272,
by Henry Cowfield, a German, for the reception of Car-
melite, or White friars; but his endowment of it was ex-
tremely trifling, compared to the fubfequent benefaétion
of William, lord Clinton, in the reign of king Edward I.
The buildings appropriated to this fociety are faid to have
been upon a large feale, occupying, together with the gar-
dens and meadows annexed, above five acres of ground.
This priory was fupprefled in the twenty-eighth year of the
reign of Henry VITI.; and was foon after granted to
Thomas Arderne, gent., of Faverfham, to be held of the
crown, in capite. The period of the foundation of St.
John’s hofpital is uncertain, but it is mentioned as early as

the reign of Edward IV. St. Thomas’s hofpital was

founded and endowed, in 1392, by Thomas Ellis, a
wealthy draper of Sandwich, and at prefent contains twelve
inmates, whofe annual revenue is very confiderable, the rents
of the property attached to the houfe having been greatly
improved of late years. But the moft important, and alfo the
mott ancient, hofpital in Sandwich, is that of St. Bartholo-
mew, which was founded in the twelfth century. Accord-
ing to Boys, this was originally defigned for the accommoda-
tion of pilgrims and travellers; though Leland, as we have
feen, fays that it was ‘ fyrit ordeined for maryners defefyd
and hurt.””_ The buildings belonging to this eftablifhment
occupy a large plot of ground of a triangular form, and
are fitted up for the accommodation of fixteen refidents,
nominated by the mayor and jurats, who are ex officio the
patrons, governors, and vilitors of the hofpital. In a {mall
chapel here is an altar tomb, fupporting the effigy of fir
Henry de Sandwich, habited in a hauberk of mail, and bear-
ing a heater fhield, and a broad fword, This knight was
a principal benefactor to the hofpital, and by fome is erro-
neoufly called its founder.

In the 13th and 14th centuries the mode of executing
felons within thie liberty was by drowning them in a ftream
called the Gefling ; and it is remarkable, that in 1315 a
complaint was made again{t the prior of Chrift-church, in
Canterbury, for having fo altered the courfe of that river,

that

ook IN:

that executions could not be performed from the want of
water. In 1630 a woman was hanged here for witchcraft ;
in 1644 another female fuffered for the fame imaginary
crime; and in 1695 athird woman, condemned for a fimilar
alears offence, only efcaped punifhment, in confequence
of the aét then paffed for a general and free pardon.

According to the parliamentary returns of 1811, the
town of Sandwich, properly fo called, confifting of the three
parifhes before-mentioned, St. Clement’s, St. Mary’s, and
St. Peter’s, together with the chapelry of St. Bartholomew’s
hofpital, ste is extra parochial, contain 531 houtes, and
a population of 2735 inhabitants; but in the Cinque-port
liberty of Sandwich, which includes the parifhes of Sarr
and Walmer, and the ville of Ramfgate, there are in all
1866 houfes, inhabited by 9296 perfons.

A few objeéts in the vicinity of this town merit notice.
At Woodnefborough, about two miles to the fouth-eatt, is
a peculiarly large artificial mount or tumuluse Upon being
— near the fummit, it was found to contain the remains

a human body, placed near the furface of the ground,
together with a {pear-head, a fibula, and fome fragments
of veffels. In the parifh of Afh, three miles from Sand-
wich, many Roman antiquities have been difcovered ona
fandy eminence, which appears to have been appropriated
as a Roman burying-place. The graves are generally about
four feet deep, and befides the ufual depofit, frequently
contain fwords, {pear-heads, fibule, buckles, clafps, belt-
ornaments, amulets, perdants, beads, rings, and other arti-
cles of drefs of great value; alfo coins and medals, both
of the upper and lower empires." Sandown-cattle, which
is fituated between Sandwich and Deal, clofe to the fea-
there, was erected by king Henry VIII. This fortrefs con-
fifts of an immenfe circular tower in the centre, connected
with four femicircular outworks, or lunettes; the whole
furrounded by a deep foffe, with additional batteries, to-
wards the fea. On the fummit of the centre tower is a
capacious water ciltern, refting upon the arch of a large
bomb-proof apartment, for the garrifon. ‘The lord-warden
of the Cinque-ports is governor of Sandown-caftle, which
has of late years been confiderably repaired and improved
in its fortifications. Colleétions for a Hittory of Sandwich
in Kent, by William Boys, efq., F.A.S. 4to., Canter-
bury 1792. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. vii., by
E. W. Brayley, 8vo. 1807. The Hiftory and Topo-
graphical Survey of the County of Kent, by Edward
Hatted, efq. F.R.S. and S.A., fol. 1788. In 1800 an im-
proved and corrected edition was publifhed in 12 vols. 8vo.

SaNpwicH, a poft-town of America, in the ftate of
Malflachufetts, fituated at the bottom of cape Cod, in
Barnitable bay. It extends through the whole breadth of
the cape; 18 miles S.E. from Plymouth, and about 60
miles S. of Bofton: incorporated in 1639, and containing
2382 inhabitants. N. lat. 41° 17!. W. long. 70° 24'.—
Alfo, a {mall river at the bottom of Barnitable bay.=—Alfo,
a townthip in the northern part of Stafford county, New
Hampfhire, N. of Winnipifiogee lake; incorporated in
1763, and containing 2232 inhabitants. —Alfo, a townfhip
of Canada, in the upper part of Detroit river, and on the
E. fide of it, where a gaol and court-houfe have been
ereéted. |

Sanpwicn, or Lawkes’s River, lies two miles within
Chabuétoo harbour, in Nova Scotia, and runs into Cha-
buétoo bay.

Sanpwicu Bay, a large bay on the W. of the ifland of
Georgia, S. of cape Charlotte. /

Sanpwicn, Cape, a point of land in New Holland, or New
South Wales, fo called by Cook in June 1770, diftant N.

peek CN

by W.4W. 11 miles from point Hillock. \ Between thefe :
two points the land is very high, and the furface is crag
and barren. The cape may be known, not only by the
high craggy land over it, but by a {mall ifland which lies
E. of it, at the diftance of a mile, and fome others that
lie about two leagues to the northward. From this cape
the land trends W. and afterwards N. forming a fine large
bay, which our famous navigator called «* Rockingham bay.”

SanpwicH Gulf, a large bay at the S.E. extremity of
Eatt Florida. -

Sanpwicu J/land, one of the New Hesripes, (which
fee,) in the Pacific ocean, about 80 miles in circumferen
S. lat. 17° go! E. long. 168° 35'—Alfo, an ifland
in the Pacific ocean, near the W. coat of New Ire-
land. On this ifland, as Capt. Carteret informs us, there
feem to be fome good bays and harbours. On the N. part
of it there is a remarkable peak, like a fugar-loaf, and
another of the fame kind upon the coaft of New Ireland,
‘diitant from each other about five leagues. The peak
upon Sandwich ifland lies in S. lat. 2° 53’. E. long.
149° 17!.

Sanpwicu J/lands, a clufter of iflands in the Pacific
ocean, difcovered by captain Cook and captain King in
the year 1778, and which the latter navigator, after having
vifited them again in 1779, thus defcribes. This group
confifts of eleven iflands, extefiding in latitude from 18° 54?
to 22° 15! N. and in longitude from 199° 36! to 205° 6! E.
They are called by the natives, 1. Owhyhee; 2. Mowee;
3. Ranai, or Orania; 4. Morotinnee, or Morokinnee; 5. Ka-
hourowee, or T'ahoorowa; 6. Morotoi, or Morokoi; 7. Woa-
hoo, or Oahoo ; 8. Atooi, Atowi, or Towi, and {6metimes
Kowi; 9. Neheehow, or Onceheow; 10. Oreehoua, or Ree-
houa; and 11. Tahoora: and are all inhabited, excepting
Morotinnee and Tahoora. Befides the iflands above enume-
rated, we were told by the Indians that there is another,
called Modoopapapa, or Kamodoopapapa; lying to the
W.S.W. of Tahoora, which is low and fandy, and vifited
only for the purpofe of catching turtle, and fea-fowl; and as
Capt. King could never learn that they knew of any others,
it is probable that none exiited in their neighbourhood. They
were named by captain Cook «* The Sandwich Iflands,” in }
honour of the earl of Sandwich, under whofe adminiftration ’
he had enriched geography with fo many fplendid and im-
portant difcoveries. ,
* The latitude and longitude of the Sandwich iflands, and
alfo the number of inhabitants contained in each of them, ‘
will appear in the following table. ;

Latitude. Longitude. r umber of
: Inhabitants,

(North point 20°17! 204° 2/
| South point 18 54° ‘204 15
Owhyhee { Eaft point 19 34 205 6 150,000
Karakakooa
bay = - i 1g 28 214 0
Eatt point 20 10 204 4 ’
Mowhee ¢ South point 20 34 203 48 65,400
Welt point 20 54 203 24

Morokinnee - 20 39 203 33 uninhabited
Tahoorowa - 20 38 203 27 3
Ranai, fouth point - 20°46° 203 8 20,400
Morotoi, welt point -- 21 10 202 46 36,0006
Woahoo, anchoring place 21 43 202 9 60,200
Atovi, Wymoa bay - 21 $7 200 20 54;000

Onecheow, anchoring |
place 3 i 21 50 199 45 10,090
Oreehoua - s2ae2 199 §2 4,000
Tahoora - - 21 48 199 36 uninhabited
The

SANDWICH ISLANDS.

The climate of the Sandwich iflands differs very little
from that of the Weit India iflands which lie in the fame
latitude: upon the whole, perhaps, it may be rather more
temperate. The thermometer, on fhore, in Karakakooa
bay, never rofe higher than 88°, and that but one day ; its
mean height at noon was 83°. In Wymoa bay, its mean
height at noon was 76°, and when out at fea 75°. The
mean height of the thermometer at noon in Jamaica is
about 86°, at fea 80°. Whether they be fubje& to the fame
violent winds and hurricanes, we could not difcover, as we
were not there in any of the ftormy months. However, as
the natives gave us no pofitive teftimony of the fat, and no
traces of their effets were any where vilible, it is probable
that, in this refpe@, they refemble the Society and Friendly
iflands, which are in a great meafure free from thefe dreadful
vifitations. During the four winter months that we re-
mained amongfit thefe iflands, there was more rain, efpecially
in the interior parts, than ufually falls during the dry feafon
in the iflands of the Weft Indies. We generally faw clouds
colleéting round the tops of the hills, and producing rain.to
leeward: but after they are feparated from the land by.the
wind, they difperfe and are loft, and others fucceed in their
place. This happened daily at Owhyhee, the mountainous

arts being generally enveloped in a cloud, fucceffive fhowers
falling in the inland country ; with fine weather, and a clear

fey, at the fea-fhore. The winds, in general, were from.

E.S.E. to N.E.; though they fometimes varied a few
points each way to the N. and S.; but thefe were light,
and of fhort duration. In the harbour of Karakakooa, we
had a conftant land and fea-breeze every day and night.
The ‘currents feemed very uncertain, fometimes fetting to
windward, and at other times to leeward, without any re-
gularity. They did not appear to be governed by the
winds, nor any other caufe that captain King could aflign :
they frequently fet to windward againit a frefh breeze.
The tides are very regular, flowing and ebbing fix hours
each. The flood comes from the eaftward; and it is
high water, at the full and change of the moon, forty-five
minutes paft three, apparent time. Their ateft mfe is
two feet feven inches; and we always obferved the water to
be about four inches higher when the meon was above the
horizon than when it was below. ;

The quadrupeds in thefe, as well as in all other iflands that
have been difcovered in the South Sea,.are confined to three
forts: d hogs, and rats. The number of dogs in thefe
iflands did not appear to be nearly equal, in proportion, to
thofe im Otaheite. But, on the other hand, they abound much
more in hogs ; and the breed is of a larger and weightier kind.
The fupply of provifions of this kind, which we got from
them, was reall aftonifhing : we were near four months either
cruifing in the harbour, or off Owhyhee ; during all this time,
a large allowance of freth pork was conftantly ferved to
beth crews; fo that our confumption was computed at
about fixty puncheons, of five hundred weight each. Be-
fides this, and the incredible wafte which, in the midft of
fuch plenty, was not to be guarded againtt, fixty puncheons
more were falted for fea ftore. The greateft part of this
fupply was drawn from the ifland of Owhyhee alone, and yet
we could not perceive that it was at all drained, or even that
the abundance had any way decreafed.

The birds of thefe iflands are beautiful and numerous,though
not various. There are four which feem to belong to the
trochili, or honey-fuckers of Linnzus.. There isa eth of
throth, with a grey breaft ; anda {mall bird of the fiv-catcher
kind, a rail with very fhort wings and no tail, which, on that
account, we named rallus ecaudatus. Ravens are found here,
but they are very fcarce: their colour is dark brown, in-

Vo. XXXI.

clining to black, and their notes differ from the European.
Here are alfo owls; plovers of two forts, one very like the
whiftling plover of Europe; a large white pigeon; a bird
with a long tail, whofe colour is black, the vent and feathers
under the wing (which is much longer than is ufually feen in
the generality of birds, except birds of paradife) are yel-
low ; and the common water or darker hen.

Their vegetable produétions are nearly the fame with the
reft of the South Sea iflands. The bread-fruit trees thrive
here; not in Such abundance, but produce double the quantity
they do on the rich plains of Otaheite. Their fugar-canes
are of a very unufual fize: one of them was brought to us,
at Atooi, meafuring eleven inches and a quarter in circum-
ference, and having fourteen feet eatable. At Oneeheow,
they brought us feveral large roots, of a brown colour,
fhaped like a yam, and from fix to ten pounds in weight.
The juice, which it yields in great abundance, was found to
be an excellent fubftitute for fugar.

The inhabitants of the Sandwich iflands are undoubtedly
of the fame race with thofe of New Zealand, the Society and
Friendly iflands, Eafter ifland,and the Marquefas; a race that
pofleffes, without any intermixture, all the known lands be-
tween the latitudes of 47° S. and 20° N., and between the
longitudes of 184° and 260° E. They bear ftrong affinity to
fome of the Indian tribes that inhabit the Ladrones andCaroline
iflands ; and the fame affinity may again be traced amongtt
the Battas and the Malays. (See Matays.) The natives
of thefe iflands are in general above the middle fize, and
well made ; they walk very gracefully, run nimbly, and are
capable of bearing great fatigue; though, upon the whole,
the men are fomewhat inferior, in point of ftrength and
activity, to the Friendly iflanders ; and the women lefs deli-
cately limbed than thofe of Otaheite. Their complexion is
rather darker than that of the Otaheiteans, and they are not
altogether fo -handfome a people; however, many of both
fexes had fine open countenances; and the women, in par-
ticular, had good eyes and teeth, and a {weetnefs and fenfi-
bility of look which rendered them very engaging. Their
hair is of a brownifh-black, and neither uniformly ftraight,
like that of the Indians of America, nor uniformly curling,
as amongit the African Negroes, but varying in this re{peét,
like the hair of Europeans. One ftriking peculiarity in the
features of every part of this great nation, Capt. King does
not remember to have feen any where méntioned ; which is,
that, even in the handfomett faces, there is always a fulnefs of
the noftril, without any flatnefs or {preading of the nofe, that
diftinguifhes them from Europeans, It is not improbable
that this may be the effeé& of their ufual mode of falutation,
which is performed by preffing the ends of their nofés to-
gether. Inftances of deformity are more frequent here than
in any of the other iflands. Squinting is alfo very common
among them. Befides thefe particular imperfeétions, they
are, in general, very fubje€ to boils and ulcers; which are
attributed, fays captain Kin , to the great quantity of falt
they eat with their flefh and fifth, The « Brees’? are ve’
free from thefe complaints, but many of them fuffer {ti
more dreadful effects from the immoderate ufe of the ava.
Thofe who were molt affected by it had their bodies covered
with a white fcurf, their eyes red and inflamed, their limbs
emaciated, the whole frame trembling and paralytic, accom-
panied with a difability to raife the head. Although this
drug does not appear univerfally to fhorten life; yet it in-
variably brings on aa early and decrepid old age. It was
found, however, that by difcontinuing the ufe of this root,
the noxious effeéts of it foon fubfided. The whole number
of inhabitants cannot be lefs than 400,000. It was here,
in the iland of Owhyhee, that the celebrated captain oh

Xx of

SANDWICH ISLANDS.

loft his ife, in a quarrel with the natives. Captain King,
however, fays, notwith{tanding the irreparable lofs we fuf-
fered, from the fudden refentment and violence of thefe peo-
ES yet, in juftice to their gered conduét, it muft be ac-

nowledged, that they are of the moft mild and affectionate
difpofition ; equally remote from the extreme levity and
ficklenefs of the Otaheiteans, and the diftant gravity and
referve of the inhabitants of the Friendly iflands. They
appear to live in the utmoft harmony and friendfhip with
one another. The women who had children were remark-
able for their tender and conftant attention to them; and
the men would often lend their affiftance in thofe domettic
offices, with a willingnefs that does credit to their feelings.
It muft, however, be obferved, that they fall very fhort of
the other iflanders in that belt teft of civilization, the re-
{pect to the women. Here they are not only deprived of
the privilege of eating with the men, but the beft forts of
food are taboced, or forbidden them. Thefe people are dif-
tinguifhed by the hofpitality and kindnefs which they exer-
cifed towards our voyagers. Whenever, fays captain King,
we came on fhore, there was a conftant ftruggle, who fhould
be moft forward in making us little prefents, bringing re-
frefhments, or fhewing fome other mark of their refpect.
Their natural capacity feems in no refpe& below the com-
mon itandard of mankind. Their improvements in agricul-
ture, and the perfection of their manufaétures, are certainly
adequate to the circumftances of their fituation, and the
natural advantages they enjoy. The eager curiofity with
which they attended the armourer’s forge, and the many ex-
pedients they had invented, even before we left the iflands,
for working the iron they had procured from us, into fuch
forms as.were beft adapted to their purpofes, were ftrong
proofs of docility and ingenuity. Two inftances were met
with of perfons difordered in their minds, the one a man at
Owhyhee, the other a woman at Onecheow. From the
particular attention and refpeét. paid to them it appeared,
that the opinion of their being infpired by the Divinity,
which obtains among moft of the nations of the Eaft, is
alfo received here. Though the cuftom of eating the bodies
of their enemies be not known by pofitive evidence to exift
in any of the South Sea iflands, except New Zealand, yet
it is extremely probable that it was originally prevalent in
them all. The facrificing of human victims, which feems
evidently to be a relic of this horrid practice, ftill obtains
univerfally amongft thefe iflanders ; and it is eafy to conceive
why the New Zealanders fhould retain the repaft, which
was probably the laft a@ of thefe fhocking rites, longer
than the reft of their tribe, who were fituated in more mild
and fruitful climates. As the inhabitants-of the Sandwich
iflands certainly bear a nearer refemblance to thofe of New
Zealand, both in their perfons aud difpofitions, than to any
other people of this family ; fo it was ftrongly fufpefted by
Mr. Anderfon, that, like them, they {till continue to featt
on human flefh. Captain King, however, entertained great
doubts of the juftice of Mr. Anderfon’s conclufions. With
refpeét to the information derived from the natives them-
felves, he obferves, that great pains were taken, by almott
every officer on board, to come at the knowledge of fo
curious a circumftance; and except in the two in{tances
mentioned by Mr. Anderfon, they invariably denied the ex-
iftence of any fuch cuftom amongit them. The argument
drawn from the inltrument made with fhark’s tecth, and
which is nearly of the fame form with thofe ufed at New
Zealand for cutting up the bodies of their enemies, is much
more difficult to controvert. This knife, if it may be fo
called, is never ufed by them in cutting up the flefh of other
animals, But, as the cuftom of offering human facrifices,

3

and of burning the bodies of the flain, is itill prevalent here,
it is not improbable that the ufe of this inftrument is re-
tained in thofe ceremonies. Upon the whole, captain King
inclines to think, that the horrid praétice in queftion has
but lately ceafed among thefe and other iflands in the South
Sea. La Peroufe (fee his Voyage, vol. i. p. 100. Eng: ed.)
coincides with captain King in opinion, that a people fo
good, fo gentle, and fo hofpitable, cannot really be can-
nibals. It is difficult to aflociate religious ferocity with
gentlenefs of manners, and fince, as captain King relates, that
the priefts of Owhyhee were their beft friends, La Peroufe
concludes, that if gentlenefs and humanity have made any
progrefs among a.clafs devoted by their office-to human
facrifices, the reft of the inhabitants mutt be {till lefs fero-
cious, It is evident, therefore, that the practice of devour-
ing human flefh no longer fubfifts, though, probably, the
period of its ceflation has not long elapfed. The horror of
thofe people, fays the French editor, at our fufpeéting them
of fuch a praétice, and efpecially when afked if they had
devoured the body of captain Cook, confirms the opinion
of La Peroufe; yet captain Cook has proved to a certainty
its exiftence among the New Zealanders; and it cannot be
diffembled, that the cuftom of making human facrifices, and
eating enemies killed in battle, is general in all the.iflands of
the South Sea. The inhabitants of thefe iflands differ from
thofe of the Friendly ifles, in fuffering, almoft univerfally,
their beards to grow. There were, indeed, a few, amongtt
whom was the old king, that cut it off entirely, and others
that wore it only on the upper lip. Both fexes wear neck-
laces, made of ftrings of {mall variegated fhells; and an
ornament, in the form of the handle of a cup, about two
inches long, and half an inch broad, made of wood, ftone,
or ivory, finely polifhed, which is hung about the neck by
fine threads of twifted hair, doubled fometimes a hundred
fold. Inftead of this ornament, fome of them wear, on
their breafts, a {mall human figure, made of bone, fuf-
pended in the fame manner. The fan, or fly-trap, is alfo
an ornament ufed by both fexes: the moft ordinary kinds are
made of the fibres of the cocoa-nut, tied loofe, in bunches,
to the top of a fmooth polifhed handle: the tail-feathers of
the cock, and of the tropic bird, are alfo ufed in the fame
manner; but the moft valuable are thofe which have the
handle made of the arm or leg-bones of an enemy flain in
battle, and which are preferved with great care, and handed
down from father to fon, as trophies of ineftimable value.
The cuftom of tattooing the body, they have in common
with the reft of the natives of the South Sea iflands; but it
is only at New Zealand and the Sandwich iflands that they
tattoo the face. There is alfo this difference between the
two laft; that in the former, it is done in Senate fpiral vo-
lutes ; and in the latter, in ftraight lines, crofling each other
at right angles. The hands and arms of the women are
alfo very neatly marked ; and they have a fingular cuftom
amongtt them, the meaning of which we could never learn,
that of tattooing the tip of the tongues of the females.
The drefs of the men generally confifts only of a piece of
thick cloth, called the maro, ten or twelve inches broad,
which they pafs between the legs, and tie round the waift.
This is the common drefs of all ranks of people. Their
mats, fome of which are beautifully manufatured, are of
various fizes, but moftly about five feet long, and four
broad. Thefe they throw over their fhoulders, and bring
forward before; but they are feldom ufed, except in time
of war, for which purpofe they feem better adapted than
for ordinary ufe, being of a thick and cumberfome texture,
and capable of breaking the blow of a ftone, or any blunt

weapon. Their feet are generally bare, except when bd
ave

“ss

SANDWICH ISLANDS.

have occafion to travel over the burnt ftones, when they
fecure them with a-fort of fandal, made of cords twiited,
from the fibres of the cocoa-nut. Such is the ordinary drefs
of thefe iflanders, but they have another, appropriated to
their chiefs, and ufed on ceremonious occafions, confifting
of a feathered cloak and helmet, which, in point of beauty
and arp, a is, perhaps, nearly equal to that of any
nation in the world. Thefe feathered dreffes feemed to be
exceedingly {carce, appropriated to perfons of the higheit
rank, and worn by the men only. The common drefs of
the women bears a clofe refemblance to that of the men.
They wrap round the waiit a piece of cloth, that reaches
half way down the thigh; and fometimes in the cold of the
evening they appeared with loofe pieces of fine cloth,
wrapped feveral times round the waiit, and defcending to
the leg, fo as to have exaétly the appearance of a full fhort
petticoat. The hair is cut fhort behind, and turned up
before, as is the fafhion of the Otaheiteans and New Zea-
tanders.

The hair of both fexes, fays Lifianfky, (Voyage round
the World in the years 1803, 4, 5 and, 6,) is blaek and
ftrong. The men cut theirs in different forms; but the
prevailing fathion at prefent, is that of a Roman helmet.
The women crop theirs clofe, leaving a ridge, about an inch
and a half long, iticking up, and extending from fide to
fide on the forehead. This ridge of hair they daub over
every afternoon with a fort of pomatum (if I may ufe the
word), made of fhells and corals, to give it a yellowith ap-
pearance. The men do the fame with theirs, colouring only
the hair which forms the creft of the helmet. From this
practice, we were at firft led to fuppofe the hair of the head
to be of two natural colours; for the ridge and the creft
retain a portion of the hue they acquire by the frequent
daubings. Contrary to the ufage of their neighbours (the
other iflanders, of the South Sea), thefe people neither paint
the body nor wear ornaments in their ears. They have, how-
ever, bracelets on their arms, made of bone.

he women ornament their heads with wreatlis of flowers,
or worfted threads, of different colours, ravelled out of
European ftuffs. The rich and poor are in common drefled
alike ; but, on particular occafions, the rich put on their
feather cloaks, which, with their helmets and fans, form a
drefs that muft be admired every where.

Thefe people are extremely fond of the European drefs,
and receive with pleafure, old fhirts, jackets, and trowfers.
We parted here with all our rags, in exchange for provifions,
and other articles of which we were in want. © ‘

Their necklaces are made of thells, or of a hard, fhining
red berry. At Atooi, [ome of the women wore little figures
of the turtle, neatly formed of wood or ivory, tied on their
fagers as we wear rings. They wear alfo an ornament made
of fhells, faftened in rows on a ground of ftrong netting,
fo as to ftrike each other, when in motion; which, both
men and women, when they dance, tie either round the arm
or the ankle, or below the knee. Inttead of thells, they
fomnetimes make ufe of dog’s teeth, and a hard red berry,
refembling that of the holly. They have another ornament,
which is a kind of matk, made of a large gourd, with holes
cut in it for the eyes and nofe. The top was ftuck full of
fmall green twigs, which, at a diftance, had the appearance
of an elegant waving plume ; and from the lower part hung
narrow ftripes of cloth, refembling a bear

It is obfervable, that the natives of the Sandwich iflands
approach nearer to the New Zealanders, in their cuftoms
SF manners, than to either of their lefs diftant neighbours

the Society or Friendly iflands, ‘This is peculiarly the
cafe with refpect to their method of living together in {mall

towns or villages, containing from about 100 to 200 houfes,
built: pretty clofe together, without any order, and having a
winding path leading through them. They are generally
flanked, toward the fea, with loofe detached walls, which
are probably meant both for the purpofes of fhelter and de-
fence. Their houfes are of different fizes, from 18 feet
by 12, to 45 by 24. But fome are of a larger kind, which
are defigned for travellers or ftrangers, who were only
making a fhort ftay. At one end are mats, on which the
fleep, with wooden pillows, or fleeping-ftools, exaétly like
thofe of the Chinefe. Some houfes of the better fort have
a court-yard before them, neatly railed in, with f{maller
houfes built round it for their fervants. In this area they
generally eat, and fit during the day-time. On the fides of
the hills, and among fteep rocks, are holes or caves, which
appeared to be inhabited; the entrance is defended with
wicker-work, and a {tone fence runs acrofs it within, fo
that thefe feem to be principally defigned for places of re-
treat, in cafe of an attack from anenemy. *

The food of the lower clafs of people confifts, principally,
of fifh and vegetables ; fuch as yams, fweet potatoes, tarrow,
plantains, fugar-canes, and bread. To thefe, the people of a
higher rank add the flefh of hogs and dogs, dreffed in the
fame manner as at the Society iflands. They alfo eat fowls of
the fame domeftic kind with ours; but they are neither
plentiful, nor much eiteemed by them. The way of {pend-
ing their time appears to be very fimple, and to admit of
little variety. They rife with the fun, and, after enjoying
the cool of the evening, retire to reft a few hours after fun-
fet. ‘The making of canoes and mats forms the occupation
of the erees; the women are employed in manufacturing
cloth; and the tow-tows are principally engaged in the
plantations and fifhing. Their idle hours are filled up with
various amufements. Their young men and women are
fond of dancing ; and, on more folemn occafions, they have
boxing and wreftling matches. Their mufic is alfo of a
ruder kind, having neither flutes, nor reeds, nor inftruments
of any other fort, that we faw, except drums of various
fizes. But their fongs, which they fung in parts, and ac-
company with a gentle motion of the arms, in the fame man-
ner as the Friendly iflanders, had a very pleafing effe&. It
is very remarkable, that the people of thefe iflands are great
gamblers. They have a game very much like our draughts,
but, if we may judge from the number of fquares, it is
much more intricate. Swimming is not only a neceflary art,
in which both their men and women are more expert than
any people we hed hitherto feen, but a favourite diverfion
among them. Their cloth is made of the fame materials,
and in the fame manner, as at the Friendly and Society
iflands. , :

The cloth which they prceare for painting is of a thick and
{trong texture, feyeral folds being beat and incorperated to-
gether; after which it is cut in breadths, about two or
three feet wide, and is painted in a variety of patterns, with
a comprehenfivenefs and regularity of defign, that indicate
very extraordinary tafte and fancy. The exaétnef{s with
which the mott intricate patterns are continued is the more
furprifing, when we confider that they have no ftlamps, and
that the whole is done by the eye, with pieces of bamboo
cane dipped in paint ; the hand being fupported by another

iece of the cane, in the manner praétifed by our painters,
Cheir colours are extraéted from the fame berries and other
vegetable fub{tances, as at Otaheite, ‘The bufinefs of paint-
ing belongs entirely to the women, and is called * kip:
paree ;”” and it is remarkable that they always gave the fame
name to our writing. Their mats are made of the leaves of
the pandanus ; and thefe,as well as their cloths, are beautifully
Xx2 worked

SANDWICH ISLANDS.

worked in a variety of patterns, and ftained of different
colours. In this article of manufa¢ture, whether we regard
the ftrength, finenefs, or beauty, they certainly excel the
whole world.

Their fifhing-hooks are made of mother-of-pearl, bone,
or wood, pointed and barbed with {mall bones, or tortoife-
fhell. They are of various fizes and forms; but the moft
common are about two or three inches long, and made in the
fhape of a {mall fith, which ferves as a bait, having a bunch
of feathers tied to the head or tail. Thofe with which they
fith for fharks are of a very large fize, being, generally,’ fix
or eight inches long.

The line which they ufe for fifhing, for making nets, and
for other domeftic purpofes, ‘is of different degrees’ of fine-
nefs, and is made of the bark of the fouta, or cloth-tree,
neatly and evenly twifted, like our common twine. They
have a finer fort, made of the bark of a {mall fhrub, called
areamah ; and the fineft is made of human hair, They alfo
make cordage of a ftronger kind, for the rigging of their
canoes, from the fibrous coatings of the cocoa-nuts. They
likewife make another fort of cordage, which is flat, and
exceedingly ftrong, and which is ufed principally in lafhing
the roofing of their houfes, and whatever they wifh to fatten
tight together. The gourds, which grow to an immenfe
fize, fo as to be capable of containing from ten to twelve

allons, are applied to every kind of domettic purpofes.
Thefe they have of different forms, and they have a method
of fcoring them witha heated inftrument, fo as to give them
the appearance of being painted ina variety of neat and ele-
gant defigns. Amongtt their arts we may alfo mention their
manufacture of falt, which they produce of a good quality,
andin great abundance. Their falt-pans are made of earth,
lined with clay ; being generally fix or eight feet {quare, and
about eight inches deep. ‘Thefe are raifed upon a bank of
ftones near the high-water mark, from whence the falt-
water is conduéted to the foot of them, in {mall trenches,
out of which they are filled, and the brine quickly performs
the neceffary procefs of evaporation.

Their inftruments of war are fpears, daggers, called pa-
hooas, clubs, and flings.

The people of thefe iflands are manifeftly divided into three
clafles: the firft are the erees, or chiefs of each diltri& ; one of
whom is fuperior to the reft, and is called at Owhyhee, erce-
taboo, and eree-moece: the fecond clafs confifts of thofe who
appear to enjoy a right of property, without authority : the
third are the ¢ew-tows, or fervants, who have neither rank nor
property. The power of the erees over the inferior claffes
of people appears to be very abfolute: and the people
pay them the moft implicit obedience ; and this ftate of
fervility has a great effe€&t in debafing both their minds and
bodies. Neverthelefs, the chiefs were not chargeable with
any atts of ‘cruelty or injuftice, or even of infolent behaviour,
towards them. Although it is not {tated how far the pro-
perty of the lower clafs is fecured againft the rapacity and
defpotifm of the great chiefs, it fhould feem, that it is fuf-
ficiently proteéted again{t private theft, or mutual depreda-
tion. For not only their plantations, which are {pread over
the whole country, but alfo their houfes, their hogs, and
their cloth, were left unguarded without the Phigiielf spire:
henfions. This haesira a ftrongly indicates, that the
power of the chiefs, where property is concerned, is not ar-
bitrary : or at leaft, that it is fo far circumfcribed and afcer-
tained, as to make it the intereft of the inferior orders to
cultivate the foil, and to occupy their pofleffions diftinét from
each other. It is pretty clear that the government is here-
ditary ; which alfo makes it very probable, that the inferior
titles and property itfelf defcend in the fame courfe.

6

‘cert with their fingers.

The religion of thefe people refembles, in moft of its princi-
pal features, that of the Society and Friendly iflands. Their
morais, their whattas, their idols, their facrifices, and their
facred fongs, all of which they have in common with each
other, are convincing proofs that their religious notions are
derived from the fame fource. In all thefe countries there is
a certain clafs of men to whofe care the performance of their
religious rites is committed. The head of this order, or
fociety of priefts, is called «* Orono,” a title which feems to
imply fomething highly facred, and which, in the perfon of
Omeeah, was honoured almoft to adoration. It is probable
that the privilege of entering into this order, or at leait to
its principal offices, is limited to certain families. The'title
of « Orono” was given to Capt. Cook ; and it is certain
that onr voyagers were regarded by the natives, generally,
as arace of people fuperior to themfelves ; and they ufed
often to fay, that great “‘ Eatooa’’ dwelled in our country.
They have a number of images, both on the morais, and
within and without their houfes, to which they give different
names; but they were held in no high eftimation. But
amongft thefe fome particular figure was more favoured
than others, and to this their adoration was addrefled. This
confifted in arraying it in red cloth; beating their drums,

and finging hymns before it ; laying’ bunches of red feathers, ©

and different forts of vegetables, at its feet ; and expofing
a pig, or a dog, to rot on the whatta that ttood near it.
They likewife give a place in their houfes to many ludicrous
and fome obfcene idols, like the Priapus of the ancients.
It has been remarked, that both among the Society and
Friendly iflanders, an adoration is paid to particular birds,
and the fame cuitom is faid to prevail here. The raven
is thought to be the obje@ of it. Two of thefe birds
were feen at a village, which were faid to be “ Eatooas,”’
and caution was given, not to hurt or offend them. Among
the religious ceremonies pra¢tifed by thefe people, we may
reckon the prayers and offerings made by the priefts before
their meals. On fuch occafions, and alfo when they drink
ava between their meals, they join ina fort of hymn, moving
their bodies, and ftriking their hands gently together, in con-
Lifianfky gives an account of a reli-
gious feé& in the Sandwich iflands, the members of which arro-

gate to themfelves the power of praying people to death. -

Whoever incurs their difpleafure, receives notice that the ho-
micide litany is about to begin ; and fuch are the effeé&ts of
imagination, that the very notice is frequently fufficient with
thefe poor people to preduce the effec, or to drive them to
ats of fuicide. Human facrifices are more frequent here,
(according to the account of the natives themfelves, ) than in
any other iflands we vifited; thefe horrid rites are not only
had recourfe to upon the commencement of war, and pre-
ceding pret battles, and other fignal enterprizes, but the
death of any confiderable chief calls for a acrifice of one
or more tow-tows, according to his rank. To this clafs of
their cuftoms may alfo be referred that of knocking out
their fore-teeth. Scarcely any of the lower people, and
very few of the chiefs, were feen, who had not loit one or
more of them ; and our voyagers underftood, that this vo-
luntary punifhment, like the cutting off of the joints of
the finger at the Friendly iflands, was not infli€ted on them-
felves from the violence of grief, on the death of their
friends, but was defigned as a propitiatory facrifice to the
« Eatooa,” to avert apy danger or mifchief to which they
might be expofed. “
Little could be known with regard to their notions of a
future {tate. When they were afked whither the dead were
gone? the anfwer Was, that the breath, which they feemed
to confider as the foul, or immortal part, was gone 4
the

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the “« Eatooa;” and on repeating and urging the enquiry,

they feemed to deferibe fome particular place, which they

fuppofed'to be the abode of the deceafed; but it did not

appear as if they thought that, in this ftate, either rewards
unifhments awaited them. .

As to their marriages, we have little to fay, except that
fucha relation or compact exifts among them. In noticing
their domeftic concerns, it was found that the houfe feemed to
be under the direGtion of one man and woman, and the chil-
dren in the like ftate of fubordination as in civilized countries.

With regard to their funeral rites, we are informed, that
on the death of an old chief, a number of people affem-
bled, and feated themfelves round a {quare area, fronting
the houfe in which the deceafed lay ; whilft a man, in a red
feathered cap, advanced from an interior part of the’houfe
to the door, and putting out his head, at almoft every
moment uttered a moft lamentable howl, accompanied with
the moft fingular grimaces and violent diftortions of his
face that can be conceived. After this ceremony, a large
mat was fpread upon the area, and two men and thirteen
women came out of the houfe and fat upon it, in three equal
rows; the two men and three of the women being in the
front. The necks and hands of the women were decorated
with feathered ruffs ; and broad green leaves, curioufly {col-
loped, were fpread over their fhoulders. At one corner of
the area, near a {mall hut, appeared fix boys, wearing fmall
white banners, and tufted wands, or faboo-ttrikes (fee Ta-
B00); who would not permit our voyagers to approach
them. The dead body, apprehended to be in this hut, {till
remained in the houfe where the man in the red cap opened
the funeral rites. The company, feated on the mat, began
to fing a melancholy tune, accompanied with a gentle and
flow motion of the body and arms. They then raifed
themfelves on their knees, and in a pofture between kneel-
ing and fitting, moved their bodies and arms very rapidly,
the tune keeping pace with their motions. After this per-
formance had latted an hour, with flower movements at in-
tervals, more mats were fpread upon the area, and four or
five elderly women, one of whom was the wife of the deceafed
chief, advanced flowly out of the houfe, and being feated
in the front of the firft company, begantocry and wail moft
bitterly ; the women behind them joining in thefe lamenta-
tions, and the two men inclining their heads over them in a
very melancholy ard penfive attitude. In this fituation they
continued till night ; when the corpfe was removed during the
abfence of Capt. King; nor could he learn in the morning
how it had been difpofed of. Three women of rank,
however, informed him, that ‘the prefence of ftrangers
hindered them from performing fome neceflary rites.
Scarcely had he gone out of fight, before he heard their
cries and lamentations ; and meeting them a few hours after-
wards, he found that they had painted the lower part of
their faces perfeétly black.

The chiefs are interred in the morais, or heree-crees, with
the men facrtficed on the occafion by the fide of them.

In Turnbull’s Voyage round the World in the years
1800, 1, 2, 3, 4, we are told, that the Sandwich iflanders
form, in almoft every refpeét, a ftriking contraft to the
Otaheiteans. Without entering into the Setails of this dif-
ference, we fhall only obferve, that the intercourfe with
Europeans has freatly 7 rapidly advanced them in civili-

. zation. Inftead of miffionaries, who teach them little,
wad from their own want of comprehenfion, and partly
the “ogee of their inftru€tors—or conviéts and de-
ferters, who teach them every bad leffon—the natives of
Owhyhee have had American traders refiding among them
for fourteen years ; and they have had all the Benefits which

. on the north coalt o

SAN

are frequently conferred on rifing communities by the ap-
pearance of one of thofe great men, who go before their
age, and lead, rather than force onward, the progrefs of
fociety ; the name of this fingular perfon is Tamahama ;
and our author’s account of him is by much the mott in-
terefting part of his work. We have not room for a long
extraG@ ; but we conceive, that the infertion of the follow-
ing paflage will convey a more diftin€& idea of the progrefs
made in civility by thofe iflanders, and of the character of
this extraordinary perfon, than the moft elaborate ab-
ftra&.

«His palace is built after the European ftyle, of brick,
and glazed windows, having European and American arti-
ficers about him of almoft every defcription. Indeed his
own fubje&ts, from their intercourfe with Europeans, have
acquired a great knowledge of feveral of the mechanical
arts, and have thus enabled him to increafe his navy, a very
favourite objet with him. I have no doubt that, in avery
few years, he will ere&t amongft thefe iflands a power very
far from defpicable.

«© The circumftances of this enterprifing chief were
greatly changed fince the vilit of Capt. Vancouver, to
whom, as tosthe fervant and reprefentative of the king of
Great Britain, with much formality and ceremony, he had
made a conveyance of the fovereignty of Owhyhee, in the
hopes of being thus more ftrongly confirmed in his authority,
and fupplied with the means of refiiting his enemies.

«His dominion feems now to be completely eftablifhed.
He is not only a great warrior and politician, but a very
acute trader, and a match for any European in driving a
bargain. He is well acquainted with the different weights
and meafures, and the value which all articles ought to bear
in exchange with each other ; and is ever ready to take the
advantage of the neceflity of thofe who apply to him or his
people ae fupplies.

“‘ His fubje@s have already made confiderable progrefs in
civilization; but are held in the moft abjeé fubmiffion, as
Tamahama is inflexible in punifhing all offences which feem
to counteraét his fupreme command.

« Tt was only in 1792 that Capt. Vancouver laid down
the keel of Tamahama’s firft veffel, or rather craft ; but fo
afliduoufly has he applied himfelf to effe& his grand and
favourite objeét, the eftablifhment of a naval force, that, at
the period of our arrival, he had upwards of twenty veflels
of different fizes, from twenty-five to fifty tons; fome of
them were even copper-bottomed.’? N. lat. 21° 30 to
22° 15!. E. long. 199° 20! to 201° 30!.. See Cook’s ‘Third
Voyage, vol. ii. and vol. iii.

ANDWIcH Land, a name given by captain Cook to the
mott foutherly land difcovered in the South Atlantic ocean ;
otherwife called «* Southern Thule.”? S. lat. 59° 30.

SANDWICK. See Srromness.—Alfo, a town of the
ifland of Pomona, on the welt fide. N. lat. 58° 53’. W.
long. 5° 8’. — Alfo, a {mall ifland near the welt coaft of
Yell. N. lat. 60°55’. W. long. 1° 30!.

SAND-WO RT, in Botany. See ARENARIA.

SANDWYCK, in Geography, a town of Norway, in
the province of Chriftiania; 24 miles S.S.W. of Chrittiania.
—Alfo, a town of Norway, in the province of Drontheim ;
56 miles N.N.E. of Romfdal.

SANDY, a town of Hindooftan, in’ Oude; 45 miles

-§.W, of Kairabad. N. lat. 27°17!. E. long. 81° 22!

Sanpy Bay, a bay in the ftraits of Magellan. 8. lat.
53° 10. W. long. 72° 13'.—Alfo, a bay on the wet coaft
0 Newfoundland; 3 miles S. of Point Rich. —Alfo, a bay
fre ifland of St. Chriltopher’s; 1 mile
E.S.E. of Diep town,—Alfo, a bay on the north-eaft wore

oO

SAN

of New Zealand, between North Cape and Knuckle Point.
—Alfo, a bay on the north-eaft coaft of lake Ontario.—
Alfo, a bay, called « Little Sandy bay,’’ on lake Ontario,
between Sophiafburgh and Maryburgh, fupplied by the
eaft lake, lying alfo between thefe townfhips, in the county
of Prince Edward.—Alfo, a bay at the eait end of Jamaica,
S. of Mulatto river, and 6 miles N. of Manchaneel harbour.
—Alfo, a bay at the north-weit extremity of the fame
ifland, weft of Stoddard bay, and eaft of Green ifland.
Little Sandy bay, on the S.E. part of the ifland, is about a
league W. of point Morant. Sandy Cages lie off the en-
trance of Port Royal Harbour.

Sanpy Cape, a cape of New Holland, fo called by Cook
from two very large patches of white fand which lay upon
it. It is high enough to be feen at the diftance of 12 leagues,
in clear weather, and lies in lat. 24° 25', long. 206° 51’.

Sanpy Cove, a bay on the coaft of Maffachufetts, N. of
Cape Ann, lying between two head-lands. N. lat. 42° 45/.
W. long. 70° 30'. 4

Sanpy Cree#, a river of America, which runs into the
Ohio, N. lat. 38° 44’. W. long. 81° 55'!.—Alfo, a river of
South Carolina, which runs into the Cangaree, N. lat. 34°
37’. W. long. 81° 4o!. .

Sanpy Defart, Great, a defart of Perfia, which is
reckoned to extend from the banks of the Haermund to the
gers range of mountains, which feparates the fouthern
rom the northern divifion of Mekran, a diftance of 400
or 450 miles; and from the town of Noofhky to that of
Jafk (ancient Gedrofia), a diftance of rather more than
200 miles. The fand of this defart is of a reddifh colour,
and fo light, that the particles, when taken in the hand, are
{earcely palpable. It is raifed by the wind into longitudinal
waves, which prefent, on the fide towards the point from
which the wind blows, a gradual flope from the bafe; and
on the other fide, they rife perpendicularly to the height of
Io or 20 feet, and appear at a diftance like a new brick
wall. The camels, having afcended the flope fide, which
they did with greater eafe than they could mount the
perpendicular fide, as foon as they perceived the top of the
wave giving way with their weight, moft expertly dropped
on their knees, and in that manner defcended with the fand,
which was fo loofe, that the firft camel made a path fuffi-
cient for the others to follow. This impediment was trifling,
however, compared to that which travellers experience from
floating or moving particles of fand.

Arrian, {peaking of the march of Alexander through
Gedrofia, fays, that every beaft of burden belonging to the
army was nearly {mothered in deep fcorching fand, and that
they found many little tumuli, or hillocks of fand, which
they were obliged to afcend; and where no firm footing
could be had, they funk deep into it, as they would into
clay, or newly fallen fnow.

The defart feems, at the diftance of half a mile, to be a
flat furface, about eight or ten inches above the level of the
waves, This cloud or vapour appears con{tantly to recede
as the travellers advance, and at times completely envelopes
them, filling their eyes, ears, and mouths, and caufing a
molt difagreeable fenfation, It is produétive of great irrf-
tation and fevere thirft, not a little increafed by the feorch-
ing rayaof the fun. The ground is fo hot as to blifter the
feet, even through the fhoess and the natives affirm, that it
is the violent heat which occafions the fand to move through
the atmofphere, ‘The phenomenon now defcribed is only
feen during the heat of the day. The * fahrah,’’ (i. ¢, the
water of the defart,) or watery appearance, fo common in
all defarts, and the moving (ase are feen at the fame time,
and appear to be perfectly diltin® ; the one having a lu-

‘of the ifland of Tobago, N, lat. 14° 6’, W. Jong. 6°

SAN

minous, and the other a cloudy appearance. ‘The wind in
this defart is diftinguifhed, throughout the Eait, by the
term of the « hade fumoom,”’ or peftilential wind. - It has
been known to deftroy even camels, and other hardy ani-
mals ; and its effeéts on the human frame are {aid to be the.
mott dreadful that can poffibly be conceived. In {ome in-
{tances it kills inftantaneoufly ; but in others, the wretched
fufferer lingers for hours, or even days, in the moft éxcru-
ciating torture. Kinneir’s Perf. Emp. ove

Sanpy Harbour, a port on the fouth-eaft point of the.
ifland of St. Lucia, where a {mall river runs into the

ocean. ty»

Sanpy Hall Bay, a bay on the north-eaft coaft of the
ifland of St. Chriftopher, a little to the weftward of Wind-
ward Point.

Sanpy Hill, a {mall villaze of America, in New York,
in the townfhip of Kingfbury, z miles N. of Fort Edward,
on a high hill that overlooks Hudfon’s river from the eaft,
in which is a polt-office ; 454 miles from Wafhington.

Sanpy Hill Point, a cape on the north coaft of the ifland
of Barbadoes.

Sanpy Hook, a {mall ifland near the coalt of New
Jerley, formerly a peninfula; but in 1777 and 1778 the fea
broke through the ifthmus, and formed it into an ifland ;
7,miles S. of Long ifland. Sandy Hook or Point forms a
capacious harbour. The light-houfe on the north point of
the Hook lies in N. lat. 40° 30’. W. long. 74° 2’. When
America was firft difcovered, few or no cod-fifh were found
fouth of the banks of Newfoundland and Sable ifland.
About 40 years ago they were difcovered off Sandy Hook,
and ever fince they have become more plentiful on the fihhng
grounds off the Neverfink, in fix, feven, and eight fathoms
water. ,

Sanvy Jnlet, a channel between two fmall iflands near the
coalt of North Carolina. N. lat. 34° 20!.

Sanpy J/land, one of the {maller weitern iflands of Scot-
land. N. lat. 57° 2’. W. long. 6° 27’.—Alfo, an ifland in
the Eaft Indian fea. N. lat. 10° go’. E. long. 112° 48’,—
Alfo, a {mall ifland near the coaft of Antigua. N. lat, 17°
4!. W. long. 67° 37'.—Alfo, a {mall ifland near the fouth,
coaft of Antigua, one mile S. of Willoughby.—Alfo, a
{mall ifland in the Spanifh main, near the Motanto fhore.
N. lat. 14° 37’. W. long. 82° 10!.—Alfo, a {mall ifland in
the Indian fea, near the coaft of Africa. §S, lat. 16° 40!.
—Alfo, a {mall ifland in the Chinefe fea, near the coaft of
Cochinchina. N, lat. 12° 28’. E. long. 109° 12!-—Alfo,
a {mall ifland near the weft coait of Sumatra. S. lat. 1° 50’,
E. long. 100° 18'..—Alfo, two {mall iflands in the Chinefe
fea. _N, lat. 10° 45’. E. long. 116° 40’. :

Sanpy Key, two rocky iflets near the fouth coaft of
Cuba. Onein N. lat. 21° 20’. W. long. 82° 5’; and the
other in N, lat. 21°25’. W. long. 81° 25',

Sanpy Lick, a river of Pennfylyania, which runs inte
the Allegany, N. lat. 41°. .W. long. 79° 32’.

Sanpy Point, a cape in the {traits of Magellan, S, lat.
53° 10'.—Alfo, a cape of Welt Florida, on the north part
of St. Rofa bay.—Alfo, a town on the fouth-welt coatt of
the ifland of St. Chriftopher. N, lat, 17° 27!, W, long.
62° 45'—Alfo, a cape on the north point of Nantucket
ifand: N. lat. 41° 22'. W, long. 69°,—Alfo, a tawn on
the north-welt coalt of the ifland t, Chriitopher, It is
a port of entry, and is defended by Charles fort, and Brim-
{tone hill, both near the tewn.—Alfo, the fouth-eaft ex-
tremity of the {tate of Maflachufetts, N. lat. ¢r° 4o', We
long. 69° 55'.—Alfo, a cape on the fouth-eaft coalt of the
Chiampa, N, lat. 10° 57’, E. long. 108°.—Alfo, a cape

Kis

SAN

—Alfo, the fouth-eaft extremity of the ifland of St. Lucia.
-—Alfo, the fouth-eaft extremity of Antigua. _

Sanpy River, a river of Canada, which runs into lake
Superior, 30 miles S. of Cape Chaillons.—Alfo, a river
which runs into the fame lake, N. lat. 47° 20'. W. long.
84° 55'—Alfo, a river of the province of Maine, which
rifes im Cumberland county, and, purfuing a north-eaft
courfe, runs into the Kennebeck, at the north-weit corner
of the townfhip of Starks.—Alfo, a river of America,
which rifes in the Great Laurel mountains, from two
fprings called the <<‘ eaftern and weftern branches,’’ which
unite at Balclutha. The eaftern branch feparates Ken-
tucky from Virginia, as does the main ftream, which runs
into the Ohio, N. lat. 38° 8’. W. long. 82° 35’.

Sanpy Lands, in Agriculture, thofe forts of land which
are in a great meafure conftituted of fome kind of fandy
materials. Grounds of this nature are met with in large
quantities in many parts of this country. See Sanp-Lands
and Soin.

Thefe forts of land have commonly a much larger pro-
portion of earthy materials in their compofition, than thofe
which are denominated fand-lands by farmers. The great
mifchief.of all thefe kinds of lands is, however, that of
letting the moifture run or drain through them too quickly,
whereby they are liable to become dry and parched up.
This.may, however, be in fome meafure obviated by judi-
cious manuring with fubftances of the clayey, loamy, and
ftiff muddy defcriptions. The exa& nature of them fhould
always be well afcertained, before any calcareous matters
are applied to them, as they may often contain them ina
fufficient quantity. Thefe forts of lands are likewife capable
of being wrought at all feafons, and with more convenience
and lefs expence than moft other kinds. In laying out
fandy lands, the inclofures fhould be fmaller than thofe in
other defcriptionsf foil. Hedges will here alfo be rather
beneficial than injurious.

Sanpy Marle, that fort in which the clayey part con-
tains an excefs of fand. When treated with acids, the
refidaum or clayey parts is found to ‘contain more than
meahensved weight of fand; of courfe chalk and fand are
the two prevalent ingredients. In colour it is brownifh-
grey, or of a lead-colour. It is moftly of a friable and
flaky nature, but occafionally forms very hard lumps. It
feldom falls readily to pieces in water; but it chips and
moulders away, by free expofure to the influence of the at-
mofphere and moiiture, though in but a flow and gradual
manner. It eflervefces with acids; but the refiduum, after
folution, is not capable of forming a brick.

Sanpy Soil, that which is of a fandy nature.
and Soin.

ig el in Geography, the northern extremity
of the ifland of Rum. _N. lat. 57° 3'. W. long. 6° 18!.

SANDYS, or, as it is fometimes f{pelt, Sanpes, Epwin,
in Bingroph , a learned prelate of the church of England,
fon of William Sandys, efq., a magiftrate in the county of
Lancafter, was born in the year 1519. He received his
academical education at St. John’s college, Cambridge,
where he was admitted to the degree of B.A. in 1539, and
to that of M.A. in 1541. In the following year he filled
the office of junior protor of the univerfity.. In 1547 he

to the degree of B.D., and was foon after cleéted
matter of Catharine-Hall. In 1548 he was vicar of Ha-
verfham; and in 1549 he was prefented with a prebend in
the church of Peterborough, and took his degree of D.D.
In 1552 he was nominated by king Edward to a prebend in
the cathedral church of Carlifle ; and at the death of that
monarch in the following year, he was vice-chancellor of

See Sanp

‘taining her right and title to the crown.

SAN

the univerfity of Cambridge. On this event Dr. Sandys,
who had been zealoufly affe€ted towards the Proteftant re-
ligion, took a zealous part in raifing lady Jane Grey to the
throne. He preached a fermon before the univerfity, main-
He was defired
by the duke of Northumberland and others, who heard it,
and at whofe defire it was preached, to print it, with which
he readily complied; before, however, it could be written
out, a change took place, which his friends thought re-
quired him to feek his fafety by flight. But while others
either fled, or readily abandoned their principles, he refufed
either alternative; and when he was defired to proclaim
queen Mary in the market-place at Cambridge, he faid it
was fo contrary to the opinions lately maintained by him in
the pulpit, that he would not confent to a& fo incon-
fiftently ; the confequence of which was, that he was im-
mediately {tripped of his preferments, and it was refolved
that he fhould be committed to the Tower. Of this refolu-
tion he was informed by Mr. Thomas Mildmay, one of the
duke of Northumberland’s party, who faid, he was fur-
prifed that a learned man like Dr. Sandys could have fpoken
fo unadvifedly, and ftill more, that he would not turn with
the ftream: to which the worthy doétor replied; ‘ I have
not yet learned to change without convi¢tion, and fhall not
be afhamed of bonds. But if I could a@ as Mr. Mildmay
aéts, I need fear no bonds; for you came down againtt
queen Mary, and armed in the field, and now return for
queen Mary ;—before a traitor, and now a zealous friend.
I cannot with one mouth blow hot and cold after this fort.’’
He was accordingly immured within the walls of the Tower
feven months, and was then releafed from that prifon, and
fent to the Marfhalfea, It was while he was in this fitua-
tion that Wyatt came at the head of his infurgents to South-
wark, who invited Dr. Saadys to join him with his com-
pany and counfel; but this he declined. Having been
about two months in the Marfhalfea, he obtained his liberty ;
but was nearly committed a fecond time, through the zeal
of Gardiner, who was informed that Dr. Sandys was one of
the greateft heretics in England, and one of the principal
corrupters of the univerfity. The doctor was apprifed of
the intentions of his enemies, and went to Antwerp, where
he arrived in the month of May 1554: from thence he was
obliged to fet off to Augfburg, to-avoid the perfecution of
king Philip, who had given orders to apprehend him where-
ever he might be found in the territories over which he had
any influence. At Strafburg he was joined by his wife,
whom he fhortly after loft by a decline, as he did a child by
the plague. Towards the end of 1558 he went to Zurich,
where he refided feveral weeks in the houfe of Peter Martyr,
with whom he ever afterwards maintained a friendly corre-
{pondence. Upon the death of the queen he returned to
Strafburg, and from thence he came to England, where he
arrived in January 1558-9. In the following March queen
Elizabeth appointed him one of the nine Proteftant divines,
who were to hold a difputation with an equal number of
the Popifh clergy, before both houfes of parliament, at
Winchefter. e was alfo chofen one of the commiflioners
who were feleéted to prepare a new liturgy, and to de-
liberate on other matters for the reformation of the church.
In 1559 he was nominated to the bifhopric of Carlifle, which
he thought proper to decline; but accepted of that of
Worcefter, and was confecrated on the 21{t of December.
At this period Dr. Sandys was decidedly averfe from the
ule of Popith habits; but finding the queen a great flickler
for thefe, and for certain images, he fibmitted rather than
lofe her majefty’s favour, and his own high preferment.
On the bifhop’s ‘firlt vifitation in 1560, he was a soa

evera

SAN

feveral of the priefts indulged themfelves in licentrous prac-
tices, which was generally {candalous to good morals, that
he took occafion, in a fermon which he preached at the
cathedral, to fhew how neceflary it was that priefts fhould
be allowed to marry. When, about the year 1565, it was
determined that a new tranflation of the bible fhould be
made, Dr. Sandys, on account of his great fkill in the
original languages, was one of the bifhops who were ap-
pointed to undertake that work; and he had allotted to
him the firft and fecond books of Kings, aad the firft and
fecond books of Chronicles. In the year 1570, upon the
tranflation of Grindal from the bifhopric of London to the
archbifhopric of York, Dr. Sandys was appointed by the
queen to the vacant fee, which he feemed at firft defirous
of declining, but which at length he accepted. In 1571
he was ordered by the queen to affift the archbifhop of
Canterbury in the ecclefiaftical commiflion againft the Papifts
and Puritans, the duties of which office he performed with
oo age He charged the Puritans particularly with
edition ; and becaufe they fteadily juftified themfelves, he
called upon his coadjutors to agree to their banifhment from
the city of London. He alfo laid claim to be fuperin-
tendant of the Dutch church in London, which occafioned
fome uneafinefs between him and the congregation. In
1576 he was tranflated to the archbifhopric of York, which
involved him in fome ferious difputes refpe€ting the tem-
poralities of the fee, and in others with his fucceffor, the
new bifhop of London, concerning the rents and dilapida-
tions. In 1577 archbifhop Sandys refolved to vifit his
whole province, in order, if poffible, to put an end to all
nonconformity. In purfuance of this refolution, he pro-
ceeded in the firft inftance to Durham, where the dean, Dr.
Whittingham, was the principal perfon under the bifhop,
who had a fecret and {trong inclination to Puritan principles,
and who had not been ordained according to the form of the
Englifh fervice book. Accufations were preferred againft
him ; but inftead of anfwering them, he claimed his privi-
leges, and infifted on the rights of the church of Durham:
he even denied the aftibilhop*s power in vifitation, upon
which the archbifhop, without hefitation, excommunicated
him. Dr. Whittingham appealed to the queen, who ap-
pointed a commiffion to inquire into the merits of the cafe.
Of this commiffion the prefident and another of the mem-
bers were friendly to the Puritans, fo that Whittingham
efcaped without cenfure. The archbifhop was not at all
fatisfied that the matter fhould thus have terminated, and he
made fome other attempts to harafs the obje& of his enmity,
which created againft the prelate a great degree of odium.
His eagernefs alfo to find out Papifts, and prevent their perni-
cious defigns, rendered him very obnoxious to perfons of
that communion. His life was thus rendered a fcene of
perpetual contention and warfare, in which he had of courfe
numerous enemies, by whom many attempts were made to
ruin his reputation and intereft. One fcheme, which was
planned with this view, is thus related. In May 1582 he
flept at an inn in Doncalter, where, through the contrivance
of fir Robert Stapleton and other perfons, his enemies, the
innkeeper’s wife was, in the middle of the night, and while
he was afleep, conveyed into his bed. At the fame moment,
and according to a preconcerted plan, the hufband rufhed
into the room with a drawn dagger, threatening to avenge
an injury which he pretended to have fuftained. By the
difturbance, fir Robert Stapleton was fuppofed to have
been awaked, and coming into the room, and feeming to
give credit to the charge, advifed the prelate to fatisfy the
innkeeper rather than fuffer fuch a report to be noifed
abroad. The archbifhop protefted his innocence. Ad-

SAN

mitting the fa&t, faid the cunning Stapleton, ftill the credit
of religion requires that the fufpicion fhould not for a mo-
ment get abroad. The archbifhop unwarily followed the
advice, and was accordingly laid under heavy contributions
fora confiderable time. At length he, by fome means,
difcovered the hypocrify of Stapleton, and brought the af-
fair into the {tar-chamber ; and after a full examination of
the bufinefs, he was declared innocent, and fir Robert,
with his accomplices, were fentenced to an imprifonment
and heavy fines. He died, after a life of toil and trouble,
in July 1588, in the 6gth year of his age. Several Letters,
and other papers written by him, are inferted in Strype’s
* Annals,” in his * Life of Archbifhop Whitgift,” and in
Burnet’s “ Hiftory of the Reformation.’’ Inthe year 1616,
twenty-two of his difcourfes were colle&ted together, and
printed in a {mall»quarto, under the title of « Sermons of
the Moft Rev. Father in God, Edwin, Archbifhop ‘of
York.” - :

Sanpys, GeorGg, a traveller and poet, born in 1577,
was the youngeft fon of the preceding. He was educated
at Oxford, and in 1610 fet out on his travels, which, after
he-had vifited the principal parts of Europe, he extended to
Greece, Turkey, Paleftine, and Egypt. On his return,
he employed himfelf in digefting the obfervations which he
had made, and which he publifhed in 1615, in a folio vo-
lume. His defcriptions chiefly relate to the Eaftern coun-
tries, and to Italy. The book was extremely popular for
fome confiderable time after it was publifhed.. In 1673 it
had’ reached to the feventh edition. The author next dif-
tinguifhed himfelf as a poet. He died in 1643. He was
regarded as an accomplifhed gentleman, as well as a man of
great worth, learning, and ability. His chief works, asa
poet, are ‘¢ Ovid’s Metamorphofes englifhed, mythologized,
and reprefented in Figures ;”” to which was fubjoined, “ An
Effay to the Tranflation of the ZEneis.’?» In 1636 he pub-
lifhed ** A Paraphrafe on the Pfalms of David, and upon
the Hymns difperfed throughout the Old and New Tetta-
ment.”? In 1640 he publifhed ‘ Chrift’s Paffion,”” a tranf-
lation of Grotius’s facred drama, ‘ Chriftus Patiens.’”
He was thought by Dryden and Pope to have contributed
very much to the improvement of Englifh poetry. He
paffed the latter years of his life chiefly with fir Francis
Wyatt of Bexley, in Kent, He was intimately acquainted
with the excellent lord Falkland, who addreffed fome poems
to him, which are printed in Nichols’s “ Sele& Selec-
tions.”” .

SANDYSTON, in Geography, a townfhip of America, in
Suflex county, New Jerfey, on Delaware river, at the foot
of the Blue mountains, about 11 miles above Walpack, and
at the fame diftance N.W. of Newton. It contains 703
inhabitants. .

SANDYX, a kind of minium, made of cerufle, or rather
lead, calcined and rubefied ; called alfo faditious fandarach.

It is of little ufe in painting ; the real minium, or red lead,
to which it is fubftituted, making a much better, brighter,
and more durable colour. :

Though the generality of authors have taken this to be
only a name for the fine red colour, fome have plainly ufed
it Bi a blueifh-green. .

Strabo tells us, that the colour ufed by painters in his
time, and called .armenium piforium, was of ablueifh-
colour, and that it was called /andycis metallum by tome.
Thus the word zarnich was made to exprefs the fame two
things with the addition of the yellow orpiment ; and Avi-
cenna deferibes them altogether, telling us, that zarnich is
yellow, red, or green. The two firft of thefe colours ‘are
natural to zarnich, as the name of orpiment; and paps

in

EE

SAN

indeed, a greenifh zarnich now alfo known in the world, but
that was unknown in his time; and we find that he meant
the apis armenus by the green zarnich.

SANE, in Anctent Geography, a town of Thrace, in the
Acanthian ifthmus, or on mount Athos, near.the canal
formed by Xerxes, according to Herodotus. Thucydides
fays, that it was a colony of the ifle of Andros, and that it
was on the Singitic gulf on the coatt of the fea which com-
mands the ifle of Eubcea.

Sane Memory, i. e. perfeét and found memory to do any
lawful a&. : s

SANEMKIAN, ‘in Geography, a town of Perfia, in
Farfiftan ; 40 miles S. of Schiras.

SANEN, Sawa, or Sarne, ariver of Switzerland, which
rifes in the mountains between the canton of Berne and the
Valais, andruns into the Aar, 7 miles W. of Berne.

Sanen, Samen, or Geffenay. See SAMEN-

SANENSIS Civiras, in Ancient Gesgraphy, a town of
Afia Minor, in Phrygia.

SANETSCH, in Geography, 2 mountain of Switzerland,
between the canton of Berne and the Valais, N. of Sion.

SANF, or Sar, in Raral Economy, a provincial term
applied to the willow, or fallow, in fome places.

SANFORD, in Geography, a poft-town of America, in
York county and ftate of Maine, having 1492 inhabitants.
Moufom river paffes through Sanford and Great Works,
which is a north-eafterly branch of Pifcataqua, that has its
fource here, and paffes into Berwick.—Alo, a townfhip of
gi county, New York; 50 miles N.N.E. of New
York.

SANFRO, atown of France, in the department of the
Tanaro; 7 miles S.E. of Carmagnola.

SANFY, in Agriculture, a provincial term fignifying
wet, as land in a rainy feafon; foft pulpy ground unfit for
being wrought. ‘

SANGA, in Geography, a town of Japan, at the lower
end of the bay of Ximabara, in the ifland of Ximo, regularly
built, with ftraight ftreets, and defended by a citadel; 40
miles N.E. of Nagafaki. N.Jlat. 32° 44!. E. long. 130° 44/.

SANGAAR, Straits of, a narrow channel of the Pacific
ocean, between the ifland of Jeflo and Japan.

SANGADA, in Ancient Geography, a maritime country
of India, W. of the mouths of the Indus.

SANGALA, an ifland of India, towards the origin of
the river Indus; called Sagala by Ptolemy. .

SANGALIA, or Eurnypemia, a town of India, on
this fide of the Ganges, between the rivers Hydraous and
Hyphafis, towards 30 degrees and fome minutes of latitude.

SANGALLAN, called Congallan by Britith feamen,
in Geography, a {mall ifland and cape in the Pacific ocean,
on the coaft of Peru, N.N.W. of the ifland of Labos, and
three miles N.W. of Carette ifland: on the fouth fide of the
cape is a very good harbour, frequented by coating veflels
from Lima and Panama. S. lat. 13° 45!. Off this cape
the weather is very ftormy.

SAN-GALLO, Antonio pe, in Biography, a ccle-
brated architeét, was born in the 15th century, in the terri-
tory of Florence. His father, Renate Picconi, was a
cooper by trade, and Antonio was brought up to the bufinefs
of a joiner. Having, however, two uncles, Giuliano and
Antonie San-Gallo, architeéts of confiderable reputation
at Rome, he placed himfelf under their tuition, and aflumed
their name. He foon exhibited confiderable talents, and
his progrefs in the art made him known to Bramante, who,
in 1512, entrufted to him the execution of feveral works.
He foon obtained employment from fome cardinals ; and in
the pontificate of Leo X., when his uncle Giuliano quitted
Rome, he was appointed his fucceflor as archite&t of St.

Vor, XXXII.

SAN

Peter’s, in conjun@tion with Raphael. He alfo manifefted
great fkill as an engineer, and Leo adopted a plan which he
gave for the fortification of Civita Vecchia. Under Cle-
ment VII. he was employed in enlarging and embellifhing
the Vatican palace, and in repairing the fortifications of
Parma and Placentia. He is alfo celebrated for the con-
ftru€tion of a remarkable well at Orvietto, which had two
{taircafes for the defcent and afcent of beafts of burden.

. He enjoyed the favour of Paul III., who employed him in

many important works as architeét and engineer ; and when
Charles V. vifited Rome after his Tunifian expedition, San-
Gallo had the planning of the triumphal decorations with
which he was received. The Pauline chapel, and the mag-
nificent ftaircafes by which the chapels of the Vatican com-
municate with St. Peter’s, were of his conftru€tion. The
grandeft effort of his genius was a wooden model of St.
Peter’s, which, however, was not clofely followed. As he
was noted for the folidity of his building, he was employed
in ftrengthening the foundations of the Vatican, and of the
great columns which fupport the cupola of St. Peter’s.
Being engaged by the pope to furvey the inundations of
the lake of Marmora, the heat and the exhalations from the
foul water caufed a difeafe, of which he died in the year
1546. Gen. Biog. ‘
-SANGAM, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the Carnatic, on the Pennar; 24 miles W.N.W. of Nellore.
—Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in Dowlatabad, on the
right bank of the Godavery ; 32 miles E. of Kondur.
SANGAMA, a river of Africa, which traverfes the
kingdom of Awerri, and runs into the Atlantic, near cape
Formofa.
SANGAMARTA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
India, on this fide of the Ganges. Ptolemy.
SANGAMUNDAM, in Geography, a town of Hin-
dooftan, in the Travancore country ; 30 miles W. of Tra-
vancore.
SANGANEER, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar
of Rantampour ; 33 miles W. of Rantampour.
SANGARA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Mefopotamia, which belonged to Chofroes, king of the
Parthians, and was taken by Trajan, the Roman emperor.
SANGARIANS, in Geography, a piratical tribe of
Hindoottan, inhabiting a diftriét on the fouth coatt of the
gulf of Cutch, who cruize for merchant fhips as far to the
weft as the entrance of the gulf of Perfia. The capital of
this ftate is Noanagur; and Bate (or Bait), and Aramroy,
are its principal ports. Nearchus names certain parts of the
country between the mouth of the Indus and the river
Arabius, “ Saugada’’ and “ Saranga;” but this tract wae
too confined to be the abode of a nation. M. D’Anville
f{uppofes that the country of Sangada was the fame with the
modern Sangara; if this be the cafe, fays major Rennell,
the Sangarians mutt firft have removed from the weltern to
the eaftern fide of the Indus ; and they mutt alfo have crofled
the gulf of Cutch. °
SANGARIUS, or Saneanis, in Ancient Geography, 4
river of Afia Minor, which proeeeded from mount Didymus
towards Peflinante, in the borough of Sangarus. ‘The
Euxine commences to form a fmall gulf at the mouth of
this river, the town of Heraclea being its other boundary.
This river was famous in antiquity. It is mentioned by
Livy and Strabo. According to Plutarch, it had borne the
name of Xerabates. Venus had a temple or chapel on the
banks of this river, with a ftatue of the goddefs.
SANGARTE!, in Cugrepiy; a river of Chinefe 'Tar-
tary, which runs into the Saghalien, 70 miles N.E. of
Oualin.
SANGAS, or St. Dufh's Creck, a {mall ftream in Upper
Yy Canada,

SAWN

Canada, that difcharges itfelf into lake Erie, E. of Sangas
point, and affords a harbour for boats. —

Sancas, or St. Du/k’s Point, is the moft projeéting
point between the mouth of the Oufe and the North Fore-
land, on the N. fhore of lake Erie, E. of the river Waveney.

SANGAY, a river of Africa, which runs into the
channel of Mofambique, S. lat. 13° 22.—Alfo, a mountain
of South America. See SaAnGuay.

a esanoee a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
aol.

SANGBOY, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, near
the S.W. coait cf Mindanao. N. lat. 6° 52!. E. long.
121° 40! Pate:

SANGEEASATOWN, a town of Hindoottan, in
Bahar: 5 miles E.S.E. of Durbungah.

SANGERFIELD, a poft-town of New York, in Che-
nangoco; 120 miles N.W. of New York.

SANGERSHAUSEN, a town of Saxony, in Thu-
ringia, near the Hartz Foreft, and containing 700 houfes ;
44 miles W. of Leipfic. N. lat. 51° 20. E. long.
Br w25h

SANGHIN, a town of France, in the department of
the North; 5 miles S.E. of Lille.

SANGIA, atown of Arabia, in the province of Hedsjas ;
25 miles S.E. of Niab.

SANGIR, an ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, about 24
miles long and 8 broad. N. lat. 3° 36!.. E. long. 125° 21'.

SANGIS, a town of Sweden, in Weft Bothnia; 15
miles W. of Tornea.

SANGOOL, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Chanderee ; 18 miles S. of Seronge.

SANGORE, a town of Lower Siam, on the fide of a
large river which runs into the gulf of Siam.’ N. lat. 7°
38’. E. long. 101° 9.

SANGORI, or Sancont, an ifland in the gulf of Siam,
about 20 miles in circumference. N. lat. 10°16’. E. long.

fe] '

SANGRO, a river of Naples, whichrifes in the Apen-
nines, on the confines of Lavora, and runs into the Adriatic,
6 miles from Lanciano, in Abruzzo Citra. .°N. lat. 42° 18'.
E. long. 14° 37!.

SANGUAY, or Saneay, a mountain of South Ame-
rica, in the eaitern chain of the Andes, in the jurifdition of
Macas, and the audience of Quito. Its height is very great,
and almott its whole furface is covered with {now. From its
fummit iffues a continual fire, attended with explofions which
are fometimes heard at Quito, though diftant from it 135
miles. The adjacent country is rendered totally barren by
the ftones and cinders that are ejected from it. According
to Bouguer, the height of the freezing point is 2440 toifes
above the level of the fea, and it would end at the height of
4300 toifes, not from the ceflation of cold, which on the
contrary increafes with the diitance from the earth, but be-
caufe no clouds nor vapours can afcend to a greater height.

SANGUELOUK, or Sanauetouk, a town of Siam.
N. lat. 18° 30. E. long. 99°.

SANGUESA, a town of Spain, in Navarre, on the
river Aragon, anciently called * Iturifla,”? or ‘Suefta-
cium.’ Xavier, (which fee,) is three miles from it. It
is diltant 77 miles S.S.W. from Pamplona. N, Jat. 42°
29'.. W. long. 1° 25!.

SANGUICIJA, a river of Afia, which paffes through
the city of Erivans

SANGUIFICATION, in Phy/fiology, the converfion
into blood of the materials which dupply the loffes expe-
rienced by that fluid in nutrition, growth, fecretion,. and
the other vital procefles to which it is {ubfervient. . The
compofition of animal bodies is conftantly changing ; their

SAN

particles are fubjeét to an ineeflant motion of compofition
and decompofition. The old materials are removed front
them by the abforbents, and new matter is fupplied from the
blood by the capillary veffels. (See Nurrition.) Various
fecretions and exhalations occurring conftantly in many
parts of the body, require a correfponding fupply of new
matter. (See Granp.) The fource of the fupplies re-
quired for the purpofes juft fpecified is the food, which» is
converted by the aétion of the ftomach, and {mall inteftines,
into chyle. (See Dicestion.) This chyle, inftead of
being immediately applied to the nourifhment ‘of parts, &c.
1s conveyed into the blood; which, therefore, is a common
receptacle, receiving all the new matter, and furnifhing all
that is neceflary for growth, nutrition, {ecretion, &c. The
food of animals then undergoes a threefold change, being
converted firlt into chyle, then into blood, and laftly. into
the various conftituents of our frame. It is: the fecond of
thefe changes which conttitutes /anguification ; by virtue of
which the blood, receiving on one fide, and giving out on
the other, remains always the fame ; that is, the fame in
external appearance and obvious properties ; animal che-
mittry not being yet fufficiently advanced to dete&t the dif-
ferences, which different kinds of food, and different {tates
of the fyftem, in all probability produce in this fluid. _

What then is the nature of the procefs by which the
white milky fluid, the chyle, and the tranfparent lymphs
of the abforbing veflels, (fee Ansornnents and Axsorp-
TION,) are converted into blood? What are the agents of
this change? Does it occur in the large or {mall veflels ?
Is it produced by refpiration, by the addition of any thing
from the air, or the feparation of any thing from the blood ?
We do not know. The procefs of fanguification is ftill a
mytftery, of which no part has hitherto been unveiled.

SANGUIN, or Zanwsn, in Geography, a village or
town of Africa, on the Grain Coatt, fituated at the mouth
of a river of the fame name, where the Englifh had formerly
a fatory, now abandoned. N. lat. 5° 22'.. W. long. 9° 5.

SANGUINAIRES, a fmall ifland on the W. coaft of
the ifland of Corfica; 11 miles W. of Ajazza& N. lat. 41°
45’. E. long. 8° 45’.

SANGUINARIA, in Botany, a name naturally fug-
gelted by the blood-coloured juice of the plant,*and {fo
called by M. Morin, the friend of Tournefort ; although,
according to Ambrofinus, it has been ufed fynonimoufly
with Sanguinalis, for herbs that have been found ufeful in
itopping hemorrhages.—Dill. Elth. v. 2. 334. t. 252.
Linn. Gen. 261. © Schreb. 349. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 1140.
Mart. Mill. Dit. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 286. Mi-
chaux Boreal-Amer. y. 1. 309. Purfh v. 2. 366. Juff.
236. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 449.—Clafs and order, Poly-
andria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Rhocadee, Linn. Papave-
racea, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of two ovate, concave
leaves, fhorter than the corolla, deciduous. Cor. Petals
eight, oblong, obtufe, widely {preading ; the alternate ones
interior, narrower. Stam. Filaments numerous, fimple,
fhorter than the corolla’; anthers fimple. Pi/. Germen
fuperior, oblong, compreiled; ftyle none ; ftigma thickith,
two-furrowed, the height of the {tamens, permanent.
Peric. Pod oblong, ventricofe, fharp at each end, of one
cell and two valves. Seeds numerous, round, pointed.

Eff. Ch. Petals eight. Calyx of two leaves. Pod ovate,
of one cell.

1. 3. canadenfis. Canadian Bloodwort Puccoon. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 723. “Curt. Mag. t. 162. (S. major et minor;
Dill. Eth. v. 2. t. 252.)—Found abundantly in'the woods
of Canada and other parts of North America. It flowers
with us in March and April. Root perennial, tuberous,

flethy,

SAN

fiefhy, like that of Tormentil, fibrous, of a reddith faffron
colour. Stems upright, {mooth, palifh green or brownifh,
tinged with purple. Leaves radical, folitary, enveloping
the flower-bud after the manner of O/munda Lunaria ; when
expanded they are “lobed like fig-leaves and beautifully
veined. Flowers folitary, terminal, fnow-white, fully ex-
panding only in fine clear weather. Pod yellow ; when
dry of a purplifh glaucous hue. Seeds yellowifh, polifhed
like thofe of Millet.

Curtis obferves of this plant that, although not fhowy,
“it has few equals in point of delicacy and fingularity.”
The root, leaves, and ftalks, when cut, emit an acrid juice
of a bright red or orange colour, with which the native
Americans are faid to paint themfelves. :

Purfh, in his Flora of North America, mentions a variety
with linear petals, which he calls fenopetala.

SANGUINARIA, in Gardening, contains a plant of the low,
herbaceous, flowering kind, of which the fpecies cultivated
is the Canadian fanguinaria, bloodwort, or puccoon (S.
canadenfis). ’

In it there are varieties with fingle flowers, with femi-
double flowers, and full flowers.

\ Method of Culture.—This plant is readily increafed by
parting the roots, and planting them out in the borders or
Other places where they are to remain, in the autumnal
feafon, when the leaves and items decay. They fhould have
aloofe foil, with a mixture of bog-earth and rotten leaves,
and fheltéred fituation, not too much expofed to the fun;
the roots fhould not be parted oftener than every two years.

They afford variety in the borders, clumps, and other
parts, among other low-growing bulbous-rooted plants.

SANGUINE, in» Geography, a town of Italy, in the
department of the Benaco ; 15 miles E. of Mantua.

Sancuine, Bloody, or a thing abounding in blood.

Sancuine Temperament, or Conflitution, is that. where
blood and heat predomirate.

* Sanguine conftitutions require a frequent ufe of phle-
botomy. ]

Sanguine people are ufually obferved to be brifk, bold,
daring, and even prefumptuous. Hence fanguine hopes,
he Fong, affured, &c. hopes.

Sanouixe, in Heraldry, the colour ufually called murrey ;
being made of red lake, tinged with a little Spanifh brown.
It is reprefented in engraving by tranfverfe hatches like pur-
pure; and is mpftly ufed in the coats of knights of the
Bath.

When borne by nobles, it is rather called fardonyx ; and
in the coats of fovereign princes, dragon’s tail.

Sanourixe Stone, lapis Sfanguinalis, a kind of jafper,
brought from New Spain, of a dark-brown colour, marked
with {pots of a blood red.

It feems to be only an accidental heliotrope, differing
from the common heliotropes that are brought from the
Ealt Indies, merely in being coarfer, and lefs tranfparent.

The Indians cut it in form of a heart, and ufe it in he-
morrhages, immoderate menfes, and other fluxes of blood.
The patient applies it - grafping it in his right hand, having
firft dipt it in water. It 1s fometimes alfo hung on the part
whence the blood flows. :

SANGUINEA, a name given by fome of the chemitts
to nitre. ‘

SANGUINEOUS Feven; a term formerly ufed by
fome medical writers to exprefs a kind of fever, in whic
there is always a plethora, or fulnefs of blood, which nature
is attempting to fetten by means of this accelerated motion
of it, either by forming fome hemorrhage, or by throwing
a part of it off, in form of {weat, Jt is very obvious to

/

SAN

reafon, therefore, that bleeding is the firft thing necefiary
in thefe fevers. The continent fevers, fuch as the ephemera
and fynocha, are of this kind. Junker’s Conf. Med.
p- 252. See Fever.

SANGUINERA, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the
Grecian Archipelago, near the coait of Natolia. N. lat.
36° 51’. E. long. 27° 1o!.

SANGUINEROLA, in Ichthyology, a name given by
the Italians to the phoxinus, or minow. Artedi makes this
a {pecies of cyprinus.

It has the Italian name from the blood-red colour which
difplays itfelf under its belly.

SANGUINETO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in
the Veronefe ; 19 miles §.S.E. of Verona.

SANGUINEUS, in Botany, a name given by fome of
the ancients to the birch-tree, from the deep reddifh-black
colour of its twigs. Pliny calls it /anguineus frutex, and
not underftanding that it was the fame with the birch, men-
tions the name of that tree immediately after it, as if dif-
ferent from it. The Italians {till call the birch /anguino ;
and fome authors, from the rednefs of the twigs of fome
{pecies of the alateraus, have called that fhrub the /anguineus
albus. Some have fuppofed that this name was ufed to ex-
prefs the birch-tree alfo, but erroneoufly ; for though the
bark of the body of that tree is fometimes white, there
was no reafon for adding that epithet to the word /anguineus,
which not being ufed for any other tree, could need no dif-
tinétion. The Romans, and many other nations, ufed this
tree as we do, for the punifhment of children’s faults ; and
it is poffible that the name /anguineus might be given it on
this occafion.- Pliny, lib. xvi. cap. 26.

SANGUIN-TAL-GUIN, in Geography, a lake of
Chinefe Tartary, of an oval form, 30 miles long, and 12
broad. N. lat. 49° 8!._E. long. 98° 36’.

SANGUIPURGIUM, a name given by fome authors
toa flight {pecies of fever, which was judged falutary, and
only ferving to purge and cleanfe the blood.

SANGUIS, in Medicine, &c. See Buoop.

SAnGuls, in our Ancient Cufloms, denotes a right or
power, which the chief lord of the fee anciently had te judge
and determine cafes where blood was fhed. « De murderia
et raptu, de igne, de fanguine, &c.”? Monatt.

SanGuis Draconis Herba, in Botany, a name by which
fome authors call the /apathum fanguineum, or bloody dock.

SANGUINEM Emere, was an obligation which the inhabit-
ants of fome manors, as that of Grendon, were under, to
buy and redeem their villain-blood, or tenure, and make
themfelves free men.

SANGuIs Caprinus, or Hircinus, the blood of the he-goat,
either wild or tame, This ufed to be prepared, with great
precaution, to be ufed in medicine, and was fuppofed by
many to have very extraordinary qualities.

Among other fpecific virtues attributed to goat’s blood,
the two moft confiderable are, that, as they fay, it cures
the pleurify without bleeding, and that it diffolves the ftone
in the bladder, by taking it in vehicles proper for thofe dif-
eafes. To be good, it is to be yery hard, and difficult to
pulverize.

Sanouts Draconis, in Pharmacy. See Dnacon’s Blood.
Befides the calamus Rotang, and different fpecies of the
pterocarpus, noticed under the article to which we have
referred, many of the Indian redwoods, while growing,
pour forth, through the fillures of the bark, a blood-
coloured juice, that forms a refinous concretion, to which the
name of dragon’s blood has been affixed: fuch are fome of
the crotons, and other trees mentioned by Cranz. A fimilar
exudation, produced from a tree at Botany Bay, was dif-

Yy¥2 covered

SAN

covered by fir Jofeph Banks and Dr. Solander. But the
fubftance now known in New South Wales by the name of
red gum is perfeétly foluble in water: the yellow gum of
this place is, however, in its chemical and medical qualities,
not very different from fanguis draconis, and has been fuccefs-
fully employed as an aftringent by Dr. Blane. Woodville.

SANGUISORBA, in Botany, probably fo named ori-
ginally from the blood-red colour of its flowers, although
the juices of this plant being aftringent, the medicinal pro-
perties it pofleffes of ftopping hemorrhages, may be a bet-
ter warrant for the name.—Linn. Gen. 58. Schreb. 78.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 653. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Sm.
Fl. Brit. 186. Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth. 103. Ait. Hort.
Kew. v. 1. 257. Jufl. 336. Michaux Boreal-Amer.
v. 1. 100. Purhh N. Amer. v.°1. 96. Lamarck Dia.
v. 6. 496. Iilultr. t. 85.—Clafs and order, Tetrandria Mo-
nogynta. Nat. Ord. Senticofe? Linn. Rofacee, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, cloven into
four, fhort, ovate fegments. Cor. of one petal, deeply
divided into four, ovate, acute, equalfegments. Stam. Fila-
ments four, the length of the corolla; anthers roundith.
Pif. Germen placed between the calyx and corolla, fquare ;
ityle thread-thaped, fhort ; ftigma obtufe, four-cleft.
Peric. Capfule fmall, two-celled. Seeds folitary, elliptical,
fmall.

Eff. Ch. Calyx four-cleft.
and corolla. Seed folitary.

1. S. officinalis. Great Burnet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 169.
Engl. Bot.t. 1312. Mart. Ruft. t. 142. Fl. Dan. t. 97.
—Spikes ovate.—Found on meadows in many parts of Eu-
rope. Not unfrequent in moift and rich pattures in the
north of Britain, flowering in June and July. Root peren-
nial, ftrong. Stem two feet high, erect, furrowed, rather
naked, panicled above. Leaves on long ftalks, unequally
pinnated ; leaflets heart-fhaped, fharply notched, fmooth,
veiny, the larger ones having a pair of little toothed ap-
pendages at the bafe of the partial ftalks. Stipulas crefcent-
fhaped, toothed, clafping the ttem. Flowers of a dark dull
purple, or mulberry colour, in denfe, ovate, obtufe, termi-
nal, long-{talked heads or {pikes ; the uppermott flowers ex-
pand firitt. The fegments of the corel/a are hairy at their
bafe, which appear to crown the germen; and hence is de-
rived the very unufual character of the genus, as above de-
fcribed. The whole plant is aftringent. The leaves are an
ingredient in cool tankards and falads. It is coarfe, and not
acceptable to cattle.

Two varieties of this fpecies are mentioned by authors,
one called Italian, the other Spanifh, Burnet. The former
of thefe is three feet high, and bears a more cylindrical
{pike of brown, fmaller flowers. The latter is not fo tall,
its {pikes more globular, and of a reddifh colour.

2. S. media. Short-fpiked Great Burnet. Linn. Sp. Pl.
169. Willd. n.2. (* Pimpinella {pica breviori feu glome-
rata; Zanon. Hift. 181. t. 138.”?)—Spikes cylindrical.—
Native of Canada; flowering from July to September.
Very clofely allied in habit and appearance to the laft fpecies,
but differs in having cylindrical, not ovate, {pikes of reddith
flowers, and longer ftamens. Calyx fringed at the edge.
The /eaves, according to Morifon, are larger, longer, and
more ferrated.

3. S. canadenfis. Canadian Great Burnet. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 169. Willd. n. 3. (* Pimpinella maxima canadenfis ;
Corn. Canad. 175. t. 174.”)—Spikes very long.—Native
of Siberia, Canada, and various parts of North America,
flowering from June to September. Stems about a yard
high, divided at the top into numerous branches, which {land
erect. Leaves unequally pinnate; leaflets about four or

12

Germen between the calyx

can *

five pairs, ftiff, the lower ones alternate, the u oppo-
fite, light green, deeply ferrated, Flowers in atid fps,
of an herbaceous white colour, edch upon a fhort ftalk.
Subject to vary with red flowers in thicker fpikes, with
broader leaflets, whitifh underneath. ~
SANGUISUGA, in Zoology, a name by which fome
authors exprefs the hirudo, or leech. See each article.
SANGUISUGUM, a name given by fome barbarous
authors to a diforder of the heart, {uppofed to arife from
its retaining an abundant quantity of blood.
SANGURRY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Bednore ; 25 miles N.N.E. of Simogu. 3 ‘
SANGUY, a fmall ifland in the vicinity of Celebes, in
which is a {mall Dutch garrifon, as an advanced guard to
protect the Spice iflands. . .

SAN-HAN, a town of Arabia, in the province of Ye-

men; 4 miles S. of Sana.

SANHEDRIM, Sanueprin, or Synedrium, among
the ancient Jews, the fupreme council, or court of judica-
ture, of that republic; in which were difpatched all the
great affairs, both of religion and policy. —

The word is derived from the Greek, cvv:3zsov, a council,
affembly, or company of people fitting together ; from cw,
con, together, and edex, feat. 4

Many of the learned agree, that it was inftituted by
Mofes, Numbers, chap. xi. and confifted at firft of feventy
elders, who judged finally of all caufes and affairs; and
that they fubfilted, without intermiffion, from Mofes to
Ezra. (See Deut. xxvii. 1. xxxi. 9. Jofh. xxiv. 1. 31.
Judges, ii. 7. 2 Chron. xix. 8. Ezek. viii. 11.) Others
will have it, that the council of feventy elders, eftablifhed
by Mofes, Numb. chap. xi. was temporary, aiid did not hold
after his death; adding, that we find no fign of any fuch
perpetual and infallible tribunal throughout the whole Old
Teftament ; and that the fanhedrim was firft fet up in the
time when the Maccabees, or Afmoneansy took upon them-
felves the adminiftration of the government under the title
of high-priefts, and afterwards of kings, that is, ever fince
the perfecution of Antiochus.

The Jews, however, contend ftrenuoufly for the antiquity
of their great fanhedrim: M. Simon itrengthens and de-
fends their proofs, and M. le Clerc attacks them,

Whatever may be the origin and ettablifhment of the fan-
hedrim, it is certain it was fubfilting in the time of our Sa-
viour, fince it is fpoken of in the gofpels, Matth. v. 21.
Mark, xiii. 9. xiv. 55. xv. 1. and Acts of the Apoftles;
and fince Jefus Chrift: himfelf was arraigned and condemned
by it: that it was held at Jerufalem ; and that the decifion
of all the moft important affairs among the Jews belonged
to it. The prefident of this aflembly was called Naf, or
prince; his deputy was called 4b-deth-din, father of the
houfe of judgment ; and the fub-deputy was called @hacan,
the wife: the reft were denominated ¢zekanim, elders or
fenators. The room in which they fat was a rotunda, half
of which was built without the temple, and-half within ;
i. e. one femicircle of the room was within the compafs of
the temple; and as it was never allowed to fit down in the
temple, they tell us this part was for thofe who ftood up;
the other half, or femicircle, extended without the holy
place, and here the judges fat. The nafi, or prince, fat on
a throne at the end of the hall, having his deputy at his
right hand, and his fub-deputy at his left; the other fena-
tors were ranged in order on each fide.

The fanhedrim fubfifted until the deftru&tion of Jerufalem,
but its authority was almoft reduced to nothing, from the
time in which the Jewifh nation became fubject to the Roman

empire. The

ee ie ee

——

" SAN

The rabbins pretend, that the fanhedrim has always fub-
fifted in their nation, from the time of Mofes to the deitruc-
tion of the temple by the Romans : and they maintain that
it confifted of feventy counfellors, fix out of each tribe, and
Mofes as prefident ; and thus the number was feventy-one :
but fix fenators out of each tribe make the number feventy-
two, which, with the prefident, conftitute a council of fe-
venty-three perfons, and therefore it has been the opinion of
fome authors that this was the number of the members of
the fanhedrim.

As to the perfonal qualifications of the judges of this
court, it was required that they fhould be of untainted
birth, asd they were often of the race of the priefts or
Levites, or of the number of inferior judges, or of the
lefler fanhedrim, which confifted of twenty-three judges.
They were to be fkilful in the written and traditional law ;
and they were obliged to itudy magic, divination, fortune-
telling, phyfic, aftrology, arithmetic, and languages. It
was alfo required, that none of them fhould be eunuchs,
ufurers, decrepid or deformed, or gamefters : and that they
fhould be of mature age, rich, and of good countenance and
body. “Thus fay the rabbins.

The authority of the fanhedrim was very extenfive. This
council decided caufes brought before it by appeal from in-
ferior courts. The king, high-prieit, and prophets were
fubje& to its jurifdiétion. The general officers of the na-
tion were brought before the fanhedrim. How far their
right of judging in capital cafes extended, and how long
it continued, have been fubjeéts of controverfy. Among
the rabbins it has been a generally received opinion, that
about forty’years before the deftru@tion of Jerufalem, their
nation had been deprived .of the power of life and death.
And moft authors affert, that this privilege was taken from
them ever fince Judea was made a province of the Roman
empire, that is, after the banifhment of Archelaus. Others,
however, maintain that’the Jews had {till the power of life
and death ; but that this privilege was reitriéted to crimes
committed againit their law, and depended upon the go-
vernor’s willand pleafure. See this queftion difcufled under
the article Jews.

In the time of Mofes, this council was held at the
door of the tabernacle of the teftimony. As foon as
the ple were in pofleffion of the land of promife,
the Ponhedrim followed the tabernacle, and it continued
at Jerufalem, whither it was removed, till the captivity.
During the captivity it was kept at Bzbylon. After the
return from Babylon, it remained at Jerufalem, as it is faid,
to the time of the Sicarii, or Affaffins; afterwards it was
removed to Jamnia, thence to Jericho, to Uzzah, to Se-
0 to Bethfamia, to Sephoris, and Jatt of all to Ti-

jas, where it continued till their utterextinétion. Such
is the account which the Jews give of their fanhedrim. But
many learned perfons are of a different opinion. Petau
(De Doétrin. Temp. lib. ii. c. 26.) fixes the beginning of
the fanhedrim to the period when Gabinius was governor of
Judea, by whom were ereéted tribunals*in the five cities of
Judea, viz. Jerufalem, Gadara, Amathus, Jericho, and Se-
phoris. Grotius agrees in the date of its commencement
with the rabbins, but he fixes its termination at the beginning
of Herod’s reign. Bafnage places it under Judas Macca-
baus and his brother Jonathan. Upon the whole, it may
be obferved, that the ongin of the fanhedrim has not been
fatisfactorily afcertained ; and that the council of the feventy
elders, eftablithed by Mofesy was not what the Hebrews
underitood by the name of fanhedrim. It has been alfo al-
leged, that this cftablifhment cannot be perceived under
Jofhua, the Judges, or the Kings, nor after the captivity,

SAN

till the time of Jonathan Maccabeus: to which purpofe it
has been fuggefted, that the tribunals ereéted by Gabinius
were very different from the fanhedrim. It was in being,
however, as we have already mentioned, in and after the time
of our Saviour ; but the Jews themfelves inform us, that
it had not then the power of life and death. John, xviii. 31.

Before the death of our Saviour, two very famous rab-
bins had been prefidents of the fanhedrim, viz. Hillel and
Schammai, who entertained very different opinions on feve-
ral fubjeéts, and particularly upon that of divorce. This
gave occafion to the queftion which the Pharifees put to
Jefus Chrift upon that head. (Matt. xix. 3.) Before
Schammai, Hillel had Menahem for his affociate in the pre-
fidency of the fanhedrim. But the latter afterwards de-
ferted that honourable poft, and joined himfelf, with a great
number of his difciples, to the party of Herod Antipas,
who promoted the levying of taxes for the ufe of the Ro-
man emperors with all his might. Thefe were probably
the Herodians mentioned in the Gofpel, Matt. xxii. 16.
(See Heropians.) To Hillel fucceeded Simeon his fon,
who is fuppofed to have been the perfon who took Jefus
Chrift in his arms ( Luke, ii. 28.) and publicly acknowledged
him to be the Meffiah. If this be the cafe, the Jewith fan-
hedrim had for prefident a perfon, that was entirely difpofed
to embrace Chriitianity. Gamaliel, the fon and fucceilor of
Simeon, feems to have been alfo of the fame difpofition and
charaéter.

There were feveral inferior fanhedrims in Paleftine, all de-
pending on the great fanhedrim at Jerufalem. The inferior
fanhedrim confiited each of 23 perfons ; and there was one
in each city and town. Some fay, that to have a right to
hold a fanhedrim, it was requifite there were one hundred
and twenty inhabitants in the place. Where the inhabitants
came fhort of the number of one hundred and twenty, they
only eftablifhed three judges.

In the great as well as the inferior fanhedrim were
two f{cribes ; the one to write down the fuffrages of thofe
who were for condemnation ; the other to take down the
fuffrages of thofe who were for abfolution.

Selden has a learned work on the fubje& of the Jewith
fanhedrim, ‘“ de Synedriis,’’ printed at London in 1635, in
three volumes, quarto.

SAN-HO, in Geography, a town of China, of the
third rank, in Pe-tche-li; 32 miles E. of Peking.

SANI, in Mythology, the Hindoo regent, or the per-
fonification of the planet Saturn. He is reprefented in
the Indian zodiac of a blue colour, mounted on a raven ;
fometimes on an elephant, in a yellow drefs, and holding a
bow and arrow. Sometimes he has four arms, at others only
two, He is the fabled offspring of Surya, or the fun, as
related in the article PRasua; and, asin our arrangement,
Saturday is the day of the week over which he atraliai.
cally prefides. See Zoprac.

Explanatory of the mythological charaéter and Attributes
of Sam, and comprifing fome other points, we give the
following extraét from the Hindoo Pantheon of major
Moore.

“ Sani is deferibed in fome paflages of the Puranas, as
‘clad in a black mantle, with a dark turban loofely wrapped
round his head; his afpeét hideous, and his brows knit
with anger; a trident in one of his four hands, a fcimitar
in a fecond, and in the other.two a bow and fhafts.? The
elephant has been thought an appropriate vehicle for the
fluggith * flow-moving fon of Surya,’ as referring to the
immenfe feope of Saturn’s orbit, and the apparent flownefs
of his motion. And Sani being, among the altrologers of
India, as well as with their fapient brethren in Europe, a

planet

SAN

planet of malignant afpeéts, the ill-omened raven may alfo
be deemed a ft wvahan, or vehicle, for fuch a dreaded be-
ing. But this is not, I think, a fufficient reafon for the
introduétion of the raven into the-mythological machinery
of the Hindoo fyftem, fo accurate, fo conne&ed, and fo
complete in all its parts; although the inveltigations that
it hath hitherto undergone have not fully developed or
reached fuch points of perfeétion. Now let me afk the
reafon, why, both in England and in India, the raven is
fo rare a bird? It breeds every year like the crow, and is
much longer lived: and while the latter bird abounds every
where toa degree bordering on nuifance, a pair of ravens,
for they are feldom feen finglevor in trios, are not found
duplicated in any place. Perhaps take England or India
over, two pair of ravens will not be found on an average ex-
tent of 500 or 1000 acres. I know not, for I write where
I have no accefs to books, if our naturalifts have fought
the theory of this; or whether it may have firft occurred
to me, which it did while contemplating the charater and
attributes of Sani, that the raven deftroys its own young.
If this notion be well founded, and on no other can I ac-
count for the rarenefs of the annual-breeding long-lived
raven, we fhall at once fee the propriety of fymbolizing it
with Saturn, or Kronos, or Time, devouring or deftroying
his own offspring.”

The following aftrological allegory, conne&ed with Sani,
exhibits a {pecimen of the mythological veil, through which
even {cientific fats muft be viewed in the relations of Hin-
doo writers.

In the reign of Dafaratha, the mortal father of Rama-
chandra, in whofe perfon Vifhnu became incarnate, it hap-
pened that Sani, in his celeftial journey, threatened a mott
inaufpicious conjunétion ; and it was foretold to the king,
by the fage Vafifhtha, that unlefs he attacked the regent
of the planet, neither Indra, nor Brahma himfelf, could
divert the continuance of a diftrefling drought, confequent
to fuch afpeéts, for twelve years. Dafaratha attacked,
and after a violent confli& fubdued, Sani, extorting from
him a promife, that he would not again, by a fimilar tranfit
or paflage (entering the Hyades, the Rohini of the Hin-
doos, from the Nakfhatra or lunar manfion Kritika, their
Pleiades ; this paflage of Sani being called Sakatabeda, or
the feétion of the wain), threaten fo unhappy a conjunc-
tion: a promife that he would keep till about our year
1796, which the Hindoo aftrologers have long predicted
would be peculiarly inaufpicious, as the noxious planet
would then approach the wain of Rohini. And in this age
we cannot, they fay, look for a hero like Dafaratha, in a
miraculous car of pure gold, to place himfelf at the en-
trance of the wain, blazing like his progenitor the fun, and
drawing his bow, armed with the tremendous arrow San-
haraftra, which attracts all things with irrefiftible violence ;
even Sani, “the flow-moving fon of Surya, drefled in a
blue robe, crowned with a diadem, having had arms, hold-
ing a bow, a fpiked weapon, and a fcimitar.’” Thus, ac-
cording to Mr. Wilford, Afiat. Ref. vol. iii. he is de-
feribed in the Brahmanda Purana. The aftrologers add,
that Mangala, or Mars, the child of Prithvi, has alfo been
prevented from traverfing the wain of Rohini; but that
Vrihafpati, Sukra, and Budha, or Jupiter, Venus, and
Mercury, pafs it freely and innocently ; while it is the con-
ftant path of Soma, of whom the beautiful Rohini (the
« Aldebaran of our maps) is the favourite confort.

This aftronomical fable, in which may be difcovered traces
of fcientific facts, is perhaps too loofely related in the
Puranas to admit of any ufeful calculus being grounded on
it: otherwife, as it refers to a particular pofition of certain

Yan ©

celeftial bodies in the reign of Dafaratha, that did not oc-
cur again till about the year 1796, the times of thefe co-
incidences might poflibly lead us to nearly the era of Rama-
chandra; a very important point in refpe€&t both to the
hiftory aud chronology of the Hindoos.

The planet Sani, or Saturn, is appropriated more efpe-
cially by Hindoo aftrologers to. Brahma, who is faid to
dire& its motions; as Vifhnu is feigned to thine in the
fun, and Siva in Vrihafpati, or Jupiter. With the Egyp-
tians, Saturn was an object of abhorrence and dread, they
not daring to pronounce his true name, and abominating all
animals with red hair, becaufe it was his colour; fo in
India red is the coloyr of Brahma, he being phyfically a per-
fonification of the earth or matter; and fymbolized in the
fkies by the flow-moving heavy Sani, and below by the flug-
gifh goofe, his vahan or vehicle. Some enthufiaitic indiyi-
duals among the Hindoos will not eat carrots, which appear
indigenous all over India, and have a diftin& name in many
languages, becaufe, as it is faid, they look red like beef;
but poffibly the obje&tion may have a more remote origin.
See SARASWATI.

The day of Saturn, or Sani, is of courfe very inaufpicious
in India, where moit people, Hindoo or Mahommedan,
are very fuperftitious on the point of lucky and unlucky
days. This feeling has been, and in fome degree is_ftill
felt in all parts of the world. It cannot be faid to be
extin@ in England. Not only would an Hindoo avoid
marrying, commencing a journey or a building, naming a
child, &c. on Saturday, but dates are altered to avoid
naming the unlucky day, and records of events chronolo-
gically falfified with the like view. 3

Of the mythological and other perfonages and fubjeéts
mentioned above, as well as of Sani, the enquirer will
find farther information under the following articles of
this work: Inpra, Kririka, ManGata, Pavaxka,
Pritnu, Purana, Rama, Ronni, Siva, Soma,
Suxra, Surya, VAHAN, VAsISHTA, VISHNU, VRIHAS-
PATI, YAMA. P

SANJALLI, or Joaxiy, in Geography, a kingdom of
Africa, in the country of Senegal, fituated between the
kingdom of Burfali and the Atlantic, and extending about
30 miles along the north fide of the river Gambia.

SANICIUM, in Ancient Geography, the capital of the
Sanagenfes, in Gallia Narbonnenfis, fituated on the Mari-
time Alps. Ptolemy. ;

SANICLE, in Botany. See SAnicuLa.

Medical writers formerly agreed in celebrating this plant
as one of the greateft vulneraries we have of our own
growth. They recommended it as a mild reftringent, in-
ternally and externally, for healing frefh wounds and ero-
fions ; and many proceeded fo far as to talk of filtulas hay-
ing been cured by injeéting a decoétion of it; but the mo-
dern practice of furgery has fallen upon very different me-
thods of practice in thefe cafes, from their predeceflors,
and in confequence of that, the whole tribe of vulnerary
herbs is difregarded.” :

Sanic.e, Bafard American. See Mirecia.

Sanicie, Bear’s Ear. See Cortusa.

Sanicie, Water. See Geum.

Sanic.e, York/bire. See Prncuicura.

SANICULA, derived from /ano, to heal, having been
formerly celebrated for its fuppofed healing properties.
—Linn. Gen. 128. Schreb. 178. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.
1366. Mart. Mill. Diet. v. q. Sm. Fl. Brit. 291.
Prodr. Fl. Grac. Sibth. v. 1. 176. Ait. Hort. Kew.

v. 2. 118, Michaux Boreal-Amer. v. 1. 162. Purfh
v. 16127» Tournefi t. 173. Juff. 22s. Ley
v. 6,

SAN

Gertn. t. 20.—Clafs and

+. 6. 499. Iiluftr. t. 91.
Nat. Ord. Unmibellate, Linn.
°

order, Pentandria Digynia.
Unilellifere, Juli.

Gen. Ch. General umbel confifting generally of four
rays: partial of many rays, crowded together, nearly capi-
tate. General involucrum divided into two parts, placed
outwardly ; partial {urrounding on all fides, fhorter than
the flowers. Perianth {carcely difcernible. Cor. Univerfal
uniform ; flowers of the difk abortive ; partial of five, com-
preffed, inflexed, clofed petals. Stam. Filaments five,
fimple, ereét, twice as long as the florets; anthers roundifh.
Pift. Germen inferior, hifpid; ftyles two, awl-fhaped, re-
flexed; ftigmas acute. eric. none. Fruit ovate, acute,
rough, divifible into two parts. Seeds two, convex and
muricated on one fide, flat on the other.

Eff. Ch. Umbels chuftered in little heads. Fruit rough
with hooked briitles. Central flowers abortive.

1. S. europea. Wood Sanicle. Linn. Sp. Pl. 339.
Engk Bot. t. 98. Fl. Dan. t. 293.—Radical leaves
iimple. Flowers all feffile.—Native of rather mountainous
woods in Europe; extremely common in Great Britain,
where (according to Gerarde) “it joyeth in a fat and
fruitfull moift foile,” flowering in May.—Root perennial,
with fomewhat flefhy fibres. Stem a foot and half high,
erect, round, furrowed, almoft naked, a little branched,
fmooth. Leaves talked, f{mooth, deeply feven-lobed ; lobes
wedge-fhaped, trifid, fringed, deep green above; paler be-
aah. Flowers {effile, capitate, white or blufh-coloured ;
the central ones male; the others either perfect, or female,
whofe petals are deciduous.

The virtues of this plant caufed it to be ‘ ufed in potions
which are called Vulnerarie potions, or wound drinkes,
which make whole and found all inward wounds and out-
ward hurts ;’’? but, as the author of Englifh Botany re-
marks, ‘‘ the experience of mankind, fince good Gerarde
wrote, has rather impaired the credit of fuch fovereign
medicines.” The herb is bitter and pungently aromatic,
like many other umbelliferous plants.

2. S. canadenfis. Canadian Sanicle. Linn. Sp. Pl.
339- Willd. n. 2.—Radical leaves compound. Leaflets
ovate.—Native of Canada and Virginia; found alfo by
Thunberg at Japan.—It flowers in May and June. Very
nearly allied to the lait; differing only in being frequently
ten times as large in all its parts, and having. com-
pound, not fimple, ‘aves. Purth reckons it a doubtful
fpecies.

3. S. marilandica. Maryland Sanicle. Linn. Sp.* Pl.

339- Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 348.—Male flowers on talks;
perfeét ones feflile—Frequent in dry woods from Canada
to Carolina. It flowers in June and July. Whole plant
imooth. Root perennial, fibrous, whitifh. Stem annual,
ereét, two feet high, branched alternately, trichotomous
at the top. Radical iraves on long ttalks, ternate ; leaflets
eoetari nearly feflile ; flem-leaves alternate, fharper and
{maller. Umbel ttalked, fimple, compofed of a few, greenith-
white flowers. ;
» SANIDIUM, in Natural Hiflory, the name of a genus
of foffils, of the clafs of the felenite, but neither of the
rhomboidal nor columnar kinds, nor any other way dittin-
guifhable by its external figure, being made up of feveral
plain flat poten.

The word is derived from the Greek canior, tabella, a
flat thin plate or table, and exprefles a body made up only
of fach plates. Andthe felenite of this genus are of no
determinate form, nor confit of any) regular number of
planes or angles, but are merely flat, Scie and thin plates
on tables, compofed of other yet thinner plates, like the

SAWN

tales, but diitinguifhed from thofe bodies by this, that
thefe plates are made up of arrangements of flender fibres,
a obliquely, but in uninterrupted lines acrofs the
oay.

The felenite having been always efteemed (when meant
of this clafs of bodies, for fome have applied the word to
certain {pars and other fubftances) regularly figured foffils,
this genus has been overlooked by authors, and the fpeci-
mens of it which occurred, looked on as bodies of a dif-
ferent clafs, as fpars or tales. Their not fermenting with
acids, however, determines them not to be {pars ; and their
obliquely ftriated ftruGture, their want of eiafticity, and
their readily calcining in the fire, diftinguifh them from the
talcs, and fhew them to be true and genuine felenite.

Of this genus there are only two known fpecies, the one
colourlefs and pellucid, the other whitifh and opaque. The
firft is found pretty frequently about Oxford, as alfo in
Northamptonfhire, Yorkfhire, and other counties; the
other is very common in all parts of Germany, and is found
alfo in Leicefterfhire, and fome other parts of England,
but with us it is not common. Hill’s Hitt. of Foffils,
P- 144, 145- i uy wil ;

SANIES, ia Surgery. The thin fetid difcharge from
ill-conditioned ulcers is {o termed: good pus is both thicker
and whiter, and has no unpleafant {mell. See Pus.

SANIR, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the pro-
vince of Hedsjas; 120 miles W. of Medina.

SANIS, Yavc, among the Greeks, a kind of punifh-
ment, infli&ted by binding the malefactor faft to a piece of
wood.

SANITURNUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Italy,
which traverfed the city of Modena, according to Fron-
tinus.

SANITZ, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the go-
vernment of Riga; 16 miles N.E. of Vala.

SANKAATY, a town of Aflam, on the borders, of
Bengal; 65 miles E. of Rangamatty.

SANKAN, a town of Arabia, in Yemen, near the coait
of the Red fea; 35 miles N.N.W. of Abu-Arifch. _N. lat.
BO hea ;
TSANKANAGA, the name of a ferpent fometimes men-
tioned in the mythological legends of the Hindoos ; of the
fame family, perhaps, as another named Sanka/uras which
fee. Serpents are common in the fabulous machinery of
India, of which fee under Susua. Of one named San-
kanaga, the following legend is related. Agaftya was a
diminutive, but pious and learned, Brachman, who for his
virtues was tranflated to the {kies, and now fhines in the
{tar called by European altronomers Canopus, in the con-
{tellation Argo. This fage is faid to have been fo learned
and pious, that he overcame thereby the ferpent Sankanaga,
whofe breath was a fiery wind, that burned and ype
all animals and vegetables in its neighbourhood. Agattya
fubdued the ferpent, and carried it about in. an earthen
vellel. It is furmifed that fome aftronomical allegory is
concealed in this legend ; or that it may refer to fome miti-

ation of the effects of the /amum, or poifonous wind of
Peet: where this fage flourifhed. For farther notice of
him, fee Afiat. Ref. vol. viii., and Maurice’s Anc. Hitt.
Mention of Agaftya is made in the article Tanrka.

SANKAR, in Geography, a mountainous diltri& of
Thibet, fituated between the 79th afd 81it degrees of E.
long., and about the 34th degree of N. lat. It affords
mines of quickfilver, fulphur, &c. Ye

SANKARA, in AJyihology, a name of the Hindoo deity
Siva, or Mahadeva. (See thefe articles.) he name is
moitly applied to Siva in his character of Rudra, or 1

9 ee

SAN

(See Rupra.) As related under that article, there are
eleven Rudras fometimes mentioned in the Hindoo books ;
but the reafon of that particular number has not been ex-
plained. Sankara is called one of the Rudras. The word
means benefaétor, and is given occafionally as a name to
Hindoos of the prefent day, of the fe& of Saiva. (See
Sarva.) One of this name and feét is faid to have exerted
himfelf fo ftrenuoufly in exterminating a herefy of the Jainas,
as to gain the reputation of being infpired by the aveng-
ing Siva; and even to have been an incarnation of Rudra,
or Fate. Mention is made of this in the article JAYADEVI,
where the mild tenet is given, which drew forth the ven-
f e of the furious bigot Sankara, otherwife called San-

aracharya ; which fee. In the article JAYADEVi there are
two errors of the prefs; and as this article is thence re-
ferred to, this opportunity is taken to corre them. For
Kari, read Kafi; and for Sina, read Siva. Of the herefy
of Jaina, mentioned above, fee that article, and Sects of
Hindoos.

SANKARACHARYA, in Biography, a very cele-
brated Sanfcrit author, whofe excelleit works on theology
and philofophy are much admired by many feéts of Hin-
doos, particularly thofe of the fect of Saiva, and the fol-
lowers of the Vedanta theory, of which he is reckoned the
reftorer. (See thefe articles, and Sects of Hindoos.) He
tarnifhed the brilliancy of his reputation by his intolerance
and bigotry, which induced him to ftir up and foment a
furious perfecution againfl the heretical fect of Jaina, and
others. (See Jaina.) For this he was canonized by his
own followers; though by others, efpecially by the de-
{cendants of the objeéts of his holy vengeance, his name is
held in deferved abhorrence. His pious fury was fo excef-
five, that his abettors judged it to be more than mortal, and
that a portion of the avenging deity mutt have infpired him ;
and it is accordingly fabled that he was a manifeftation, or
avatara, of the god Siva, one of whofe names is Sankara ;
acharya being a furname denoting literary celebrity. (Sce
SanKara.) A biographical account of this extraordinary
man would afford a fine moral leflon. His literary works
would do honour to any name of any country, and his ac-
tions are indelibly difgraceful. To the compunétious vifit-
ings of his confcience may perhaps be attributed the mode
or his departure from this world, which was by the ex-
piatory procefs of a meritorious fpecies of fuicide, called
karfhagni. This confifts in cafing the body with a thick
covering of cow-dung, lubricated with cow’s urine, which,
when dry, ignites {peedily, and burns rapidly with a beauti-
fully pure thos flame. This being fet on fire, qnickly con-
fumes, they fay, both fin and finner. (See KansHacnr
and Suicipe.) His commentary on the Veda is held in

t refpeét by the literati of the Eait. Its popular title
1s the Bafbea. He flourifhed in the year 1000 of our era.
See Vepa and VEDANTA.

SANKARI, or Sonco, in Geography, a town of Africa,
in the kingdom of Jallonkadoo, near the fource of the
Niger. N. lat. 11° 10/. ‘W. long. 6° 20’.

SANKASURA, a conchological demon frequently
mentioned in the fabulous legends of the Hindoos. The
name means demon of the fhell fank, or thank, or chank ;
being, like our conch, a generic term for fhell. (See
Suanx.) This demon was deftroyed by Krifhna, as re-
lated under the article Kasya; which fee.

SANKAUY, in Geography, a town of Affam; 36 miles
W. of Ghergonge.

SANKEIRA, a town of Hindooftan, in Malwa; 10
miles W. of Ougein.

SAN

SANKERIDURGAM, a town of Hindooftan, in
Barramaul; 80 miles S,E. of Seringapatam.

SANKEY Cana. See CAnat. ‘

SANKIRA, in Botany, a name given by fome authors
to the plant, of which the China-root, ufed in medicine, is
the root. ’

SANKO, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Ben-
gal; 16 miles N.W. of Moorfhedabad.
nei a town of Thibet; 6 miles S. of Chang-
affe.

SANKYA, the name of one of the fix principal fchools,
or theories, of philofophy among the Hindoos. It is attri-
buted to a philofopher of the name of Kapila, who by fome
is faid to have upheld tenets leading to materialifm. The
Sankyas, however, profefs to believe in the exiftence of two
eternal fubftances or beings: the one they call Parufha,.or
male; the other Prakriti, or nature. (See our articles
ParusHa and Prakriti; where, however, we have con-
fidered them rather mythologically than in a philofophical
view.) So intimately blended as mythology is with every
department of Hindoo literature, it is not eafy to clear any
{ubje&t of the obfcurity by which it is thereby: involved.
As far as this Sankya theory can be feen fomewhat freed
from perfonification, it feems to teach that Parufha, or the
male effence, exifts in an eternal ftate of reit, impaflible,
and a mere f{peétator of the motions of the univerfe. This
{tate of their fupreme they illuitrate by the popular figure
of a lotus, or water-lily; which, after the water pafles
over it, is left in its original condition. The Hindoos find
in the lotus illuftrations of almoit every obfcurity, (See
our articles Kamax and Loros.) ‘ The motions or phe-
nomena of the material world,” fay the Sankyas, ‘ and of
all fentient beings, proceed from Prakriti, or nature.” In
this tenet we recognife the theory of other f{chools; and it
is applied by theologians in aggrandizement of the deities of.
their own feét. A Saiva will apply the name of Parufha
to Siva, and of Prakriti to his Sakti, or aétive female
energy, Parvati. In like manrer will a Vaifhnava apply
them to Vifhnu and Lakfhmi; and other feéts to the objets
of their exclufive adoration. See hereon under Sects of
Hindoos, and under the foreign words in the preceding
paragraph. The argument by which the Sankyas fupport
the tenet juft afcribed to them is not very clear. ‘ Spirit
is life ; effet and caufe are infeparably united ; confequently
a ceflation of effe& involves a ceflation of the caufe; there-
fore agency cannot be predicable of the Supreme Being.
The idea that he ats arifes from the union of life and un-
derftanding.’? Hindoo metaphyficians profefs to find no
difficulty in fully comprehending fuch arguments as thefe ;
and they endeavour to illuftrate them by iepings that “ life
here denotes its fimple abftraét nature, divefted of the
qualities of thought, feeling, action, &c. This fimple
ab{tra& life is the Supreme Being. Underftanding (which
denotes the active and fenfitive principles of beings) arifes
from the operations of nature; and the union of under-
ftanding, or the ative faculties, with life, which is the
Supreme Being, produces the idea that he is the agent in
the motions of the univerfe.”” In oppofition to the Vedanti
theory, affirming that underftanding is the termination or
marigetian of the one being, the Siskers afferts that it is
the completion of nature. « Nature is eternal, but it is
upheld by Life, the Supreme Being. When the univerfe
difappears, Nature remains in an invifible feminal ftate ; but
at the defire of the Supreme Being, it affumes a vifible form,
and becomes the creator of the world.” If we put this
fentence into another fhape,—the fhape, indeed, in which it
would appear in its original metaphyfical language, 8

affume

Go

ee ee

SAN

afume a mythological air, and admit of eafy perfonification
and application. Thus, ‘ Prakriti is eternal,. but it or fhe
is upheld by Parufha. Atamahapralaya, Prakriti aflumes
an inyifible-feminal {tate ; but by the volition of Parufha,
or Brahm, a Kalpa occurs, and Prakriti affumes a vifible
form, and becomes Brahma the Creator.”? Mahapralaya
denotes a periodical deftruétion, or change, of all things ;

Kalpa, a reorganization of matter ; and matter is. per-

fonified in Brahma. See Katpa, MAHAPRALAYA, and

Siva. .

The foul, or fenfitive part of living beings, proceeds, by
the Sankya theory, from the organization of nature, but is
formed of its more refined parts. This affords an opening
for the charge of materialifm. But, continue the Sankyas,
in common with the Vedaatas, by the efficacy of virtuous
aGtions, men are cleared from the effeéts of Maya, paflion,
er delufion, and united to the fupreme {piritual. eflence.
See Maya. :

A fuccin& account of the different Hindoo philofophical
theories, feparated, as they actually are, from religious or
mythological extravagance, is, we think, very defirable.
Such of our ctthe f as have looked into this branch of
Hindoo literature will acknowledge the difficulty, under
our prefent knowledge of the fubjet, of giving any very
fatisfa&tory account of their real differences, or coincidences,
with each other, or with other f{chools more familiar to us.
We have, under various articles of this work, given fhort
notices on thefe points: for which, in addition to thofe al-
ready referred to, the following may be confulted: Jar-
mint, Kapita, Maya, Mimansa, Nyaya, Puirosopxy
of the Hindoos, PATANJALI, VEDANTA, and others thence
referred to.

SAN-LLKIAO, in Geography, a town of Chinefe ‘Tar-
tary; 18 miles S.S.W. of Ning-yuen.

SANN, a river of Stiria, which rifes near Oberburg,
and runs into the Koding, near Cilley.

Sann, a town of Egypt, on a canal which runs from
the Nile to the lake Menzaleh; 70 miles N.E. of Cairo.

SANNA, a town of Sweden, in the province of Nericia ;
12 miles W. of Orebro.

SANNABA, in Ancient Geography, a town of India, on
this fide of the Ganges. Ptolemy.

SANNAK, in Geography, a clutter of iflands in the
North Pacific ocean, near the S. coaft of Alafhka. N. lat.
54° 50’. E. long. 196° 29!.

_SANNAS, a mountain of Perfia, in the province of

_ Lariftan; 45 miles S.E. of Lar. , :

SANNAZARO, Jacopo, in Biography, an eminent Ita-
lian and Latin poet, was born at Naples in 1458. He
received his claffical education in the {chool of Giuniano
Maggio, and the academy of Pontano, and upon entering the
latter, he changed his baptifmal name into A@tius Sincerus,
which he always ufed in hi Latin works. He was firft in-
fpired as a poet by Carmofina Bonifacia, a lady who
became the theme of his verfe. Finding himfelf over-
whelmed in this paffion, he quitted his native country, and
pafled fome time in France: being, however, unable to endure
a very long abfence from the objeét of his attachment, he
returned ; before he could arrive, his Carmofina had died in
the bloom of her youth. His poetical reputation was now
confiderable, and he became known to king.Ferdinand I.
and princes Alfonfo and Frederic : he was admitted into their
train, and accompanied them in feyeral military expeditions.
For the entertainment of his patrons he compofed fome
dramatic pieces in the Neapolitan diale€t, which became ex-
tremely Repair. In the fubfequent revolutions of the
kingdom o Naples, and amidft all the viciflitudes undergone

OL. XXXTP.

SAN

by the houfe of Aragon, Sannazaro remained faithfully at-
tached to its members, and, upon the fucceflion of Frederic
to the throne, he was rewarded with a pention of 600 du-
cats, and the prefent of the pleafant villa of Mergoglino, fo
much celebrated in his poems under the name of Mergillina.
When this prince loft his crown, and was obliged to retire
to France, Sannazaro, after felling the remainder of his
hereditary pofleffions, to relieve the neceflities of his fove-
reign, followed him, and continued attached to his fervice
till he died, in 1504. Sannazaro then returned to Italy,
where he devoted himfelf to poetry and letters, preferving his
gaiety and the gallantry of a courtier to advanced years.
He had, at length, the mortification to witnefs the deftruc-
tion of his Mergillina by the imperial army under Phillibert,
prince of Orange; and though his revenge was in fome de-
gree gratified, by the intelligence that this leader was foon
flain in battle, he himfelf did not long furvive. He died
near Naples in 1530, at the age of 72. The name of San-
nazaro {tands very high in Italian and Latin poetry. In
the firft he is accounted one of the pureft and moft elegant
compofers of his age, and if he had not employed his ma-
ture powers upon Toe verfe, it has been thought that he
might have attained to the higheft rank in vernacular poetry,
The moft celebrated of his works in this clafs is entitled
«* Arcadia,” a paftoral, confifting of dialogues in verfe, each
preceded by an introduétion in a fort of poetical profe. It
was, at the time of publication, fo very popular, that it went
through many editions, and in the 16th century fixty editions
had appeared. He was author likewife of fonnets and lyrical
pieces, of which the beft editions are thofe by Comino in 1723,
and by Remondiniin 1752. The Latin poems of Sannazaro
are highly commended for the finifhed elegance of their ftyle
and verfification : they confift of pifcatory eclogues, elegies,
epigrams, and a facred poem “* De Partu Virginis.”’? This
laft piece confifts of 1500 lines, containing many fine paf-
fages, and exhibiting great command of the Latin language,
in adapting it to fuch a fubjeét. Erafmus has juitly cen-
fured the poet for his invocation of the mufes and Phebus ;
for his reprefenting the Virgin as intent upon the Sybilline
verfes, inftead of the Jewifh prophecies; and for the ge-
neral air of heathenifm given to the whole work. Rofcoe’s
Leo X.

SANNE, or Senne, in Geography, a river of France,
which runs into the fea about nine miles from Dieppe.

SANNI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia, near
the Leffler Armenia, and near T'rebizond and Pharnacia.
Strabo.

SANNINA, a town of Afia, in Media. Ptolemy.

SANON, in Geography, a river of France, which runs
into the Meurte, 2 miles E. of St. Nicolas. ‘

SANORE, a country of Hindooftan, S.of Vifiapour, and
N. of the Myfore, about 120 miles long and 70 broad ;
which derives its name from Sanore, a fortrefs on the river
Toom; 110 miles S.S.E. of Vifiapour.—Alfo, a town and
fortrefs of Hindooftan, on the left bank of the Toom, about
15 miles from its junétion with the Niyoodan, to form the
Tungabadra. On the oppofite bank is another town, called
Bancapour, or Sanore Bancapour, 110 miles S. of Vifiapour.
N. lat. 15° go!. E. long. 75° 50’.

SA NOSA, a town of Autftrian Poland, in Galicia, on the
river San ; 74 miles 5,W. of Lemberg.

SANOWLEY,a town of Hindooftan, in Oude; 50 miles
N.E. of Fyzabad. N. lat. 27° 15'. E. long, 83° 11'.

SANPARAM, a town of Hindooftan, in the cirear of
Cicacole; 10 miles N.E. of Kimedy.

SANPOO, a river of Afia, fuppofed to be the fame as
the Burrampooter, which fee.

Zz

SAnpPoo,

SAN

SANPO0, or Tfanpoo, (Yo), or Tecfa, a river which rifes
in Thibet, and joins the Ganges in Bengal.

SANPOORA, a town of Bengal; 62 miles N.W. of
Ramgur.

SANPOU, a town of Corea; 113 miles S.S.E. of
King-ki-tao. N. lat. 37° 8! E. long. 128° 48!.—Alfo, a
town of China, of the third rank, in Yun-nan; 7 miles S.W.
of Ganning.

SANQUELIN, a town of Hindooftan, in Soonda ;
15 miles E. of Goa.

SANQUELOC, atown of Upper Siam ; 35 milesN.W.
of Porfelouc. j

SANQUEM, a town of Hindooitan, in Soonda; 25
miles S.E. of Goa.

SANQUHAR, 4 royal borough and market-town in
the county of Dumfries, Scotland, is fituated on the banks
of the river Nith, and near the confines of Ayrfhire, at the
diftance of 27 miles N.N.W. from Dumfries, and 33 miles
§.S.E. from the town of Ayr. It is conjectured by fome
Awriters to have been a town in the earlieft period of Scottifh
hiftory, and there can be no doubt that it enjoyed the pri-
vileges of a burgh of barony, at lealt two centuries before
the fame were confirryed by charter in 1484. King James VI.
at the inftance of Robert Crichton, lord of Sanquhar, ele-
vated it to the rank of a royal burgh in 1596, and as fuch it
now joins with the burghs of Dumfries, Annan, Kirkcud-
bright, and Lochmaben, in deputing a reprefentative to the
Britifh parliament. The corporation of this town confilts
of a provoit, a dean of guild, three bailies, and eleven coun-
fellors ; and exclufive of a large traét of commonty, pol-
feffes a revenue of nearly 100/. per annum. Formerly a
confiderable manufaéture of knit ftockings was carried on
here, but that branch of induftry received a fatal check at
the commencement of the American war. It {till employs
feveral families, though on a much narrower {eale than be-
fore, when one perfon was accuftomed to fend to a fingle
houfe in Glafgow 4800 pairs of ftockings annually.

Since the decline of this manufaéture, however, feveral
carpet-works have been eftablifhed here, alfo a {mall manu-
faéture of woollen cloths, both which are rapidly increafing
in importance. Indeed no fituation is better adapted for
the profecution of the woollen trade than Sanquhar, .as it is
almoft in the centre of a country, whofe ftaple commodities
are fheep and wool, and which touches the head of Galloway
on the one hand, and borders on Ayrfhire, Clydefdale,
Annandale, and Tweedale, on the other. To thefe ad-
vantages may be added abundance of coal and water in
the immediate vicinity ; likewrfe an eafy communication
with Edinburgh, Dumfries, Ayr, and Glafgow, by excellent
roads.

Sanquhar confifts chiefly of one principal ftrect, nearly
half a mile in length, with a number of ftraggling houfes on
each fide of it. ‘The only building worthy of notice is the
church, which is a ftruéture in the early pointed ttyle of
archite@ture, but fo much mutilated by decay and altera-
tidns as to have oft all intereft as an objeét of ancient art.
Sanquhar market is held on Saturday weekly ; and there are
befides two annual fairs for the fale of black cattle and
fheep. The parifh is very extenfive, being about fifteen
miles in length and nearly ten in breadth ; and containing,
according to the parliamentary returns of 1811, 562 houfes,
and 2709 inhabitants. It is prolific of minerals of various
kinds, but particularly of boil; iron-{tone, and lime-{tone, all
of which are mired in different parts of it. Near the town, on
its fouthern fide, ftand the ruins of Sanquhar caltle, once the
feat and refidence of the Crichton family, one of whom was
the romantic and chivalrous chara&ter, who, in the fixteenth

5

SAN

century, was’ celebrated for his learning and accomplith-
ments over all Europe, and is commonly known by the
name of the admirable Crichton. The Statiftical Ac-
count of Scotland by fir John Sinclair, bart. vol. vi. 8vo.
1793. Carlifle’s Topographical Diétionary of Scotland,
gto. 1813. : a

SANS Parvrittr, in Conchology, the name of a par-
ticular fpecies of buccinum, which has its mouth opening a
contrary way to that of all other buccina. This is a fingle
{pecies among the recent buccina, but we find more than one
kind with this peculiarity among the foffile fhells, and that
in great abundance in many places in England.
. SANSAC, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Charente; ro miles S.E. of La Roche-
foucauld.

SANSANDING, a very large town of Africa, in Bam-
bara, fituated on the banks of the Niger, much reforted to by
the Moors, who bring thither large quantities of falt, which
they barter for fhea-toulou and gold-duft ; 25 miles N.E.
of Sego. When Mr. Park, in his African travels, pafled
between the outfkirts of this town and the river, he faw
twenty large canoes, molt of them fully laden, and many
others rowing down the river full of paflengers or goods.

SANSCRIT Laneuace. See SHANscRIT. - :

SANSEGO, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Adria-
tic: N. lat. 44°45'. E. long. 14° 36’. :

SANSEVIERA, in Botany, named by Thunberg, who
more correétly perhaps writes it San/évieria, in honour, as
we prefume, of fome botanift ; but we are not able to dif-
cover any thing of his hiftory.—Thunb. Nov. Gen. 127.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. tg. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 278.
Lamarck Di&. vy. 6. 501. © (Liriope; Loureir. Co-
chinch. 200. Salmia; Cavan. Ic. v. 3. 24. Aletris; La-
marck. Illuftr. t. 237. Gzertn. t. 1§.)—Clafs and order,
Hexandria Monozyniae Nat.Ord. Coronaria, Linn. A/-
phodeli, Jufl. x ak

Gen. Ch. Cal. none. Cor. inferior, of one petal, fun-
nel-fhaped, permanent ; tube cylindrical; limb in fix deep,
revolute, nearly equal fegments.’ Stam. Filaments fix, awl-
fhaped, inferted into the tube at the bafe of the fegments,
and equal to them in length ; anthers oblong, ere&. Pf.
Germen fuperior, ovate; ftyle awl-fhaped, the length of
the ftamens ; {tigma three-cleft. Peric. Berry globofe, of
three cells. Seeds roundifh, folitary. yey

Eff. Ch. Calyx none. Corolla of one petal; tube cy-
lindrical ; limb in fix deep revolute fegments. Stamens in-
ferted at the bafe of each fegment. ‘Berry of three cells.
Seeds folitary. ; ’

1. S. guineenfis. Guinea Sanfeviera., African Bow-
ftring Hemp. Willd. n.1. Aiten. 1. Curt. Mag. r18o.
t.1179. (Alletris guineenfis; Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 1. 36.
t. 84. A. hyacinthoides 8; Linn. Sp. Pl. 456.)—Leaves
lanceolate, uniform. Style twice the length of the itamens.
Braéteas one-third as long as the tube of the corolla.
Flowers feffile.—Native of Guinea. Long cultivated in our
gardens, flowering in the dry ftove mott part of the fummer.
Root peresnial, with ftrong fibres. Stem none. Leaves
lanceolate, ere€t, 18 to 24 inches long, rigid and coriaceous,
entire, fmooth, dark green trarfverlely variegated with a
paler hue ; their internal fibres fupplying the Africans with
bow-{trings.. Flower-flalks taller than the leaves, each bear-
ing a long {pike of aggregate, grecnifh-white flowers, in
great numbers, of confiderable elegance. Berry tawny,
with only one perfeé feed. b

Owing to the fcarcely pardonable blunder, as it occurs
in fuch works fo frequently, of the letter-prefs in the Bo-
tanical Magazine béing numbered 1180, while the table is

11795

SAN

1179, the accurate editor of Hort. Kew. has been mifled in
his quotation. An almoft unique initance with him !

2. S. zeylanica. Ceylon Sanfeviera. Wild. n.z. Ait.
n. 2. Roxb, Coromand. v. 2. 43. t. 184. (Aletris hya-
cinthoides x ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 456. Salmia fpicata ; Cavan.
Ic. t. 246. Liriope {picata; Lour. Cochinch. 201.)—
Leaves {mooth; partly oblong, acute, flat; partly linear-
lanceolate, channelled. Style the length of the itamens.
Braéteas the length of the partial flower-{talks.—Native of
Ceylon, and other parts of the Eaft Indies. Common in
buthy places on the, coaft of Coromandel, flowering from
the beginning of January till May. The narrower and
more various form of the /eaves, befides the other characters
indicated above, and the fomewhat fmaller flowers, dif-
tinguifh this fpecies from the foregoing. Dr. Roxburgh
fays its ufe is fimilar, the /eaves affording the natives of
Hindooftan peculiarly excellent bow-ftrings. That faithful
hiltorian of nature, whofe recent death we have now to la-
ment, fulpeéts that what is commonly termed China-grafs,
or Fucus Tendo of Linnzus, is no other than the fibre of
thefe leaves.

3. S.carnea. Flefh-coloured Sanfeviera.. Andr. Repof.
t. 361, Ait. n.3. (S. feffiliflora; Gawler in Curt. Mag.
t. 739-)—Leaves fmooth, two-ranked, lanceolate fword-
thaped, keeled. Flowers folitary, feflile.—Native of China,
introduced by the late Mr. Evans of Stepney. It flowers in
the nhoufe at various feafons. This is a {maller plant
than either of the preceding. The /eaves are ribbed, of an
uniform green, and-rife much above the pale pink /pike of
frowers, which are folitary, not aggregate.

4. S. lanuginofa. Woolly-leayed Sanfeviera. Willd. n. 3.
(Katu kapel; Rheede Hort. Malab. v. 11.83. t.42.)—
Leaves linear-lanceolate, with woolly ribs. Style the length
of the ftamens. Flowers aggregate, ftalked, without brac-
teas.—Native of fandy ground in Malabar. A doubtful
fpecies, moit allied perhaps to our xeylanica, but Willde-
now, on the authority of Rheede, has diftinguifhed it. The
flowers are faid. to be reddifh externally, greenifh within,
and the fruit green. No braéeas are reprefented ; which,
if correét, affords a fufficient diltin@tive character.

SANSIO, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the pro-
vince of Smaland; 26 miles S.E, of Jonkioping.

SANSON, Nicuotas, in Biography, a celebrated
French geographer in the 17th century, was born at Abbe-
ville, in Picardy, in the. year 1600. He was educated in
the Jefuits college of Amiens, and difcovered an early in-
clination for that fcience in which he afterwards excelled,
and which was cultivated by his father, who had publifhed
feveral maps. At the age of 18 or 19 he had drawn a map
of ancient Gaul on four fheets, and compiled a Latin ex-
planatory treatife to accompany it, but he was perfuaded to
defer the publication of this work, in order that he might
render it more perfeét, and by the apprehenfion that, on
account of his youth, it might be afcribed to his father.
He commenced his career in life in merchandize, but havin
met with confiderable lofles he determined to devote himfelt
wholly to the purfuits.of {cience. In 1627 he publifhed his
map of ancient Gaul, which met with fo favourable a re-
ception that he had the greatelt encouragement to. proceed
in the career in which be had embarked. His next work
made its appearance in 1636, under the title of “ Gracia
Antique “Disterigtio Geograpbica,’”’ which was followed,
in the fame year, by a curious piece, entitled “ Britannia, or
an Enquiry into the Antiquity of Abbeville.” In 1637 he
diftinguithed himfelf by * A Treatife on the Roman Em-
pire,’ with 15 maps. His attention in the*mean time was
not wholly engrofled by his geographical produétions, but

SAN

direGed to the fortifications of Abbeyille, for which he
was engaged in the capacity of engineer to the king. In
1641 he publifhed a map of the rivers of France, and in
1644 he gave the public another work, entitled “ France
delineated,” on five Latin maps, comprifing the ancient
Itineraries, and five French ones, and accompanied with
different illuftrative treatifes. Soon after this he publifhed
fimilar maps, both in Latin and French, of “ The Britith
Ifles,”? ‘‘ Spain,’ and ‘Italy :”” with the laft he gave « A
Treatife on the Sovereign Princes of Italy ;’’ and from
this time he direéted his labours to a more particular deli-
neation of France, in which he proceeded till it was, at
length, extended to nearly 120 folio fheets. or the great
fervices which he thus rendered to the interefts of fcience, he
was appointed not only geographer to the king, but had a
penfion of 2000 livres fettled upon him. | This appointment
made it neceflary for him to remoye to Paris ; and fome time
after his fettlement there, in 1646, he publifhed nine maps
of the courfe of the Rhine, with an alphabetical table of
all the cities, their fituations, &c. In 1647 he engaged in a
controverfy with father Labbe, who, in his. ** Pharus Gallie
Antique,’’ had attacked the notes accompanying M. San-
fon’s map of the Gauls, and yet copied them in a variety
of places without making any acknowledgment of his ob-
ligations. On this occafion M. Sanfon publifhed his * Dif-
quifitiones Geographice in Pharum Gallie Antique,’’ in
which he fully ettablifhed his charge of plagiarifms againit
Labbe, and alfo conyiéted him of a vait number of geo-
graphical blunders. In 1649 he publifhed ** Remarks on
the Map of ancient Gaul at the time of Cefar ;’’ and in a
few years afterwards he gaye to the public his ‘* Afia,” in
I4 new maps, ‘lluftrated by feveral geographical and hif-
torical diflertations, which was a very popular work. He
next publifhed “* Geographia facra ex Veteri et Novo Tefta-
mento defumpta, et in Tabulas quatuor concinnata, &c.
Addite funt defcriptio Terre Chanaan, five Terre Pro-
miff, Jefu Chrifti, et Apoft. Petri et Pauli Vite; tum et
in omnes eas 'Fabulas et Defcriptiones, Animadverfiones et
Index Geographicus.”” Of this work an edition was
printed by ie Clerc, in 1704, with notes and an additional
preface by the editor. In 1656 M. Sanfon publifhed his
“« Africa,’? confilting of 19 maps, and afterwards his
«* America,” in 16 maps; each fet being accompanied with
geographical and hiitorical treatifes. He was author of.a
great variety of other maps, in Latin and French, which,
together with his other works, form a large atlas, in two
vols. folio, accompanied by a fet of ‘* Methodical 'Tables,’?
containing a comparifon of ancient with modern geography.
M. Sanfon died in 1667, in the 67th year of his age. He
left three fons, each of whom pollefled a portion of their
father’s genius, and obtained the poft of geographer to the
king. The eldeft, Nicholas, was killed during the barricades
of Paris in 1648, while defending the chancellor Seguier
againlt the populace. He was author of a work entitled
«« Europe,’’ written in the form of a dialogue, and illuttrated
with 20 French and nine Latin maps, and of many other
works. William, the fecond fon, who died in 1705, was
author of Latin notes again{t the geographical diétionary
of Baudrand ; alfo, of «An Introduétion to Geography.’?
The youngelt fon of M. Sanfon, Adrian, died in 1718.

SANSONATE, or La Trinipan, in, Geography, a
fea-port town of Mexico, in the province of Guatimala, at
the mouth of a river of the fame name; 120 miles S.E. of
Guatimala. .

SANSOR, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of El-
licpour ; 9g miles N. of Akoat. — ;

SAN-SOUCI, a town of the Middle Mark of Branden-

Z2z2 burg,

SAN

burg, near Potzdam, where is a royal palace, which has no
claim to grandeur of external archite&ture.

SANSOVINO, Jacopo, in Biography, an eminent
fculptor and architeét, whofe family name was Tatti, was
born in 1479, at the town of Sanfovino, in Tufcany, from
which place he took his ufual appellation. He became a
difciple of the famous Florentine fculptor, Andrea Con-
tucci, alfo called Sanfoyino. At an early age he contracted
an intimacy with the painter Andrea del Sarto, and a mutual
communication of ftudies and ‘ideas took place between
them. He was firft taken to Rome by the archite&t Giu-
liano da San-Gallo, where he was employed in defigning
and modelling antiques. After paffing fome time at Rome,
his want of health obliged him to return to Florence, where
he was engaged in feveral works. In 1514 he was em-
ployed to defign the triumphal arches ereéted for the en-
trance of Leo X., and his plans were fo much approved by
that pope, that he ordered him to give a model for an in-
tended marble front of the church of San Lorenzo. It
was approved, but the execution of the work being afligned
to Michael Angelo, Sanfovino left Florence and returned
to Rome. He there executed many works in {culpture and
archite@ture, among the latter of which was the magnificent
church of St. John the Baptift.. On the fack of Rome in
1527, Sanfovino retired to Venice with the intention of pro-
ceeding to France, but the reception which he met with
there, determined him to remain in that capital. He was
appointed architect to the republic, and was immediately
engaged in fome of the fplendid works which have infe-
parably conneéted his name with the decorations of Venice.
He died at Venice in the year 1570, atthe ageof go. As
a fculptor he was diftinguifhed by the expreffion and aétion
of his figures, and the fingular lightnefs of his draperies.
He difplayed in his art great powers of invention, directed
by much good tafte. Gen. Biog.

Sansovino, FRANCESCO, fon of the preceding, was born
at Rome in 1521. He accompanied his father to Venice,
where he was inftruéted in claffical literature by the bett
matters. It being his father’s defign to fit him for advance-
ment in the court of Rome, he was fent to ftudy the law at
Padua; but the more agreeable {tudies in which he had
been initiated, gave him a diltafte to feverer purfuits, and
inftead of attending the {chools, he procured an admiffion
into a newly founded academy. With this ftep his father
was fo much offended, that going to Padua he refufed to
fee his fon; and Francefco upon this, to appeafe his father,
confented to remove to Bologna, where he went through all
the procefs of alegal graduation. But though he had taken
a do@tor’s degree, he declined following the profeffion, and
devoted himfelf to literature. Upon the eleGtion of Julius III.,
who was his godfather, to the papal throne, inthe year 1550,
he flew to Rome full of hopes, but obtaining no valuable

referment, he returned to Venice, and devoted himfelf to
Satary occupations. He compofed a multiplicity of
works of various kinds, but they were written in great
halle, and were not at all calculated for duration. The two
that have been mott known are entitled ** L’ Origine e Fatti
deile Famiglie illuftri d’ftalia,”” and « Il Ritratto delle piu
nobili Citta d’ Italia.”

SANSUND, in Geography, a town of Norway, on the
Glammen ; 24 miles N.E. of Frederickftadt.

SANT, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of Bamberg ;
9 miles N.W. of Burg-Eberach.—Alfo, a town of Hin-
doottan, in Bahar ; 30 miles W.N.W. of Saferam. N. lat.
25°23': E. long. 83° 44.

SANTA, a town of Spain, in New Cattile, on the
Xnucar; 20 miles S, of Alargon.—Alfo, a town of Peru,

SAN

and capital of a jurifdiGtion, in the archbifhopric of Lima,
on ariver of the fame name. It was originally built on the
fea-coaft, but is now above half a league diftant ; and it
was then large and populous, and the refidencé of a corre-
gidor, with feveral convents; but being pillaged by ‘the
Englifh in the year 1685, it was eed “Le by the inha-
bitants ; and thofe who could not remove to a more fecure
place, fettled here. "The whole number of houfes does not
now exceed 30, and the beft of them are conftruéted of
cane, andthe reft of ftraw. Thefe houfes are inhabited by
about 50 poor families, confifting of Indians, Mulattoes,
and Mettizos ; 210 miles N.N.W. of Lima. S. lat. 9° 3!.
W. long. 78° 48'.—Alfo, a river of Peru, which runs into
the South Pacific ocean, S. lat. 9°.—Alfo, a city of China,
of the firft rank, in the province of Yun-nan, furrounded
with mountains, and fituated on the borders of Ava, havin
a garrifon for the defence of the frontiers. N. lat. 24° aa
E. long. 107° 46'.—Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in the
circar of Cicacole; 10 miles N.E. of Kimedy.—Alfo, a
{mall ifland in the Pacific ocean, near the coalt of Peru.
S. lat. 9%

Santa Barbara, a fea-port and Spanifh fettlement of
North America, in New Albion, with a prefidio” and
miffion, on the coaft of the North Pacific ocean, fee Canal
of St. Barpara.—Alfo, a town of the ifland’ of Cuba ;
to miles S. of Bayamo.—Alfo, a fea-port on the S.E.
coatt of the ifland of Curagoa, with a good harbour.—
Alfo, a {mall ifland ia the North Pacific ocean, about 40
miles from the coaft of New Albion. N. lat. 33° 24’. E.
long. 241° 16’. See alfo St. BARBARA.

Santa Barbara de Timbiqui, a town of South America,
in the province of Popayan, near the mouth of the river
Plata; 30 miles N.W. of Barbacoa. N, lat. 2° 12! ©

Santa Bembally, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Cicacole ; 25 miles N.E. of Cicacole. é

Santa Caloma, atownof Spain, in Catalonia ; 11 miles
S.E. of Cervera.

Santa Clara, a miffion of Francifean friars, on the W.
coaft of North America, eftablifhed for the converfion and
initruCtion of the Indians in New Albion, under the Spanith
government. Thefe fathers have a guard, confifting of a
corporal and fix privates. The fituation is a fertile foil on
which they cultivate wheat, maize, peas and beans; 40
miles §.S.E. of St. Francifeo.—Alfo, one of the fmaller
Canary iflands, N. of Lancerotta. N. lat. 29° 35/. W.
long. 13° 22'—Alfo, a town of New Mexico, on the
Bravo; 40 miles N.N.W. of Santa Fé.—Alfo, a fmall
ifland near the coaft of Peru, fituated in the bay of
gti 27 miles S. from the ifland of Puna. S.
ate (3° : »

Santa Cruz, a fea-port town of Morocco, in the pro-
vince of Suz, or Sufe, called by the Arabs Aguadir, Aga-
deer, or Cape Aguer, and in the time of Leo Africanus
Guertgueffem. A Portuguefe gentleman built a wooden
houfe on this coaft, for the convenience of fifhing, for which
the {pacious bay of this place, and the neighbouring fea,
afford an ample fupply of fifth; and he found it a very
lucrative undertaking. The Moors call this place “ El
dar del Roomi,” that is, the houfe of the Roman. About
the beginning of the 16th century, viz. in 1503, Don
Emanuel, king of Portugal, finding the importance of this
polt with a view to the conquefts which he had already made,
or farther proje&ed; bought the ground, and built a fortrefs
called Santa Cruz, which was taken from the Portuguefe
in 1536. .This town was, for a long time, the centre of an
extenfive comniérce, whither the Arabs of the Defart, and
the people of Soudan, reforted to purchafe various kinds of

mer-

SAN

merchandize, for the markets of the interior of Africa; and

caravans were conftantly pafling to and from Tombuétoo.
Different European natfons. had ; fa@tories in this place,
till the year 1773, when the emperor Seedy Mahomet
marched againtt it, and caufed it to furrender; the governor
Talb Solh having long refifted, and at length terminated his
exiftence by means of a penknife, which was fent to him
baked in a loaf of bread. The merchants were allowed but
a fhort time to colleét together their effets, when they were
ordered to proceed to Mogodor, at the diltance of about
35 leagues, where the emperor encouraged them to build
houfes. Santa Cruz is the laft port in the emperor’s do-
minions, on the fhores of the Atlantic. The town, which
ftands on the fummit of the mountain, is {trong by nature,
and its walls are alfo defended by batteries ; but the prin-
cipal battery is at a fhort diltance from the town, down the
mountain, and was originally intended to prote@ a fine {pring
of frefh water, clofe to the fea: this battery alfo commands
the approach to the town, both from the north and the
fouth, and the fhipping in the bay. The town, called by
the Portuguefe Fonté, is ftill itanding at the foot of the
mountain, and the arms of that nation are now to be feen in
a building ere&ted over the f{pring. The port of Santa
Cruz isa large and very fecure bay, capable of containing a
_great number of fhips, and well defended on all fides from
the wind. Immenfe quantities of fifth are caught here by
the inhabitants of the town, and prepared in ovens, for
tranfportation to the interior.

Beyond Santa Cruz there is no port frequented by fhip-
ping; there is, however, atraét of coaft which holds out
great encouragement to commercial enterprize, and fecure
eftablifhments might be effeGted upon it, which would amply
remunerate the enterprifing {peculator: the people of Sufe
are alfo well difpofed towards Europeans, particularly the
Englifh ; and the communication, as well as the fhort dif-
tance between this place and the provinces or diftriéts where
mott of the valuable produéts of Barbary are raifed, ren-
ders it peculiarly adapted to trade. ‘There are but two
roads fit for fhipping between Santa Cruz and Cape Boja-
dor, an extent of coalt, for the moft part defart, of feventy
leagues, the whole of which is inhabited by various tribes
of Arabs, who have emigrated at different periods from the
interior of Sahara, and pitched their tents wherever they
could find a foil capable of affording pafture to their flocks.
In thefe fouthern climates the people are more fuperttitious
than in the northern provinces ; they have but few mofques,
and therefore perform their devotion in the open air or in
their tents. orfes, camels, and other beafts, live toge-
ther with men, women, and children, indifcriminately.
When they are in want of water for their religious ablutions,
they fubftitute fand. Thefe reftlefs people are continually at
war with their neighbours, their contetts originating in fa-
af quarrels: plunder keeps them inceffantly in motion,
and they traverfe the defart to Soudan, Tombuétoo, and
Wangara. ‘The town of Santa Cruz contains 300 inhabit-
ants ; and together with its diftriét, including ‘Tiddi, Ted-
dert, and Tamaraét, it contains 1000. Ne lat, 30° 28,
W. long. 9° 30/-—Alfo, a river of Morocco, which runs
into the Atlantic, near cape Aguer.

Santa Cruz, a town of Mexico, in New Bifeay ; 50
miles W.N.W. of Parral.—Alfo, a town of Mexico, in New
Bifcay ; fs miles N. of Durango.—Alfo, a town and bay
on the welt coaft of the ifland of Curagoa.—Alfo, a town
of Teneriffe. See Santa Cruz.—Alfo, a fea-port town
of Brafil, near the coaft of the Atlantic; 15 miles N. of
Porto Seguro.—Alfo, an ifland in the Pacific ocean, dif-
covered and thus named by Mendana, in 1595 ; afterwards

SAN

called Egmont ifland.—Alfo, a river of Patagonia, difco-
vered in 1520, by don Juan Serrano, captain of the St.
Jago, who accompanied Magellan in his voyage round the
world. The fhip was wrecked in this river, but the crew
were faved. It runs into the Atlantic, S. lat. 50° 25/.—
Alfo, 2 fea-port townof Cuba. See Santa Cruz.—Alfo,
one of the Caribbee iflands. See S¥. Crorx.—Alfo, an
ifland in the Pacific ocean, feparated from the coa{t of New
Albion by the canal of St. Barbara, about 50 miles in cir-
cumference. N. lat. 34°7!.. E. long. 240° 43'—Alfo, a
port on the weftern coaft of America. See Santa Cruz.
—Alfo, a town of New Mexico, and capital of the pro-
vince of Mayo, at the mouth of the river Mayo; 750 miles
N.W. of Mexico. See Santa Cruz.—Alo, a river of
Brafil, which runs into the Atlantic, S. lat. 16° 20/.—
Alfo, a town on the eaft coaft of the ifland of Palma.—
Alfo, a {mall ifland among the Philippines, near the S.W.
coaftof Mindanao. N. lat. 6° go’. E. long. 122° r2!.—~
Alfo, afmall ifland near the fouth coaft of Lugon. N. lat.
13° 42/. E. long. 121° 52'.—Alfo, a town on the weit
coait of the ifland of Mindoro. N. lat. 13° 5’. E. long.
120° 51!.

Santa Cruz de Caravaca. See CARAVACA.

SanTa Cruz de Galifteo, a town of New Mexico; 24
miles S. of Santa Fé.

Santa Cruz de Mompox. See Mompox.

Santa Cruz de la Sierra la Nueva. See Santa Cruz de
la Sierra.

Santa Cruz la Zarza, a town of Spain, in New Caf-
tile ; 29 miles S.S.E. of Madrid.

Santa Fe. See Santa Fé.

Santa Maria. See St. Marra.

Santa Maria, the mott foutherly of the Azores iflands,
in the Atlantic, about 30 miles in circumference; difco-
vered by Gonzalvo Velho Cabral in the year 1432. It has
a {trong natural rampart of high mountains and fteep rocks,
with which it is quite furrounded, in a manner fo connefted,
clofe, and regular, as requires not the afliftance of art, nor
of caftles, garrifons, fences, and fortifications. The in-
terior parts are fertile, populous, and well cultivated, fup-
plying all the conveniences of life in great abundance: What
merits attention, as it conftitutes a great part of the com-
merce of the ifland, is an ingenious porcelain manufacture,
in which china-ware is well imitated, and the commodity
brought to a confiderable degree of perfection. Santa
Maria la Prainah is the chief town, befides which there are
feveral villages. The number of inhabitants is about 5000.
N. lat. 36° 57'. W. long. 25° 9/.

Santa Maria d’ Arvas, atown of Spain, in the province
of Leon; 24 miles N. of Leon.

Santa Maria de Guadaloupe. See GuAvacourr.

Santa Maria de Compagna, a town of Italy, in the de-
partment of the Upper Po; 8 miles E. of Crema.

Santa Marina, a town of Spain, in the province of
Leon; 8 miles E. of Attorga.

Santa Martha. _ See Santa Marva.

Santa Paz, atown of the ifland of Cuba; 28 miles
E.S.E. of Trinidad.

Santa Rofa, an iflandof Welt Florida. See St. Rosa.
—Alfo, a town of Peru, in the diocefe of La Paz; 90
miles N. of La Paz.—Alfo, an ifland in the North Pacific
ocean, W. of the canal of Santa Barbara. Ni lat. 33° 58!.
E. long. 240° 22!.

Santa Jingo, a town on the W. coalt of the ifland of
Lugon. N. lat. 16° g2/. E. long. 120° 47!.

Santa Vfabel, a town of the land of Cuba; 7o miles
8.W. of Havanna.
SANTA

SAN

SANTA Vfabella, a town on the north coaft of the ifland
of Cuba; 135 miles W.S.W. of Havanna.

SANTABUCA, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 10
miles N.N.W. of Spiritu Santo. ,

SANTAELLA, a town of Spain, in the province of
Cordova; 10 miles W.S.W. of Montilla.

SANTALACE 2, in Botany, a natural order of plants,
feleéted by Mr. Brown, Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 350, from
the Eleagni and Onagre of Juffieu, and named from San-
TALUM, fee that article, which is one of this tribe. The
order in queition belongs to the Dicotyledones apetale, and
has the following characters.

Perianth {uperior, in four or five fegments, half coloured ;
the fegments before expanfion parallel.

Stamens four or five, oppofite to the fegments of the
perianth, and inferted into the bafe of each. .

Germen of one cell, with from two to four feeds, which
are inferted near the top of the central receptacle, and pen-
dulous. Style one. Stigma often lobed.

Pericarp dry and pulpy, with one perfeé feed.

Albumen flefhy, the fhape of the feed.

Embryo dicotyledenous, central, inverted, round.

Stem arboreous or fhrubby. ‘

Leaves alternate, or imperfe&tly oppofite, undivided,
without ftipulas ; occafionally minute, and like ftipulas in
appearance. F/owers {mall, fomewhat fpiked ; rarely um-
bellate, or folitary. See Lerromenrra.

SANTALLA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the
province of Afturias; 46 miles W. of Oviedo.

SANTALUM, in Botany, a word of Oriental origin ;
the Sandal Wood.—Linn. Gen. 191. Schreb. 86. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 1.691. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Juff. 321.
(Sirium ; Linn. Mant. 2.145. Schreb. 82. Jufl. 321.
Lamarck Iluftr. t. 74.)—Clafs and order, Tetrandria Mo-
nogynia. Nat. Ord. Onagre, Juff. Santalacee, Brown.

Gen. Ch. Ga/. Perianth faperior, of one leaf, bell-
fhaped, coloured, in four ovate, acute, equal fegments, de-
ciduous. Cor. Petals none. -Netary of four roundifh,
thick {cales, alternate with the fegments of the calyx, and
crowning its orifice. Stam. Filaments four, thread-fhaped,
hairy at the bafe, oppofite to the fegments of the calyx ;
anthers oblong, the length of. the nectary. Pi/f. Germen
inferior, conical; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of the
ftamens; ftigma with three or four lobes. Peric. Drupa
obovate, bordered atthetop, of one cell. Seed folitary.

Eff. Ch. Petals none. Calyx fuperior, coloured, four-
cleft, deciduous. Neétary of four glands, alternate with

the flamens. Drupa bordered at the top.
1. S. album. True Sandal Wood. Linn. Sp. Pl. 497.
Willd. n. 1. (S. verum; Breyn. Prodr. 94. Ic. t. 5.

f. 1. Sandalum ; Rumph. Amboin. v. 2. 42.t. 11. Sirium
myrtifolium; Linn. Mant. 2. 200, Roxb. Coromand.
v. I. 2. t. 2.)—Leaves lanceolate, acute, veiny, fix times
as long as the footilalks. Flower-{talks fubdivided, race-
mofe. Stem arboreous.—Native of many parts of the Eaft
Indies. This tree, according to Dr. Roxburgh, is of
{mall fize on the Circar mountains, and the wood confe-
quently of little value. On the Malabar coatt it is much
larger, and the wood reckoned of the belt fort. The aves
are oppofite, one anda half or two inches long, on fhort
ftalks, {mooth, entire ; glaucous beneath. Cluflers termi-
nal, of feveral {mall flowers, whofe calyx is of a yellowifh-
green externally; the infide dull {carlet ; the me@aries
notched, rather tawny. Fruit purple, the fize of a cur-
rant, much eaten by birds, who thus diffeminate the plant.
«The wood of this tree,’ fays Dr. Roxburgh, «1s the
white and yellow Sanders, Santalum album, et flavum, of

SAWN

the Materia Medica. Both forts are the produce of the
fame tree, and not, as are fays, of different trees.
Moft trees in India, when large and old, become coloured
towards the certre ; that part is always much more hard and
durable than the exterior uncoloured part. It is the fame
with the Sandal tree. The centre, when the tree becomes
large, acquires a yellow colour, great fragrance and hard-
nels; while the exterior part of the fame tree, that covers
the —— part, is lefs firm, white, and without fragrance,
The yellow fort only is of ufe; and the larger the tree,
the more valuable is the wood, it having then acquired a
greater degree of fragrance, for which alone it is held in
uch univerfal eftimation.’’ ,

2. S. ovatum. Ovate-leaved Santalum. Br. mn. 1.—
“ Leaves elliptic-ovate, acute, veiny, four times as long as
the-footitalks. Flower-ftalks undivided or three-cleft. Stem
arboreous.’’-Gathered by Mr. Brown in the tropical part
of New Holland: He remarks that itis nearly related to
the former, but diftin&. ‘

3. S. venofum. Veiny-leaved Santalum. Br. n, 2.—
‘* Leaves oval-oblong, bluntifh, glaucous, flightly veiny,
twice as. long as broad. Clufters brachiate, undivided.
Stem arboreous.”’—From the fame country. - ’

4. S. oblongatum. Oblong-leaved Santalum. Br. n, 3.
— Leaves oblong, narrow, obtufe, coriaceous, glaucous,
flightly veiny above, four times as long as broad. Clufters
brachiate, fimple or divided.’”,—Gathered by fir Jofeph
Banks, in the tropical part of New Holland.

5. S. lanceolatum. Lanceolate-leaved Santalum.
n. 4.—** Leaves lanceolate, elongated, acute at each end,
glaucous, coriaceous, without veins. Clufters brachiate.
Stem fhrubby.”—Found by Mr. Brown in the’ fame
country. ,

6. S. obtufifolium. Blunt-leaved Santalum. Br. n. 5.—
« Leaves oblong-oval, obtufe, coriaceous, veinlefs ; glaucous
beneath ; the upper ones here and there alternate. Clufters
of few flowers. Stem fhrubby.’’— Gathered by Mr. Brown
near Port Jackfon, New South Wales.
SANTALUM, in the Materia Medica, &c. See Saun-
DERS. .

SANTANDER, in Geography, a province of the Spanifh
dominions in North America, in the domain of New Leon, ex-
tending on both fides of the great river Bravo ; abounding
grains and fruits of various kinds, with numerons herds of
cattle, and having alfo mineg, ‘efpecially of filver, in the
Sierra Gorda, a confiderable chain of mountains in the S.
which has fometimes given name to the province. It was
only fubdued, and the capital of the fame name founded, in
1748. It has an excellent harbour, difcovered in_1739,
which might, in cafe of invafion, prove fatal to Mexico.—
Alfo, a fea-port town of Spain, ia Alturia, fituated on the
fea-coatt, at the foot of a hill, and the fee of abifhop. The
harbour is good, and is capable of containing a numerous
fleet, defended by two well-fortified caftles. Tt is defended
from the fury of the winds by a mole, which projects into the
fea. The een though not large, is ftrong; and the
fuburbs are inhabited by fifhermen, as the neighbouring fea
abounds with excellent fifh. The environs ae excellent
fruit of various kinds, and are laid out in vineyards or
gardens; 75 miles N. of Burgos. N. lat. 43° 27’. W.
long. 3° 49’. ‘ ;

SANTANI, a town of the ifland of Majorca; 28 miles
S.E. of Majorca. “

SANTANILLA, or Swan J/lands, two {mall iflands,
furrounded with rocks, in the bay of Honduras. N. lat.

17° 20. W. long. 83° so'. SANTANO.
’

Br.

= Cr err rh Th OO lure

SAWN

SANTANO, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 25 miles
'N. of Havanna. joni igs }

SANTANS, a town of France, in the» department of
the Jura; 7 miles S.E. of Dole.

SANTAPILLY Rocks, rocks in the bay of Bengal,
near the coaft of Cicacole. . N. lat. 18°. E. long. 83° 15’.

SANTARELLI, Grusepre, in Biography, cavaliero,
eappellano di Malta, and maeftro di cappella, to the pope in
1770. Inhis youth he had been an opera finger of the firft
elafs ; but after his admiffion into the papal chapel, he had
rendered himfelf not only a profoufid contrapuntift, but deeply
read in the hiftory of his art, and had employed many years
in compiling the following curious work :-* Della Mufica
del Santuario, e della Difciplina de’ fuoi Cantori ;”” or, * A
Treatife on the Mufic of the Pontifical Chapel, and the
Difcipline of its Singers.””

This work, divided into centuries from the time of our
Saviour, as fecolo primo, fec. 2do. fec. terfo, Kc. gives au-

' chorities forall its aflertions throughout, from ecclefiaitical
hiftory.

The firft volume was printed in 1764, but never pub-
lifhed ; the MS. of the fecond was in great forwardnefs in
177¢; and feemed to fupply all the deficiencies of another
curious work on the fame fubjeét, publifhed in 1711, entitled
« Offervazioni per ben regolare il Coro della Capella Pon-
tificia;” or, “ Rules for conduéting the Choir of the Pope’s
Chapel,” by Andrea Adami. But the hiftorical: part of this
book beginning only at the year 1400, and ending in 1711,
wants fuch a complete work as that of Santarelli, which be-
gins with the firft ages of the church, and continues to the
middle of the laft century, for the gratification of fuch
curious lovers of church mufic as wifh to trace it from its
fource.

It feems as if the worthy Santarelli had been prevented
from publifhing his firft volume, and more vigoroufly pro-
fecnting the fecond, by the want of patronage. Since the
eftablifhing the mofical drama in-every city of Italy, fecular
mufic has been fo much more cultivated and refpected than
facred, that there is an indifference, even among the cardi-
nals and heads of the church, about the hiftory and progrefs
or prefent ftate of ecclefiattical mufic, that chills the zeal of
ite few remaining admirers, as well as of profeffors qualified

‘ to defcribe its former, or improve its prefent ftate.

This excellent profeffor, and accomplifhed and polifhed
charaéter, had publithed, fo early as the year 1761, a fhort
traét, entitled “Informazione del cantor Giuleppe Santa-
relli,” chaplain of honour to cardinal Aleffandro Albani, in
anfwer to a note from his eminence, requiring a {ketch of the
otigin of the papal chapel eftablifhment, the number of
en ordinary and extraordinary, with the various changes
at different periods of time, and an account of the abufes,
relaxations of ‘difcipline, and difagreements among the
fingers; in order that if he (the cardinal) fhould be called
upon, as prafeét of the faid chapel, to reform the college,
he might be prepared for the work. This traét, which con-
tains much curious information on the fubjeét, feems to have
been the germ of fig. Santarelli’s larger work, and in the
fecond volume of the prince abbot. of St. Blafius’s Hiltory
o Sacred Mutfic, from the firft ages of the church, to the
Say time (1774), there-is a letter from Santarelli on the
Ubje& of modern church mufic, a grand orchefira, in anfwer

to a letter from the learned abbot, enquiring who were the
compolers then living, whofe choral productions were mott
worthy of admiffion, for their gravity and dignity, into the
fiered fervice ; when the papal maecitro di cappella mott judi-
cioufly mentioned, with great refpeét and pitiaresee, as mo-

SAN

dels worthy of imitation, Haffe, Jomelli, and Perez ; all then
fuppofed by Santarelli to be living. ’

SANTAREN, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in
the province of Eftremadura, on the Tagus, ancie.tly
called “ Scalabis,’’ defended by a citadel. It contarns 13
churches, 13 convents, and feveral hoipitais: and an aca-
demy of hiftory, antiquities, and languages, initituted in
the year 1747. Several kings of Portugal formerly kept
their court here. In 1146 this town was taken by the
Moors, and it is famous for a battle fought in 1184, in which
the king of Portugal obtained a fignal victory over .the
Moors, and compelled moit of them, after the lofs of their
king, to return to Africa; the number of inhabitants is
eftimated at 8000; 38 miles N.N.E. of Lifbon. N. lat.
30° 15'. W. long. 8° 48!.

SANTASHEETA, a town of Bengal; 65 miles
§.S.E. of Dacca.

SAN-TCHEOU, a fmall ifland in the Chinefe Archi-
pelago ; 24 miles S.W. of Macao.

SANTEE, a navigable river of America, the largeft and
longeft in the ftate of South Carolina. It is formed by the
union of the Congaree and Wateree ; the latter or northern
branch paffing the Catabaw nation of Indians, and bearing
the name of Catabaw river. It difcharges itfelf into.the
ocean by two mouths, alittle S. of George-town. N. lat.
33° 12'. W. long. 79° 51! —Alfo, hills of South Caro-
lina; 10 miles N.N.E. of Amelia.

SANTELMO, an ifland in the Pacific ocean, difcos
vered by Quiros im the year 1606. S. lat. 28°. E. long.
Tyee 20s

SANTEN. See XanTen.

SANTEO, in Botany, a name given by the people of
Guinea to a herb, which they efteem remarkably good in
all difeafes of the eyes, the herb being boiled in water, and
the eyes wafhed with it.. The leaves of this grow in pairs,
oppofite ‘one to another, and have no footftalks. The
joints, or fettings on of tke leaves, are blackifh, and they
are of the fize and fhape of thofe of the laurel.

SANTERABARRY, in Geography, a town of Bootan,
on the borders of Bengal; 17 miles N. of Beyhar.

SANTERNO, a river, which rifes in Etruria, about
15 miles N. of Piftoia, and runs into the fouthern branch of
the Po, about 14 miles N. of Comachio. ;

SANTEUL, or, as it is fometimes {pelt, SanrEuIL,
Joun Baptist, in Biography, a modern Latin poet, was
born at Paris in 1630. He Itudied in the Jefuits’ college,
and at the proper age entered among the canons-regular of
the abbey of St. Victor, and devoted himfelf to a literary
life. He acquired a confiderable name. by his productions
in Latin poetry, in which he fung the praifes of feveral
great men, and he furnifhed the city of Paris with a number
of inferiptions for public edifices. His character was very
fingular: he was violent, capricious, and impatient. He
compofed in a fort of enthufiatm, with flrange erimaces and
diftortions, and he had the higheft opinion of his own per-
formances. His moral conduét was very open to reproof,
yet he had his fits of devotion, and none of his productions
were more admired than his hymus. ‘Thofe which he com-
pofed for the breviary of the church of Paris were fo much
applauded by the devout, that many other churches wifhed
to employ him in the fame tafk. At this time Santeul was
living in the great world, being much patronized by the
two princes of Conde, the duke of Bourbon, and other
men of rank* and confequence. He was alfo noticed by
Lewis XIV. who granted him a penfion, He was, how-
ever, the fubjeét of raillery, and the manner of his death

aliords

SAWN

affords a proof of the. liberties that were taken with him.
Having accompanied the duke of Bourbon to Dijon at the
affembly of the ftates of Burgundy, fome inconfiderate per-
fon, in the way of a joke, caft a quantity of {nuff into his
wine, which, as foon as he had {wallowed, threw him into
great agonies, that put a period to his lifein 14 hours. He
died in 1697, at the age of 67. In his laft moments a page
came to him and announced a meflage from his highnefs the
duke of Bourbon, upon which he exclaimed, ‘¢ Tu folus al-
tiflimus,”’ raifing his eyes to heaven. He is thought to have
difplayed more of the true poet than moft of thofe who
have diftinguifhed themfelves by modern Latin verfe. Of
his works a-complete edition was publifhed in three vols.
12mo. at Paris, 1729.

SanTeuL, CLaupkr, elder brother of the preceding, an
ecclefiaftic in the feminary of St. Magloire at Paris, was
alfo an eminent Latin poet. He was as gentle in his man-
ners as his brother was impetuous. He died in 1684, at
the age of 57.

SANTHOPF, in Geography, a town of Bavaria; 5 miles
N.N.W. of Bamberg. ;

SANTHOVEN, a town of France, in the department

of the Two Nethes, and chief place of a canton, in the ~

diftrié& of Anvers. The place contains 702, and the canton
7059 inhabitants, on a territory of 2024 kiliometres, in
16 communes.

SANTHUL, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat; 30
miles $.S.W. of Gogo.

SANTIAGO, or Sr. Jaco, a large and handfome town,
the capital of the kingdom of Chili, the refidence of a go-
yernor, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of the archbifhop of
Lima, and the feat of a royal audience. This city was
founded by Capt. Pedro de Valdivia, who began to build it
in 1541, in the valley of Mapocho, near the city of Chili,
about 20 leagues from the harbour of Valparaifo, the
neareft port to it in the South Seas. Its fituation is con-
venient and delightful, on a plain 24 leagues in extent,
watered by a river meandering through, it, and called Ma-
pocho. The river runs fo near the city, that, by means of
conduits, water is conveyed from it through the ftreets, and
it alfo fupplies the gardens that are attached to almoft all
the houfes. Its extent from E. to W. is 1000 toifes, and
from N. to S. 600. On the fide oppofite the river is a
fuburb, called Chimba, and on the E. fide, almoft con-
tiguous to the houfes, is a mountain, called Santa Lucia.
The city is well built, having its ftreets ftraight, at right
angles, and commonly 36 feet wide, and paved. On account
of the repeated earthquakes to which it is fubje€t, the houfes
are low, generally reftriéted to a ground ftory, and for the
moft part conftruéted of unburnt bricks, though many of
the new buildings are of {ftone, and of two ftories. They
are whitened without, and commonly painted within, and
upon the whole, they are well contrived both for beauty
and convenience. Near the middle of the city is the grand
piazza, which, like that of Lima, is fquare, with a very
beautiful fountain in the centre. On the N. fide are the
palace of the royal andience, where the prefideats have their
apartments, the town-houfe, and the public prifon. The
W, fide is occupied by the cathedral and the bifhop’s palace.
The cathedral is 384 feet in length, the work of two Eng-
lith architeé&ts, but finifhed by Indians, their difciples. Its
mint is the work of a Roman archite&. The S. fide of
the city confilts of fhops, each of them being decorated
with an arch, and the E. fide is taken up by a row of
private honfes. The other ‘parts of the city are divided
ynto infulated and regular f{quares of houfes, Here are

6

SAN

feveral churches, convents, nunneries, and colleges of Jefuits.
The office of the inquifition has a commiflary with various
f{ubalterns. . The inhabitants, according to Ulloa, are com-
puted at about 4000 families, and of thefe nearly one half
1s compofed of Spaniards, among whom are fome diftin-
guifhed both for rank and opulence. The other moiety con-
filts of Cafts and Indians, but chiefly of the latter. The
abbé Raynal reckons the inhabitants at 40,000. ‘The men
are {aid to be robuft, of a proper ftature, well-fhaped, and
of a good air ; and women have all the charms of thofe
of Peru, and are rather more remarkable for the delicacy
of their features, and the finenefs of their complexion, the
natural beauty of which, however, they disfigure by paint,
under an abfurd notion of improving it. Their manners are
faid to be not only decent, but engaging ; afliduous in their
polite attention to {trangers. The magiftracy confifts of a
corregidor, aéting as the reprefentative of its governor, re-
gidores, and two ordinary alcaldes. The chapter of the ca-
thedral is compofed of the bifhop, dean, archdeacon, chantor,»
canons, and other fubordinate ecclefiaftics. The tempera-
ture of the air is nearly the fame with that of Conception :
the luxuriance of the foil, and exuberance of all kinds of
provifions, the commerce, and various other particulars, are
detailed under the article Cu1zs, to which we refer. S. lat.
33° 40'. W. long. 69° 35'. adidas

Santraco. See St. Jaco. See alfo ComposTeLna.

Sant1aGco de Cacem, a town of Portugal, in Eftrema-
dura; 38 miles S. of Setuval.. .

SANTIANES, a town of Spain, in the province ‘of
Afturias ; 15 miles S.S.W. of Oviedo. “tt a

SANTICUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Norica,
between Larix and Verunum, according to the Itineraryof
Antonine. a

SANTILLANE, in Ceagraphy, a town of Spain, and
capital of the eaftern part of Afturias, fituated inva valley,
near the coa{t of the bay of Bifcay; 11 miles S.W. of

antander. N. lat. 43° 23'. W. long. 4° 2!.

SANTIPOUR, a town of Bengal; 20 miles N. of
Calcutta. N. lat. 23° 13!.. .E. long. 28° 34!.—Alfo, a
town of Hindooftan, in Allahabad; 27 miles N.W. of
Currah. .

SANTIYANEZ, a town of Spain, in Old Caftile;
7 miles N. of Burgos. P

SANTOLINA, in Botany, prefumed to be a diminutive
of fanéa, meaning a holy little herb, in allufion te fome
reputed virtues.—Linn. Gen. 416. Schreb. 548. Willd.
‘Sp. Pl. v. 3. 1797- Mart. Mill. DiG. v. 4. Sm. Fl.
Brit. 860. Prodr. Fl. Grac. Sibth. v. 2. 165. Ait. Hort.
Kew. v. 4. 517. Purth 520. Juffl. 185. Tourn. t. 260:
Lamarck Illuftr. t. 671. Gertn. t. 165. (Gnaphalium;
Tourn. t. 261. Gaertn. t. 165.)—Clafs and order, Syn-
gencfia Polygamia-equalis. Nat. Ord. Compofite. difcotdea,
Linn. Corymbifere, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx hemifpherical, imbricated, with
ovate-oblong, acute, clofe-prefled fcales. Cor. compound,
uniform, longer than the calyx. Florets all perfect, nume-
rous, equal, monopetalous, funnel-fhaped ; their limb in
five revolute fegments. Stam. Filaments five, capillary,
very fhort ; anthers combined into a cylindrical tube. “
Germen oblong, quadrangular ; {tyle thread-fhaped, the
length of the ttamens; fligmas two, oblong, abrupt, de-
prefled. Peric. none, except the unchanged calyx. Seeds
folitary, oblong, quadrangular, without crown, wing, or
down. Recept. flattith, chaffy, with concave {cales.

Eff. Ch. -Receptacle tie. Seed-down none, Calyx
imbricated, hemifpherical. ‘

; A genus

SANTOLINA.

A genus of flightly fhrubby, fomewhat aromatic plants,
with difcoid yellow flowers. They are natives of the fouth
of Europe, one only being found in America. Linnzus
has four fpecies in his Sp. Pl. ed. 2; Willdenow has eight.
There has always been a degree of ambiguity between this

us and ATHAnasta ; fee that article; the flight crown
of the feed in Athanafia conitituting the only diltinction ;
infomuch that Linnzus, having fometimes been unable to
decide with certainty, has referred a fpecies occafionally to
one or the other, according to his ideas at the time. The
following examples may fuffice to give an idea of what we
deem certain Santoline.

S. Chame-cypariffus. Common Lavender Cotton. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 1179. Willd. n. tr. Ait. n. 1. (Abrotonum
foemina vulgare; Cluf. Hift. v.1. 341. Chamzcypariflus ;
Ger. Em. 1109.)—Stalks fingle-flowered. Leaves with
four rows of teeth.—Native of hillocks and open fields in
France, Spain, &c. a hardy fhrub in our gardens, flowering
in July. The flem is much branched and bufhy, twelve or

ighteen inches high. Leaves copious, an inch or more in
length, fomewhat cylindrical, foft and hoary, with a power-
ful very peculiar {cent when bruifed. Flowers deep yellow,
about three quarters of an inch broad, flat in the difk, each
ona long, flightly leafy, upright, rigid ftalk.—Wilidenow’s
fquarrofa, n. 2, feems a variety caufed by confinement,
, or moifture; but we have not examined it, any more
than his third fpecies, viridis, which he fays is entirely
{mooth.

S. rofmarinifolia. Rofemary-leaved Lavender Cotton.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 1180. Willd. n.4. Ait. n.4. Sm. Exot.
Bot. 'v. 2. 5. t- 62. (Abrotonum fcemina narbonenfe ; Cluf.
Hitt. v. 1. 341. fig. 342.)—Stalks fingle-flowered. Leaves
linear; thofe of the flowering branches plain and entire ;
thofe of the barren ones revolute, befet with fcaly tubercles.
—Found on open hills near the fea, in Spain and the fouth
of France. ay! with us, flowering, though very rarely,
in Auguft. The habit is like the lait, but the ene are

and more convex, and the /aves differ eflentially, as
exprefled in the fpecific charaéter; thofe of the young
branches being curioufly befet with imbricated fcales ; while
the reft refemble lavender rather than rofemary.

S. maritima. Sea Cotton-weed. Linn. MSS. in Sp.
Pl. 1182. Sm. Fl. Brit. n. 1. Engl. Bot. t. 141. Fil.
Grec. Sibth. t. 150, unpublifhed. Dickf. H. Sicc.
fafc. 6. 11. Willd. n. 5. Ait. n. 5. (Athanafia maritima ;
Linn. Sp. Pl. 1182. Mant. 2. 464. Filago maritima;
Linn. Sp. Pl. ed. 1.927. Mill. Ic. t. 135. Gnaphalium
marinum ; Ger. Em. 640.)—Flower-ftalks corymbofe.
Leaves oblong, obtufe, crenate, denfely woolly.—Native
of the fandy coaits of the fouth of Europe and north of
Africa, in great plenty. In England it is rare, occurring
chiefly on the fhores of Suffolk, Anglefea, and the fouthern
counties, where it blofloms in autumn, making an elegant
appearance. The whole herb is invelted with {nowy wool,
which conceals the notches of the aves. The flowers grow
many together, and are about a quarter of an inch broad,
of a rich golden yellow. Gartner, with good reafon, be-
lieves this to be the real ancient Gnaphalium, and therefore
ettablifhes that genus on this fingle f{pecies, after the ex-
ample of Tournefort ; indicating moreover an effential cha-
rafter » in the two lateral pouches at the bafe of the corella,
which run down each fide of the feed. Desfontaines adopts
the genus, mart altering the name to Diotir, in allufion to
thole two ear-like appendages. We do not know enough of
all the reputed Santclina, to be certain how far they pollefo
this charaéter.

S. montana. Mountain Lavender Cotton.

VoL. XXXI.

Sm, Prodr.

Tl. Grec. Sibth. n. 2026. Fl. Grec. t. 852, unpublifhed.
—Stalks fingle-flowered. Leaves doubly pinnatifid, {mooth,
with appendages at the bafe. Stems fimple.—Gathered by
Dr. Sibthorp on mount Athos. This is a tufted, herba-
ceous, {fmooth fpecies, agreeing with the two firft defcribed
in its long fimple flowerlalks, though the flowers are
fmaller ; and with the Linnzan S. a/pina in its dilated many-
clefc eaves.

Two annual fpecies, nearly akin, with much branched,
diffufe, rigid /fems, are defined in the Prodr. Fl. Gree. ;
one by the name of rigida, which is Tanacetum monanthos,
Linn. Mant. 111; the other is Santolina anthemoides, Linn.
Sp. Pl..1180, and appears by the Linnzan herbarium to be
very clofely related to Anacyclus valentinus, Linn. Sp. Pi.
1258.

ee in Gardening, comprifes plants of the low,
under-fhrubby, evergreen, and herbaceous kinds, ef which
the {pecies cultivated are, the common lavender-cotton (S.
chamzcypariffus) ; the rofemary-leaved lavender-cotton (S-
rofmarinifolia); the alpine lavender-cotton (S. alpina); and
the chamomile-leaved lavender-cotton (S. anthemoides ).

In the firft fort there are feveral varieties of the hoary,
lavender-cotton ; which in the firft branches out like the
common fort, but feldom grows fo tail: the branches are
divided into a great number of iftalks, which are fhort,
hoary, and below fet very clofely with fhorter, thicker, and
whiter leaves: the flowers are much larger, and the brims
of the florets more reflexed, and of a deeper fulphur-
colour.

The creeping lavender-cotton, which is of {till lower fta-
ture, feldom rifing more than fifteen or fixteen inches high :
the branches fpread horizontally near the ground, and have
fhorter leaves than either of the former; they are hoary,
and finely indented; the ftalks are fhort, and are each ter-
minated by a fingle flower of a bright yellow colour, and
larger than thofe of the common fort.

And the dark-green lavender-cotton, which rifes higher
than thefe: the branches are more loofely difpofed, and
more diffufed; are more flender, fmooth, and have very
narrow long leaves of a deep green colour, indented only
two ways; the ftalks are flender, naked towards the top,
and terminated by fingle flowers of a gold colour.

In the fecond fpecies there is a variety in which the
branches are fhorter, thicker, and clofer fet with leaves ;
which come out in clufters, are fhorter, and blunt: the
flower-{talks are {parfedly difpofed, and have leaves to their
top: the flowers are {mall and of a yellow colour.

Method of Culture.—Thefe plants may be raifed from
flips or cuttings, which fhould be planted out ina border
of good light frefh earth in the fpring feafon, water and
thade being afforded till they have ftricken root, being after-
wards kept clean from aires till the beginning of autumn,
when they fhould be taken up with care, ‘am planted out
where they are defigned to remain: when the bufinefs of
removing them cannot be performed at the above period,
it fhould be delayed till the {pring following, as when re-
moved late they are apt to be aeften ed in the winter:
they fucceed beft in a poor dry foil. ‘Thofe of the fhrubby
fort are the beft and mott readily increafed this way.

They may however be raifed seer feeds, which fhould be
fown in the {pring in beds of light earth, either in fhallow
drills or all over the furface, covering them in to a moderate
depth. ‘They will come up the fame year, and towards the
autumn or in the {pring, they fhould be pricked out at half
a foot diltance, when after having half a year’s growth
they may be tranfplanted to proper diftances.

‘The herbaceous kinds may alfo be increafed by parting

3A the

SAWN

the roots in the autumn, and fowing the feed in the fpring,
in any common earth, raking it in. When the feedlings are
a little advanced in growth they fhould be planted out in
the above manner.

They have a very ornamental effe& in the borders and
clumps, when kept properly trimmed in and taftefully inter-
mixed with other fimilar plants, in the fronts and more con-
{picuous parts.

SANTONES, in Ancient Geography, a people of Gaul,
placed by Strabo near the Garonne, whofe capital was
of the fame name. They were the inhabitants of the
Saintongs.

SANTONICUM, in Botany, Semen fandum of the old
writers, or holy feed. See ARTEMISIA.

SANTONGE, in Geography, a river of Madagafcar,
which runs into the fea, on the E. coaft. N. lat. 18° 55'.

SANTORIN, formerly ‘“ Thera,”? and more anciently
“‘ Callifta,” fignifying ‘“ the handfome,” and deriving its
prefent name from “ St. Irene,’’ to whom it was dedicated
under the emperors of the Eait, is, in proportion to its ex-
tent, the richeft and moft populous of all the iflands of the
Archipelago. Emerged from the bottom of the fea, it
was afterwards partly {wallowed up in the year 237 B.C.
and feparated from Therafia, a {mall ifland now called
« Afpronifi.”” The {pace contained between thefe two
iflands, and at prefent filled up by the fea, made, as it is
fuppofed, a part of the ifland of Thera, or of the large
ifland, which, at the time of this revolution, affumed the
form of acrefcent.. Indeed the coaft of that gulf, com-
pofed of fteep rocks, black, calcined, and towering up-
wards of 300 feet above the level of the fea, appears to be
the edge of an enormous crater, the bottom of which has
never been fathomed. ‘

Olivier obferves, that if we refie&t on the confiderable
changes which Santorin has experienced in confequence of
the Hees of a volcano, that has aéted in it from a very
remote era, we may ‘difcover four principal periods, very
diftin@ from one another. At the firft period the ifland
was limited to mounts St. Stephen and St. Elias, as far as
the environs of Pyrgos and Meflaria, the only places that
are not volcanized. The fecond was the formation of the
reft of the ifland as far as Therafia or Afpronifi. The
roadftead did not then exift, and the ifland was as large
again, of a rounded or oblong form. The third period
was that of the fudden and extraordinary depreflion, which
took place in the middle of the ifland, from which has re-
fulted the roadftead. The fourth and laft period was that
of the formation of thofe iflands, which have fucceffively
iffued from the bottom of the fea. If we confider what
Santorin muft have been at its fecond period, becaufe it is
itill fo at this day, we fhall eafily be perfuaded, that it
mult have been one of the fineft and the moft fertile iflands
of the Archipelago. Its circular form, a foil fufceptible
of culture, which rofe by degrees from the borders of the
fea in the form of a calotte flattened at its top, St.
Stephen and St. Elias, fituated at one of the extremities,
covered perhaps with verdure and wood; every thing con-
curred to render Santorin, if not a very beautiful ifland,
at leaft one of the molt agreeable of the Archipelago ; for
on the fuppofition that this mountain was covered with
vegetables, it contributed to the embellifhment of the ifland;
it furnifhed the inhabitants with wood, and probably af-
forded them a very copious {pring of water. At the pre-
feat day, notwith{tanding the fmall extent of its territory
being eftimated at feven or eight leagues in circuit, though
it wants a good harbour, and has only ciftern water, San-
toria is ftill the molt populous and the richeft of all the

SAN

{mall iflands of the Archipelago. On the fouth part of
Santerin was built, on the fummit. of a mountain, now
called St. Stephen’s mountain, a flourifhing town, the capi-
tal of the ifland, bearing the name of Thera. Its ruins
ftill atteft its ancient magnificence. Here was a temple
dedicated to Neptune, and another to Apollo, to whom
the whole ifland was confecrated. Several infcriptions and
monuments, and particularly two large {tatues, ereéted in
honour of the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Antoninus,
are mentioned by thofe who have vifited the ifland, and in-
dicate the populous and flourifhing ftate of this ifland under
the Roman empire. On this ifland are reckoned five prin
cipal villages, in each of which is a primate; viz. Pyrgos,
Apanomeria, Scauro, Emborio, and Acroteri. The pri-
mates, diftinguifhed by the name of « Epitropi,” are char,
with the police of their refpective diftricts, with convoking
the inhabitants for public purpofes, &c.; they are renewed
every year, and appointed by the general aflemblies of the
people. Befides thefe five principal villages there are
feveral others of lefs note, fuch as Merevelli, Vourvoulo,
Phiro-Stephani, Phira, Gonia, Carterado, Votona, Meffaria,
and Megalo-Chorio. The population, according to Son-
nini, confifts of 8000 or 10,000 inhabitants, but accordin
to Olivier, exceeds 12,000 fouls; almoft all of the Gree
church. In Tournefort’s time, the number of Roman
Catholics amounted to one-third of the inhabitants; but at
prefent they do not form one-fixth. Here are two bifhops,
the one Latin and the other Greek, and two convents of
nuns of the fame defcription. The Greek priefts are
numerous and poor. The inhabitants fhare, in common
with feveral other iflands, the advantage of having no Turks
among them. They are very laborious, diligent, and tem-
perate. They apply themfelves with incredible aétivity to
the culture of the vine and that of cotton. The women
manufa@ture cloth of different qualities; they alfo knit
caps and ftockings, which they fell to itrangers, and fend
to Ruffia, and to fome towns of Italy. Wine forms the
principal revenue of the ifland; and the moft efteemed is
that known under the name of “ vino fanto.”’? Ata pro-
per age it is preferable to the beft Cyprus wine. The
quantity of wine annually exported is reckoned at a million
of okes. Hence is alfo exported a fmall quantity of
brandy. Although the foil of the ifland is very dry, and
far from fertile, the cotton-tree and the vine thrive ex-
tremely well. The land is not good enough for wheat.
Only a little barley and fome legumes are gathered. Frnit-
trees are very fcarce; the fig-tree and the almond-tree are
almoft the only ones cultivated. A few fheep, goats; and
hogs are bred. A(ffes and mules are made ufe of for draught;
oxen are feldom employed for ploughing. No fuel is ufed
befides wood and charcoal, which are brought from the
coat of Afia, or the lentifk, which the inhabitants cut at
Hiera, and on fome neighbouring iflands. The partridge
and the hare, though common in moft iflands of the Archi-
pelago, are very ites at Santorin; but quails are very
plentiful; and thefe they are in the habit of parboiling,
ae preferving through the winter in vinegar, or in vino
anto.

The villages fituated on the fummit of the interfec&ted
ground of the roadftead prefent a very fingular afpe&t. The
houfes are cut into the pumice-{tone, half built on the out-
fide of it, and placed one above the other, according to
the difpofition of the ground. The part which is elevated
on the outfide is levelled at the top like a terrace, by means
of a mixture of lime-ttone and pumice-{tone fifted. The
pooreft villages are merely an aflemblage of caverns made
in the pumice-itone. Pyrgos is the moit confiderable, an

e

S AN

beft built, and the richeft village of the ifland: the air is pure
and the profpet agreeable. All the houfes have a ciftern,
which ciiterns are carefully filled in the rainy feafon, as the
inhabitants have no other water to drink or to give to their
cattle. From the top of the mountains of Santorin may be
difcovered the ifland of Candia, diftant about 18 leagues.

The road of Santorin is about feven miles in length from
N. to S., and fix in breadth from the little harbour of
Phira to the ifland of Afpronifi. It would be one of the
beft ports of the Archipelago, if fhips could anchor there;
boats anchor at San Nicolo. Two leagues to the S.W.
of Santorin lie two iflets, little known and uninterefting.
They are named the ‘¢ Great and Little Chriftiana.”” N.
lat. 36° 28’. E. long. 25° 36/. Sonnini. Olivier.

SANTOS, a town and bay of Brafil, one of the oldeft
European fettlements in this country ; it is fituated in the
government of St. Paul, on an ifland in a river about three
leagues from the fea; defended by a rampart on the fide
of the river on which it ftands. In common with St.
Paul’s, it owes its origin to the firft fhipwreck on the ifland
of St. Vincent. The river or lagoon has three or four
fathoms water, and a muddy bottom. The harbour of
Santos has a fafe entrance, and is very fecure. It is a
ftrait, having the ifland of St. Vincent to the eaft, for the
extent of half a mile, when it takes a different direction.
Here is fituated the port, which has good anchorage, with
regular foundings towards the fhore, which fhoals gradually.
The currents and eddies caufe fome inconvenience, and the
high land occafions much variation in the winds, which
perplexes mariners on their entrance into the Narrows, but
as the water is not deep, and the current far from ftrong,
a fhip is fafe the moment her anchor is let go, and by means
of a boat and kedge fhe may be placed in any fituation
which the pilot choofes. The part called the Narrows is de-
fended by two forts, on paffing which there is a kind of lagoon,
three or four leagues in length, almoft full of mangroves,
terminated by the town of Santos. This isa place of con-
fiderable trade, being the ftore-houfe of the great captaincy
of St. Paul’s, and the refort of many velflels trading to the
Rio de la Plata. It is tolerably well built, and its popula-
tion, confifting chiefly of merchants, fhop-keepers, and
artificers, amounts to 6000 or 7000 fouls. ‘The fituation is
infalubrious, as the country around it is low, woody, and
frequently deluged with rain, on account of the high moun-
tains in its vicinity, which impede the paflage of the clouds.
Several rivulets dswaig from the foot of thefe mountains
interfeét the land in various direétions, and unite in one

t river a little above the town of Santos. The rice of

this diftriét, which is cultivated in great quantities, is con-
fidered the beft in Brafil, and the bananas are equally noted.
From this port, the Spanifh territories, as well as Rio
Grande, receive a great proportion of their fugar, coffee,
rum, rice, mandioca, indigo, &c.; in return they bring
hides and tallow, which are generally exported hence to
Europe. As Santos is the embarking place of St. Paul’s,
its intercourfe with that town is very confiderable. In the
courfe of a day feveral hundred mules often arrive loaded
with the produce of the country, and return with falt,
iron, copper, earthen wares, and European manufaétures.
For the traffic of its immediate vicinity, it has the con-
venience of water-carriage ; its river being navigable about
20 milés, up to Caberton, where an officer with a guard
of foldiers is ftationed to receive the king’s duties for the
pd of the roads and other public purpofes. Santos is
diftant 31 miles S.S.E. from St. Paul’s. 8. lat. 24°. W.
long. 46° 26. Mawe’s T'ravels in the Interior of Brazil.

SAN

SanTos, an ifland on the W. coatt of Brazil, about
fix leagues in circumference. S. lat. 24°.

Santos, Los, atown of South America, in the province
of Cordova; 50 miles E. of Cordova.—Alfo, a town of
South America, in the province of Panama, on the W.
fide of the bay of Panama; inhabited by a mixture of Spa-
niards and Indians. N. lat. 8°. W. long. 81° 8/.

SANTRIEH, a fandy defart of Africa, in Tripoli, fitu-
ated on the S. of Siwah, in which was a temple of Jupiter
Ammon.

SANTSI, in Botany, a name given by the Chinefe to a
plant famous among them for its medicinal virtues.

It is defcribed by the writers who have been on the {pot
in fo remarkable a manner, that it cannot eafily be mif~
taken, provided their defcriptions are juft. They tell us
that it grows wild on the mountains in fome of the pro-
vinces of China, and that each root of it ufually fends
apace italks, the middle one greatly higher than the
reit.

They have no branches, and have each only three leaves
at the top, and the middle ftalk bears clulters of flowers.
The root they fay is four inches thick, and pufhes out fe-
veral fide-branches of the thicknefs of a finger. The bark of
thefe roots is rough and brown, and their internal parts foft
and yellow.

The {mall roots only are ufed in medicine, the great ones
being feldom found. The plant flowers in the month of
July, and the {pring feafon is accounted the beft for taking
up the roots.

The way of multiplying the plant is to cut the great root
into flices tranfverfely, and plant thefe an inch deep in a
good foil; they will foon fhoot up the natural number of
branches, and in three years the plant will grow to its utmoft
perfeétion.

The great ufe of the plant is in hemorrhages, in which
cafe it is faid to be almoft infallible.

SANTVEIT, in Geography. See St. Ver.

SANTUTA, or Sancuta, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Afia, inthe Greater Armenia. Ptolemy.

SANUA, a town of Afia, in Albania. Ptolemy.

SANVITALIA, in Botany, fo named by Lamarck,
without any explanation.—Journ. d’ Hilt. Nat. v. 2. 176.
Dic. v. 6. 508. Illuftr. t. 686. Cavan. Ic. v. 4. 30.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 2190. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 109.—
Clafs and order, Syngenefia Polygamia-/uperflua. Nat. Ord.
Compofite oppofitifolia, Linn. Corymbifere, Jull.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx hemifpherical, imbricated, with
ovate, concave fcales. Cor. compound, radiated. F'lorets
of the difk tubular, perfe&t, with an ereét, five-cleft limb ;
thofe of the radius about fourteen, female, ovate, emargi-
nate, fpreading. Stam. in the perfeé& florets, filaments five,
capillary, very fhort ; anthers united into acylinder. Pi/.
Germen in the perfect florets, oblong, compreffed; ftyle
fimple ; ftigmas two, fpreading: germen in the female
ones prif{matic, triangular, acute at the bafe, crowned at
the top with three {mall {pines, the innermoft of which is
ereét, the rett reflexed; flyle and fligma as in the former.
Peric. none, except the unchanged calyx. Seeds, of the
radius, prifmatic, fmooth, crowned with two reflexed,
and one ereét, briftles; thofe of the dif wedge-fhaped,
compreffed, encompafled with a vertical, membranous,
toothed border, which gradually difappears as the feeds
approach the radius. Recept. chafly.

Eff. Ch. Receptacle chaffy. Seeds of the radius
crowned with three briltles; thofe of the middle of the
difk winged. Calyx imbricated.

3 A2 1, S,

SAO

1. S. procumbens. Trailing Sanvitalia. Willd. n. 1.
Ait. n. 1. (S. villofa; Cavan. Ic. v. 4. 31. t. 351.) —Stem
procumbent. Leaves ovate, entire.—Natiye of Mexico,
from whence it was brought to the Spanifh gardens, and from
thence introduced to thofe of France, England, Germany,
&e. The plant proves a hardy annual, flowering in July
and Augult. The fem is much branched in an oppofite
manner, downy, like the ftalked, oppofite, three-ribbed
leaves. Flowers terminal, {folitary, encompafled with a few
leaves ; their difk purple, almoft black ; their radius yellow ;
fo that they refemble fome of the fmaller Rudbeckia.

2. S. helianthoides. Upright Sanvitalia. Willd: n. 2.—
*¢ Stem erect. Leaves ovate-oblong; ferrated at the ex-
tremity.’’—Native of Peru. The flowers of this are faid
to be as large as thofe of Helianthus giganteus.

SANUTO, Marino, in Biography, furnamed Torfello,
a noble Venetian and traveller, was born in the 13th century
at Rivo-Alto, in the ftate of Venice. He pafled his youth
in five different voyages to the Eaft; in which he vifited
Armenia, Egypt, Cyprus, Rhodes, Paleftine, and the
neighbouring countries. Upon his return to Venice he
compofed a work, entitled “* Liber Secretorum Fidelium
Crucis :”’ in this he gave an exatt defcription of thefe pro-
vinces, with the manners of the people ; alfo a relation of
the changes of government, and the wars undertaken to re-
cover them from the infidels. When his work was com-
pleted he travelled through Europe, with the view of en-
gaging its fovereigns to concur in a new attempt : in 1321
he offered his book to pope John XXII. at Avignon, with
four maps of the parts defcribed, but it was not accepted.
He was living in the year 1329, but it is not known how
much longer he furvived. The work of Sanuto, with his
letters, was publifhed in 1611 by Bongars, in the ‘ Getta
Dei per Francos.”’ The information contained in it has al-
ways been confidered as highly valuable, and by fome writers
it has been regarded as ‘a complete treatife of the com-
merce and navigation of that age, and even of remoter
times.”? There was another perfon of celebrity of the
fame name, who lived to the year 1535, and was much em-
ployed in public affairs by the republic of Venice. He wrote
an ample chronicle of that ftate from its origin to 1501,
which has been publifhed in Muratori’s Collection of the
Italian Hittorians.

SANXAY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Vienne; 6 miles N.W. of Lufignan.

SAN-YA, a town of Corea; 13 miles W. of Tfin-
tcheou.

SAN-YAM-LION, a town of Chinefe Tartary. N. lat.

1° 7!. E. long. 103° 3/.

SAN-YENG, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Kayor, peopled by the Portuguefe.

SAN-YUEN, a town of China, of the third rank, inthe
province of Chen-fi; 15 miles S. of Yao.

SANZA, a town of Naples, in Principato Citra ; °7
miles N. of Policaftro.

SANZIO, Rarraexxo, in Biography. See RAPHAEL.

SAO, in Geography, a town of China, of the third rank,
in Se-tchuen; 36 miles S.S.W. of Soui-tcheou.

SAOCES, in Ancient Geography, a high mountain in the
ifland of Samothrace. Pliny.

SAOCORAS, ariver of Afia, in Mefopotamia, accord-
ing to Ptolemy. It difcharged itfelf into the Euphrates.
This is the river Mafca of Xenophon.

SAOL, in Geography, ariver of Africa, in the kingdom
of Adel, which runs into the Arabian gulf, over-againtt
the ifland of Mata.

SAO

SAON, a town of France, in the department of the
Drome ; 4 miles S.S.E. of Creft.

SAONA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in the
Cottian Alps.

Saona, in Geography, an ifland near the S. coaft of
Hifpaniola, eighteen miles long and three broad, difcovered
by Columbus in the year 1494, abounding with pleafant
woods and paftures, but now uninhabited, and frequented
only by fifhermen, at the time when the turtles come on
fhore to lay theireggs. The N. and S. fides of the ifland
are foul and rocky; nor is the E. fide, where fhips may
ride in feven or eight fathoms water, well fheltered from
the winds. N. lat. 18°8'. W.long. 69° 42/.—Alfo, a
river of Naples, which runs into the Mediterranean; 12
miles W. of Capua.

SAONE, a river of France, which rifes about fix miles
E. from Darney, in the department of the Vofges, and
joins the Rhone at Lyons.

Saonr, Upper, one of the eleven departments of the
ealtern region of France, formerly Amont, in N. lat. 47°
30', is bounded on the N. by the department of the
Vofges, on the E. by that of the Upper Rhine, on the
S. by the departments of the Doubs and Jura, and on the
W. by thofe of the Cote d’Or, and Upper Marne, con-
taining 55824 kiliometres, or 235 fquare leazues, and
287,461 inhabitants, in 3 circles or diftri€ts, 27 cantons,
and 640 communes. The circles are Gray, including 81,286,
Vefoul, 102,238, and Lure, 103,937 inhabitants. Ac-
cording to Haflenfratz, its extent is 26 French leagues in
length and 17 in breadth; the number of circles is 6, and
that of cantons 48, and the population confifts of 264,111
perfans. The contributions in the 11th year of the French
era amounted to 2,199,713 francs, and the expences, ad-
miniltrative, judiciary, and for public inftruétion, were
215,983 fr. g4 cents. WVefoul is the capital. The foil,
mottly level, yields grain, wine, hemp, fruits, and paftures.
Here are confiderable forefts, mines of iron, falt and coal
quarries, mineral fprings, &c. ;

SAoNE and Loire, one of the eleven departments of the
eaftern region of France, compofed of Autunois, Charol-
lais, Chalonnais, and Maconnais, in N. lat. 46° 30/, is
bounded on the N. by the department of the Cote d’Qr, on
the E. by the department of the Jura, on the S. by the de-
partments of the Ain, and the Rhone and Loire, and on the
W. by thofe of the Allier and the Nyevre. Its extent is
89124 kiliometres, or 451 {quare leagues, and its popula-
tion confilts of 447,565 perfons. Itis divided into 5 circles,
48 cantons, and 609 communes. The circles are Autun,
comprehending 66,851, Charolles, 104,645, Chalons-fur-
Saone, 105,173, Louhans, 74,658, and Macon, 96,238 inha-
bitants. According to Hallenfratz, it contains 34 French
leagues in length and 24 in breadth, 7 circles, 90 cantons,
and 442,600 inhabitants. Its contributions in the rith year
of the French era amounted to 4,376,459 francs; and its
expences, judiciary, adminittsative, and for public inftruction,
to 308,219 fr. Its capital is Magon. This department is
interfected with mountains, hills, vallies, and plains; the
foil in general is fertile, yielding wheat, rye, fruits, wine,
and: sedbicen: Here are foretts, quarries of marble, mines
of iron, coal, mineral fprings, &c.

SAORGIO, a town of France, in the department of the
Maritime Alps, and chief place of a canton, in the diitri&
of Monaco, fitwated on a rock, and on one fide nearly en-
clofed by the Roia, a river mentioned by Lucian and Pliny,
and on the other ‘fide by the Bendola, thus forming a penin-
fula. The place contains 1720, and the canton 1720 inha-

* — bitants,

SAP

bitants, on a territory of 1274 kiliometres, in one commune.
On the oppofite fide of the Roia is a fharp rock, nearly in-
acceffible, and infulated on ali fides, having on its fummit an
ancient fortrefs called «‘ Malemort,”’ and defended by three
towers. Near the town isa fort, fuppofed impregnable,
denominated St. George, in which is piaceda garrifon. Jt
contains two parochial churches, and three others ; 17 miles
N.E. of Nice.

SAORSKERA, atownof Thibet ; 70 miles N.N.W.
of Sirinagur.

SAOUADI, a burgh of Egypt, above Minieh, where
the grottoes of the Thebais commence, fo famous for the
aufterity of the Anchorites, who retired hither in the firlt
ages of the ehurch. They extend the fpace of 20 leagues
even over-againit Manfelout. They are quarries dug by
the Egyptians, and the hieroglyphics obfervable on them
confirm their antiquity. A foreft of date-trees commences
above Saouadi, and defcends to the banks of the river.

SAOULY, a town of Hindooftan, in Vifiapour; 8
mmles N. of Currer.

SAOUNT, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat; 21
miles N.N.E. of Godra.

SAOURGAM, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Aurungabad ; 65 miles E.S.E. of Aurungabad.

SAP, in fpeaking of plants, denotes juice.

The word is formed from the Saxon, /epe, which fignifies
the fame ; and that, according to Mylius, from the Greek

onos, fuccus, juice. Whence alfo the Latin /apa, ufed for an
infpiffated juice. See Ros.

Sap, in Vegetable Phyfiology, is properly that nearly uni-
form fluid, like the blood of animals ; from whence, prin-
cipally by the aétion of light, air, and heat upon their leaves,
their various fecreted fluids are elaborated. (See Crrcu-
LATION of Sap; Leaves, and their Funéions; under Lear ;
and Secretions of Vegetables.) The term Sap is indeed
vulgarly, though erroneoufly, applied to thefe very fecre-
tions themfelves ; as the milky juice of the fig, fpurge, &c. ;
the yellow liquor in the ftalks of celandine, Sanguinaria,
and fimilar plants. -

Sap, in Agriculture and Gardening, the juice or blood
which circulates in the vetfels of vegetable plants and trees,
and by which they are nourifhed.

It is obferved by the author of Phytologia, that the fap-
juice which is abforbed from the earth by the roots of plants,
and conftitutés their nourifhment, is fimilar to the chyle
of animals, and confifts of water, fugar, and mucilage, with
other tranfparent folutions, as thofe of carbon, ptlofeheray
and calcareous earth. And though it has been proved by
the experiments of fome philofophers, that vegetables can
ext or compofe all thefe fubftances from air and water
alone; yet fome materials contribute more.to the pro-
duétion of this vegetable chyle or fap-juice than others,
fuch as the recrements of dead vegetable and animal fub-
ftances. And Dr. Hooper, in his “ Obfervations on the
Struéture and Economy of Plants,” itates, that two theories
have been applied to the motion of the fluids in vegetables ;
the advocates of the one maintaining, that the vegetable fap
had a circulation analogous to the blood of animals; while
others afirmed, that it only afcends in the day, and defcends
again at night. In order, however, to prove the former,
it would be neceffary to demonttrate in plants, as in animals,
a centre from which the circulation begins, and to which it
again returns; but no fuch centre has ever been difcovered
by any naturalift. But as it has been proved that the roots
and leaves attraét a nutritious juice, and communicate it to
the other parts of the plant; it is evident that it muft be
carried upward and downward; and from feveral experi-

SAP

ments, it appears as fatisfaGtorily proved as its nature will
admit, that the humours attracted by the leaves defcend
at night, and thofe by the root afcend by dav; for the
leaves by night inhale dew, and feldom perfpire vapour,
and vice verfa. And he fuggelts, that it does not appear
improbable, although it is not proved by ocular demonttra-
tion (which is the only way to afcertain the fa@), that a
plant is conitruéted with fpecial vefiels for the afcending
and defcending juices. But if a vegetable be not fupplied
with thefe {pecial veffels for the afcent and defcent of the
fap, it muft be performed in the fame veffels, which at one
time muft therefore raife, and at another deprefs it. What
would, however, feem to firengthen the opinion of its being
thus moved, is, that nature has made no apparent provifion
whereby the fap might be prevented from defcending, in
the very fame veflels through which it afcends. In the
veflels of animals, whofe office it is to return a fluid, there
is an apparatus called valves, which effe€tually prevent
the contained fluid from going back. Thefe valves are
entirely wanting in the veffels of vegetables. The above
idea is to be confidered as purely conje€tural, but may at
fome future time be afcertained.

It is alfo further ftated, that the experiments which prove
that the nutritious juice, taken in by the abforbent veffels
of the radicles, afcends through the veffels into the leaves
and flowers, are the ereétion of flaccid plants, if water be
poured oa the ground, or if the root only be put into
water: and the colouring of flowers, by putting plants
into water impregnated with a colouring principle. And
it is remarked, that although the afcending fuccous veflels
have been feen conveying the coloured fluid, it has never
been carried fo far as to enable the inquirer to dete&
whether the fluid was returned by the fame or by fpecial
veflels ; yet he is very much inclined to favour the latter
hypothefis or opinion.

And that the veffels of plants are endowed with vital
power and irritability, and, after the manner of animal veffels,
alternately diminifhed and augmented in diameter, would
appear, he thinks, firft, from the afcent of the contained
fluid. For this could not be returned again by the capillary
attraction of the radicles, or the heat rarefying the fluids,
or the internal velocity of the veflels. Secondly, from the
increafed and diminifhed motion of the veffels, from various
ftimuli ; for fome increafe the motion of the fluids, and
others diminifh it.

It is conceived, that without this contraétion and dila-
tation, the very rapid circulation of the common juice or
fap of plants could not take place. It is obferved, that
the motion of fap varies in every plant: this depends upon
the irritability of the veffels : thus it is the quickeft in thofe
plants which are the moft irritable, and vice verfd. And
the contraétion of the veflels is evident in moit of the
euphorbia; thus, if a branch be cut when frefh, a milky
juice will flow out, and continue for fome time. It is fuppofed
that the caufe of the contraction depends upon the irri-
tability of the fibres compofing the veffels ; hence it follows
that the eflux of the milky juice will not take place when
the veffels of the plant are deprived of that property. And
the writer baweluiiés by obferving, that the fimuli by
which the irritable fibres are aucltek its motion, and dimi-
nifhed and augmented in diameter, are water, a requifite
degree of heat, vital air, light, electric matter, and artificial
ftimuli, as nitre, fal ammontac, fulphur, &c.

But Dr. Darwin, after thewing the great analogy that
exilts between the circulation in anieails and vegetables,
and offering various faéts in illuftration of it, prefents us
with the following recapitulation of his theory. We _"

finally

SAP.

finally conclude, he thinks, that the circulation of vegetables
is formed, like that of animals, by the irritability of their
veflels to the ftimulus of the fluids, which they abforb and
protrude ; that is, that the extremities of the branching
veins of the leaves forcibly abforb the vegetable blood from
the extremities of their arteries, which correfpond with the

ulmonary arteries of animals ; and that it is thus pufhed on
to the footftalk of the leaf, where the veins unite, and branch-
ing out again take the office of an artery, like the aorta in
fll, without perceptible pulfation. The fap or blood in
this artery is pufhed forwards by that behind it, the motion
of which was given by the power of abforption in the pul-

monary vein, till it arrives at the extremities of thefe aortal-

branches, and is there again forcibly abforbed by the ter-
minations of the correfpondent veins, and again puthed for-
wards to the caudex gemmez, and to the footitalk of the
leaf, like the blood in the vena cava of animals. And fur-
ther, that a part of this blood is at the fame time forcibly
fele€&ted and abforbed by the various glands for the pur-
pofes of the neceflary fecretions, excretions, or nutrition ;
and the fap-juice or chyle and the water, which is acquired
by the abforbent veffels, that correfpond to the latteal and
lymphatic veffels of animals, is carried, as well as the re-
mainder of the juice or blood, to the footftalk of the leaf.
Here thefe abforbent veffels are believed to pufh their con-
tents into the veins correfpondent to the vena cava of ani-
mals, and which now uniting without the intervention of a
heart, afflume the name and office of the pulmonary arteries ;
and branching out upon the leaf expofe the returning blood
and new fap-juice to the influence of the air. And finally,
all this is accomplifhed by the power of abforption, as in the
aortal arteries, and vena portarum of fifh, which is excited
into aétion by the irritability of the mouths of thefe veffels
to the ftimulus of the fluids which they abforb. And
fecondly, that a circulation of vegetable juices in every
refpe& fimilar to that in the common leaves above defcribed,
exifts in the braGteas or floral leaves, except that the leaves
of the leaf-bud prepare their juices for the produétion and
nourifhment of other buds in their bofoms; but thefe
braéteas, which are the lungs of the fruétification, prepare
their juices for the nonrifhment of the pericarp and its in-
cluded feeds, but not for that of the corol with its anthers
and ftigmas, as thefe in many flowers exift before the pro-
duétion of the floral-leaves, as in colchicum and hamamelis.
Thirdly, that another circulation of vegetable juices exitts
in the fexual parts of flowers, including the neétaries and
corols. In the corols the vegetable blood is expofed to the
influence of the air, and prepared for the fecretion of honey,
which is the food or fupport of the anthers and ftigmas.
In thefe the progreffion and circulation of the fluids mutt
be eaufed by the power of abforption, which he has fhewn
to be a greater force than that of the heart of animals.
Fourthly, that the progrefs of the fluids imbibed by vegeta-
ble laéteals from the earth, and by their lymphatics from the
air, and fromthe furfaces of their internal cells, is evidently
begun and carried on by the power of abforption of their
terminating mouths, and the annular contraétion of their
fpiral fibres. Fifthly, that wonderful force with which the
fap-juice is drank up and protruded in the umbilical veffels,
which expands and nourifhes the buds of trees, and which
forms the wires of ftrawberries above ground, and thofe of
potatoes under ground, with the great variety of bulbs and
root-fcions, is to be afcribed to this fingle principle of ab-
forption. Except that fome of thefe long cylindrical vef-
fels are evidently compofed of a fpiral line, and which may,
by the annular contraétion of this fpiral line, carry the
fluids they have abforbed, with great force, either in a

forward or retrograde direftion. And, fixthly, he fin
concludes that che branching abforbents of shoctac a
at the caudex of each bud, before it rifes out of the earth
and forms a large trunk, whieh pafles up the alburnum of
the tree to the upper caudex of the bud at the footitalk of
the leaf, and may be compared to the receptaculum chyli
of animals extended to fo great a length; and that it there
joins the great returning vein, which alfo is compofed of
the branching veins of the roots uniting at the lower caudex
of the bud, and afcending terminates at the upper caudex of
it, where it becomes again branched, and forms the pulmo-
nary artery.

And alfo that the aorta or great artery defcends, he
fuppofes, along with the great vein, or vena cava above-
mentioned ; and branching in the roots below, and on all
other parts of the individual leaf-bud, performs the offices
of fecretion and nutrition. The pulmonary arteries and
veins belong to the leaf; the former expofe the blood to
the atmofphere beneath a thin moift pellicle, whence it be-
comes oxygenated, and probably acquires fome warmth,
and phofphoric acid, and the fpirit of vegetable life. The
latter colleét the aerated blood by their branches, and con-
vey it to the upper caudex of the bud, at the footftalk of
the leaf, where they become the aorta or great artery above-
mentioned. And that the fides of the long abforbent
trunks, or receptacles of chyle, which rife from the lower
caudex, and terminate in the upper caudex of each bud, as
well as the long trunks of the umbilical veffels, evidently
confift of a fpiral line, as well as thofe trunks of abforbents,
which imbibe aqueous fluids from the air, and a part of
their perfpirable matter on the furfaces of the leaves. But
whether the pulmonary and aortal arteries or great veins
confift of a fimilar ftructure is not yet afcertained.

It may alfo be obferved, that in fupport of this ingenious
hypothefis the refults of different experiments made by the
writer are given; and the whole is curious and interefting
to the inquirer. ;

Since the above, much has been done in this difficult in.
quiry by chemical inveftigation and the labours of feveral
enlightened vegetable phyfiologifts, among whom, the illuf-
trations afforded by Mr. Knight are particularly interefting.
The author of the work on ‘ Agricultural Chemiftry’’
ftates, that in ‘all plants there exiits a fyitem of tubes or
veflels, which in one extremity terminate in roots, and at the
other in leaves. It is by the capillary a€tion of the roots that
fluid matter is taken up from the foil. The fap in pafling
upwards becomes denfer, and more fitted to depofit folid
matter: it is modified by expofure to heat, light, and air in
the leaves; defcends through the bark; in its progrefs
produces new organized matter; and is thus in its vernal
and autumnal flow, the caufe of the formation of new parts,
and of the more perfeé evolution of parts already formed.’*
But that though the roots may imbibe fluids from the foil
or aaa in the above manner, this power of capillary at-
traction alone is not fufficieut to account for the rapid
elevation of the fap into the leaves, as has been fully fhews
by the experiment of Hales with a vine branch, for attrac-
tion of this nature can only be exerted by the furfaces of
{mall veflels, and confequently never raife a fluid into tubes
higher than the veflels themfelves. Mr. Knight, who has
found that the filver grain in the alburnum of trees, &e. is
elaftic and contraétile, fuppofes that the change of volume
produced in it by the change of temperature or the ftate of
heat, is one of the chief caufes of the afcent of the fap, as
its fibres appear conitantly to expand during the morning,
and contract in the time of night; the rife in this fuk,
therefore, materially depending upon the agency of heat,

as

tien

Se ge

SAP.

as already feen. This filver grain is moit difting:, it is faid,
in foreft trees, but that annual fhrubs have even a fyftem
of fibres fimilar to it ; as the analogy of nature is conftant
and uniform, fo that fimilar effe€&ts are moftly produced by
a fimilarity of organs or parts. d

Thefe conclufions are rendered extremely probable by
the fa&ts which the above acute phyfiologift has adduced in
their fupport. He found that a very trifling increafe of
temperature or heat was capable of caufing thefe filver-
grained fibres to feparate from each other, and a very flight
diminution of it to bring on their contraction. That the
fap always rifes the moit ftrongly in {pring and autumn,
when the temperature is liable to vary ; and that, if it be
conceived that in expanding and contraéting, the elaftic
fibres of the filver grain exert a preffure upon the cells
and tubes which contain the fluid abforbed by the capillary
attra¢tion of the roots, this fluid mutt conftantly move up-
wards towards the extreme points where the fupply is
wanted. And further, that as water has been fhewn to be
capable of being raifed to almoft any height by a trifling
force, when the preflure is removed by multiplied divifions
in the column of the fluid, the fame principle, it is fup-
pofed, may operate in promoting the afcent of the fap in
cells and veflels of plants which have no reétilineal com-
munication, and which every where oppofe difficulties to the
perpendicular preflure of the fap-juice. Several other in-
terefting facts and circumftances likewife exift upon this
fubje&, as well in regard to its afcent as that of its defcent
in different cafes; the latter of which is fuppofed to mate-
rially depend upon gravitation, though the faéts in refpe&
to it are, on the whole, by no means fo fatisfactory or
conclufive as thofe of the other.

Sir Humphrey Davy has found that the fap of plants, in

neral, is a very compound fluid, and that it contains moft

charine, mucilaginous, and albuminous matter in the
alburnum; but moft of the tauning principle or tannin,
and extraét in the bark. That the cambium, which is the
mucilaginous fluid lodged between the wood and the bark,
and which is eflential to the formation of new parts, ap-
pears to be derived from thefe two kinds of fap, and is
probably a combination of the mucilaginous matter of one,
with the aftringent matter of the other, in a ftate fitted to
become organized by the feparation of its watery or more
liquid parts. Thele and other matters have alfo been
found in the alburnous fap of different forts of trees and
plants by other experimenters. The fluids contained in
the fap veflels of wheat and barley, afforded in fome trials
made by Mr. Davy, mucilage, ae, and a matter which
ae by heat; the laft of which was moft abundant
in this fort of grain.

The knowledge of thefe faéts, circumftances, and reafon-
ings, may lead the farmer and yardener to a better and
more perfec cultivation of different plants as crops, and
enable them to underftand their nature and economy in a
more full and complete manner, fo as to be’ capable of
managing them in the moft advantageous ways for the pur-
pole of produce and utility. See on this fubje& the
article CincuLation of the Sap.

Sap, in Chemifiry. Vauquelin lias made an ufeful though
incomplete analyfis of the fap of feveral of the common
trees, chiefly with a view to the faline and earthy contents,
and has difcovered the prefence of acetite of potath in all
of them, which entitles the acetous acid to be ranked among
the native acids, as well as being a produdt of fermentation.

The following is a fhort extraét of Vauquelin’s expe-
riments. An. Chim. tom. xxxi.

Sap of the Elm.—This juicg which was colleéted in the

fpring, has a yellowifh-red colour, and mild and mucila-
ginous tafte, and fhews no excefs of acid.

Ammonia produces an abundant yellowifh precipitate,
refoluble in acids with effervefcence, and which confifts
chiefly of carbonated lime with a little vegetable matter.
Barytic and lime-water produce the fame. Oxalic acid
and nitrate of filver give a white precipitate, fulphuric acid
excites a ftrong effervefcence, and the gas has a powerful
{mell of acetous acid. Oxymuriatic acid gives a yellow
precipitate, and alcohol a flocculent one. ‘This liquor was
analyfed in the following way ; 1039 grammes were heated
in an open veffel, and during evaporation a brown earthy
matter gradually fell down and fixed to the fides of the
veflel. When nine-tenths of the liquid were wafted by
flow evaporation the refidue was cooled, and the brown
earth was feparately treated with muriatic acid, which dif-
folved a portion with effervefcence, and left an infoluble
portion, which, when wafhed and dried, amounted to 637
grammes. The muriatic folution, decompofed by carbo-
nated potafh, gave 0.5 grammes of carbonate of lime. The
evaporated liquid from the earthy depofit ftill contained
much flocculent matter, which was feparated by filtration,
and weighed, when dry, 43 grammes, part of which diflolved
in muriatic acid, and produced by precipitation .318
grammes of carbonate of lime, and .425 of infoluble vege-
table matter remained. The concentrated and filtered
liquor was finally evaporated to drynefs, and gave 9.553
grammes of a grey extract, ftrongly deliquefcent, and with
a pungent faline tafte. Sulphuric acid added to it gave a
ftrong {mell of radical vinegar, and a notable quantity of
this latter acid was procured by diitilling the extra@ with
fulphuric acid.

The author eftimates the above 1039 grammes of fap to
contain .795 grammes of carbonate cf lime ; 1.06 of vegee
table matter ; and 9.24 of acetite of potafh. The latter,
however, is probaby given by eftimation from the quantity
of acetous acid obtained by diftillation, and is therefore
liable to much uncertainty, and if the particulars of the
analyfis are correétly given, the carbonate of lime ought
to be .818 (.318 + .5) inftead of .795. The accuracy
of thefe numbers, however, is of lefs importance, as there
is no doubt that the varieties of foil, feafon, climate, &c.
influeace much the compofition of the fap.

Sap of the Afb.—This juice had a reddifh-brown colour,
and an aftringent tafte, like the infufion of tan. With re-
agents it was fimilar to the laft, except that fulphate of
iron was blackened with this fap, and animal jelly gave a
precipitate. It contained a little acid in excefs, a calca-
reous falt, gallic acid and tan, befides a vegetable extract,
and a flight trace of ammonia. The extract left after
evaporation to drynefs and calcination was found to contain
a little alumine.

Sap of Hornbeam.—This juice is colourlefs and limpid in
its natural ftate, has a foft and decidedly faccharine talte, a
{mell refembling whey, and a confiderable excefs of acid.
When expofed to the air undifturbed for a length of time,
it firlt becomes milky, and throws up a flight down on its
furface, then it parts with much carbonic acid, afterwards
it acquires a vinous {mell and tafte, and at the fame time
its acidity increafes, and it becomes limpid from the fub-
fidence of fome kind of mucilage. In about five or fix
weeks, in the fummer time, this {fpontaneous acidity is at
its higheft, after which it fenfibly diminifhes, a thick, white,
aractletalediis mould forms on the furface, all tafte of an acid
is gone, and the liquor only taltes mouldy. ‘The fame fub-
ftance, kept in a clofed bottle, remains apparently but lit-
tle altered, except that there is fo great a generation of ace-

7 tous

S.A?

tous acid, that the liquor would make by itfelf a good {ub-
ftitute for vinegar in the feafoning of food.

Sap of Birch.—This is a colourlefs faccharine acid liquor,
which is fermentable in its natural ftate, and its extract
left after evaporation is equally fo. The author attempted,
but without fuccefs, to extra fugar from it by the ufual
means,

Though this excellent chemiit has not mentioned it in
this place, it is probable that thefe faps alfo contain a quan-
tity of malat of lime. Aikin’s Dictionary.

Sap, Circulation of the. See CrrcuLaTion of the Sap.

Sap-flew, in Rural Economy and Gardening, a difeafed
ftate of vegetables, which, according to Dr. Darwin, takes
place when the alburnum or fap-wood of trees is wounded
in the vernal months, as in birch and maple, and confifts of
a faccharine and mucilaginous fluid fimilar to the honey-
dew, and which is often very troublefome, when vines in
hot-houfes are pruned too late in the feafon, as the whole
branch is liable to bleed to death, owing thus to the lofs of
the fap-juice, which ought to be pipe er in nourifhing
the buds, and expanding their leaves. And it is added,
that when fome perennial plants have rifen but a certain
height from the ground, if their ftems are much wounded,
or cut off, the roots are liable to bleed to death from this
difcharge of umbilical fiuid, or fap-juice, which ought to
have nourifhed and expanded the new buds and foliage ; as
may be {een in cutting down the cow-parfnip, fpondylium
heracleum, in April; and on this account it has been re-
commended to mow down thiftles, and other weeds, which
are troublefome from their numerous increafe, early in the
{pring ; as many of them will then die, and the reft be
much weakened by the fap-flow, which attends their wounds
at that feafon. The rufh may often be treated in this way
with advantage.

Further, it is likewife obferved, that in refpe& to trees
another period of fap-flow is faid to exift, when the new
buds are forming after Midfummer. Whence wounds at
this feafon alfo muft be injurious. Where this lofs of fap-

juice occurs in hot-houfes, various applications have been
recommended by gardeners. The writer fufpeéts that a
bit of fponge bene upon the end of the cut branch, or on
the wound, by means of fome elattic bandage, muft be the
moft certain application ; or a wire twilted round the end
of the branch cut off, fo tightly as to ftrangulate the whole
circulation of juices, and confequently deftroy the part above
the ligature. This may fuggeft to the farmer the impro-
priety and mifchief of fuffering trees or hedge-plants to be
cut over or cropped at fuch periods, as well as the perform-
ing of different other works of this nature when the fap is
flowing in the plants. See Sap.

Sap, Procurement of the, for economical Ujfes.
PING.

Sap, or Sapp, in Building. ‘To fap a wall, &c. is to dig
or open a trench in the ground at the foot of a wall, &c. fo
fo as to bring it down all at once for want of fupport.

To fap, according to Daviler, is to undermine a work
with hammers, pickaxes, mattocks, &c. viz. a bank, or
hillock, by propping it up, digging underneath it, and
then burning the props or ftays; or a rock, by digging a
mine underneath it.

To demolifh the thick, firm walls of old caftles, &c.
fapping is much the readieft way.

Ap, in the Military Art, denotes a work carried on
under cover of gabions and fafcines on the flank, and
mantelets or ftuffed gabions on the front, to gain the defcent
of a ditch, counterfcarp, or the like.

It is performed by digging a deep trench, defcending by

4

See Tap-

SAP

fteps from top to bottom, under a corridor, carrying it as
far as the bottom of the ditch, when that is dry ; or as far
as the furface of the water, when wet.

When the covert-wall is well defended by mufketeers,
the befiegers make their way down into it by fapping.
(See Plate V: Fortification, fig. 4. n. 5.) When they are
got near the foot of the glacis, the trench is carried on
dire&tly forwards; the workmen covering themfelves with
blinds, woolpacks, fand-bags, and mantelets upon wheels.
They alfo make epaulements, or traverfes, on each fide, to
lodge a good body of men.

The fap is ufually made five or fix fathoms from the
faliant angle of the glacis, where the men are only covered
fideways: for which reafon they lay planks over-head with
hurdles, and earth above them.

When they have forced the enemy to quit the covert-
way, the pioneers immediately with fand-bags, woolpacks,
or other fences, make a lodgement, and cover themfelves, as
well as they can, from the fire of the oppofite baftion.

There are feveral forts of faps; as the fingle, which has
only a fingle parapet ; the double, having one on each fide ;
the flying, made with gabions, &c,

Sap Faggots, are a kind of fafcines, about three feet in
length.

Sar-Green is a yellow-green prepared from the concreted
juice of buckthorn-berries, and ufed in water-painting. See
Ruamnus, and Colours Pb Fruits.

Sap-green is very ufeful for fome purpofes as a wafhin
colour, as it makes a ftrong and pretty bright ftain. ‘4
may be prepared in the following manner: Take any quan-
tity of buckthorn-berries before they are ripe, and prefs out
the juice in fuch a prefs as is ufed for making cyder or ver-
juice, or by any other method. Strain this juice through
flannel, and then let it itand to fettle ; and when it ftood
for a proper time, decant off the clearer part of the fluid
from the fediment. Put this juice into a {tone or earthen
veflel, and evaporate it till it begins to become of a thick
confiftence ; then remove it into a fimilar veflel, fuch as is
ufed for heating cochineal, French berries, Brazil and other
woods, &c. and finifh the operation in balneo marie; col-
leGting the matter into one mafs, as it acquires a proper
confiftence. The marks of goodnefs in fap-green are the
tranfparency, brightnefs, and ftrength of colour it appears
to have, when rubbed on paper.

Sap, Le, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Orne; 3 miles N.W. of L’ Aigle.

SAPA, or St. Miguel de Sapa, a town of Peru, in the
diocefe of Arequipa, the environs of which produce a great
quantity of Guinea pepper ; 6 miles E. of Arica.

Sapa, among the Romans, new wine boiled to the third
part of its firft quantity.

SAPACURI, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
country of Sierra Leona. N. lat. 10° 45’. W. long.
12° 2¢/.

SAPADILLAS, two {mall iflands in the Spanifh main,
near the coalt of Veragua. N. lat. 9°. W. long. 81° 55’.

SAPARA, a town of Turkifh Armenia; 6 miles S.E.
of Acalziké.

SAPATA, or Puwle Sapata, a {mall, highs and barren
ifland in the Eat Indian fea, which received its name from
the refemblance of its form to that of a fhoe. N. lat. 10° 4’.
E. long. 109° 10!

SAPATOS, a {mall ifland among the Philippines, near
the north coaft of the ifland of Panay. N. lat. 11° 56’.
E. long. 122° 42!.

SAPATZIO, a town of Mingrelia; 55 miles E. of

llori.
SAPELO,

SAP

SAPELO, a town, or rather village, of America, in
Liberty county, and ftate of Georgia, oppofite to the
found and ifland of that name; 6 miles S. of Sunbury.—
Alfo, an ifland near the coaft of Geergia, 20 miles in cir-
cumference, at the mouth of a river of the fame name. N.
lat. 31° 23'. W. long. 81° 301. : vid sd

SAPHENA, in Anatomy, a name given to certain veins
of the lower extremities. See VEIN.

SAPHET, in Geography. See Saran.

SAPHETA, in Architefure, is the board over the top
of a wiadow, placed parallel and oppofite to the window-
ftool at the bottom.

SAPHEY Key, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the bay
of Honduras, near the coait of Mexico. N. lat. 17° 10!.
W. long. 88° 40’.

SAPIEHOW, a town of Lithuania; in the palatinate
of Troki; 30 miles N.N.E. of Zytomiers.

SAPIENTIZ Devytes, in Anatomy, the laft tooth on
each fide of both jaws; fo called becaufe they appear at the
comparatively late period of 18 or 20 years of age. See
the account of the teeth in the article CRANIUM.

SAPIENTIAL, Saprientiatis, an epithet applied to
certain books of Scripture, calculated for our initruction
and improvement in prudence, or moral wifdom: they are
thus called in conrtradiftin@ion to the hiftorical and pro-
phetical books.

The fapiential books are Proverbs, Canticles, Eccle-
fiaftes, Pfalms, and Job; though fome reckon this laft
among the hiftorical books.

SAPIENZA, in Geography, three {mali iflands in the
Mediterranean, near the coaft of the Morea, oppofite to
Modon: the Jargeft was formerly called «* Spha@eria,”
being celebrated for the vi€tory obtained there by the
Athenians over the Lacedemonians. The circumjacent fea
is called the “ Sea of Sapienza.”’ N. lat. 36° 53/. E. long.
21° 34!.

SAPIEZISZKI, a town of Lithuania, in the pala-
tinate of Troki; 7 miles W. of Kowie.

SAPINDI, in Botany, fo called from one of the leadin

era, (fee Sapinpus,) is the 65th natural order in Jue

u’s fyftem, the sth of his 13thclafs. (See Rutacex,
Macwnouiz, and Gerania.) The order 1s thus defined.

Calyx either of many leaves ; or of one leaf, often deeply
divided. Petals four or five, inferted into the receptacle of
the flower; fometimes naked; fometimes villous or glan-
dular in the middle, on the inner fide ; occafionally bearing
an internal fcale, called by Linnaus a neétary. Stamens
moitly eight, with diftin& filaments, inferted into the re-
ceptacle of the flower. Germen {imple ; {tyle one or three ;
ftigma one, two, or three. Fruit either drupaceous or cap-
fular, with one, two, or three cells ; or of one, two, or three
fingle-feeded grains or lobes. Seeds attached to the inner
corner of cath cell, Corculum dettitute of albumen, the
radicle incurved upon the, often incurved, lobes. Stem ar-
boreous or fhrubby, rarely herbaccous. Leaves alter-
nate.

Seét. 1. Petals double, or bearing an internal fcale upon the
inner fide of the claw.

Cardio, um; Paullinia; Seriana; Sapindus ; Talifia of
Aublet ; and Aporetica of Fortter.

Set. 2. Petals fimple.

Schmidelia ; Ornitrophe of Commerfon ; Euphoria of Com-
merfon, which is Scytalia of Gartner; Mehcocca; Toulicia
of Aublet, which is Schreber’s Ponea; Trigonis of Jacquin ;
Molinea of Commerton, referred by Lamarck to Cupania ;
and Coffignia of Commerfon.

Set. 3. Genera akin to Sapindi.

Vou. XXXII.

5 4A.9P

Matayba of Aublet, which is Schreber’s Ephielis; Enourea
of Aublet ; Cupania; Pekea of Aublet, which is Rhizobolus
of Gertner and Schreber.

Aefculus, though referred by Juffieu to his next order,
Acera, is, as he remarks, nearly allied to the Sapindi.

SAPINDUS, that is, /apo indus, Indian foap ; the acrid
rind of the fruit ferving, inftead of foap, to cleanfe linen,
but not without hazard of injury to the texture of ‘the
cloth.— Linn. Gen. 197. Schreb. 265. Willd. Sp. Pl.
v. 2. 468. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew.
v. 2. 424. Jufl. 247. Tourn. t. 440. Lamarck Illuitr.
t. 307. Gertn. t. 70.—Clafs and order, OGandria Tri-
gynia. Nat. Ord. Trihilate, Linn. Sapindi, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, of four fpreading,
ovate, nearly equal, flat, coloured, deciduous leaves, two
of them external. Cor. Petals four, ovate, with claws;
two of them nearer together than the reft. Neary of four
oblong, concave, erect leaflets, one inferted into the bafe of
each petal; as well as four roundifh glands, fimilarly fitu-
ated. Stam. Filaments eight, the length of the flower;
anthers heart-fhaped, ereét. Pi/?. Germen fuperior, tri-
angular; ftyles three, fhort ; fligmas fimple, obtufe.. Peric.
Capfules three, globofe, inflated, combined. Sved. Nut
globole, of two cells, according to Gertner.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of four leaves. Petals four, with fcales
at the bafe. Capfules flefhy, inflated, combined.

Obf. The three capfules are feldom all perfected.

1. S. Saponaria. Common Soap-berry. Linn. Sp. Pl.
526. Willd. n.r. Ait. n. 1. Purfh v. 1.274. (Pru-
nifera racemofa, folio alato, cofta media membranulis utrin-
que extantibus donata, fru¢tu faponario; Sloane Jam. vw. 2.
131.)—Stem without thorns. Leaves pinnate, with lanceo-
late leaflets, and a winged common {talk.—Native of the
Weft Indies. Found on the fea-coait of Georgia and Caro-
lina, but’ Mr. Purfh thinks it has probably been introduced
there. The plant has been feen now and then in our ftoves,
raifed from feed, but has never been known to bloffoms
This free is defcribed by Sloane as twenty or thirty feet
high, with a {mooth bark, and upright branches. The
leaves are pale green, fmooth, about a foot long, with
veiny, entire, pointed, fomewhat alternate /eaffets, ufually
five in number. F/owers {mall, numerous, in terminal,
compound, finely downy panicles. Fruit ufually of one
cell, globofe, the fize of a goofeberry. We find no certain
figure of this plant; the Mux americana of Commelin’s
Hort. Amit. v. 1. t. 94, though refembling it as to the
leaves, has a different fruit, and has been fufpected to be
taken from the Linnwan Quaffia amara. The feeds of this
Sapindus are black and hard, and ferve for making beads,
buttons, &c.

2. S. /ongifolius. Long-leaved Soap-berry. Vahl. Symb,
v. 3. 53. Willd. n. 2.—* Leaves pinnate ; leaflets lanceo-
late, {mooth, one of them terminal; their common ftalk
fimple.’’——Suppofed to come from the Eatt Indices. Stem
without thorns. Leaves of five pair of {talked leaflets, the
lower ones only oppofite. Flowers in a twice compound
clufter. Calyx downy. Vahl.

3. S. fpinofis. Thorny Soap-berry. Linn. Sp. Pl. 526.
Willd. n. 3. (S.n.2; Browne Jam, 207. t. 20. f. 2.)—
Leaves abruptly pinnate, elliptical, obtufe. Stem very
thorny.—Native of Jamaica, A fbrub, very remarkable
for the prickles of its trunk, which is feldom above feven or
eight feet high, and two or three inches thick. J’rwit
{mall. Browne.

4- 8. Jaurifolius. Laurel-leaved Soap-berry. Vahl.
Symb. vy. 3. 54. Willd. n. 4. (S. trifoliatus; Linn. Sp.
el, 526. Poernfii; Rheede Rides Malab. v. 4. 43. t. 19.)

32 « Leaves

SA P

—* Leaves pinnate ; leaflets ovate-oblong, pointed, {mooth ;
their common ftalk fimple. Petals downy at the edge.’’—
Native of the Malabar forefts. A tall, ftout, evergreen
tree, whofe /eaves are, as Vahl obferves, pinnate, not ter-
nate, and therefore his alteration of the name is commend-

able. Flowers {mall, reddifh-green, downy within. Fruit
three-lobed, ufed for wafhing.
5- S. emarginatus. Downy-leaved Soap-berry. Vahl.

Symb. v. 3. 54. Willd. n. 5.—Leaves abruptly pinnate ;
leaflets elliptical, emarginate; finely downy beneath; their
common {talk fimple. Petals downy at the edge.—Ga-
thered by Dr. Ruffel on the coaft of Coromandel. Herb.
Banks. The leaves are fomewhat coriaceous, of three pair
of leaflets, very {mooth above; clothed beneath, like the
branches and flalés, with velvet-like down. Flowers {mall,
in compound downy clufters. Young fruit three-lobed,
downy.

6. S. rubiginofus. Rutty Soap-berry. Willd. n. 6.
Roxb, Coromand. v. 1. 44, t. 62.—Leaves abruptly pin-
nate, of feveral pair of oblong, acute, oblique leaflets ;
rufty, and fomewhat downy, beneath. Petals f{mooth.—
Native of the mountainous parts of the Circars in Hin-
doottan, flowering at the beginning of the hot feafon. A
large tree, whofe wood is hard and durable, of a chocolate
colour towards the centre. Leaflets four or five pair.
Flowers {mall, variegated with yellow and white. Fruit
{mall, oval, brown.

7. S. tetraphyllus. _Four-leaved. Soap-berry. Vahl.
Symb. v. 3. 54. Willd. n. 7.—** Leaves abruptly pin-
nate; leaflets lanceolate-oblong, {mooth; their common
ftalk fimple. Clutters nearly fimple. Petals fmooth.’’—
Native of the Ealt Indies, where it was found by Koenig.
Leaflets two pair only, on fhort ftalks, very fmooth, equal
at the bafe, three incheslong. Flowers five-cleft, but ftill
with only eight flamens. Vahl. ‘

8. S. rigidus. Afh-leaved Soap-berry. Ait. n. 2.
Willd. n. 8. Vahl. Symb. v. 3. 55. (Nuciprunifera ar-
bor americana, fruétu faponario, orbiculato, monococco,
nigro; Pluk. Alm. 265. Phytogr. t. 217. f. 7.)—Leaves
abruptly pinnate; leaflets ovate-oblong; common ftalk
fimple. Petals and fruit f{mooth.—Native of the Welt
Indies. Cultivated by Millerin 1759, It is faid in Hort.
Kew. to be a greenhoufe plant, flowering from July to
September. The /eaffets are {mooth and Tinton pointed,
curved, their two fides of unequal breadth. Panicles com-
pound, downy. Fruit cften of three perfe&t grains.

9. S. arborefcens. Small-fruited Guiana Soap berry.
Aubl. Guian. v. 1. 357. t. 139. Willd. n. 9.—Leaves
abruptly pinnate ; leaflets oval, pointed, fmooth. Clufters
axillary, fimple.—Native of the woods of Guiana, found
by Aublet laden with fruit in May, when alfo it was put-
ting forth frefh flowers. The flem is feven or eight fect
high, and eight or nine inches thick, crowned with knotty
fpreading branches. Leaflets three pair, fix inches at mott
in length. Cluflers (carcely branched, though the flowers
are probably aggregate. Fruit red, its grains the fize of a
large currant, feldom all perfe&.

10. S. frutefcens. Large-frnited Guiana Soap-berry.
Aubl. Guian, v, 1. 355. t. 138. Willd. n. 10.—Leaves
abruptly pinnate; of many pair of elliptic-lanceolate,
pointed, {mooth leaflets. Clufters axillary, fimple.—Native
of woods, and the borders of fields, in Guiana, bearing
fruit in February, The jflem is as tall as that of the lalt,
but more flender. Leaflets about feven pair, the largelt
near a foot long. Fruit ufually of one large f{carlet lobe,
an inch long, with a black fhining feed. Nothing is re-
corded of the ufe or qualities of thefe two latt fpecies.

5

SAP

The frutefcens is remarkable for the great fize of its aves,
much diminifhed in Aublet’s plate.
leaf, with the fruit, in fir J, Banks’s herbarium; where
alfo are one or two Indian fpecies befides, hitherto un-
publifhed. :

Sapinpus, in Gardening, contains plants of the tree,
fhrubby, and tender exotic kinds, of which the fpecies cul-
tivated are, the common foap-berry tree (S. faponaria) ;
and the afh-leaved foap-berry tree (S. rigidus). But there
are other fpecies that may be cultivated for variety.

The nuts of the firft fort were formerly brought hither,
tipped with filver, or other metals, as buttons, which lafted
and wore well.

Method of Culture-—Thefe plants may be raifed from
feeds, procured from their native fituations, which fhould
be fown in {mall pots, filled with rich frefh earth early in
the fpring, plunging them in a hot-bed of bark, and wa-
tering them frequently. When the plants appear, the
glafles fhould be raifed daily to admit frefh air ; and when
they have had fome growth, they fhould be fhaken out of
the pots, carefully feparated, and planted in diftin& pots
filled with light rich mould, replunging them in the hot-
bed, and fhading them from the fun till they have ttricken
root, when they fhould have free air admitted daily, when
the weather is warm, and be frequently watered. As they
foon fill the pots with their roots, they fhould be often re-
moved into larger ones, and be gradually inured to the open
air; as, when too much forced in the fummer, t
to die in the winter. In the beginning of the autumn they
fhould be removed into the bark-bed of the ftove, or be
placed upon the fhelves of it, where they often fucceed
better, being managed as other ftove-plants of the fame
nature.

They afford variety in ftove colle&tions, when properly
intermixed with other forts.

SAPINUS, in Botany, a name given by fome of the
modern botanical writers to the fir-tree. This does not
feem, however, to have been the tree fo called by the an-
cients. Some of thofe writers have’ plainly defcribed the
pine-tree under this name, and Pliny makes it the de-
nomination of the pitch-tree, {uch as was cultivated in his
time. ,

The word fapinus feems to be only a contraction of /apa-
pinus, a name given by the Latins to the demettic or culti-
vated pine, from the va{t quantity of juice or fap it con-
tained. They had a way of expreffing this juice, called by
the word /apa; and Theophrattus has, for the fame reafon,
called the domettic pine by the name orrus, ofjo:, a word
fignifying juice or fap. This was the pine-tree which bore
the pine-nuts ufed in medicine and in foods; and Pliny,
who calls it the manured pitch-tree, plainly errs, becaufe that
tree cannot bear efculent nuts, or anfwer to the reft of the
defcription.

SAPIUM, a name adopted by Browne, as it feems,
from Pliny, who ufes it for a fort of fir, abundant in refin.
De Theis derives the word from the Celtic /ap, fat or
unctuous; and in this fenfe it is applicable to Browne’s
olant.—Browne Jam. 338. Jacq. Amer. 249. Schreb.
657. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 572. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5.
333. Jufl. 390. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 792. —Clafs and
order, Monoecia Monadelphia. Nat. Ord. Tricocce, Linn.
Euphorbia, Juli. :

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth of one leaf, bell-fhaped,
coloured, divided half way down into two roundifh, con-
cave, obtufe, converging fegments. Cor. none. Stam.
Filaments two, thread-fhaped, combined at the bafe, {pread-
ing upwards, twice as long as the calyx, on whofe ‘—

they

We have examined a_

are apt |

—_

aio

SAP

they lie; anthers oblong, of two lobes, divaricated at the
bafe.

Female, in the lower part of the fame fpike, Ca/. Pe-
rianth inferior, of one leaf, fmall, bell-fhaped, coloured,
clofely embracing the germen, three-toothed at the margin.
Cor. none. Pif?. Germen ovate, longer than the calyx ;
ftyle ere&, very fhort ; ftigma three-cleft, acute, reflexed,
very large. Peric. Capfule roundifh, with three flight
furrows, obtufe, three-lobed, of three cells and three valves,
which feparate at the top into two parts. Seeds folitary,
orbicular, comprefied, rugged, unequally toothed at the

margin.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx divided. Corolla none. Stamens
two, combined.

Female, Calyx three-toothed. Corolla none. Style very
fhort. Stigma three-cleft. Capfule three-grained.

1. S. aucuparium. Two-glanded Sapium. Jacq. Amer.
249. t. 158. Willd. n.1. Ait. n.1. (Hippomane
biglandulofa; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1431. Manganilla lauri foliis
oblongis; Plum. Ic- 164. t. 171. f. 2.)—Leaves oblong,
pointed, minutely ferrated. Foot{italks crowned with two

ds. —Native of the Weft Indies. Sometimes feen in our

ves. An elegant free, thirty feet high, from whofe
trunk, when wounded, a kind of bird-lime exudes. The
eaves are {mooth and fhining, about four inches long, with
two confpicuous glandular tubercles on the top of their foot-
’ Spikes terminal, many-flowered, long and flender,

of a yellowifh-green. Calyx dark purple. Anthers red.

2. S. indicum. Eatt Indian Sapium. Willd. n. 2.—
« Leaves ovate-oblong, pointed, ferrated, with two glands
at their bafe. Footftalks without glands.”-—Gathered by
Dr. Roxburgh, in the Ealt Indies. Leaves two inches, or
rather more, in length, with two impreffions at their bafe.
Footflalks half an inch long. Cap/ule the fize of a medlar.

. S. ilicifolium. Holly-leaved Sapium. Willd. n. 3.
(Hippomane fpinofa; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1432. Mancinella
aquifolii foliis; Plum. Ic. 164. t. 171. f. 1.) — Leaves

ate, with three fpinous teeth at each fide.— Native of
South America. The fpites by Plumier’s figure, appear
to be compound, at leaft in the male portion. Fruit like
the firft {pecies.

, SAPLING, among Gardeners, a name by which they
call any young tree that is full of /ap.

SAPO. See Soap.

Savo Amygdalinus, Almond Soap, in the Materia Medica,
a form of medicine which has been much ufed in nephritic
cafes, and made to fupply the place of the common hard
foap for internal ufes, in a more determinate manner for the
phyfician, and a more cleanly one for the patient.

t is thus made: Take any quantity of freth oil of al-
monds, and thrice its quantity of foap lees; digeft them
together in fuch a heat as will make them but juft boil;
within a few hours the oil and lees will be mene | and the
liquor will foon after become ropy, and fomething tranf-
parent, and will cool into the confiftence of a jelly ; then
throw in fea-falt till the boiling liquor has loft its ropinefs ;
continue the boiling till drops of the liquor being received
upon atile, the water is feen to feparate freely from the co-
F pay foap ; then take away the fire, and the foap will

to the top of the water; whence it is taken off before it
grows cold, and put into a wooden mould or frame, with a
cloth Being afterwards feparated from the mould,
it is fet by till it bas acquired a due confiftence. See AL-

MOND.

SAPONACEA Trenra, in Natural Hiflory, a term
ufed by fome to exprefs a kind of native alkali falt, of the
nature of the nitre, or natron, of the ancients, which is

pea P

found on the furface of the earth, mixed with dirt, &c. in
the neighbourhood of Smyrna, and thence called by fome
Smyrna earth. See Fios Af.

It is found principally in two places near Duraclea, a
large open village, about fix leagues to the eaftward of
Smyrna; and in a very flat plain, about a league weftward
from the river Hermus. It is at firft gathering a fine
whitifh falt, which of itfelf boils up, as it were, out of the
ground. It is always gathered before fun-rife, and only in
mornings in which there falls no dew; fo that a ftock fufii-
cient for the whole year mutt be laid in during the fummer
months. It comes up in fome places an inch or two above
the furface of the ground; but when the fun rifes upon it,
it dries and falls down again. The earth producing it lies
low in both places, and in winter is wafhy. It is thinly
covered with grafs.

It may be fufpected, at firft fight, that the neighbouring
fea impregnates this earth about Hermus; but the ground
which produces it, and lies about Duraclea, is fo far from
the fea, that it overthrows this fpeculation ; though every
morning in fummer the earth be {wept clean of this falt, the
next morning always produces a new crop.

Dr. Smyth, who made experiments upon this falt, in-
forms us, that three hundred drachms of it being put into a
retort, and this fet in a fand-heat with a very {trong fire for
twelve hours, yielded between five and fix ounces of an
infipid phlegm, of no other fmell but fuch as, in all fuch
operations, arifes from the fire. It appeared from this, that
the matter contained no volatile falt. After this the quan-
tity of two hundred drachms, calcined ina German crucible,
was diffolved in water. This compofition of earth and
water, boiled into a lixivium, made five hundred drachms,
after it had boiled three hours, and the foul fcum had been
continually taken off during that time, and been filtrated ;
the clofe liquor being then evaporated to a drynefs, there
ag a pure white fixed alkaline falt, of the nature of
pot-aih.

The people of the place make foap with this earth in the
following manner ; they mix three-fourths of this earth with
one-fourth of lime, and then pour boiling water upon this
mixture ; they ftir this with a ftick, and there arifes to the
top a thick brownifh fubftance, which they {cum off; they
fave this in veffels by itfelf. They ufe both this and the
clear liquor in making foap, but this is much ftronger than
the liquor. They put fifty quintals of oil into a larger
copper boiling veflel, and kindling a large fire under it, they
let the oil boil a little, and then throw in by little and little
firft the fcum of the ley, and afterwards the liquor itfelf;
though fometimes they ufe only the one, or only the other.
They continue adding more and more of thefe, till the oil
acquires the conliftence of foap, which is often feveral days.
The fire muft be all this time kept up very ftrong. The
fcum of the ley, and the ftronger part of the ley itfelf, mix
with the oil in the boiling, and the weaker part unmixing
itfelf, finks to the bottom, and is let out by a cock pre-
shee for that purpofe. This is not thrown away, but is
et run upon frefh lime and earth, to make a ley for future
ufe ; and when the foap is perfectly made, it is laded out,
and put upon a brick or lime floor to harden.

fe common proportion in the making of the foap is two
loads of earth, five quintals each, to fifty quintals of oil, and
the produce is between feventy and eighty quintals of foap.
The earth is bought at a dollar a hes and the foap at fix
and a half a quintal. There are em loyed annually, in
making foap at Smyrna, at leaft ten thoufand quintals of
oil. ‘The bringing of the foap-earth to Smyrna employs a
thoufand camels, or fifteen hundred, for eight months of
3B2 the

S A P

the year, the four fummer months being too hot for camels
to travelin. A common foap-houfe produces, at a medium,
a thoufand dollars a-year clear profit. Phil. Tranf. N° 220,

Pp: 230.

SAPONARA, in Geography, a river of Sicily, which
runs into the fea, nine miles W. of Meflina.—Alfo, a town
of Naples, in Principato Citra; 20 miles N.E. of Poli-
caftro.

SAPONARIA, in Botany, Soapwort, fo called be-
caufe its bruifed leaves are faid to produce a lather, like foap,
when agitated with water ; a property we have not been able
to difcover.—Linn. Gen. 224. Schreb. 302. Willd. Sp.
Pl. v. 2.667. Mart. Mill: Di&. v.4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 459.
Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 1. 282. Ait. Hort. Kew.
v. 3.76. Juff. 302... Lamarck Illuftr. t. 376.—Clafs and
order, Decandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Caryophyllee, Linn.
Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, naked,
tubular, cylindrical, inclining to ovate, without angles, five-
toothed, permanent. Cor. Petals five; claws narrow, an-
gular, as long as the calyx ; limb flat, dilated cutwards,
obtufe. Stam. Filaments ten, awl-fhaped, the length of the
claws of the petals, into which five of them are inferted, the
five alternate ones being later ; anthers oblong, obtufe, in-
cumbent. Pi/?. Germen fuperior, nearly cylindrical ; {ftyles
two, ftraight, parallel, the length of the itamens; {ligmas
acute. eric. Capfule the length of the calyx, in which it
is enclofed, oblong, of one cell. Seeds numerous, {mall,
attached to a long, central, unconneéted receptacle.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of one leaf, ovato-cylindrical, without
angles, naked. Petals five, with long claws. Capfule fu-
perior, oblong, of one cell.

Obf. Several {pecies referred to this genus by Linnzus,
having an angular bell-fhaped calyx, fhort claws to their
petals, and a nearly globular capfule, appear to us indu-
bitably to belong to Cyplophita, with which they agree beft
in habit, and to which the writer of this article has removed
them, in his Prodromus of the Flora Greca Sibthorpiana.
Thefe are the Linnean S. Vaccaria, cretica, and illyrica.

1. S. offcinalis. Common Soapwort. Linn. Sp. Pl.
$f Willd. n. x. Ait. n.1. Fi. Brit. n. 1. Engl.

ot. t. 1060. Curt. Lond. fafe. 2. t. 29. Woodv.
Suppl. t.251. Bulliard. t.257. Fl. Dan. t..543. (Sa-
ponaria ; Ger. Em. 444.)—Calyx cylindrical, with fhallow
teeth. Claws of the petals with four wings. Leaves
elliptic-lanceolate, three-ribbed.—Native of the more tem-
perate parts of Europe, in rather moift, rich wafte ground,
flowering towards autumn. Mr, Purfh fays it occurs in
North America, but among rubbifh, and in cultivated
ground, occafionally in gravel pits and on dry hills ; fo that
be fufpe&ts it to have been brought from Europe. The
root is perennial, flefhy, deep, and much branched. Stems
numerous, about 18 inches high, ereét, round, leafy, jointed,
{mooth. Leaves oppofite, joined at the bafe, fmooth, entire,
flightly fucculent; dark green above; paler beneath.
Panicles terminal, forked, of numerous, large, haadfome,
pale pink flowers, with a {weet oppreflive {cent ; the corolla
often more or lefs double. Gerarde found in Northampton-
fhire a remarkable variety, fince obferved by Dr. Boftock
of Liverpool, on fand-hills feven miles north of that town.
In this the /eaves are broad, fheathing, and alternate; the
corolla monopetalous. It is well reprefented in Ger. Em.
435, under the name of Gentiana concava.

2. §. porrigens. Hairy Soapwort. Linn. Mant. 239.
Willd. n. 4. Ait. n. 3. Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 2. 49.
t. 109. Meerburgh Ic. t. 36.—Calyx deeply divided,
downy and vifcid, Panicle widely {preading. Fruit pen-

SAP

dulous. Leaves fingle-ribbed. — Native of the Levant.
Cultivated here by Morifon. A hardy annual, flowering in
July and Auguft. The /em is rather taller than the former,
terminated by a large forked panicle, of innumerable, {mall,
pink, long-ftalked flowers. After flowering, each partial
JAlalk points direGtly downwards. The /eaves are lanceolate,
{mooth, rather fucculent.

3. S. ocymoides. Bafil-leaved Soapwort. Linn. Sp. Pl.
585. Willd. wn. 6. Ait. n. 4. Curt. Mag. t. 154.
Jacq. Auftr. append. 39. t. 23. Cavan. Ic. v. 2. 29.
t. 134. (Lychnis montana repens; Ger. Em. 473.)—
Calyx fwelling upwards, villous. Stems forked, procum-
bent. Leaves elliptical. Petals nearly entire.—Native of
Italy, France, and Switzerland; a hardy perennial with
us, flowering from May to July. The root is large and
flefhy. Stems many, {preading on the ground in every di-
rection, reddifh, hairy. Leaves elliptical, acute, varying
in breadth, hairy alfo. Flowers abundant from the numerous
forks of the ftem, rofe-coloured, with a blood-red, hairy,
vifcid calyx, {carcely divided half way down. This plant
is, as Curtis obferves, excellent for adorning artificial rock-
work, &c. though not propagated Bair by feed.

4. S. orientalis. Small Annual Soapwort. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 585. Willd. n. 7. Ait. n. 5. (Lychnis orientalis
annua fupina, antirrhini folio, flore minimo purpurafcente ;
Dill. Elth. 205. t. 167.)—Calyx {welling in the lower
part, villous. Stem forked, fpreading. Leaves elliptic-
lanceolate. Petals clovens — Native of the Levant. A
hardy annual, flowering from July to Auguft. The annual
root, more bulhy /fem, and divided petals, as well as the ovate
rather than club-fhaped ca/yx, diltinguifh this fpecies from
the laft-defcribed.

5. S. lutea. Yellow Alpine Soapwort. Linn. Sp. Pl.
585. Willd. n. 8. Alllion. Pedem. n. 1560. t. 23. f. 3.
Sm. Spicil. 4. t. 5. Use floribus umbellatis ochro-
leucis, petalis ovatis, filamentis nigris; Allion. Spec. Ped.
29. t. 5. f. 2.)—Calyx fomewhat ovate, hairy as well as
the ftem. Petals obovate, entire. Flowers corymbofe
Leaves linear-lanceolate, channelled.—Native of fiffures of
rocks on mount Cenis, as well as on fome of the Alps of
Switzerland and Savoy, but not common, flowering in
Auguft. This pretty plant is unknown in our aie
The root is perennial, woody, tufted. Stems about three
inches high. Radical aves {mooth, numerous; the reft
rather hairy. Calyx tinged with violet, as are alfo the
Jlamens, and the claws of the otherwife pale lemon-coloured

tals.

6. S. bellidifolia. Daify-leaved Italian Soapwort. Sm.
Spicil. 5. Willd. n. 9. (S. lutea; Linn. Sp. Pl. 585.
Globularia lutea montana; Column. Ecphr. 152. t. 153,
very good. Bellis montana, globofo luteo flore; Bauh.
Pin. 262. Lychnis lutea montana, globulariz folio et facie;
Barrel. Ic. t. 498.) — Calyx cylindrical, hairy. Stem
fmooth. Petals linear, crenate. Leaves fpatulate—Ga-
thered by Columna, on the fummits of fome mountains in
Italy. Linneus and Haller confounded its fynonyms. with
the S. /utea, from which the plant of Columna, examined
by us in Vaillant’s herbarium, differs in being thrice as tall,
with fpatulate, dilated radical eaves; the flems {mooth 5
flamens yellow ; and petals, according to the accurate
Columna, linear, notched at the end. We are led to doubt
Boccone’s plant, figured in his Mu/eo di piante rare, t. 625
and defcribed at p. 75, as a native of mount Cenis, by the
name of Lychnis rubra globularie capitulo. This may perhaps
be Lychnis ajpina, though Boccone’s figure anfwers to our
Saponaria bellidifolia.

7. S. cafpitofa, Tufted-leaved White CnETS om
ro

SAP

Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth. n. g52. FI. Gree. t. 389, un-
publithed.—Calyx fmooth, contraéted at the bafe. Leaves
fpatulate, tufted. Stem fimple, fingle-flowered, nearly
naked.—Native of mount Delphi, in Negropont, where it
was found by Dr. Sibthorp. The roofs are perennial,
crowned with denfe tufts of fmooth /aves. Stems flender,
ereét, three or four inches high, each bearing a fingle white
er

Saponaria, in Gardening, contains plants of the herba-
ceous, perennial, and annual kinds, of which the {pecies
cultivated, is the common foapwort (S. officinalis).

In this there are two varieties ; as with fingle and double
flowers, the latter of which is preferved in gardens, but has
the fame fault with the fingle one, of fpreading very much
atthe root. Alfo the hollow-leaved, in which the roots do
not fpread like thofe of the common fort ; the ftalks are
fhorter, thicker, and do not grow fo ere@t; they rife a foot
or more in height ; the joints are very near and fwelling ;
the leaves are produced fingly on the lower part of the
ftalks, but towards the top they are often placed by pairs ;
they are about three inches long and two broad, having
feveral longitudinal veins or plaits, and hollowed like a
ladle; the flowers are difpofed loofely on the top of the
ftalk, have large cylindrical calyces, only one petal, and
fcarcely any vilible itamens; they are of a purple colour,
and appear in July. :

Method of Culture.—Thele plants are readily increafed
by parting the roots, and planting them out either in the
autumn or early {pring ; the hollow-leaved variety may like-
wife be raifed from flips or cuttings planted at the fame
feafons. It fhould have a dry fituation, where the air is

The double fort affords variety in the borders and other
parts, and the hollow-leaved variety is ufeful for ornamenting
rock-work.

Both the root and leaves of this fort of ‘plants were
formerly ufed for medicinal purpofes; and the latter em-
ployed inftead of foap in wafhing clothes, being bviled in
water fo as to afford a foap-like froth, whence the name.

Saponaria, in the Materia Medica, a name given at
different times to feveral plants, which had in fome fort the
pr ies of foap.

he ftruthium of the Greeks, and herba lanaria of the
Romans, having fomewhat of this property, and being ufed
in cleaning of the wool, feveral authors have explained it by
the word faponaria; but this is leaving us as much in the
dark as to the plant, as we were before, not at all afcer-
taining which, if any of the plants at one time or other fo
called, was to be underftood as being the fame with the
ftruthium.

The Greeks have many times called hyffop by the name
faponaria ; others have given the fame name to the anagallis,
or pimpernel ; and others to feveral different plants, which
they fuppofed to have the effeéts of foap, or of nitre in
cleanfing of things.

None of the plants, however, that we have under the
name faponaria, will at all agree with the ftruthium, or
herba lanaria, which was a thiftle; and the very Arabians
feem not to have known it, but have erroneoufly fuppofed
their candifi to be it.

The “faponaria officinalis,’ or /oapwort, has been re-
commended for medical purpofes. The root of this plant
has no peculiar {mell; its tafte is fweetifh, glutinous, and
fomewhat bitter ; on being chewed for fome time, it is faid
to difeover a degree of acrimony, which continues to affeét
the mouth aconfiderable time. According to Neuman, two
ounces of the root yielded eleven drachmy of watery extract ;

ot F

but Cartheufer, from a like quantity, only obtained fix
drachms, and twenty-four grains. This extra& manifefted
a {weetifh tafte, followed by an acrid quality. The fpirituous
extra is lefs in quantity, but of a more penetrating acrid
tafte. Decoétions of the root, on being fufficiently agitated,
produce a faponaceous froth; a fimilar foapy quality is ob-
fervable alfo in the extract, and {till more mamifeftly in the
leaves, infomuch that they have been ufed by the mendicant
monks as a fubttitute for foap in wafhing of their clothes ;
and Bergius, who made feveral experiments with the fapo-
naria, declares that it has all the eff2&s of foap itfelf. He
obferves alfo, that the faponaceous quality is not injured by
acids, like that of the common foap.

From thefe peculiar qualities of the faponaria there can be
little doubt of its pofleffing a confiderable fhare of medical
efficacy, which we could wifh to find faithfully afcertained.
* The difeafes for which the faponaria is recommended, as
fyphilis, gout, rheumatifm, and jaundice, are not, perhaps,
the complaints in which its ufe is moft availing ; for a fancied
refemblance of the roots of faponaria with thofe of farfa-
parilla, feems to have led phyficians to think them fimilar in
their effeéts, and hence they have both been adminiftered
with the fame intentions, particularly in fixed pains, and
venereal affeétions. Bergius fays, “in arthritide, cura mer-
curiale, &c. nullum aptiorem potum novi.”

However, according to feveral writers, the moft inveterate
cafes of fyphilis were cured by a deco€tion of this plant,
without the ufe of mercury.

Haller informs us, that Boerhaave entertained an high
opinion of its efficacy in jaundice, and other vifceral ob-
ftruGtions. Wocdville’s Med. Bot.

SaronaRiA Terra, in Mineralogy, a name given by fome
authors to the common fuller’s earth.

SaponartA Terra alba, in Natural Hiflory, aname given
by fome authors to the common tobacco-pipe-clay.

They called the common fuller’s earth alfo faponaria terra,
and diftinguifh it from this by the epithet purpura/cens ;
though it has no fuch colour as purple about it. See
CIMOLIA.

SAPONARIUM Lrixivium.
narium.

SAPONEA, a name given by authors to a pectoral
“medicine, made of oil of {weet almonds and fugar, mixed
with the diftilled water of violets.

SAPONIES, in Geography, a denomination given to
Indians of America, who inhabit a territory on the N.
branch of Sufquehannah river: the number of warriors is
eftimated at 30.

SAPOR L, in Biagraphys king of Perfia, fucceeded his
father Artaxerxes, founder of the houfe of Saflan, A.D.
240. He was of a fierce and martial character, ftrong in
body, attive and able. One of his firft projeéts was to
renew the war with the Roman empire: having taken the
field, he over-ran Mefopotamia and threatened Antioch,
when the younger Gordian advanced to meet him. The
Perfian king withdrew into his own dominions, and was
followed by Gordian, but this unfortunate prince was mur-
dered by Philip, who aflumed the purple as the price of his
crimes. As it was neceffary for the ufurper to return, he
made peace with Sapor, abandoning to him the countries
which he had invaded. After this, Sapor marched againft
Chofroes, king of Armenia, whom he caufed to be aflafli-
nated, and then marching into the country, at the head of
an irrefiftible force, reduced it to the condition of a pro-
vince. He now, availing himfelf of the diftracted ftate of
the Roman empire, renewed his incurfions, obliged feveral
{trong towns to furrender, and laid fiege to Edella. Va-

lerian,

See Lixivium Sapo-

SAP

Jerian, who was at this time emperor, marched to its relief,
and the two fovereigns encountered each other in the neigh-
bourhood of that city. Valerian was defeated and made
prifoner. _ Sapor then croffed the Euphrates, and advanced
to Antioch, which he took by furprize, and facked. He
next made himfelf mafter of Tarfus, in Cilicia, and then
laid fiege to Czfarea, in Cappadocia, which, after a time,
fubmitted to his power. His vi€torious arms were checked
by the Roman general Baliftus, who obliged him to retire
towards the Euphrates. At this time Odenathus the Pal-
myrene, who had formerly been treated with great -infolence
by Sapor, appeared as his enemy, and after various fuc-
ceffes, drove him acrofs the river. In the mean time the
Perfian monarch tarnifhed the glory of his fuccefs againtt
Valerian, by his ungenerous and inhuman condué& towards
his unfortunate captive. Odenathus afterwards twice ad-
vanced as far as Ctefiphon, and reduced to his obedience all
the countries between Palmyra and the Tigris. After his
death, his widow, the celebrated Zenobia, maintained her inde-
pendence again{t the Perfianarms. Sapor, amidit a variety
of fortune, continued to aggrandize himfelf at the expence
of the neighbouring fovereigns till kis death, which hap-
pened in the year 271 or 272, after a reign of 31 years.
Sapor II. king of Perfia, fon of Hormouz or Hor-
mifdas II. was born in the year 310: he was not born till
after the deceafe of his father, and had the fingular fortune
of being declared monarch before his birth: for at his father’s
death, when the ambition of the princes of the royal blood
was excited by the want of an heir apparent, the Magi ven-
tured to affert not only the pregnancy of the widow, but that
fhe had conceived a fon; and the fatraps in confequence
paid homage to their unborn fovereign. During the
minority of Sapor, his capital was plundered by Thair, an
Arabian prince, who carried away the king’s aunt ; but this
infult was revenged by him as foon as he came to years of
maturity, and Thair and his people fell under his authority.
The moderate ufe which he made of kis victory caufed him
to be acknowledged by the Arabs as the protector of their
nation. At the inftigation of the Magi, Sapor became a
perfecutor of the Chriftians refiding in his dominions ; who,
he was led to believe, were more attached to the emperor
Conftantine than himfelf. Sapor was anxious to recover
from the Romans the provinces which they poflefled beyond
the Tigris, and for the purpofe of gaining information of
the siilitary {trength of the empire, he fent a folemn em-
bafly to Conftantinople, under the pretext of renewing the
peace between the two nations. This was amicably received
by Conftantine, who returned a letter, in which he pleaded
with the king in favour of the Chriftians, and in the event
obtained for them a better treatment. Sapor, however,
gave fuch indications of his intention to make good his claims
upon the provinces that formerly were a part of the Perfian
dominions, that Conftantine is faid to have been preparing
for an expedition into the Eaft when death put an end to his
projets. Immediately upon this event, Sapor broke into
the Roman borders, and made himfelf matter of feveral im-
portant fortrefles in Mefopotamia. In a number of actions
on the Roman and Perfian borders, between Conttantius
and Sapor, the arms of the latter had generally the ad-
vantage. At the battle of Singara, however, in 348, the
Romans put the Perfians to flight, and took pofleffion of
their camp, a fon of Sapor’s being made prifoner in the
purfuit, and inhumanly maffacred; but in the end, the
Perfians rallied and repulfed the Romans with great flaughter.
He was unable, with his utmoft efforts, to make himfelf
matter of the ftrong city of Nifibis, which was defended
with unabating conftancy by its Chriftian inhabitants, An

SAP

infurre&tion in his eaftern provinces led him to attempt <
negociation with the Roman emperor ; but his claims were
fo high that no treaty could be agreed on. The fubfe-
quent civil wars in the Roman empire gave the Perfian
monarch an advantageous opportunity of again pafling the
boundaries, and in the year 359 he croffed the Tigris, and
laid fiege to Amida. This place, after a vigorous defence,
was carried by ftorm, and all its remaining inhabitants
were either maffacred or carried into flavery. After this,
Sapor was principally employed in fecuring his conquefta,
till the fucceffion of Julian to the empire, whom he wifhed
to make his friend. But the Roman emperor rejeéted the
overtures, and declared his intention of {peedily vifiting the
Perfian capital at the head of his army. This expels
took place in the.year 363, but it was fatal to the invader.
Julian was killed in an aétion, and his fucceflor, Jovian, had
no other way. of extricating himfelf from his difficulties,
than by accepting the terms of accommodation which Sapor
offered. Thefe were the reltitution to the Perfian empire
of the conteited provinces, and the {trong city of Nifibis,
which had proved impregnable to his arms. Sapor faithfully
performed, on his part, the conditions by which the fafe re-
treat of the Romans was fecured, and the termination of this
invafion proved the moit glorious event of his reign.
He was now left at liberty to purfue his {chemes of aggran-
dizement in other quarters, and marching into Armenia,
he got pofleflion of the king, whom he put to death, and
then reduced the country to the condition of a Roman
province. Sapor died in the year 380, with the renown of
having been, one of the greatelt princes of hisline. Univer.
Hift. Gibbon.

SAPOTA, in Botany,
veral forts of fruit, fomewhat refembling a plum.
AcHRAS.

SAPOTA, or SArore”, a natural order of Juffieu’s,
the 48th inthis fyftem, the 15th of his 8th clafs. (See Gen-
TIAN.) The order is thus defined. :

Calyx divided, permanent. Corolla regular ; its fegments
in fome initances agreeing in number with thofe of the calyx,
but at the fame time accompanied by an equal number of
intermediate appendages ; in other initances twice as nume-
rous, without any fuch appendages. Stamens oppofite to
the fegments ef the corolla, and agreeing therewith in
number ; or elfe twice as numerous, the appendages in that
eafe bearing anthers. Germen one; ttyle one; iftigma
moftly fimple. Fruit either a berry or drupa, of one or
many cells, each containing a folitary feed, which is bony
and polifhed, marked witha lateral fear. Corculum flat,
enveloped in a flefhy albumen. Stem fhrubby or arboreous.
Leaves alternate, rs the moft part undivided and entire,
Flowers numerous, axillary, their ftalks fingle-flowered.
The plants are milky. '

The genera placed here by Juffieu are Jacguinia; Man
glilla, {ee Myrstne; Sideroxylum; Bafie; Mimufops;
Imbricaria of Commerfon; Chry/ophyllum; Lucuma, a genus,
with a Peruvian name, founded by Juffieu and Dombey upon
Achras mammofa ; and Achras.

The following are fubjoined, as allied to the true Sapote.

Myrfine; Inocarpus ; Olax ; and Leea. .

Mr. R. Brown, Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. §29, points out
the affinity of this order to the Zbenacee, and augments it
with a new genus, SEeRsAtista ; which will be found in
its proper place hereafter. At the fame time he eftablithes
the order of Myrstnr®, fee that article ; and propofes to
remove to its leading genus, Myrfine, amongtt other things,
Samara coriacea of Swartz ; pentandra of Ait. Hort. Kew. 5
and floribunda of Willdenow. See SAMARA.

SAPOU,

the. Weft Indian name of fe-
See

—

lp UE ete re

SA P

SAPOU, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
Diarbekir; 20 miles N. of Hazou.
SAPOZOK, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Riazan; 68 miles W. of Riazan. N. lat. 54°5'. E. long.
Oo '

‘SAPPAN, in Botany. See CHSALPINIA.

Sappan, in the Materia Medica, a name ufed by fome
authors for the wood of the arbor Campechiana, or logwood,
ufed in dyeing. See Hamatroxyium Campechiana.

This wood has a {weetifh fub-aftringent tafte, and no re-
markable fmell; it gives a purplifh-red tin@ure both to
watery and fpirituous infufions, and tinges the ftools, and
fometimes the urine, of the fame colour ; but from the ex-
periments of Du Hamel and others, it does not appear to
colour the bones of animals, as obferved of madder and
fome other plants of that clafs. It is ufed medicinally as an
altringent and corroborant. In diarrhoeas it has been found
peculiarly efficacious, and has the recommendation of fome
of the firft medical authorities: alfo in the latter ftages of
dyfentery, when the obftru€ting caufes are removed, to
obviate that extreme laxity of the inteftines ufually fuperin-
duced by the repeated dejections. Extraétum ligni campe-
chenfis is ordered in the pharmacopeias, and may be given
in the dofe of one fcruple or two, repeated according to the
urgency of the fymptoms. Woodville’s Med. Bot.

Sappan, in Geography, a river of Afia, which rifes in
Salengore, and runs into the itraits of Malacca, N. lat.
2° 37'. E.long. 101° 47!.

SAPPAR, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, near the
W..coalt of Naflau. S. lat. 2° 55'. E. long. 99° 45.

SAPPARE of Sauffure aad Kirwan, Cyanite or Kyanit
of Werner, Difthene of Haiiy, in Mineralogy, a {pecies of
the cryftallaceous genus, the colour of which is milk-white,
pearl-grey, blueifh-grey, or fmalt-blue, Pruffian blue, or
fky-blue. It fometimes oceurs entirely blue, but more fre-
quently fpotted, ftriped or clouded with this colour. It
is found in mafs, diffeminated, and cryttallized in Jong
oblique four-fided prifms, truncated on the lateral edges.
The cryftals are imbedded or interfeé&t one another, and
vary from middle-fized to very {mall. Its external and in-
ternal luftre is bright-fhining pearly. Its fra€ture is broad,
diverging, and interfecting radiated, pafling into curved-foli-
ated. The fraéture of the cry{tals is foliated in three direc-
tions. Its fragments are flaty and fometimes imperfeétly
rhomboidal. In mafs it is ufually tranflucent ; the cryftals
are for the moft part tranfparent. Its hardnefs is about equal
to that of fluor fpar. It has a flight degree of flexibility,
and feels fomewhat greafy. Sp. gr. 3.51 to 3.62.

It is infufible per /2 before the blowpipe. Its component
parts, according to Theodore de Sauflure, are

29.2 Silex,
55- Alumine,
2.25 Lime,

z. Magnefia,
6.65 Oxyd of iron,
6 Water and lofs,

102.00

It occnrs im primitive mountains imbedded in micaceous
{chiltus and accompanied by grenatite.
It is found near Banchory in Aberdeenthire, and in the
= of the Shetland iflands ; alfu in Norway, the Swifs
the Pyrenees, the Tyrol, Carinthia, Bavaria, France,
Siberia.
The very pale varieties of this mineral are fometimes mif-
takea for tremolie ; it may be diftinguifhed however by the

SAP

blue tinge which even the paleft are not entirely free from;
befides, tremolite is found chiefly in granular lime-ftone, but
cyanite in micaceous {chiftus. The tranfparent varieties of
a Pruffian blue colour are fometimes, when cut and polifhed,
fold for fapphires, from which however they are readily dif-
tinguifhed by their inferior hardnefs and fpecific gravity.
Kirwan’s El. of Mineralogy, vol. i. Aikin’s Did.

SAPPERS, are foldiers belonging to the royal artillery,
who are employed in forming the faps. ~

A brigade of fappers generally confifts of eight men,
which form two equal parties ; whilft one party is advancing
the fap, the other furnifhes the neceflary materials; and thus
they alternately relieve each other.

SAPPHIC, in Poetry, akind of verfe much ufed by the
Greeks and Latins ; and fo denominated from the inventrefs
Sappho.

The Sapphic verfe confifts of eleven fyllables, or five
feet; of which the firft, fourth, and fifth, are trochees, the
fecond a fpondee, and the thirda daétyl, as in

“ Integer vite, f{celerif{que purus,
Non eget Mauri jaculis nec arcu.” Horace.

Three verfes of this kind, clofed with an Adonic verfe,
confifting of a daétyl and fpondee, ufually make a {trophe.
Though we have fome chorufles in the ancient tragic poets,
containing a much greater number of Sapphics fucceflively.
They generally run rough, unlefs they have the cefure after
the fecond foot.

SAPPHIRE, in Mineralogy, a precious ftone, next in
hardnefs and value to the diamond. (See Gem.) The more
common colour of the fapphire is blue, in various fhades.
It is fometimes red, and has been miftaken for the ruby, but
it is harder, and feratches the latter gem. The primitive
form of the cryftal is a rhomboid, nearly rectangular, the
angles being 96° and 84°.

The fapphire is infufible per fe by the blowpipe, but it
lofes its blue colour in the fire. The conftituent parts of
the fapphire, as given by Klaproth, are

Alumine 98
Oxyd of iron I
Lime 0.5

Thus it appears that the principal part of the fapphire is
pure clay or alumine ; and Klaproth obferves, ‘ what a high
degree of cohefive power mult nature command, to be able
to transform fuch a fub{tance as common clay into a body,
fo eminently diltinguifhed and ennobled by its hardnefs, bril-
liancy, and refiftance to the aétion of the fire or acids, and
the effects of all deflroying time.”’ Klaproth’s Effays.

The method of making the counterfeit fapphires in pafte
isthis. Take of cryftat prepared, two ounces; minium,
or common red lead, fix ounces; zaffer prepared, five grains ;
manganefe prepared, feyen grains ; mix all the powders per-
feétly together, and put theminte a crucible; cover it with
a {trong fees and put the whole into a potter’s kiln, to ftand
in the hotteft place for twenty-four hours; it will be of a
moft beautiful deep fapphire colour. Blue paftes of two
other deyrees of ste are alfo made in the following manner.
Fora fky-blue, take cryital prepared, two ounces; red lead,
fix ounces ; prepared zafler, twenty-one grains ; mix all well
together, and bake them as before, For a deep violet-blue,
exke eryftal, two ounces ; red lead, four ounces, and four
grains of painter’s blue {malt ; mix all, and bake together
in the kiln.

Thefe both make good blues, but much inferior to the
firit proeefs. He ae Art. of Glafs, p. 132.) See Paste,
and method of imitating gems, under the arucle Gems. For

engraving on fapphire,. {ee the fame article.
SAPPHIRE

SAP

Sapputre Colour. To-give this elegant and beautiful
blue to glafs, the workers in the Liane ufe the following
method. Takea hundred weight of rochetta-frit, and add
to it a pound of prepared zaffer, and to this an ounce of

manganefe; mix all well together, and put them into the:

furnace to melt and purify, and when it is become perfe@tly
pure and fine, workit into veflels, &c. This {mall quantity
of manganefe, with the zaffer, gives a moft beautiful violet
blue. Neri’s Art of Glafs, p. 93. See Grass. 7

Sappuire-Rubies, are certain precious itones, between
blue and red; which, in effe&, are nothing but rubies, whofe
colour is mixed with blue. See Gems.

SAPPHIRINA Aaua, the blue eye-water, is thus made.
Pour a pint of ftrong and frefh lime-water into a copper
veffel ; and add to it a drachm of crude fal ammoniac, and
throw in fome filings or {mall pieces of copper, it foon ac-
quires a beautiful blue colour, and is not only ufed as an
eye-water, but alfo to deterge old ulcers; and fometimes is
mixed with other things in injections for gonorrhceas.

SAPPHIRO-RUBINUS, in Natural Hiffory, a name

iven by fome modern writers on gems to a ftone, partly a
haptics and partly a ruby; or, more properly fpeaking, a
fapphire tinged in fome part with the ruby colour, while the
reft remains blue. The Indians call this nilacund:.

SAPPHO, in Biography, a celebrated Greek poetefs,
was a native of Mitylene, in the ifle of Lefbos, and flou-
rifhed about the year 610 B.C. She married a rich in-
habitant of Andros, by whom fhe had a daughter, and it
was not, probably, till after fhe became a widow, that the
rendered herfelf fo diftinguifhed by her poetry and amours.
Her verfes were chiefly of the lyric kind, and love was the
general fubje&t, which fhe treated with fo much warmth,
and with fuch beauty of poetical expreffion, as to have ac-
quired the title of the tenth mufe. Her compofitions were
held in the higheft efteem by contemporary poets, the Ro-
man as well as the Grecian, and no female name has rifen
higher in the catalogue of poets. Her morals have been as
much depreciated, as her genius has been extolled. Befides
her defperate paffion for Phaon, fhe has been accufed of an
unnatural attachment to fome of her own fex. She is re-
prefented by Ovid as very far from handfome, and as fhe
was probably no longer young when fhe became enamoured
of the beautiful Phaon, his negleé of her is not at all to
be wondered at. Unufed to negle&, and unable to bear
her difappointment, fhe repaired to the famous precipice of
Leucate, popularly called the Lover’s leap, and throwing
herfelf into the fea, terminated her life and her love. Of
the poems of Sappho, two pieces are only left, viz. “ An
Ode to a Young Female,” and « A Hymn to Venus,” with
fome fragments quoted by the fcholiafts. Thefe have been
very frequently publifhed with the works of Anacreon, and
with the other minor Greek poets. Catullus has given an
elegant tranflation of the ode: and Ambrofe Phillips has
publifhed an Englifh verfion of the hymn. Some writers
have mentioned two perfons of the name of Sappho, one
of Erefca, the other of Mitylene; the firit the lover of
Phaon, the fecond the poetefs: but they are generally re-
garded as the fame.

Sappho invented the mixolydian mode, which was the
higheft of the five original modes, having its loweft found,
or proflambanomenos, upon F x, the fourth line in the bafe
of the Guido feale. The mixolydian was ftill higher, by
half a tone ; the hypermixolydian a minor third higher; and
the hyperlydian a fourth higher. Plato, defirous of fimpli-
fying mufic, and of keeping the feale within moderate
bounds, complains, in the third book of his Republic, of the
licentioufnefs of thefe acute modes. Now if the only dif-

Printed by A. Strahan,

Nees Sirect Sauare. Londor

SAR

ference in the modes was the place they occupied in the
great fyftem, with refpeét to gravity or acutenefs, the ins
vention, as it was called, of this mixolydian mode, may
have been fuggefted to’ Sappho, by her having a voice of
higher pitch than her predeceffors; fhe was, perhaps, the
Agujari of her time, and could tranfcend the limits of all
former fcales with equal facility. But though nature may
have enabled this exquifite poetefs to fing her verfes in a
higher key than any one had done before, yet as it is allowed
but to few to furpafs the common boundaries of human fa-
culties and talents, it is probable that her fucceffors, by
attempting, with inferior organs, to afcend thofe heights,
had given offence to Plato, and determined him to prohibit
the ufe of this mode in his republic, as indecorous, and too
effeminate even for women. If, however, it be true, that
the charaGteriitic of the modes depended partly, if not prin-
cipally, upon the rhythm or cadence, it feems not an im-
probable conjecture, that befides the difference of pitch, the
novelty of Sappho’s mixolydian mode might, in a great
mea{ure, confit in her firit applying to melody the meafure
called Sapphic, from her invention of it.

Horace adopted the Sapphic meafure in many of his
odes: among others, Jam /atis terris nivis, &C.

Sappho formed an academy of females who excelled in mu-
fic ; and it was doubtlefs this academy which drew on her the
hatred of the women of Mitylene, who accufed her of being
too fond of her own fex; but will not her love for Phaon,
and the fatal termination of her exiitence, fufficiently excul-
pate her? And might fhe not have written the ccaietel
verfes ** Bleft as the immortal gods is he,’”? &c. for another.
Many of our poetical ladies whom we could name, have
written excellent impaflioned fongs of complaint in a male
character. ;

Befides the ftru€ture of verfe called Sapphic, fhe in-
vented the /Eolic meafure, compofed elegies, epigrams, and
nine books of lyric poetry.

SAPPO, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the king-
dom of Yani, on the S. fide of the Gambia. N. lat. 13°
30’. W. long. 14° 5'. -

SAPY, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, near the
coaft of Cumbava. S. lat. 8°33'. E. long. 119° 18/.

Sapy, Straits of, a narrow channel of the Eaft Indian
fea, between the iflands of Cumbava andCommodo. .

SAEZIO, a town of Mingrelia; 30 miles E.N.E. of
Ruki.

SAQUEM. See Suaquem..

SARA, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Xima; 15
miles N.W. of Taifero.—Alfo, a river. See MADEIRA.

SARABACUS, or Saparacus, in Ancient Geography,
a town of India, on the other fide of the Ganges. Ptolemy.”

SARABAITES, Sarapaits, a name anciently given
by the Egyptians to vagabond and ftrolling monks, who
travelled through various cities and provinces, and gained
a maintenance by fititious miracles, by felling relics to the
multitude, ‘and other fimilar frauds.
os word is derived from the Hebrew 5%; /arab, to
rebe . 2 e

St. Benedi& gives a frightful idea of thefe Sarabaites in
the firft chapter of his rule. Caffian does not {peak a whit
more favourably of them in his fourteenth conference; nor
St. Jerom in his letter to Euftochium. ia

Caffian calls them, “ Renuite ; quia jugom regulari
difcipline renuunt.’” =

SARABANDA, Ital.:a faraband, the name of a gra
Spanifh dance, in triple time of hx crotchets or fix quavers
in a bar; with generally a moving bafs. It was formerl
danced with callanettes. At the latter end of the 19%

6 century,

S AR

century, and the beginning of the laft, the faraband con-
ftantly conftituted a part of every concerto, fonata, folo,
and fuit of leffons for the harpfichord. :

In all Corelli’s works there are farabands, and in every
one of Handel’s firft book of leflens; but.it is now no
longer ufed as a dance, or an air, in an inftrumental com-
polition.

The faraband is faid to be derived. originally from the
Saracens, as well as the chacone. It had its name, accord-
ing to fome authors, from a comedian called Sarabande,
who firft danced it in France. Others derive the name from
the Spanifh fara, a ball. It is ufually danced to the found
of the guitar, or caftanettes.

SARABARA, among the Ancients, a Medifh or Baby-
lonifh garment, which reached only to the knees.

SARABAT, or Saravart, in Geography, a river of
Afiatic Turkey, which runs into the gulf of Smyrna, N.
lat. 38°40'. This was the ancient Hermus, which fee.

SARABIA, a town of Chili, near the coaft; 70 miles
N. of Valparaifo.

SARABOS, or Sarasus, a town of the ifland of Sar-
dinia; 25 miles N.E. of Cagliari.

SARABRIS, in Ancient Geography, a town .of Spain,
in the Tarragonenfis. Prtol.

SARABUS, a river of India, on this fide the Ganges,
which difcharged itfelf into this river.- Ptol.

_ SARACA, in Botany, an unexplained name.—Linn.
Mant: 13. Schreb. 480. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 856. Mart.
Mill. Dict. v. 4. Jufl. 422.—Clafs and order, Diadelphia
Hexandria. Nat. Ord. Lomentacee, Linn. Uncertain, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. none. Cor. of one petal, funnel-fhaped ;
limb in four deep, ovate, {preading fegments, the uppermott
rather diftant from the reft ; throat with an elevated border.
Stam. Filaments fix, fetaceous, declining, inferted into the
throat of the corolla, three on each fide, connected by their:
bafe ; anthers furnifhed with a fpur. Pi/. Germen fuperior,
ftalked, oblong, compreffed, the length of the ftamens ;
ftyle awl-thaped, declining, the length of the germen ; {tigma
obtufe. Peric. Legume?

Eff. Ch. Calyx none. Corolla funnel-fhaped, four-cleft.
Filaments three on each fide of the throat. Legume
ftalked. .

1. §. indica. Indian Saraca. Linn. Mant. 98. Willd.
n. 1. (5S. arborefcens ; Burm. Ind. 85. t. 25. f. 2.)—Na-
tive of Java. Burmann. A tree, with alternate, abruptly

innate leaves; the /eaflets three or four pair, ftalked, ob-

» entire. Panicle compofed of alternate ovate /pikes,
each about half an inch long. Braéeas {omewhat imbri-
cated, oppofite, in pairs, ovato-lanceolate. A very obfcure
and little-known plant.

SARACE, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Col-
chide. Prtol.

’ SARACENS, in Hiflory, a general appellation, under
which the Arabian tribes from Mecca to the Euphrates
were confounded by the Greeks and Latins, concerning the
bg 2 of which there has been a diflerence of opinion.

is name, ufed by Ptolemy and Pliny in a more confined,
by Ammianus and Marcellinus in a larger, fenfe, has been
derived, ridiculoufly (fays Gibbon) from Sarah, the wife of
Abraham, obfeurely from the village of Saraka (Steph. de
Urbibus), more plaufibly (fays the hiftorian of the Roman
empire) from the Arabic words, which fignify a thievifh
charagter, or oriental fituation. (Hottinger Hitt. Orient.
Pococke, Specimen.) Forlter, in his “ Journey from Bengal
to England,” deduces it from Sehara, fignifying in Arabic
a defart ; but others think that it is mamfeflly derived from

kin, which fignilics ealtern, This appellation, though

Vou. XXXII.

Printed by A. Strahan,
| ay ee ~_ =

SAR

of unafcertained origin, and though cuftomarily pronounced.
by every Chrittian mouth with horror and abhorrence, be-

» longed to a people who rofe from obfcurity to a confiderable

degree of eminence, and who contributed, by their migra-
tions through parts of Afia, and alfo through Africa to Eu-
rope, to the diffufion of fcience. The laf and mott popular
of thefe etymologies is refuted by Ptolemy, who exprefsly
marks the weitern and fouthern pofition of the Saracens,
then an obfcure tribe on the borders of Egypt. The ap-
pellation therefore cannot allude to any national charaéer ;
and fince it was impofed by ftrarigers, it muit be found, as
Gibbon conceives, not in the Arabic, but in a foreign
language. :

At a period when ignorance and barbarifm prevailed
through every part of the Roman empire, philofophy found
an afylum among the Saracens, or Arabians, a people
who, for feveral centuries after the appearance of Mahomet,
were {carcely lefs celebrated in their literary and philofo-
phical, than in their civil and military charaéter. Of their
language, learning, philofophy, &c. we have already given
a brief account under the articles ARABic Language, Learn-
ing, Philofophy, &c. We fhall here add fome further par-
ticulars. During the firft ages of Mahometanifm, philofo-
phy found no proteétion in Arabia. Its dawn on this coun-
try, after true fcience had been trampled under foot among
the Saracens by ignorance and bigotry, may be traced to
the acceflion of the family of the Abbaffides. (See ARABIC
Learning.) After the death of Al-Mamon, who was not
only learned himfelf, but an illu{trious patron of the learned,
which happened in the year 833, philofophy continued its
progrefs among the Saracens. The fchools, which in the
times of Rafhid and Al-Mamon had been inftituted under
the direction of John of Damafcus, Honain, and others,
long flourifhed, and fupplied a fucceffion of perfons, dif-
tinguifhed by their literature and fcience. Science, pro-
tected by the Saracen princes, after the empire was divided
into feveral caliphates, in Afia, Africa, and Europe, was, by
means of their conquefts, difleminated through a great part
of the world. From the beginning of the gth to the end
of the 13th century, eminent {chools of learning flourifhed
in the Saracen empire, among which the principal were
thofe at Bagdat, Baflora, a Bochara, in the eaft; at
Alexandria and Cairo, in Egypt ; at Morocco and Fez, in
Barbary ; and in feveral cities of Spain. The college at
Bagdat was fo flourifhing at the beginning of the twelfth
century, that it contained fix thoufand men, including maf-
ters and fcholars. In that of Baffora, the members of the
fociety formed a feét for correéting the corruptions which
had crept into Iflamifm, which they acknowledged could
not be purged away without the aid of pbiefoehys At

Cairo, where, about the year 1000, twenty {chools were

inftituted, the philofophy of Ariftotle was taught to great
crowds of pupils from all parts of the world. ‘The fchools
of Africa and Spain were diftinguifhed by the names of
Averroés, Avicenna, and other eminent philofophers, at a

eriod when barbarifm univerfally prevailed among the
weltern Chriftians. Many of thefe colleges were large and
magnificent buildings, liberally endowed, furnifhed with va-
luable libraries, and adorned with learned profeffors of lan-
guages, mathematics, altronomy, and philofophy.

Tt was a neceffary confequence of the increafe of know.
ledge among the Saracens, that the abfurditics of the fuper-
ftition, which their illiterate prophet had eftablifhed, were
perceived; and it became neceflary, in order to defend it
againtt the reafonings, and the ridicule, of Chriflians, Jews,
and philofophers, to give fuch an explanation of the Koran,
as might make it appear not mole inconfiltent with ee

3 an

SARACENS.

and common fenfe. Hence arofe a variety of forced inter-
pretations of the law, each of which had its advocates, and
became the foundation of a diftin@ fe&. Soon after the
time when philofophy began to be ftudied among the Sara-
cens, the followers of Mahomet were divided into fix feéts,
and thefe were afterwards fubdivided into feventy-three.
The rife of thefe fects was unqueftionably owing to the
advancement of knowledge. See Manomet and Mano-
METANISM.

Among the Saracens in Afia, Mauritania, and Spain, we
find a long catalogue of writers on metaphyfics, phyfics,
logic, ethics, politics, mathematics, and aftronomy ; feveral
of whom we fhall here enumerate, and refer for a further
account of the principal of them to their refpeétive biogra-
phical articles in the courfe of this Cyclopedia. The firft
we fhall mention was Jacobus Al-Kendi of Baflora, who
flourifhed at the beginning of the gth century, and acquired
among his contemporaries the title of «* The Philofopher.””
Another Arabian, who deferves notice among the teachers
of philofophy and mathematics, was Thabet Ebn Korra, of
the feét of the Sabii, who wrote a fummary of their doc-
trine. Among the celebrated philofophers of the fchool of
Bagdat was d/-Farabi, or Abu Nafr, who flourifhed in the
1oth century. As a philofophical theologian, 4/-A/hari,
or E/ciari, obtained high renown. He founded a new fect,
called Afharians or Afharites, among the Mahometans, (fee
SeraTrans,) and died in the year g42. Another celebrated
profeflor of mathematical and phyfical fciences, who adorned
the fchool of Bagdat at this time, was Abul Hufein E/ophi.
In medicine and philofophy a high degree of reputation was
obtained by 4/-Raf, called alfo Abubeker and Al-Manfor,
a native of Rai, in Perfia. Of Avicenna, or [bn-Sina, born
at Bochara in 978, an account has been already given.
Thograi, a Perfian of Ifpahan, who was grand vifier to the
fultan Malich Mafhud, is celebrated for his poetical talents,
a fpecimen of which is given by Pococke, and for a com-
mentary which he wrote upon the republic of Plato, a phi-
lofopher to whom the Saracens paid little attention. Hav-
ing incurred the difpleafure of the fultan, he was put to
death by his order in the year 1121. d/-Gazel of Tos, or
Tus, in Afia, was celebrated among the Mahometans, par-
ticularly for his “* Demonftration of Iflamifm,’’ and his
«« Treatife on the Unity of God.’’? He wrote feveral other
treatifes, and after having lived in fplendour as a public
preceptor at Bagdat, diftributed his riches among the poor,
aflumed the habit of a hermit, and retired to Mecea. From
Mecca he travelled into Syria and Egypt, and after ftaying
for fome time at Cairo, and alfo at Alexandria, he returned
to Bagdat, where he died. Among the Moors in Africa
and Europe, we find at the period to which we now refer,
feveral Arabian philofophers ; fuch are Eferiph Effachali, a
native of Sicily, famous for his knowledge of medicine,
aftrology, and cofmography. He died at Cividat, in Africa,
int121. Among the Spanifh Saracens were Avenpace and
Avenzoar, whofe names have been much celebrated. About
the fame time flourifhed Theophail of Seville, preceptor to
Maimonides and Averroés, and famous for his medical fkill
and for his knowledge of the Peripatetic philofophy ; he
died about the clofe of the 12th century: but of all the
Arabian philofophers and phyficians, the molt celebrated
was Averroes, fee his article.

In order to form a proper opinion of the nature and
fpirit of the Saracenic or Arabian philofophy, it will be
neceflary to confider its conneétion with Iflamifm, and alfo
the peculiar circumftances of the Saracen nation. Before
the introduction of the Mahometan religion among the
Arabians, in the year 622, their manner of living wae unfa-

vourable to the progrefs of knowledge. This was unfet-
tled and reving, and their chief attention was occupied

about their flocks and herds. Of the introdu@tion and

influence of Mahometanifm we have already, under different
heads, to which we have above referred, given as ample an
account as our limits will allow. Afterthe acceffion of the
Abbaffidean dynafty, learning and learned men, as we have
before obferved, enjoyed the countenance and proteétion of
the Arabian princes ; but philofophy was called in rather to
perform the office of a fervile auxiliary to Iflamifm, than
to refume her natural authority over the human mind, and
refcue it from the tyranny of fuperttition. In the moft en-
lightened period of Arabian philofophy, the utmott that was
attempted was to apply the principles of philofophy to the
correction of the abfurdities of Mahometani{m. Hence the
abfurd dogmas of the Koran were either gloffed over, or
blended with more rational tenets, fo that the Mahometans
became thus more attached to a fyitem founded in abfurdity
and fupported by impofture: and moreover, when it was
difcovered that the letter of the Mahometan law could not
eafily accord with philofophical notions, and difficulties were
perceived to refult from an attempt to unite them, fome re-
folved at once to treat all thefe {peculations with contempt,
and, without the trouble of inquiry, to acquiefce in the doc-
trines of the prevailing religion, however irrational : whilft
others perplexed themfelves with fubtle difputations, till
they were loft in the mifts of fcepticifm, or in the thick
darknefs of atheifm. The prevalence of the Peripatetic
philofophy caufed an almoft infurmountable barrier in the way
of diffeminating juft notions, either of {cience or of religion.
Philofophy among the Saracens derived its tone and com-
plexion from the Peripatetic fyftem ; and in every branch
of fcience, with refpect to which Ariftotle led the way, the
Arabian philofophers followed him as an infallible guide.
This was particularly the cafe with regard to logic, meta-
phyfics, and morals. ‘The mathematical fciences were cul-
tivated with great induftry by the Arabians, and in arith-
metic their inventions and improvements were valuable ; but
in geometry they made no addition to the treafures tranf-
mitted by the Greek mathematicians, but rather corrupted
their doctrine. In medicine, to which the Arabians paid
much attention, their chief guides were Hippocrates and
Galen; but by attempting to reconcile the doétrine of
thefe writers with the phyfiology of Ariitotle, they intro-
duced into their medieal fyftem many incenfiftent tenets,
and many ufelefs refinements. With regard to botany, they
mifunderftood the meaning of Diofcorides, whom they
wifely chofe as their guide ; nor were they more fuccefsful
in other branches of fcience. ‘Their difcoveries in chemiftry
were not inconfiderable, but they were concealed under the
occult myfteries of alchemy. In altronomy they made few
improvements upon the Greek authors whom they followed.
If, indeed, aftrology deferves the name of a fcience, which
owes its exiltence altogether to ignorance, fuperftition, and
impotture, inthis the Arabians mutt be allowed to have ex-
celled all other philofophers. Upon the whole, it may be
obferved, that when philofophy, in order to efcape the vio-
lence of barbarifm, took refuge in Arabia, fhe met with no
very favourable reception. The Saracens were too much
under the dominion of authority and prejudice, to be capa-
ble of profecuting the fearch after truth with an independent
{pirit. Wanting fufficient confidence in their own abilities,
they chofe rather to put them under the direétion of Arif-
totle, or any other guide, than to f{peculate for themfelves
with the freedom of true philofophy : the confequence was,
that, notwithitanding all their induttry and ingenuity, they
contributed little towards enlarging the field of human

knowledge.

SAR

knowledge. We do not mean to affert that there were no

at men among the Arabians, or that philofophy owed
nothing to their exertions: we freely confefs, that it was
in a great meafure owing to the light of learning and {cience,
which fhone in Arabia, that the whole earth was not at this
time overwhelmed with intelleGtual darknefs. But thus much
may be with confidence afferted, that the advances which the
Arabians made in knowledge were very inconfiderable, com-
pared with what has been done in modern times ; and that,
in the prefent enlightened ftate of the world, fcience can fuf-
fer no material lofs, if their writings be permitted quietly to
repofe in that oblivion to which time has confignued them.
The Arabians certainly fell far fhort of the Greeks in gene-
ral knowledge ; and it was only in a very few particulars
that they made any additions to the fund of ancient wifdom.
Since the original writings of the Greeks are come down to
the prefent times, we have little reafon to regret the want
of thofe remains of Arabian learning, which are ftill un-
tranflated.

According to Al-Gazel, the do@rine of the Arabians
concerning God and fpiritual natures were as.follows :

God created all things from nothing, and doth whatever
he pleafeth. In his elflence he is one, without companion or
equal, eternal and immutable. He has no corporeal form,
nor is circumfcribed by any limits. He neither exifts in any
thing, nor does any thing exift ia him. The divine eflence
admits of no multiplicity ; his attributes therefore do not
fubfift in his effence, but are his effence itfelf. That God
exifts, is known by the apprehenfion of the intelle& in this
‘world, and in the eternal habitation of the holy and bleffed,
by immediate vifion and intuition. Whatever happens in na-
ture, happens according to the will and appointment of God,
whofe decrees are in all things irrefiftible. The law, or
word of God, is eternal and uncreated. God has created
all things for the manifeftation of his glory, and will re-
ward his worfhippers, not according to their merit, but ac-
cording to his own munificence. Angels, the fervants of the
moft high God, are clothed with ethereal bodies of dif-
ferent forms, and have different offices afligned them ; and,
though neither their names nor diftinctions are known, they
ought to beloved and honoured. The fouls of men are im-
mortal, and their bodies will be raifed from the dead.» In
the interval between death and the refurreétion, fouls remain
in an intermediate {tate; and after the refurreétion, the

and faithful fhall be rewarded, and the wicked and un-
lieving thall be punifhed: but they who, after having fuf-
fered punifhment, fhall confefs One God, will, through his
favour, be releafed from their confinement, and placed
among the bleffed.

With refpect to morals, Mahomet, notwithftanding all
his pretenfions, did little. Although he laid a goed found-
ation in the belief of one God, and a future ftate of re-
wards and punifhments, he was fo far from raifing hereupon
a fuperftructure of rational ethics, that he relaxed the bonds
of morality; partly, by reprefenting future happinefs as
chiefly confifting.in corporeal and Tostual oy ; and
partly, by giving his followers a code of laws, in which
atonement is made for moral defe&ts and irregularities by the
oblervance of fuperititious rites and ceremonies. After the
introduction of philofophy among the Arabians, the ethical
f of Mahomet was, however, materially improved ; fo
that it would be unfair to afcribe to the whole Mahometan
world, or even to the Mahometan religion itfelf, as it was in
procefs of time correéted by ilolosby all the defeéts
and errors of the moral doétrine taught by the illiterate

het.
Prthe fundamental precepts of [flamifm are thefe: Believe

SAR

in one God, and in Mahomet the prophet of God. Per-
form the appointed ablutions. Pray to God devoutly at
the iftated feafons, and accordiag to the prefcribed forms.
Keep ftri@ly the fafts enjoined by the law, efpecially the
thirty days of the month Ramadan. Let your prayers and
faitings be accompanied with alms-g'vings. Vifit the holy
temple at Mecca.

Befides the precepts of the Jioran, the Arabians have
always had ameng them leflons of moral wifdom, written in
verfe, under the form of aphori ms: for a fpecimen, fee the
article Perfian Rosary. Brucker’s Philof. by Enf. vol. ii.
See Atcoran, ARABIAN Religion, MAHOMET, and Mano-
METANISM.

Saracen’s Confound, in Botany. See SoLipaco.

SarRAcen’s Confound, True. See SENECIO.

SARACHINUS, in Jchthyology, a name given by
Charleton and others, to the fith called by the generality of
authors the thriffz, by us the /had, or mother of the her-
rings.

Authors have given names to the herring kinds, according
to their different growth and fize, and multiplied the {pecies
much beyond what they ought tobe. Artedi obferves, that
the agonus and farachinus are only herrings of different
growth, and that the a/au/a minor of authors 1s the fame with
the agenus. See CLupEa.

SARACUS, a name given by fome authors to a {pecies
of fea-fith of the herring kind, more ufually called agenus,
and by many fufpeéted to have no effential difference from
the alaufa, or fhad, but to be the fame fifh in another
itate.

SARAGA, in Ancient Geography, a town fituated in the
country of the Senes, according to Ptolemy.

SARAGENA, a town of Africa, in the interior of
Marmarica. Ptol.

SARAGOSSA, or Zaracoza, by ancient Spanifh au-
thors written Caragoca, in Geography, an ancient, large, and
wealthy city of Spain, the capital of Aragon, was founded,
as fome have faid, by the Pheenicians, who gave it the name
of Salduba or Saldivia. It was ina flourifhing {tate under
the Romans, and being colonized by Auguttus, it was called
Cefarea, or Cafarea-Augufla, of which the prefent name is a
corruption. The Goths, conduéted by Euric, their king,
became mafters of it about the year 470. The Sa-
racens, under Mufa, their general, droye the Goths from
it in 712, and took pofleffion of it in the name of the caliph
of Damafcus ; but in 753 it was taken by the Moor Zuzif,
governor-general of Spain. The inhabitants attempting to
fhake off the yoke of the new empire, formed a republic in
825, but they were foon compelled to implore the clemency
of the Moorifh king. At length this town became, A.D.
1017, the capital cha {mall empire, about the time when the
feveral governors in different parts of Spain ufurped fupreme
power. The governor of Saragofla aflumed kingly power,
and cd | his crown to his pofterity, who retained it
till Alphonfo I., king of Aragon, made himfelf matter of
the town in December 1115, after a fiege of eight months :
he then made it the capital of his kingdom, and the refidence
of the princes who fucceeded him. It remained the capital
of Aragon until that country became, in the 16th century,
fimply a province of the Spanifh monarchy, by the marriage
of its king Ferdinand the Catholic with Lfabella, heirefs of
the kingdoms of Leon and Cattile.

Saragolla is fituated on a fertile plain, on the Ebro, at the
conflux of two other rivers, the ‘roiees and the Huerva, one
running from the N., the other a confiderable ftream, de-
fcending from the mountains of the S. The Ebro feparates
the town from its fuburbs, and is navigable; the other two

3C2 rivers

SARAGOSSA.

rivers concur in fertilizing the neighbouring country. The
new canal of Aragon paffes through the lands in its vicinity.
The adjacent fields are well cultivated, and its extenfive gar-
dens are very produétive; and its climate is moderate, between
the extremes of heat and cold. Although this town is one
of the largeft in Spain, its population does not correfpond to
its fize. From an enumeration made in 1787, it has been
eftimated at the number of 42,600 perfons. It has eight
gates, befides the four old ones in the wall of Auguttus, and
two bridges over the Ebro, one of wood, and another of
ftone. “The ftreets of Saragoffa are, for the moft part, nar-
row, irregular, and paved with rough pebbles. Some, how-
ever, are itraight, long, and fpacious ; and particularly that
called Calle Santa, or ‘Holy-ftreet, becaufe it was the place of
the martyrdom of the firft yiGtims of the faith in Saragofla :
this ftreet is alfo denominated Calls del Corfo. The houfes
are generally old, but regularly built ; and here are feveral
edifices, which deferve attention : particularly the new tower,
called the leaning tower, refembling that of Pifa; the
church of San Cayetano, and thofe of the Cordeliers, of
St. Lucia, of the Faretas, of the Convalefcents, of St. Paul,
of Notre Dame del Portillo, and of the Barefoot Auguf-
tines ; the college of La Manteria; the convent of the Do-
minicans; the palace of the Inquifition ; the convent of the
Jeronymites, called Santa Engracia; and the metropolitan
church, called La Seu, diftinguifhed by its beautiful front
and its high tower. The church of Nueftra Dona del
Pilar is alfo a grand and fuperb building ; the principal altar
is inthe Gothic ftyle, conttruéted almotft wholly of alabafter,
and exhibiting a mixture of different kinds of fculpture.
The arts, it is faid, have combined to decorate the interior of
thischurch. In the centre of this cathedral there is an edi-
fice, which is itrikingly beautiful. The principal front is a
chapel of our Lady of the Pillar, who appeared upon this very
pillar to St. James, and afterwards gave to him the image,
which is worfhipped at her altar. Over this there is a dome,
correfponding to the great dome, under which it ftands,
ferving by way of canopy tothe image of the Virgin. The
three other fronts of this elegant tabernacle are in like man-
nerchapels. Befides the great dome, there are many {maller
domes furroundinz it, each with elegant paintings in com-
partments, the fubjeéts of which are hiftorical, taken from
the facred' writings, or from the legends: of the faints, to
whom the chapels and altars are dedicated. Thefe are exe-
cuted by don Francifeo Bayeu, firft painter to the king;
and the archite&, under the infpeétion of whom thefe domes
have been conftructed, is Rodriguez, of whofe talte and
_ Judgment thefe decorations and improvements will remain a
laiting monument.

The wealth of this cathedral is ineftimable, in filver, gold,
precious {tones, and rich embroidery, fent by all the Catho-
lic fovereigns of Europe to deck its prie(ts, and to adorn
its altars. Many of thefe prefents, being modern, are wor-
thy of attention for their elegance, as well as for the value
of their pearls, diamonds, emeralds, and rubies. In a word,
whatever wealth could command, or human art could exe-
cute, has been colle¢ted to excite the admiration of all who
view the treafures of this church.

The Lonja, i. ¢. the refort of the merchants, or the Ex-
change, round which are the butts of moft of the kings of
Aragon, deferves to be mentioned : its large hall is the
place where the municipal body affembles. Oppofite to
this is the Hotel of the Deputation, ferving for the fittings
of the royal audience. Saragofla has a number of pleafant
promenades. This city has a fee, which was at firft epifco-
pal under the Goths ; it was abolifhed under the Moors, and
re-eftablifhed by king Alphonfo I. It was at la{t raifed to

an archbifhopric, contaising feveral fuffragans, 365 parifhes,
one cathedral chapter, and two collegiate ones. This town
has 17 parifhes, 24 convents of monks, four houfes of regular
clergy, 13 convents of nuns, a houfe of Baguine nuns, a col-
lege of virgins, a houfe of penitents, four churches and
houfes exempt from the jurifdiétion of the ordinary, five hof-
pitals, and a feminary occupied by ecclefiaftics, who chiefl
devote themfelves to miffions. The houfe of Pity, for whick
an edifice was finifhed in 1792, is an excellent eftablifhment,
containing 700 perfons, of all ages, and of both fexes, who
are maintained and employed in fpinning filk, in carding
and fpinning wool, and in making camlets and fome
ftuffs. The clergy of various defcriptions are very nume-
rous. Saragoffa is the place of refidence of the general chap=
ter of the kingdom of Aragon, the chief place of the in-
tendant’s jurifdiétion, and the feat of the royal audience,
which is the fupreme court of this province. The civil go-
vernment of this town is carried on by a criminal judge, and
by acertain number of magiftrates. It has two alcade mayors,
who adminifter juftice in concurrence with the judge, a tri-
bunal of the inquifition, an univerfity, an academy of the fine
arts,a fociety of the friends of the country, a {chool for
drawing, one for agriculture, and one where mathematics,
moral philofopby, the law of nations, and the elements of
commerce and public economy aretaught. The univerfity
contains near 2000 itudents, and for their inftruétion the doc-
tors conftantly refiding are, 40 in theology, 20 for the canon
law, 36 for civil law, 17 for medicine, and 8 for arts.
The foundation of this feminary was laid A.D. 1118, on the
expulfion of the Moors ; but the univerfity was not incor-
porated till A.D. 1474, and from that period it has’ con-
itantly been cherifhed and protected by the fovereigns of
Aragon. :

At Saragofla are two public libraries, which are open: for
the ftudious, who owe both to the beneficence of two indi-
viduals ; one is in the conyent of St. Ildefonfo, belonging
tothe Dominicans, and contains 1600 volumes, which were
given by the marquis de la Compueita: it has no modern
books. The other is in the feminary, and is the ancient
library of don Emanuel da Roda, formerly a fecretary of
itate, who began to collect it at Rome, and augmented it at
Madrid during his miniftry ; it is handfome, numerous, and
well-chofen, and contains valuable collections.

The inhabitants of Saragofla indulge to no great ex-
pence or luxury in their drefs or amufements ; the former
is in general plain and fimple ; and the latter are reftriéted
and partial. Although it is one of the handfomett cities in
Spain, extenfive, delightfully fituated, under a temperate
fky, and capable of being amply fupplied with all the con-
veniences of life, it is without induitry and without com-
merce. It is faid, that the clergy potlefs the greateft por-
tion of the wealth of the place. However that be, Laborde
obferves, that all here is ferious and regular, not to fay dull
and monotonous: here are no fociety, no parties, nor any
kind of entertainment. It feems quite dettitute of every
refource, becaufe the inhabitants makerno effort to ob-
tain any : accuitomed to this {tate of apathy and languor,
they have not an idea of the poffibility of delivering them-
felves from it. The canal, however, which has been lately
made near the town, may certainly, by reviving commerce,
call forth the activity, and develope the happy genius of the
inhabitants. This canal was defigned for forming a com.
munication by the Ebro from fea to fea, between S. Ander,
in the bay of Bifcay, and Tortofa, on the borders of the
Mediterranean, a diltance of more than one hundred Spanith
leagues. It was begun in 1529, by order of Charles Ty
fufpended in 1538, recommenced in 1566, by order of

12 Philip

.

>.

SAR

Philip II., again abandoned, and again began in 1770, under
Charles III. It has already coft a very large fum; but
Aragon has experienced the advantage of it, and agriculture
has aflumed a new appearance in the countries. which are
watered by the canal. Saragoffa is diltant 160 miles N.E.
from Madrid. N. lat. 41° 44'.. W. long. 0° 48! ’
_SARAGURA, a town of South America, in the pro-
vince of Quito ; 25 miles N. of Laxa.

SARAINASKA, atownof Walachia; 35 miles E.N.E.
of Bucharelt. ;

SARAK, a {mall ifland in the Perfian gulf; 140 miles
W. of Ormus.

SARALBE, a town of France, in the department of
the Mofelle, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of
Sarraguemines; 7 miles S. of Sarraguemines. The place
contains 1980, and the canton 12,009 inhabitants, on a ter-
ritory of 270 kiliometres, in 22 communes. N. lat. 49°.

E. long. 7° 7!.

SARALUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Galatia. Ptol.

SARAMANOS, in Geography, a town of Peru, in the
diocefe of Lima; 25 miles N.W. of Leon de Guanuco.

SARAMEK, a town of Perfia, in the provinee of Cho-
rafan ; 60 miies N.W. of Herat.

SARAMENA, in Ancient Geography, a country of Afia
Minor, towards the Amiffus.. Strabo.

SARAMON, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Gers; 15 miles E. of Mirande. N. lat.

Pail E.long. 0° 51/.

SARANAG, a river of Americg;,in the {tate of New
York, which runs into lake Champlain at Plattfburgh.

SARAND, a river of Hungary, which runs frum the
Balaton lake, and pailes by Symontornya into the Kopan. .

SARANGA, in Ancient Geography, acountry of India,
on the fea-coalt, between the mouth of the river Indus and
that of the Arbis. . Arrian.

SARANG#, or SaranG21, or Zarange, a people who
inhabited the N.E. part of Perfia, near the Chorafmui, Cantali,
and Attafini, Raed to Pliny. ' This country correfponded
to that part of Perfia, which was comprehended under the
prefent province of Segeftan or Seiftan.. The Sarangeans
compofed a part of the army of Xerxes. They were drefled
in fplendid and varied coloured habits, and armed with bows
and javelins. They were the Euergetee of the Greeks;
a title beltowed upon them by Cyrus, in gratitude for the
relief which they afforded him, on his return from an unfuc-
cefsful expedition into Scythia.

SARANGPOUR, ia Geography, a town of Thibet ;
140 miles N.E. of Sirinagur. N. lat. 32° 25'._ E. long.
80° 28'.

SARANL, in Ancient Geography, a people who inhabited
a canton ef Pheenicia, according to Procopius.

SARANSK, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Penza; 48 miles N. of Penza. N. lat.
§2° 15'.+ E. long..45° 14/.

SARAPIDIS Iwnsura, in Ancient Geography, an ifland
fituated on the coalt of Arabia, in the Sachalite gulf, ad-
joining to the feven ifles of Zenobia. Ptolemy.

SARAPILLY, in Geography, a town of Hindoottan, in
Golconda ; 30 miles E. a ydrabad.—Alfo, a town of
Hindoottan, in the Carnatic ; 12 miles S, of Nellore.

SARAPIQUI, a river of Mexico, in the province of
Nicaragua, which runs into. the Defaguadero ; 5 miles S. of
St. Carlos.

SARAPUT, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Viatka; 132 miles S.S.E. of Viatka. N, lat. 56°32. E.
long. 52° 26/.

SAR

SARAQUINO, a {mail ifland in the Grecian Archi-
pelago. N. lat. 39° 27'. E. long. 24° 4/.

SARASA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in the
country of the Parthians, formerly called Carduchi, accord-
ing to Strabo.

‘ SARASIN, Joun Francis, in Biography, was born in
1604, at Hermanville, near Caen. In this city he was edu-
cated ; he then came to Paris, where his wit, gallantry, and
pleafing manners rendered him a general favourite. He be-
came particularly attached’to the prince of Conti, who ap-
pointed him his fecretary. He refided a confiderable time
in Germany, and acquired the efteem of the princefs Sophia,
daughter of the king of Bohemia. A variety of works in
profe and verfe made him known in the literary world. He
died in 1654, and very foon after this event his works were
publifhed collectively by Menage, in 1656. The profe con-
fits chiefly of «« A Hiltory of the Siege of Dunkirk, by the
Prince of Conde ;”” «* The Hiltory of the Walitein Con-
{piracy ;” ‘¢ A Dialogue on Love;’? and “ Opinions on
the Name and Game of Chefs.”? The poetical pieces con-
fitt of eclogues, elegies, fonnets, epigrams, and other fhort
pieces. All his works are faid to difplay facility and vi-
vacity, with much delicacy of fentiment, but not under the
difcipline of a corre& tafe and judgment.

SARASU, in Geography, a river of Turkeftan, which
runs into the Lirr at Jenghikand.

SARASWATI, in Mythology, the name of the confort
of the Hindoo deity Brahma. The A fiatic Mifcellany, vol. i.
and the lait volume of the works of fir Wm. Jones, contain a
hymn by that elegant writer addrefled to Sarafwati.

‘¢ Sweet grace of Brahma’s bed ;
Whofe figh is mufic, and each tear a pearl.”

From the argument prefixed to it we extra fome paf-
fages defcriptive of this interefting fubje@& of Eaftern fable,
and generally of its mythology.

“ The Hindoo goddefles are uniformly reprefented as the
fubordinate powers of their refpeétive lords: thus Lakthmi,
the confort of Vihhnu the preferver, is the goddefs of abun-
dance and profperity ; Bhavani, or Parvati, the wife of Siva,
is the general power of fecundity ; and Sarafwati, whofe huf-
band is the creator Brahma, pollefles the powers of imagina-
tion and invention, which may jultly be termed creative.
She is, therefore, adored as the patronefs of the fine arts,
efpecially of mufic and rhetoric ; as the inventrefs of the
Sanferit language, and of the fciences which writing per-
petuates ; fo that her attributes correfpond with thofe of
Minerva one in Greece or Italy, who invented the flute,
and prefided over literature. In this charaéter fhe is ad-
drefled in the hymn; and particularly as the godde/s of
harmony, fince the Indians ufually paint her with a mufical
inftrument in her hand. ‘The feven notes, an artful combi-
nation of which conflitutes mufic, and varioufly affects the
paflions, are feigned to be her earlielt production; and the
greate(t part of the hymn exhibits a correét delineation of
the Ragmala, or necklace of mufical modes, which may be con-
fidered as the mott pleafing invention of the ancient Hindoos,
and the moft beautiful union of painting with poetical my-
thology, and the genuine theory of mufic. A full dif-
cuffion of fo copious a fubjeé&t would require a feparate
dillertation ; but here it will be fufficient to fay that almoft
every illufion and every epithet in the poem, as well as the
names, are {elected from approved treatifes, either originally
Perfian, or tranflated from the Sanferit, which contain as
lively a difplay of genius as human imagination ever ex-
hibited.’’

Such of our readers as may be unacquainted with the

hymn

SARASWATI.

hymn or ode, from the argument to which the above paf-
fages are extracted, would be amply repaid by the perufal
of it, as well as of the other odes addreffed by the fame au-
thor to different deities of the Hindoo Pantheon.

The name of Sarafwati, or Serefwaty, as fome Eaftern
{cholars write it, means flowing; applicable both to the
goddefs of eloquence, and to the facred river named after
her, which is fabled to join two others, forming a my ttical
triad, fo delighting to Hindoo enthufiafts. This myftical
junétion is called Triveni, fee that article, and Trimurtt
It is alluded to in the laft ftanza of the hymn.

« We thirft, Vachdevi, for thy balmy lore,
Drawn from that rubied cave,
Where meck-eyed pilgrims hail the triple wave.’’

Vach, and Vachi, have meanings chiefly referrible to

ech, as hath Lepita, another name of this goddefs of elo-
quence, or Vachdevi, as fhe is {tiled above. She is alfo called
Brahmi, and Brahmani, as the fakti, or power, of Brahma.
Vani is another of her names. Under the article Saxr1, the
attributes and appearances of this goddefs will be found no-
ticed. She is one of the Devi-matri of the Hindoos ; fimilar
to the dex-matres of the Romans. See hereon alfo under
Saxtl, and Matrt.

The unarmed Minerva of the Romans apparently corre-
f{ponds, as patronefs of fcience and genius, with Sarafwati ;
as we are told by fir W. Jones, Af. Ref. vol.i. Both god-
defles, he adds, have given their names to celebrated gram-
matical works: but the Sarafwata of Sarupacharya is far
more concife, as well as more ufeful, than the Minerva of
Sanétius.

The Minerva of Italy invented the flute ; and Sarafwati
prefides over melody : the protectrefs of Athens was even,
on the fame account, furnamed Mufice. (Ibid.) A {tringed
inftrument, called vina, is ufually feen in the hand of Saraf-
wati, in pictures, or poetical defcriptions of her. It may
be thought curious that a Calmuck goddefs, playing on the
baililika, a fort of lyre, or vina, given in one of the plates
to Dr. Clarke’s recent travels, is exaétly a reprefentation
of the Hindoo Sarafwati. See hereon under our article
Parvati, another Indian deity, now found to be a goddefs
alfo of the Calmucks. Sarafwati is deemed to be one of the
Parce of the Weitern mythologilts ; as weaver of the web
of life. Clotho is of courfe the fate, correfponding to the
creature-confort of Brahma, as farther noticed under SAKTI,
and TRIMURTI.

The fifth day of the month Magha is called Sri-punjemi,
on which Sarafwati, named Sri, or the bleffed, (fee Sri, ) the
goddefs of arts and eloquence, is worfhipped with offerings
of perfumes, flowers, and drefled rice ; even the implements
of writing and books are treated with refpeét, and are not
ufed on this holiday. The following meditation on this
goddefs will furnifh a defcription of her perfon and at-
tributes.

«« May the goddefs of fpeech enable us to attain all pof-
fible felicity ; fhe who wears on her locks a young moon ;
who fhines with exquifite lultre; whofe body bends with
the weight of her full breafts ; who fits reclined on a white
lotos ; and from the crimfon lotos of her hands pours radi-
ance on the implements of writing, and on the books pro-
duced by her favour.’”? Af. Ref. vol. iii.

The latt watch of the night is peculiarly facred to Sa-
ra{wati. ,

« Let the houfe-keeper wake in the time facred to Brah-
mi, the goddefs of {peech, that is, in the laft watch of the
night ; let him then reflect on virtue and virtuous emolu-
ments, and on the whole meaning and very eflence of the

Veda.”? (Inft. of Menu, c.iv. v.92.) See under Menu, for
an account of the work here quoted. By the latter part of
the verfe is probably meant the Gayatri, and the myftic mo-
nofyllable 0’m ; of which fee under 0’.

The facred books called the Vedas, (fee Vepa,) are de-
rived from Brahma ; and fometimes, as being the fame thing,
from Sarafwati, who is called the ‘* mother of the Vedas.’’
The Jayatri is called alfo the mother of the Vedas. Savitri
is a name fometimes given to the “ ineffable text,” the Ga-
yatri, as fully noticed under the article o’m. Savitri is a
name of the fun, or Surya, who is the oftenfible object adored
in the Vedas, and is alfo givento Sarafwati. She is likewife
called, as is Parvati, Sweta-devi, or the white goddefs. In
the article o’m this paflage occurs. ‘* The white goddefs,
or Sarafwati, prefides over arts and f{ciences ; fhe is the Vedas,
and the Vedas arein her. Savitri, the confort of Brahma, is
the Gayatri, emphatically called the mother of the Vedas.’
Brahmi-fita is another of her names. Sita (which fee)
means white. In certain fpells, defcribed in the Puranas,
compound epithets are applied to her containing all the
letters of the alphabet, and the name fhe is then addrefled by
is Sarvakfhara. But as fhe contains them all and is one, fo
one letter is her; and fhe, like Parvati, is alfo called I, or, in
a derivative form, Iva; pronounced as a diffyllable exactly
like Eve. Ekakfhara is another of her names in this form,
meaning one letter. On Puranic authority the following
names or epithets are applied to her. They are contained
in a hymn of praife addrefled to her by Brahma: Jayafva,
meaning victorious ; Satya-fambhuta, felf-born ; Vararfha,

firmly feated; Druva, immoveable; Deva-vara, god-con- °

taining; Kfhema, benign; Sarvabhuta-Mahefwari, great
queen of all living beings. The latter, Mahefwari, is a name
alfo of Parvati; who is converfely called Bhutopharini, or
fhe who deftroys living beings.

Sarafwati is, among other deities, efpecially propitiated
in the marriage ceremonies of fome fects of Hindoos: the
following hymn is chanted in her honour. ‘ Charming Sa-
raf{wati! {wift as a mare, whom I celebrate in the face of this
univerfe, protect this folemn rite. O thou! in whom the
elements were produced, in whom this univerfe was framed,
I will now fing that hymn (the nuptial text) which con-
{titutes the higheft glory of women.’’ Af. Ref. vol. vii.

Whichfoever deity a Hindoo may have occafion to invoke,
or rather whichever be the obje& of his adoration, whether
god or goddefs, fuperior or inferior, he is naturally prone
to array his patron in the attributes of the Almighty himfelf.
It is, however, proper to recolleé, that a female deity is the
fame with her lord, being his aétive energy, or Sakti; as is
Sarafwati of Brahma; fhe is accordingly endowed with his
attribute of creation. In the preceding and following ex-
traéts we, therefore, fee her appropriately invoked as the
being ‘in whom the elements were produced ; in whom this
univerfe was framed ;”’ and gifted with the powers and at~-
tributes, more ufually affigned to the two other great god-
defles, Parvati and Lakfhmi. (See thofe articles.) Sri, as
a name meaning bleifed, or fortunate, is applied to them all;
and indeed to others, and even tomen. (See Sri.) Parvati
is fometimes called the goddefs of {peech, and Sarafwati is
alfo a name given to her. ‘ Sitting reclined on a white
lotos,”’ is rather indicative of Lakfhmi ; while “ wearing on
her locks a crefcent, or young moon,” approaches her again
to the confort of Siva, he being the ‘* moon-erowned” god.
Savitri, a name of Surya, or the fun, is fometimes, as above-
mentioned, given to the fpoute of Brahma. (See SaviTrt.)
Satarupa is alfo a name of both Sara{wati and Parvati. See
SATARUPA.

In the following extract from Colebroke’s Effay on the

Vedas,

SARASWATI.

Vedas, (fee Vena,) Af. Ref. vol. viii. the origin and attri-
butes of this beneficent deity will appear.

Near the clofe of the tenth chapter (of the tenth book of
the Rigveda) a hymn is fpoken by Vacu, in praife of her-
felf, as the fupreme univerfal foul. Vach fignifies /peech,
and fhe is the active power of Brahma proceeding from him.
The following is a literal verfion of the hymn; which is
expounded by the commentator, by the interpolation be-
tween brackets, confiftently with the theological dotrines
of the Vedas.

«J range with the Rudras, with the Vafus, with the
Adityas, and with the Viswa-pEvas. I uphold both the
fun and the ocean [MirHra and Varuna ], the firmament
[lxpra], and fire. I fupport the moon [Soma], deftroyer
[of foes], and [the fun, entitled] Twasut1, Pusuan, or
Bhaga. I grant wealth to the honeft votary who performs
facrifices, offers oblations, and fatisfies [the deities]. Me,
who am the queen, the conferrer of wealth, the pofleffor of
knowledge, and firft of fuch as merit worfhip, the gods
render, univerfally, prefent every where, and pervader of all
beings. He who eats food through me, as he who fees,
who breathes, or who hears through me, yet knows me not,
is loft ; hear then the faith which I pronounce. Even I de-
clare this felf, who is worfhipped by gods and men ; I make
ftrong whom I choofe ; I make him Brahma, holy and wife.
For /Rupra I bend the bow, to flay the demon, foe of
Brahma ; for the people I make war [on their foes] ; and
I pervade heaven and earth. I bore the father on the head
[of this univerfal mind] ; and my origin is in the midit of
the ocean; and therefore doI pervade all beings, and touch
this heaven with my form. Originating all things, I pafs
like the breeze ; I am above this heaven, beyond this earth ;
and what is the great one, that am I.”

The above extraét, even with the aid of the interpolated
illuftration, is obfcure, like the greater part of the Vedas,
or facred books of the Hindoos. An examination of the
very inftruétive and elegant effay, whence it is taken, will in
part remove its obfcurity: we fhall only notice the ex-
planation afforded on one paflage :—‘* Heaven, or the fy,
is the father ; and the fky is produced from mind: its birth
is therefore placed on the head of the fupreme mind,” or
intelligence. A reference to the articles given under the
words above diftinguifhed by capitals, will afford farther
information on the fubjeét of the creative goddefs of har-
mony and art ; the active energy of Brahma, who is faid to
be a perfonification of the earth, and of matter generdlly.
See hereon farther under our articles Parvati, and Srva.

Images of Sarafwati are rare. The author of the Hindoo
Pantheon, whence we have taken a confiderable part of this
article, fays that he never faw one. Piétures of her are not
uncommon, and fhe is, in the plates of the work juft men-
tioned, feveral times reprefented under forms that we fhall
prefently notice.

No exclufive adoration is now paid either to Sarafwati,
or her lord Brahma. It feems fingularly infelicitous,
therefore, to call the religion of the Hindoos that of
Brahma, as is not unufual with European writers. Of the
Brahmans, indeed, it may be correétly termed ; but there
is now no fe&, clafs, or tribe, who exclufively worlhip
that, i. ¢. the creative power of the frimurti or triad, as 16
the cafe with fo many feéts in refpe& of the other two
powers, Siva and Vifhnu, as noticed under thefe articles ;
and under Saiva and Vaifhnava, the general names of thefe
fe€taries; and under Sects of Hindbos, and other articles
thence referred to.

But although no feé is now known to offer exclufive
a efpecial adoration, cither to Brahma, or his Sakti, and

no temples are raifed to their honour; it may be reafonably
inferred that there is truth in the tradition that the creative
power was formerly worthipped, fimilarly with the pree
Servative and deffrudive, the other two of the triad. ‘The
pafflage above quoted from the Veda, and other paflages,
authorize this inference. Tradition fays, that the temples
of Brahma were overthrown, his feGtaries difperfed, and his
worfhip abolifhed ; abforbed, perhaps, by his fuccefsful
rivals, the Saivas and Vaifhnavas. If there be truth in this,
the faét feems pofterior to the compofition of fuch paf-
fages as the above in the Vedas.

The author of the Hindoo Pantheon feems, however, to
view the queftion of the deftruétion of Brahma’s temples,
&c. in the light rather of a poetical perfecution. « Of
Brahma,” he fays, “the deity’s creative energy, lefs appears
to have been faid and fung (the facred books and ceremonies
of the Hindoos are moftly written and chanted in mea/ure)
than, comparatively, of the other co-equal members of the
triad : he has, like them, his confort and offspring, and has
had terreftrial incarnations ; but the work of creation being
pait, Brahma, its reprefented power, is no longer efpecially
adored in temples dedicated exclufively to him. A flociated
with the other deities, offerings are gratefully made, and
invocations pioufly addreffed to the primary perfon ; but
as his portion of divine aétivity doth not operate on the
prefent hopes and fears of the enthufiaftic or trembling fup-
pliant, the exclufive adoration of Brahma has mixed itfelf
with that addrefled to Vifhnu and Siva: with mixed and
languid feelings he contemplates his exiftence, his creation ¢
his prefervation he anxioufly hopes and feeks, and his
deftrudion fervently fears and deprecates: gratitude is lefs
ardent than hope or fear; in time it becomes overpowered
by their fuperior potency, and its objet is in a manner
forgotten. But a Hindoo, fpurning at fobriety of narra
tion, cannot plainly ftate any hiftorical or philofophical
fa&t ; it muft have a fabulous and mythological origin,
progrefs, and termination: hence the three feéts, who fepa-
rately worfhipped the co-equal, co-eternal powers, have, by
a feries of poetical perfecution and warfare, in which the
followers of Brahma were difcomfited, his temples over-
thrown, and his worfhip abolifhed, been reduced to two;
and the feéts of Vaifhnava and Saiva now comprife, under
various {pecific defignations, all the individuals-of that very
numerous race, diftinguifhed by the appellation of Hindoos.’?
Hin. Pan. p. 3.

This diverfity of opinion on an abftrufe fubje&t may be
in fome meafure reconciled, by confidering that all may be
fable, or both theories may be faét. Without, however,
entering farther on the point, we fhall now return to the
mythological perfonage, more immediately the fubje& of
this arte:

In cafes where a Hindoo had lied, or given falfe evidence,
the fin is expiated by an eafy oblation to the goddefs of
fpeech.

It has been extenfively remarked, that the Hindoos are

more than ufually prone to falfehood ; nor can it be denied
that the difcouragement of this offence is too little painted,
both in regard to the trifling degree of difgrace that at-
taches to a man’s charaéter on detection, and to the too
(reat qualification of the prohibitory claufe againft lying.
Falfchvod is not only tolerated in fome cafes of evidence,
but is declared, in f{pecial affairs, to be even “ preferable to
truth.’”? Several texts might be cited from the inftitutes
of Menu, if our limits aut allow, that would evince this.

Another reafon that, among the Hindoos, deviation from
truth is not held in deferved abhorrence, may be found per-

haps in this circumftance; that in their mythological le-
4 pends

SAR

gends their gods are frequently reprefented as liars, One
can fcarcely refift the perfuafion, that imbibing fuch notions
in early youth, mutt neceflarily produce a pernicious in-
fluence on the principles and condu& of men. It is an
outrage on all moral decency to teach a mythological race
of men, that ¢ falfe evidence is by wife men called the fpeech
of the gods ;’’ that ‘“ falfehood may be fpoken ;”’ that in
fome cafes, leaving the individual to determine as to their
oceurrence, “ it is even preferable to truth ;”” and that “a
full expiation of the venial fin of benevolent falfehood”’ is
found in offerings as contemptible, if poffible, as the doc-
trine is pernicious.

After this little digreffion, not however irrelevant to our
fubject, we return to Sarafwati; remarking, by the way,
that all Hindoo hiftory, {cience, and arts given, as well as
their religion, are buried in their mythology. If the mine
of Hindoo lore contain any thing worth exploring, as it
indifputably does, it is in the various ramifications of the
mythological vein that we muit chiefly feek the ore ; inter-
mixed, indeed, with matter of grofs and diverfified qualities.
See Mytuoxoey of the Hindoos.

In pictures, for we have before {tated that no images of
her have been brought to light, Sarafwati is feen two and
four-handed, holding a ftringed inftrument, called vina, a
fort of lyre ; a lotos, a cup, and a feroll. The inftrument,
correctly named vina, is in common language called Been.
(See that article for a defcription, and the plate thence re-
ferred to, for an accurate engraving of it.) She is fome-
times feen riding on a peacock ; but the vehicle, or vahan,
ufually faid to appertain to Brahma, and of courfe to his
confort, is the goofe, or {wan.. In the cavern temple of
Elephanta, Brahma is feen in feveral compartments, fitting
on a lotos, with three or four of thofe animals inclofed in
good relief on its calyx. Except in this inftance, how-
ever, the author of the Hindoo Pantheon does not recolle&
feeing the god in queftion fo attended. In one of the

lates of that work, Sarafwati is riding on a fpecies of heron,
called in India Bhagala, and fo called, it is furmifed, from
flying with its long neck and head gathered apparently
under its wing, which part in a bird, as well as under the
arm in man, is called Bhagl. It may be noticed in pafling,
that Bhaga is a name or epithet of a divine nature, and
given to feveral deities, and applied perhaps to Brahma;
and with the final fyllable, which, in this view of it, is only
a grammatical termination, denoting the genitive cafe to
the bird in quettion. This bird is commonly called by the
Englifh batty-bird, from frequenting wet rice, or batty-
fields. It flies low, like the fwan and goofe, and the pea-
cock, all of which being heavy fluggifh birds, may have
been fele&ted as apt emblems of Brahma; who, it will be
recolleGed, is a perfonification of earth or matter. In like
manner Vifhnu, being the air, is appropriately carried by
the buoyant towering eagle. Under the article Marri,
Brahmani is defcribed “ on a car yoked with fwans,” and
“ carried by afwan.”? See VAHAN.

It may be farther remarked, that the name of Brahma’s
vahan, or vehicle, the fwan or goofe, is hanafa; ufually
pronounced hans; or with a ftrong nafal, hahns; fome-
times hahn/y ; and this latter name is precifely that given
in the eaftern parts of England to the heron, a femi-aquatic
fpecies of bird, on which Sarafwati is occafionally feen to
ride. A determined etymologift might find a farther coin-
cidence in the names of Brahma’s goole, han/a, and our genus
or order, anfer.

Conneéted with this fubjeét, we will allot « line or two
here to notice a difcovery of lingual coincidence of an
amufing nature. Some of the early Catholic miffionaries,

SAR

explaining the religions doftrines and opinions of the
Hindoos, found the hiftory of the patriarch Abraham, and
his wife Sarah, veiled under that of Brahma and Sarafwati ;
which names may, indeed, without much licence, be written
Brahama, and Sarah-fwati. Dropping, or tranfpofing, a
final vowel is a very trifling etymological liberty ; and in
the inftance of Brahama, making it initial, gives at once the
required name; and in the other cafe, with the zealous
miflionary, the termination /wati is merely an epithet equi-
valent to goddefs, or miftrefs. How far the good fathers
found the refpeétive hiftories of the compared perfonages to
coincide, we do not recolle&. ]

Red, as the colour of earth, is that alfo of Brahma and
his confort. They are frequently feen with deep red faces.
(See Trivent.) It is alfo the colour of Pavaka, regent
of fire, as noticed under that article; and of Sani, the
planet Saturn, whofe motions are fuppofed to be dire&ted
by Brahma. The flow motion of Sani may have pointed
out that planet as appropriate to heavy fluggifh matter,
perfonified. (See Sani.) Vani, or Vahni, is a name of
both Sarafwati and Pavaka.

As all the gods and goddeffes of the Hindoo Pantheon
are ultimately refolvable into one, fo we find their names
and attributes coalefcing. Inftances of this and their
phyfical relations, are given under the articles LaksHMI,
O’m, Sakti, Siva, Parvati, and others thence re-
ferred to.

SARAT, in Geography, a river of Afiatic Turkey, in
Natolia; 44 miles E. of Smyrna. ‘

SARATCHIKOVA, a fort of Ruffia, on the Ural;
16 miles N. of Guriev.

SARATOGA, a town of the ftate of New York, on
the river Hudfon, noted in the hiftory of the American
war as the place where, im the year 1777, the Britifh army
under general Burgoyne furrendered to the Republicans
under general Gates, on a capitulation by which they were
allowed a free paflage to Great Britain, on condition of not
ferving againft America; 28 miles N. of New York. This
place contains about 404 houfes, and a Dutch reformed
church, but they are fo fcattered about, that it has not the
{malleft appearance of a town. Of the works thrown up
at Saratoga by the Britifh and American armies during
the war, there are now fcarcely any remains. The coun-
try round about it is well cultivated, and the trenches have
been moftly levelled by the plough. In this neighbour-
hood, upon the borders of a marfh, are feveral very re-
markable mineral {prings ; one of them in the crater of a
rock, of a pyramidical form, about five feet in height, is par-
ticularly curious. This rock feems to have been formed by
the petrifaction of the water; all the other {prings are like-
wife furrounded with petrifactions of the fame kind. The
water in the principal fpring, except at the beginning of
the fummer, when it regularly overflows, remains about
eight inches below the rim of the crater, and bubbles up as
if boiling. The crater is nine inches in diameter. e
various properties of the water have not been yet afcertained
with any great accuracy ; but it is faid to be impregnated
with a foffile acid and fome faline fubttance; there is alfo
a great portion of fixed air in it, An opportunity is here
afforded for making fome curious experiments.

If animals be put down into the crater, they will be im-
mediately fuffocated ; but if not kept there too long, they
recover again upon being brought into the open air.

If a lighted candle be put down, the flame will be ex-
tinguifhed in an inftant, and not even the fmalleft {park left
in the wick.

If the water immediately taken from the {pring be Pup

int

ee ae _—

ee

ad

ae

SAR
into a bottle, clofely corked, and then fhaken, either the
cork will be forced out with an explofion, or the bottle
will be broken; but if left in an open veffel, it becomes
vapid in lefs than half an hour. The water is very pun-
gent to the tafte, and ats as a cathartic on fome people,
as an emetic on others. Weld’s Travels, vol. i.

SARATOGA, a county of the ftate of New York, bounded
E. and N. by Hudfon river, which feparates it from Renaf-
felaer and Wafhington counties, and S. by Mohawk river.
It has been eltablifhed fince 1790, and is divided into eight
townfhips, wiz. Greenfield, Ballftown, Charltown, Half
Moon, Milton, Saratoga, Galway, and Still-Water ; aad
contains 33,147 inhabitants.

SARATOV, atown of Ruffia, and capital of the govern-
ment of Saratovfkoi. It is fortified with a ditch, wooden
walls, and towers, furnifhed with cannon, and defended by
a re garrifon. Near this town is held a large annual
fair, to which the Tartars bring horfes from different parts
for fale; 392 miles S.E. of Mofcow. N. lat. 51°30. E.
long. 45° 44!.

SARATOVSKOI, a government of Ruffia, bounded
on the N. by the governments of Tambov, Penza, and
Simbirfk ; on the E. by Uphinfkoi and the government of
Caucafus ; on the S. by the government of Caucafus and
the country of the Coffacks; and on the W. by Tam-
bovfkoi, and a {mall part of Veronezfkoi. Its form is an

irregular triangle. N. lat. 47° 40! to 53°. E. long. 40°
to 52°.

SARAUT, a town of Perfia, in the province of Herat ;
66 miles S.S.E. of Hamadan.

SARAWAN, the moft northern province of Balou-
chiftan, confidered by fome as diftinét from Mekran, in
the Perfian empire, bounded on the N. by Candahar; S.
by Jhalawan, and part of Mekran; E. by Zuhree and
Cutch Gandava; and W. by the defart Kharan. Thefe
provinces are a mafs of mountains from Kohun Wat, on
the frontiers of Lus, to the defart, which divides them
from Candahar, in length about 350 miles, and varying in
breadth at different places. Jhalawan and Sarawan are
divided into diftri€s, and each diltri& into innumerable
kheils, or focieties. Each kheil furnithes its quota of troops,
according to its fize, or the urgency of the fervice; but as
the number of inhabitants in a kheil are liable to either
increafe or decreafe every feafon, this mode of calculating
the forces of Mahomed Khan mutt be very uncertain.

SARAWAN, a town of Perfia, built in the centre of a
defart in the province of Mekran, f{upplied with water from
a river called Bell.

SARAX, in Botany, a name given by fome authors to
the whole clafs of the ferns.

SARAYA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Oude; 10 miles N. of Ei aaa Tm a town of Hin-
dooftan, in Oude, on the Dewah ; 28 miles S. of Goorack-

ur.
pOGARAZAC, a town of France, in the department of
the Lot ; 15 miles N.W. of St. Ceré.

SARAZIN, James, in Biography, a {culptor who had
a confiderable hare in forming the moft eminent artifts of
that clafs in France, was born at Noyon in 1590. He re-
ceived the elements of his art at Paris, from thence he went
to Rome, where he contra¢ted an intimate friendfhip for
Domenichino, the celebrated painter, who, with himfelf,
was employed at Frefcati, and who affifted him with his
advice. He refided at this city eighteen years, and, return-
ing through Florence and Lyons, he revifited Paris about
the year 1628. Here he foon rofe into notice, and was

aged in various works by cardinal Richelieu and other

ov. XXXI.

SAR

perfons of diftinétion. His reputation at court caufed him
to be employed by queen Anne of Auttria, on a very
fingular_occafion. When pregnant of her firit child,
Lewis XIV., fhe vowed an offering to the fhrine of Loretto
of a ftatue of pure gold of the weight of the child, provided
it fhould prove a male. The condition being performed on
the part of the Virgin, Sarazin was ordered to caft a filver
angel, three feet and a half high, which fhould be in the
act of prefenting to her the little golden dauphin, whofe
weight was juft fix pounds. Sarazin, after this, executed
feveral works, which gave greater {cope to his genius, of
which one of the moft admired was a group of two children
and a goat at Marli. His principal piece was the maufoleum
of Henry de Bourbon, prince of Condé, confifting of a
number of emblematical figures, forming a grand compos
fition. His works are charaGterized by elegance and grace ;
but his figures are faid to be deficient in dignity and cor-
reCtnefs, and his draperies want lightnefs. Sarazin died at
Paris in 1660, at the age of 70. His {fchool was the moft
famous in France during that period, and produced many
diftinguifhed {culptors.

SARBATCHOU Sana, in Geography, a {mall ifland
near the coaft of Corea,“in the fea of Japan. N. lat. 42°
54% E. long. 131° 37).

SARBENA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Affyria, fituated between Gangamele and Arbele.

SARBIEWSKI, Marratas-Cassimer, in Biography,
a Jefuit diftinguifhed for his Latin poetry, was born in 1595,
of an illuftrious family, in the duchy of Mafovia, in Poland.
He entered into the fociety of Jefus in 1612, and being fent
to Rome, devoted himfelf to the ftudy of whatever is con-
nected with claffical antiquity and poetry. Some odes
which he prefented to Urban VIII. caufed him to be em-
ployed by that pope in the correétion of the hymns for his
new breviary. On his return to Poland, he was made pro-
feflor at Wilna in various departments of learning; and
when he took the doétor’s degree, Ladiflaus V. affitted at
the ceremony, and put his own ring on his finger. That
prince afterwards nominated him his preacher, and made
him his companion in all his journies. He died in the year
1640. The Latin poems which he left behind him confift
of odes, epodes, dithyrambics, epigrams, and mifcellaneous
pieces. His reputation as a poet depends altogether on his
lyrics. Grotius, Heinfius, and fome other competent
judges, have thought him occafionally equal to Horace.
Some of his odes relate to events in the hiftory of his coun-
eS which are touched with true poetic fpirit and fire.

is works have been feveral times reprinted ; the beft
edition is that of Barbou in 1759, 12mo.

SARBO, in Geography, an ifland in the Red fea, near
the coaft of Abyffinia. N. lat. 15° 8!.

SARCA, in Ancient Geography, a {mall river of Italy,
which runs into the lake Benacus.

Sarca, in Geography, a town of the county of Tyrol,
onariver of the oe name; 15 miles W.of Trent. The
river rifes on the borders of Brefcia, about two miles from
Hofpitaletto, and runs into the lake of Garda, near
Riva.

SARCASM, Sarcasmus, in Rhetoric, a keen bitter
irony, by which the orator fcoffs at, and infults his adver-
ary.

Such was that of the Jews to our Saviour: “ Thou, who
deftroyeft the temple, and raifeft it in three days, fave thy-
felf,’’ &c. And again, “ He faved others, himfelf he can-
not fave.’ Or that of Turnus to a Trojan flain by him,
in Virgil:

3D « Ian

SAR

“ En agros, et, quam bello, Trojane, petifti,
Hefperiam metire jacens! Hee premia, qui me
Ferro aufi tentare, ferunt: fic mcenia condunt.”’

SARCELLY, in Geography. See Suersnext.

SARCENE, a town of the ifland of Corfica; 15 miles
W. of Porto Vecchio. N. lat. 41°30!. E. long. 9° 6.

SARCHAD, a town of Syria, in the country beyond
Jordan, near a range of mountains to which it gives name ;
45 miles S.S.E. of Damafcus.

SARCINA, a town of Italy, in the department of the
Rubicon; 20 miles W.S.W..of Rimini. ’

SARCITES, in Surgery, an anafarcz. ;

Sarcites, the Fie/b-flone, in Natural Hiflory, a name
given by fome authors to the cornelian, from its being of
the colour of flefh, as it is very exaétly in fome pieces.

Sarcites, or Suarites, is alfo a ftone fuppofed to be
found in the belly of a lizard; it feems to have been a
fpecies of pale cornelian. Pliny mentions it, but gives no
defcription of it.

Sarcites, the Fie/b-ffone, is alfo a name given by fome
authors to a fpecies of ftone, whofe fibres were fuppofed
to reprefent thofe of beef. It was of a black colour, and
firm texture.

SARCIUM, in Surgery, a caruncle.

SARCLIN Time, is the time or feafon when hufband-
men weed their corn.

SARCOA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arabia
Felix, in the country of the A¢leans or Agewans, upon the
fouthern coait of the Perfian gulf. Ptolemy:

SARCOCELE, from czeé, fle/b, and xxAn, a@ tumour,
denotes, in Surgery, a flefhy hardnefs and enlargement of
the tefticle. Sometimes the difeafe commences in the tef-
ticle itfelf, which becomes thickened and indurated. On
other occafions, the diitemper firlt makes-its appearance in
the epididymis, or even in the fpermatic chord. Sometimes
the induraticn is confined to the glandular portion of the
telticle ; fometimes it is limited to the epidydimis; while,
in other inftances, both thefe parts are at the fame time af-
fected with hardnefs.

Sarcocele is a term, that is not uncommonly applied to
every chronic flefhy enlargement of the tellicle. Hence,
not only feveral kinds of farcoma affe&ting this body, and
which will be {poken of in the article Tumour, acquire this
name ; but, alfo, fome difeafes of the tefticles generally con-
fidered to be fcrofulous. Even [cirrhus and cancer, when
fituated in this part, have been improperly blended with
numerous other morbid affections, and comprehended under
one common title, farcocele. Yirft Lines of the Praétice
of Surgery, part il. ch. 48. edit. 3.

We need not here enter into.a particular account of the
various farcomatous difeafes to which the tefticle is fub-
je&; for they have no peculiarity in them, except what
depends on their fituation, and the general charaéters of
the different fpecies of farcoma will be confidered in a
future article. (See Tumour.) The tefticle is efpecially
liable to the three kinds of farcoma, which have been named
bed Mr. Abernethy, the common vafeular, cyflic, and medul-
lary.

Sometimes the tefticle is converted into a truly ferofulous
mafs. It is increafed in fize, and, when cut into a whitifh
or yellowifh coagulated matter, is difcovered mixed with

us.

This complaint is not attended with fo much pain and
induration as a {cirrhous diforder of the tefticle ; nor does
it produce any unfavourable ftate of the health.

As Dr. Baillie obferves, the tefticle is often found con-

a ae Sa

verted into a hard mafs, of a brownifh colour, and gene-
rally interfected with membranes. Sometimes there are cells
in the tumour, which are filled with a fanious fluid. (Mor-
bid Anatomy, &c. p. 352, 353, edit. 2.) This is the
truly fcirrhous teiticle, which is attended with great hard-
nefs, fevere pains darting along the {permatic chord to the
loins, and an unequal knotty feel. In general, the health
becomes impaired. To ufe Mr. Pott’s words, fometimes
the fury of the difeafe brooks no reftraint ; but, making its
way through all the membranes which envelope the teiticle,
it either produces a large, foul, ftinking, phagedenic ulcer
with hard edges, or it thruits forth a painful gleeting
fungus, fubject to frequent hemorrhage. (Pott’s Chirur-
gical Works, vol. ii. p. 390. edit. 1808.) Thefe latter
ae of the difeafe are denominated the cancer of the
teitis.

Sooner or later the fcirrhous induration extends from
the epididymis upward along the fpermatic chord, even
within the abdominal ring. In the latter circumftance, the
lymphatic glands in the loins ufually become difeafed ; and
this extenfion of mifchief, together with the impoffibility
of remoying the whole of the difeafed chord, too frequently
deprives the patient of every chance of getting well. |

It is now well known, that the moft fimple farcomatous
enlargements of the telticle are capable of afluming, in a
very fudden manner, a malignant and cancerous tendency ;
and that fometimes the fcirrhous induration of the chord
makes a rapid progrefs upward. Hence, that furgeon aés
with prudence, who recommends an early extirpation of
every teftis that is incurably difeafed, and fo deprived of
its original organization, as to be totally unfit for the fecre-
tion of the femen. y

Chronic enlargements of the tefticle are fometimes at-
tended with an accumulation of limpid fluid in the tunica
vaginalis, and the difeafe is then termed Aydro-farcocele, an
appellation firft employed by Fabricius ab Aquapendente.

The hardnefs and {welling of the tefticle remaining after
inflammation of this part, do not conftitute a complaint,
which furgical authors clafs with farcocele ; for the difeafe
hardly ever increafes fo as to give trouble.

We have ftated that farcoceles, in common with all
other farcomatous tumours, may change into diftempers,
which, in point of malignity, and the manner in which the
injure the health, are Sait as bad as cancer itfelf. It is
faid, however, .that farcocele of the epididymis rarely be-
comes malignant, and is much more eafy of cure, than the
fame difeafe of the glandular portion of the teiticle; but
accompanies even the firit form of the complaint.

Sarcoceles fometimes continue for years without under-
going any particular change; in other inftances they increafe
with furprifing rapidity. The inconveniences which the
excite originate from the weight and magnitude of fuc
tumours. Their weight produces an uneafy and even a
painful fenfation in the loins, efpecially when the patient
negleéts to wear a fulpenfory bandage, or a bag-trufs, for
the fupport of the part. The danger of a farcocele arifes
from the increafe and extenfion of the hardnefs up the
fpermatic chord, and from the change of the tumour from
its indolent {tate into a painful, ulcerated, and incurable
difeafe. :

Sarcocele occafionally bears fome refemblance to hydro-
cele of the tunica vaginalis. The cireumftances by which
the two complaints may always be diftinguifhed from each
other, are related in another part of this work. (See
Hyprocere.) Inthe fame article we have alfo noticed,
that farcocele and hydrocele of the tunica vaginalis fome-
times do actually occur together. It has likewife happened

5 m

SARCOCELE.

in fome unufual cafes, that an indurated mafs is formed in
the cellular membrane of the fcrotum, and has the appear-
ance of afarcocele. In one cafe, recorded by Dr. Cheiton,
a {welling of this kind was as large as a child’s head. On
diffeGion of the parts, the fefticle and tunica vaginalis were
found to be quite free from difeafe. The tumour pro-
ceeded entirely from an induration of the cellular mem-
brane, which immediately covers the external furface of the
vaginal coat. The patient was thought to have been of a
ferofulous habit.

The operation of caftration is the moft certain means of
relieving the patient from farcocele. This proceeding,
however, is not invariably practicable, nor is it always
neceflary ; for fometimes the induration of the tefticle ad-
mits of being difperfed by the judicious employment of
internal medicines and external applications. The hope of
accomplifhing this defirable object may reafonably be en-
tertained, when the {welling is not very large, when it has
not exifted a confiderable time, and when it is not attended
with much induration. Experience has proved, that fome
kinds of farcocele have yielded to the exhibition of emetics
(Warner, Pringle, and Home, in Chemical Experiments) ;
to a decoGtion of ononis {pinof.. (Bergius Mat. Med.
Richter’s Chir. Bibl. 7 B. p. 605.) ; to cicuta and bark
(Warner) ; to mercurial fri€tions (Le Dran, B. Bell) ;
to the external ufe of the liquor ammoniz acetatis (Richter’s
Chirurg. Bibl. 5 B. p. 127.); to poultices containing opium
(Fothergill’s Med. Obf. and Eng. vol. vy.) ; to a lotion
made with a ftrong decoGtion of hemlock (Warner) ; to
the fteam of vinegar, &c. The operation of all thefe
means will be advantageoufly affifted by the continual ufe
of a bag-trufs, and attention to a fuitable low diet.

Mr. Pott believed, that the man who has the misfor-_

tune to be afflicted with a farcocele, has very little chance
of getting rid of the difeafe by any means but extirpation;
and that all the time the operation is deferred, he carries
about him a part not only ufelefs, but burdenfome, and
which is every day liable to become worfe, and unfit for
fuch an operation. Now, althorgh there is a great deal of
truth in this opinion, yet, we conceive, that it is rather ex-
aggerated, and that it would tend to authorize the practice
of caftration to an extent beyond all neceflity. We certainly
think with Mr. Pott, that there never was a farcocele cured,
where the organization of the tefticle had been deitroyed by
difeafe, or where its ftruéture had fuffered fo much as to
render it incapable of the office for which it is deftined.
But fuch ftate cannot always be known by infpection, or
manual examination ; and were a furgeon to condemn to the
operation every tefticle which he finds affeéted with in-
dolent {welling and induration, he would remove many,
which, under fome of the above plans of treatment, might
be perfeétly cured. That there are fome chronic enlarge-
ments of the tefticle which may be refolved, is a truth, of
which experience muft have convinced the generality of
furgeons.

he {crofulons induration, and feveral other {wellings
of this organ, which are very imperfeétl underftood,' may
fometimes be benefited, and even tinehy cured, juft like
fome analogous affections of the breaft. Hence, though
we are advocates for the early performance of caftration in
cafes of farcocele, where there is reafon to fuppofe the dif-
eafe fo far advanced, that the organization of the tefticle
is totally deftroyed ; or where internal and external reme-
dies have been tried a certain time in vain; yet thefe fenti-
mertts do not incline us to recommend the operation for
other examples, in which the difeafe is quite recent, and no
plan of treatment whatfoever has been fairly tried. We

have already enumerated various plans of treatment, which
have been proved by experience to be fometimes capable of
affording relief. The difeafe of the tefticle, which is ufually
called fcrofulous farcocele, may frequently be confiderably
benefited by adminiftering internally cicuta and calomel, and
applying to the fcrotum lotions, or poultices, made with
fea-water. Several other cafes, as, indeed, we have noticed
above, yield to a courfe of mercury; leeches being daily
applied to the ferotum, or fri€tions made on the part with
camphorated mercurial ointment. In every cafe, the dif
eafed organ muft be well fupported by means of a fufpen-
fory bandage. According to the obfervations of Mr.
Ramfden, that f{pecies of farcocele which he has termed
felerocele, admits of relief by removing with bougies the
morbid irritability of the urethra, with which its origin ap-
pears to be frequently conneed.

Hence the furgeon muft not regard every chronic en-
largement of the tefticle as incurable ; but he cought at the
fame time to be duly impreffed with the expediency of not
waiting too much time in the trial of means which are not
to be depended upon, and which, if continued immoderately
long, might allow the difeafe to advance too far to be capable
of being afterwards effeCtually extirpated.

The following obfervations, made by the celebrated Mr.
Pott, on the circumftances in which the operation of caf-
tration is advifeable, or not, are highly valuable, and merit
the ferious attention of every furgical pratitioner.

“ Some circumiftances there are now and then attending
this difeafe, which are out of our fight and ont of our
knowledge, and which will render all our pains abortive :
fuch are tubercles, indurations, and other difeafed appear-
ances in the cellular membrane enveloping the {permatic
veflels within the abdomen ; fcirrhous vifcera, &c. If any
of thefe can be known, they conftitute a good reafon for
not attempting the cure by the operation; but the mere
poffibility that fuch may exift, is certainly no reafon for
abftaining from it: the apparent evil, that is, the difeafed
teftis, is certain; the other may or may not be the cafe:
the one, if left to itfelf, is mott likely to deftroy the pa-
tient in a moft miferable and tedious manner ; and the other,
the fufpeéted mifchief, may poffibly not exift.

« But though the timely and proper removal of a fcir-
rhous or cancerous tefticle does frequently fecure to the
patient life, health, and eafe, which, in fuch circumftances,
are not attainable by any other means; yet it mutt be re-
marked, that the improper and untimely performance of
the operation is not only not attended with fuch happy and
falutary events, but generally brings on high fymptoms,
and quick deftru€tion. It therefore behoves every prac-
titioner to be perfeétly well acquainted, not only with fuch
circumftances as render caftration practicable and advifeable,
but with thofe which prohibit fuch attempt.

“ Thefe are of two kinds, and relate either to the gene-
ral habit of the patient, and the diforders and indifpofitions
of fome of the vifcera, or to the {tate of the tefticle and
{permatic chord.

‘A pale, fallow complexion, in thofe who ufed to look
otherwife ; a wan countenance, and lofs of appetite and
flefh, without any acute diforder; a fever of the heétic
kind ; and frequent pain in the back and bowels; are, in
thofe who are affifted with a fcirrhous tefticle, fuch cir-
cumftances as would induce a fufpicion of fome latent mif-
chief, and incline one to fuppofe that the fame kind of
virus, which had apparently fpoiled the teftis, may alfo
have exerted its malign he Ei on fome of the vifcera:
in which cafe, fuccefs from the mere removal of the tetticle
is not to be expected. ‘They, whole conftitutions are

3 D2 {poiled

SARCOCELE.,

{poiled by debauchery and intemperance, previous to their
being attacked with this difeafe ; who have hard livers, and
anafarcous limbs ; are not proper fubjeéts for fuch an opera-
tion. Hard tumours within the abdomen in the regions of
the liver, {pleen, kidneys, or mefentery, implying a dif-
eafed ftate of the faid vifcera, are very material objections
to the removal of the local evil in the fcrotum. In fhort,
whenever there are manifeft appearances, or fymptoms of
a truly difeafed {tate of any of the principal vifcera, the
fuccefs of the operation becomes very doubtful, more efpe-
cially if fuch fymptoms and appearances, upon being properly
treated, refift in fuch a manner, as to make it moft probable
that a cancerous virus is the real caufe of them. When none
of thefe require our attention, the object of confideration is
the tefticle and its fpermatic veflels. The ftate of the mere
teftis can hardly ever be any objeétion to the operation ;
the fole confideration is the {permatic chord: if this be in
a natural ftate, and free from difeafe, the operation not
only may, but ought to be performed, let the condition of
the teiticle be what it may: if the fpermatic chord be really
difeafed, the operation ought not to be attempted. Tor
although, on the one hand, a probability of fuccefs will
vindicate an attempt, even though it fhould fail; yet on the
other, where there is no fuch probability, an operation,
though performed in the moft dextrous manner, will prove
only a more ingenious method of tormenting.

“ This, therefore, (the ftate of the {permatic chord)
is a matter which may require our moft ferious confidera-
tion; fince, on this it is (when the difeafe appears to be
local) that we mutt found our judgment; and by this muft
form our refolution, either to leave a man to the truly
miferable fate of being flowly, though certainly deftroyed,
by a cruelly painful, and frequently very offenfive difeafe ;
or endeavour to fave and preferve him in health and eafe,
by means which have fo often proved fuccefsful, as truly
to deferve the appellation of probable.

« All writers on this fubject agree in faying, that if the
fpermatic procefs has partaken of the difeafed ftate of the
tefticle, that is, has become enlarged and hardened, and
fuch enlargement and induration extends itfelf quite up to
the abdominal mufcle, that the operation of caftration ought
not to be performed, becaufe it will not only prove fuccefl-
lefs, but will haften the death of the patient. And this is,
in fome degree, moft certainly true; but not without fome
limitation. A truly and abfolutely difeafed ftate of the
fpermatic chord, in any part of it, is certainly a very ma-
terial objection to the operation, as it moft commonly
proves a bar to the fuccefs of it: and a morbid {tate of the
fame chord quite as high as the abdominal mufcle, that is,
of all that part of it which is external to the cavity of the
belly, is a juft and full prohibition againft fuch attempt.
But, on the other hand, it muft be obferved, that every
apparently morbid alteration of the {permatic chord is not
really fuch ; and, therefore, that every enlargement, indura-
tion, fulnefs, &c. which feems to alter the {permatic veflels
from that {tate which is called a healthy and natural one,
is not to be regarded as a difeafe; at lealt, not as fuch a
difeafe as is fufficient to prohibit the attempt to obtain a
cure by extirpation.

“« The difference between thefe, it is the duty of every

ractitioner to become perfectly acquainted with, as it is
Mik a confideration of thefe, that he ought to determine,
whether he may, with that firmnefs and affurance, which
the probable expeétation of fuccefs will give him, propofe
and advife caltration; or find himfelf obliged in eonfcience
to diffuade, or refufe, the performance of it.

When the fpermatic veffels are not only turgid and

full, but firm and hard; when the membrane, which inveftg
and conneéts them, has loft its natural foftnefs and cellular
texture, and has contra¢ted fuch a ftate, and fuch adhefions,
as not only greatly to exceed its natural fize, but to be-
come unequal, knotty, and painful, upon being handled,
and this ftate has poffeffed all that part of the chord which
is between the opening in the oblique mufcle and the tef-
ticle, no prudent, judicious, or humane man, will attempt
the operation ; becaufe he will, moft certainly, not only do
no good to his patient, but will bring on fuch fymptoms
as will moft rapidly, as well as painfully, deftroy him. Of
this there are fo many proofs, that the truth of it is in-
contettible.

*¢ In fome modern French books, we have, indeed, mira-
culous accounts of operations of this kind, performed by
dividing the tendon of the oblique mufcle, by tracing the
difeafed fpermatic veffels within the cavity of the belly, and
there making the ligature and exciiion ; but thefe are opera-
tions which make a figure in books only, and are performed
only by vifionary writers; or, if ever they have been prac-
tifed, ferve to fhew the rafhnefs and infenfibility of the
operators, much more than their judgment or humanity.
Whoever (notwithftanding thefe tales) performs the opera-
tions in the circumf{tances above-mentioned, will prove him-
felf much more hardy than judicious ; and will deftroy his
patient, without having the fatisfaction of thinking that his
attempt, though fuccefslefs, was yet vindicable ;—the only
circumftance which can, in fuch events, give comfort toa
man who thinks rightly.

“On the other hand, as I have already faid, every en-
largement of the fpermatic chord is not of this kind, nor
by any means fuflicient to prohibit or prevent the opera-
tion.

‘“ Thefe alterations or. enlargements arife from two
caufes, viz. a varicofe dilatation of the {fpermatic vein, and
a colleGtion, or colleétions, of fluid in the membrane in-
veiting and enveloping the faid veflels. In the firft place,
as there is no reafon in nature why a tefticle, whofe veffels
have previoufly (for fome time perhaps) been in a varicofe
{tate, fhould not become f{cirrhous ; fo it is alfo clear, that
the f{cirrhofity feizing fuch tefticle will by no means remove,
or even leflen fuch varicofe dilatation of the veffels from
which it is dependent ; on the contrary, will moft probably,
and indeed does moit frequently, increafe fuch diitention =
but fuch mere varicofe enlargement of the veflels, whether
it be previous or confequential to the morbid ftate of the
teftis, does not, nor ought to prevent the removal of it,
if otherwife fit and right. It is, indeed, an objection to
the doétrine of Mr. Le Dran, and a few other writers,
who make no ligature on the chord, and tru(t to a flight
contufion of it between the finger and thumb for a fup-
preflion of the hemorrhage ; but is none to the reft of the
operation, as I can from experience teltify.

“In the next place, the difeafed itate of a truly feir-
rhous tetticle, its weight, and the alteration that muit be
made in the due and proper circulation of the blood, through
both it and the veffels from which it is dependent, may and
do concur in inducing a varicofe dilatation of the fpermatic
vein, without producing that knotty, morbid alteration and
hardnefs, which forbid our attempts. Between thefe, a
judicious and experienced examiner will generally be able
to diltinguith. :

“Inthe former (the truly difeafed ftate), the chord is
not only enlarged, but feels unequally hard and knotty ;
the parts of which it is compofed are undiftinguifhably
blended together ; it is either immediately painful to the
touch, or Dect fo foon after being examined ; the pa-

3 tient

_ nie

_ formance of an operation which mig

SAR

tient complains of frequent pains {hooting up through his
groin into his back; and from the difeafed ftate of the
membrane compofing the tunica communis, fuch adhefions
and conneGtions are fometimes contrated, as either fix the
procefs in the groin, or render it difficult to get the finger
and thumb quite round it. ‘

« Tn the other (the mere varicofe diftention), the veflels,
though confiderably enlarged and dilated, are neverthelefs
fmooth, foft, and compreflible ; the whole procefs is loofe
and free, and will eafily permit the fingers of the examiner
to go quite round it, and to diftinguifh the parts of which
it is compofed ; it is not painful to the touch; nor does
the examination of it produce, or occafion thofe darting
pains, which almoit always attend handling a procefs malig-
nantly indurated.

«IT do not fay, that the diftin&tion between thefe two
ftates is always and invariably to be made; but that it often
may, I know from repeated experience: and that the
operation may fafely be attempted, and fuccefsfully per-
formed, I know from the fame experience. The ftate of
a man left to the mercy of a malignant fcirrhus, is fo truly
deplorable, that we cannot be too attentive in examining
the precife nature of each individual cafe, and in embracing
every opportunity of giving him that relief, which it may
at one time be in our power to give, and which, the lucky
opportunity miffed, it may never be in his power again to
receive.

«The other circumitance, which -I have mentioned as
capable of deceiving an operator, and inducing him to
believe that the fpermatic chord is much more difeafed
than it really is, and thereby deterring him from the per-

ant prove fuccefsful,
is the extravafation, or colleétion of fluid in the cellular
membrane enveloping the {permatic veflels, between the ab-
dominal opening and the tettis.

“ In the cellular membrane, leading to a difeafed tefticle,

-it is no very uncommon thing to find collections of extra-

vafated fluid. TThefe, as they add confiderably to the
bulk, and apparent fize of the procefs, make the com-
plaint appear more terrible; and, as I have jutt faid, lefs
likely to admit relief.

«« When this extravafation is general, through all the cells
of the inveiting membrane, nc the {permatic veffels them-
felves are hardened, knotty, and difeafed, the cafe is with-
out remedy; for, although a punéture, or an incifion, will
undoubtedly give difcharge to fome, or even the greatett

art of the fluid; yet this extravafation is fo {mall, and fo
infignificant 2 circumitance of the difeafe, that the parts,
in this ftate, are fo little capable of bearing irritation, that
an attempt of this kind muft be ineffectual, and may prove
mifchievous.

* Bat, on the other hand, collections of water are fome-
times made in the fame membrane, from an obftrution to
the proper circulation through the numerous lymphatics in
the fj atic procefs, while the veflels themfelves are really
not difeafed, and therefore very capable of permitting the
operation. In this cafe, the fluid is generally in one cyt,
or bag, like to an encyfted hydrocele, and the fpermatic
chord, cyit and all, are eafily moveable from fide to fide ;
contrary to the preceding ftate, in which the general load
in the membrane fixes the whole procefs, and renders it al-
moft immoveable.

“ A difcharge of the fluid will, ia this cafe, enable the
Operator to examine the true ftate of the procels, and, as
I have twice or thrice feen, put it into his power to free
his patient from one ‘of the moft terrible calamities which
¢an befall a man.’’? Pott on Hydrocele.

SAR

For an account of the method of removisg a difeafed

_tefticle, fee CasTRATION.

SARCOCIRSOCELE, a combination of farcoma and
cirfocele. See thefe words.

SARCOCOLLA, Seexox:Aaz, a gum-refin oozing out
of an oriental vegetable, either with or without incifians.

It has been the opinion of many writers of the middle
ages, that this was the gum of the peach-tree. The origin
of this opinion may be traced to Diofcorides, who, treating
of farcecolla, fays, that it is the gum of a Perfian tree.
The words Perfian-tree and peach-tree are the fame both in
Greek and Latin ; and hence, what he faid of a tree grow-
ing in Perfia, has been attributed to the peach-tree; and
this gum, fo very different from the gum of that tree, has
been fuppofed to flow from it. Linnzus fuppofes that it
is produced by the Penza mucronata, an Ethiopian fhrub
of the order Conglomerate. Others have in this inftance
doubted his authority, and the fa& remains undecided.

Neither authors nor merchants are agreed as to the place
where it grows: fome fay it is in Perfia; others in Arabia
Deferta. It is a concrete juice, that comes from Perfia
and Arabia either in grains, or in tears of different colours;
fometimes white, fometimes yellow, and fometimes red ; but
the whiteft are preferred, as being the frefhett.

The tafte is bitter, accompanied with fomewhat of a dif-
agreeable fweetnefs, and an odour refembling, in fome de-
gree, that of ani-feed. It foftens in the mouth, bubbles,
and catches flame from a candle, diffolves almoft wholly in
water, and the greateft part of it in reCtified {pirit. It does
not cryttallize : treated with nitric acid it yields oxalic acid.
It is efteemed warm and drying ; it is faid internally to a&
as a flow and dangerous purgative; but externally to be
very good for confolidating and healing wounds and ulcers;
whence its name, from the Greek cxgt, fle/b, and xorra,
glue: but this opinion now no longer exiits. It is an in-
gredient in the “ pulvis é cerufla.”’

It has been fometimes alfo ufed, diffolved in breaft-
milk, ia collyria, to {top defluxions, and take off {pecks
in the eye.

Sarcocotta, in Botany. Sce Penma.

SARCODUM, from saegxwdns, fle/by, in allufion to the
fubftance of the legume, is a genus of Loureiro’s, of the
Diadelphous clafs, with which we are unacquainted. He
fays it agrees with Lotus in its turgid, or full, egume, but
differs in its half-truncate calyx, with three teeth ; flat, not
converging, wings; afcending /ffandard; and kidney-fhaped
Jeeds. The flem is thrubby, climbing. Flowers rofe-coloured,
in fimple terminal fpikes. eaves pinnate, of numerous
woolly leaflets.

SARCOEPLIPLOCELE, in Surgery, from cxp£, fle/h;
eximaoovy the omentum, and xrAny a tumour, an omental hernia,
together with a farcocele.

~SARCOLITE, in Mineralogy, a red variety of zeolite,
cryftallized in cubes, with each of the folid angles replaced
by eight planes. See Zeoxire.

SARCOLOGY, in Anatomy, adifcourfe onthe flefh, or
the foft parts of the human body.

Anatomy is divided into two principal parts ; o/eology and
Sarcology: the firft of which treats of the bones and carti-
lages ; the fecond of the flefh and foft parts.

SARCOMA, from capt, fle/h, in Surgery, a flethy tumour.
OF farcoma there are numerous varieties, and fome of them
have, within the laft few years, received particular names,
with a view of introducing more difcrimination into the fub-
ject. Thus, Mr. Abernethy has called the fimple tumour
compoled of fat, adipofe farcoma; the flefhy {welling con-
taining cells, or cytts, cellular or cyflic farcoma; the tumour

confifting

SAR

confifting of a foft fubftance, fomewhat refembling the
brain, medullary farcoma; and another tumour, made up
of diftin@ little maffes, all conneéted together, like the
ftru&ture of the pancreas, pancreatic farcoma. Thefe dif-
eafes not only differ in appearance, they differ in a more
important point, namely, their propenfity to become malig-
nant, and to affume a dangerous and even incurable form.
See Tumour.

Sarcoma of the Eyes, 2 flefhy excrefcence or tubercle
formed on the inner furface of the eye-lids. Thefe tubercles,
in their beginnings, are ufually {mall; but they, by de-
grees, advance ait to a very confiderable bulk. Some of
thefe are of {mooth furfaces, others rough and unequal,
like a rafpberry or mulberry.

They are always to be cured by extirpation, getting them
out by-a hook, a pair of plyers, or a needle and thread, and
then cutting them out to the roots with {ciffars : the wound
fhould be fuffered to bleed a-while, and afterwards wafhed
with a collyrium made of aloes, tutty, and fugar of lead,
mixed in rofe-water, till it is perfe€tly healed. Some ufe
the cauftic to thefe tumours, but the {ciffars are more fafe,
and lefs painful. . Heitter. ,

SARCOMPHALON, from oueks fica, and op. Parosy
the navel, a flefhy excrefcence at the navel.

SARCOMPHALUS, in Botany, fo called by Browne,
Hift. of Jam. 179, in allufion to the flefhy navel-like rim
which crowns the germen. See RHAMNUs.

SARCOPHAGUS, Xzpxodxyos, in Antiquity, a fort of
ftone coffin, or grave, in which the ancients laid thofe they
had not a mind to burn.

The word, as derived from the Greek, literally fignifies
Jfefe-eater ; becaufe, at firft, they ufed a fort of {tones for
the making of thefe tombs, which quickly confumed the
bodies. The quarries from whence they dug them were
near a city of Troas, named Aflum. They had the faculty
a wafte away a body to nothing, fave the teeth, in forty

ays.

This ftone refembled a reddifh pumice-ftone, and had a
faltith tafte ; they alfo made veffels of it to cure the gout,
into which they put their feet, not fuffering them to continue
there too long. See A/ius Laris.

SARCOPHYIA, from capt, fls/b, and duw, togrow, in
Surgery. See Sarcoma.

SARCOSIS. See Sarcoma.

SARCOSTEMMA, in Botany, fo named by Mr. R.
Brown, from capt, cxpxosy flefh, and ss.uc, a crown, in re-
ference to the flefhy coronet of the ftamens.— Brown.
Afclep. 39. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 76.—Clafs and order,
Pentandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Contorte, Linn. Apocinee,
Jufl. Afclepiadee, Brown.

Eff. Ch. Mafles of pollen ten, pendulous, fmooth.
Crown of the ftamens double ; the outermoft cup-fhaped or
annular, crenate. Corolla wheel-fhaped.

1. S. viminale. Twilting Sarcoftemma. Ait. n. 1.
(Cynanchum viminale ; Linn. Mant. 392. Sytt. Veg. ed.
14.257. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.1252. Euphorbia viminalis ;
Linn. Sp. Pl. 649, excluding the fynonym of Alpinus and
Dillenius. Apocynum guineenfe meré aphyllum, flore albo
tetrapetalo odoratiffimo ; Herm. Parad. 61.)—Native of
the Eaft Indies. Appears to have been cultivated by Miller
in 1731, but is probably not now extant in our collections.
The flem is twining, round, fmooth, fucculent and leaflefs,
the thicknefs of a goofe-quill. Flowers in lateral tufts,
white, {mall.

SARCOTHLASMA, in Surgery, a bruife.

SARCOTICS, medicines which tend to produce new
flefh, or granulations, in wounds and ulcers.

SAR

SARCULATION, a term ufed, in the Ancient Huf-

bandry, to exprefs a fort of hoeing, which they ufed among
their peafe and beans, and fometimes among their corn.

The farculum was a fort of narrow and long hoe, with
which they rooted up the weeds among plants growing irre-
gularly. We have the fame kind of inftrument in ufe at this
time in fome places for hoeing between the plants of flax ;
but one way of fowing, in rows, at prefent, has prevented
the neceflity of having recourfe to fo inconvenient and trou-
blefome an inftrument in other cafes.

SARCULATURA, in our O/d Writers, weeding of
corn ; whence wna farculatura was the tenant’s fervice of one
day’s weeding for the lord. « Tenet in bondagio, & debet
unam farculaturam, &c.’’

SARCUS, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Oife; 3 miles N.W.of Grandvilliers.

SARDA, in Ancient Geography, a large port of the
Mediterranéan, on the coaft of Mauritania, between Tritum
and Cefarea. Strabo.

Sarva, in Natural Hiflory. See CorNELIAN.

Sarna, in Jchthyology, aname by which fome call the fifh,
more ufually known by the name of pelamys, or pelamys
farda; a fifh refembling a young tunny, but having larger
and longer teeth, and no fcales. ;

SARDACHATES, in the Natural Hiflory of the An-
cients, the name of a fpecies of agate, found frequently at
this time on the fhores of rivers in the Eaft Indies, and feem-
ing to contain an admixture of the matter of the common
red cornelian, is very excellently characterized by the name
the ancients gave it. : 48)

It is a very elegant and beautiful fpecies, and is often
found of a confiderable fize. It is of a pale, whitifh ground,
and has no veins or other variegations, except a multitude of
minute {pots, of a pale red, and of the matter of a red
cornelian ; thefe are {cattered very {paringly in fome parts of
the mafs, but in others they are fo cluftered together, as to
make {mall clouds of an elegant red. It is very hard, and
is capable of anelegant polifh. Our lapidaries do net much
efteem it, but in fome other places it is wrought into toys,
which are much eflteemed.

SARDAM, or Saryrepam, in Geography, a fea-port
town of Holland, furnifhing ample fupplies of timber and
naval ftores. It has been faid, that the fhip-builders of
Sardam would undertake in two months’ notice, to build a
fhip of war every week during the year; 5 miles N. of
Amfterdam.

SARDANA, or Sarena, in Ancient Geography, a town
of India, on this fide of the Ganges. Ptolemy.

SARDANAPALUS, in Biography, a king of Affyria,
whofe name is proverbial for effeminate luxury, lived in an
age fo remote from the period of authentic hiftory, that
the circumttances of his reign are only known from doubtful
narrations. Chronologifts differ much in the era to which
they aflign him, but ‘Blair gives the date about 740 before
Chrift. He was probably a prince endowed with great
riches and power, in proof of which it was infcribed on his
tomb, that he built the cities of Tarfus and Anchiale in one
day, which it is impoflible to underitand literally. He was
reduced to the lowett rank by grofs fenfuality, and is faid
fo far to have degraded himfelf as to have aflumed a female
habit, and frequently to take a place among his female con-
cubines. Under fuch a character the fall of the Affyrian
monarchy could not be a matter of furprife. Public dif-
content was fomented by Arbaces, a Median fatrap, and
Belefis, a Babylonian prieit, who brought a great army of
revolters to overthrow the government. Sardanapalus,
fenfible of the dangers to which he was expofed, ane

—— ee

SAR

all the troops upon which he could rely, and defeated the
infurgents in three different a€tions. Thinking himielf
perfeGtly fecure, he refumed the diffolute courfe to which he
had been habituated, and while he was preparing a great
feftival for his viGtorious army, Arbaces, reinforced by the
BaGrians, fell upon them in the night, and forcing the
camp, purfued the fugitives with great flaughter to the gates
of Nineveh. In this famous place the king fhut himfelf:
the height and ftrength of its walls enabled hmm to hold out
two years: but at length an inundation of the Euphrates
having made a large breach in the wall, Sardanapalus find-
ing that all hopes of future defence mut{t be abandoned,
burnt himfelf, his treafures, his concubines, and his eunuchs.
This event is fuppofed to have happened about the year
B. C. 720, and in the 2oth of his reign. Univer. Hilt.
Blair’s and Playfair’s Chronol.

SARDANUS, in Jchthyology, the name of a fith of the
harengiform kind, caught in the Mediterranean, and com-
mon in the markets of Rome and Venice. Its -body is
broader than that of the pilchard, and its back green; and
the line which runs along the belly is much lefs rough than
inthat fifh. It is indeed eafy to diftinguifh it from the pil-
chard, but not fo ealy to fhew in what it differs from the
common herring more than in fize. It feems very probable,
that it is no diftin& {pecies of fifh; but that the herring,
like the pilchard, is always fmaller in the Mediterranean
than the ecean. - Willughby.

SARDAR, in the Turkifh Military Orders, the title of
an officer chofen from among the caias of the janizaries on
fome particular occafion ; fuch as to head a detachment fent
to war, or on any other occafion,.

_ The word is of Perfian origin, and is derived from /ar,
which in that language fignifies a head or chief.

This officer 1s a colonel of a detached body; he is. at-
tended in his expedition by his deputy, and two fecretaries,
and his office expires at his return from the bufinefs he was
difpatched on.

SARDE, in Mineralogy, a variety of chalcedony ; fee
Cuatcepoxy. It has an orange-yellow colour, fome-
times inclining to brown: by tranfmitted light it is blood-
red.

SARDELLA, in Jchthyology, a name by which fome
have called the pilchard of the Mediterranean fea, fuppofing
it different in itcies from that of the ocean, but it feems,
in reality, to be no other than the common pilchard, only not
growing fo large there as in the ocean.

SARDENA, in Ancient Geography, a mouitain of
Afia, near the river Hermus, according to Herodotus.

Sanpena, or Sardenna, a town of Afia, in Leffler Ar-
menia. Ptolemy.

SARDENA, in Geography, atown of the ifland of Sardinia ;
18 miles E.S.E. of Oriftagni.

SARDES, in Ancient Geography. See Sanpis.

SARDESUS, a town of Alia Minor, in Lycia.

SARDIAN, Sanpoiy, or Lapis Sardius, a precious
ftone, of a blood colour, femi-tranfparent; the fame with
what we otherwife call a cornelian.

The moft beautiful fardians are thofe brought from about
Babylon: thofe of Sardinia, whence they take their name,
are in the fecond clafe. There are others, and thofe no
contemptible ones, found near St. Mauro, in Albania ; and
others, very {mall ones, about the Rhine, in Bohemia,
Silefia, &c. To give them the greater luftre, it is ufual, in

fetting them, to lay filver-leaf underneath. The fardian
is molt ufed for foal, as graving ‘eafily, yet taking a fine
polith.

The author of the book falfely afcribed to Albertus

SAR

Magnus, attributes feveral wonderful virtues to this ftone.
See CORNELIAN. ©

SARDIANA, in Ancient Geography, a country of Afia,
in the vicinity of Ba€triana, according to Diodorus Siculus.
Some have fuppofed it to be the fame with Sogdiana. 3

SARDICA, or Serpica, a town which was the
capital of the Eaftern Illyria. Geographers have differed
concerning both the orthography and pofition of this place.
Ptolemy places it among the Mediterranean towns of Thrace;
others piace it in Dacia, 7. e. the Aurelian Dacia, on the
other fide of the Danube.

Sardica appears to have been the capital of the fecond
Illyria; it was a confiderable town, having been enlarged
by Trajan. “The Bulgarians gave it the name of Triaditza.
The emperor Bafil laid fiege to it in 981, according to
Zonaras, which he afterwards difcontinued. Some remains
of Sardica appear near Sophia.

SARDINA, in Ichthyology, aname by which many have
diftinguifhed a fifh of the harengiform kind, which is, in rea-

lity, however, no other than a {mall pilchard, growing toa

larger fize in the ocean than in the Mediterranean.

SARDINIA, in Geography, an ifland of the Mediter-
ranean, in the weitern part, about 140 miles in length from
N. to S., and 60 in its medial breadth from E. to W. It
was called by the Greeks Sardo and Sardon, Ichnufa, and
Sardialotis. The etymology of its name is thought to be
derived from its form. As Sicily was called Trinacria from
its three angles, Sardinia was denominated, in the Eaftern
language, Saad or Sarad, denoting the traces of a foot, from
the refemblance it bore to a fandal. Hence alfo Timzus
called it Sandaliotis, and Martianus Capella and Solinus,
copying Pliny, gave it the name of Jchnufa, from the
Greek sx0:, veftigium, becaufe it refembled the trace of a
foot covered with a fandal. To this purpofe Stephanus
Byzantinus fays exprefsly, Exarsto (Seedw) de iyaSoey dor
Claudian alfo fays :

=
EOLACIO Ny AYTEWTE bX Vtbe

«« Humane fpeciem plantz finuofa figurat
Infula: Sardiniam veteres dixeére coloni.’?

Silius Italicus likewife refers to this refemblance :
ae

Nude fub imagine plante
Inde Ichnufa prius Grajis memorata colonis.””

The ancient hiftory of Sardinia is involved in great ob-
{curity and uncertainty: Paufanias, however, {peaks of a
perfon named Iolaus, who, as he fays, paffed into Sardinia,
and relates this fat among other events of the Trojan war,
After the fack of Troy, the Trojans, flying from their
vitorious enemies, and feeking a new country, eftablifhed
themfelves in this ifland. The Greeks were afterwards
driven hither by the Africans, and being powerful, they
caufed the Trojans to withdraw into the mountains, where
they fecured themfelves from attack. The Phoenicians and
Greeks, having fent colonies to this ifland, ereéted in it
feveral {mall ftates, ds they had done in the fouth of Italy
and Sicily. It is not certain at what period the Cartha-
ginians eftablifhed themfelves in Sardinia. It was probably
when they began to extend their commerce, and that the
availed Sasiiclves of the conveniences of this ifland for the
accommodation of their veflels ; nor is it improbable that
the Phaenicians had previoufly ufed it for a fimilar purpofe.
In the firtt year of the 97th olympiad, a fevere plague ve
much diltrefled and enfeebled the Carthaginians, of which
the Sardinians took the advantage by attempting to throw
off their yoke ; but their attempt proved ineffeual.
However, in the firlt Punie war, the Carthaginians were
driven from Sardinia ; and the Romans eftablifhed A. U.C.

523,

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521, under the condué&t of M. Pomponius. Corfica was
alfo fubdued in the following year, and both iflands became
fubjeét to the fame pretor. Under the laft emperors of the
Wet, Sardinia was governed by a prefident ; but when the
Vandals penetrated into Africa, under Juftinian, the govern-
ment of Sardinia was annexed to that part of the empire.
Afterwards the Saracens invaded and pillaged it; but
part of the ifland was recovered from them by the republics
of Genoa and Pifa. Pope Boniface, in the plenitude of his
power, transferred the ifland to the king of Aragon, who,
having fubdued the Genoefe and Pifans, and the other
inhabitants, annexed it to his own dominions. Thus it
remained in union with the crown of Spain, till it was con-
quered by the allies in 1708, and allotted to the emperor by
the peace of Utrecht in 1713. In 1717 it was recovered
by the Spaniards; but two years afterwards they were
obliged to abandon it, and then, viz. in 1719, the duke
of Savoy obtained it in lieu of the kingdom of Sicily. Its
revenues have been inconfiderable ; for, after the deduction

of charges for the army and civil offices, they have not much’

exceeded 200/. Its capital is Cagliari.
Sardinia was much celebrated among the ancients for its
fertility ; thus Silius Italicus {peaks of it, lib. xii. v. 375.

« Propenfz Cereris nutrita favore.”’

It was reckoned one of the granaries of Rome. All parts,
however, were not equally Fale and it had formerly, as
it has now, feveral places that were infalubrious. Accord-
ingly Claudian thus defcribes it :

6 uz pars vicinior A fris
Plena folo, ratibus clemens ; que refpiat arétum
Immitis, fcopulofa procax, fubitif{que fonora

Flu@tibus.”’

Sardinia fill produces all forts of fruits and cattle in
abundance ; but on account of its morafles, and the high
mountains on the N. fide, which obftrué& the courfe of the
wind, the air is rendered very unwholefome ; and hence the
ancient Romans were induced to make it a place of banifh-
ment. Among the animals of this ifland wild horfes
abound. Thefe are chiefly found in the territories of Bultei
and Nurra ; and they are ftill more numerous in the ifle of
St. Antico, in the foreft of Canais: they are very {mall,
but extremely well made, and aétive. Rams have fometimes
from four to fix horns. Small deer are not uncommon ;
and boars are both numerous and terrible. The wild fheep
inhabit the moft folitary parts of the mountains, and fome-
times engender with the tame. The tunny fifhery is here
of confiderable importance ; but anchovies are rare, as are
alfo fardines, which formerly were abundant, and gave, as
fome fay, its name to the ifland. The coral fifhery deferves
to be mentioned. Among the minerals, the principal is filver,
of which there are feveral mines, fuch as thofe of Gufpini,
Arbus, Argentera, &c,; but the lead-mines are the molt

roductive, thofe of Iglefias yielding from 60 to 80 pounds
in the hundred weight, and being found in hills of argil-
laceous fchiftus and lime-ftone, whilft the moft common
gangart is barytes. The mines are computed to produce
321,000 francs. In the northern mountains are found cor-
nelians, chalcedonies, agates, turquoifes, &c. ; but the far-
donyx is as rare as the fardine. ‘The mountains of Nurra
abound in porphyry ; and granite is chiefly found in Gal-
lura, and feems to have been ufed by the Romans. The
mountains run N. and S.; the higheft being Limbara,
Villanova, Arizzo, Fonni, the fummits of which are gene-
rally covered with fnow. The plains, which lie principall
towards the fouth, are tolerably fertile in wheat, whic

SAR

fupplies a quantity for exportation, barley, beans, lentiles,

&c. The moft efteemed wine is that of Nafco. Here are
groves of wild olive trees ; and the orange, lemon, pome-
granate, jujube, and other fruit-trees, are common ; and the
tall palm-tree decorates the forefts. The population of
Sardiia amounted, in the year 1790, to 456,990 fouls ;
that of Cagliari being about 30,000. The drefs of the
Sardinians is a veft of white or fezrlet woollen, covered
with a large coat or jacket, without fleeves, compofed of
four fheep-fkins. The drefs of the women has in it nothing
particular. The Italian language begins to prevail here ;
but the ancient diale& feems to be a mixture of the lan-
guages of the various conquerors. The original inhabitants,
like thofe of Corfica, are thought by fome perfons to have
been the Iberi from Spain.
by Azuniat 1,695,062 francs ; the exports about 8,000,000
livres; and the imports 2,000,000. The réligion is the
Roman Catholic ; andit is fingular, that with fix bifhoprics
there are three archbifhoprics. This ifland has been much
negle€ted by the government, as Mr. Young informs us
in the 2d volume of his “ Journey in France ;”? for, ex-
clufive of the mountains, the whole country may be re-
garded as wafte, and very partially cultivated. The chief
proprietors are abfentees; and the peafants are crushed
by rapacious ftewards. The numerous waftes abound
with wild ducks; but the number of cattle and fheep is
deplorably {mall, and the morafles produce moft noxious
exhalations. The lands in this ifland, as well as in Corfica,
belong to the community, and not to private proprietors ;
and on this account, it is faid, they are almoit utterly ne-
Saas It has been fuggefted, that the firft and indifpen-
able meafure towards the improvement and civilization of
thefe iflands would be, by a ftrong and armed force, to
divide them into eftates of a moderate fize, among the moft
able and powerful men in each community ; and to {pare
no means for in{truéting the inhabitants with regard to
their real interefts, the purfuits of induftry, which ought
to be rewarded by lands referved for that purpofe. The

two principal rivers in this ifland are the Oriftano, which

runs about eighty miles, and the Flumendofo, pafling in
oppofite directions E. and W., and dividing the ifland into
two portions. Pinkerton’s Geog. vol. i.

SARDIS, or Sarpes, a town of Afia Minor, the me-
tropolis of Lydia; and the feat of king Creefus. It was
fituated between the Cayiter to the fouth, and the Hermus
to the north, on the banks of the Pactolus, at the foot of
mount T'molus. The citadel was placed on a craggy moun-
tain, abounding with precipices, S.E. of the town, and, on
account of its fituation, was thought to be impregnable.
Sardis was a rich and fplendid city. Florus calls it the
fecond Rome. The kings of Lydia fele¢ted it as the place
of their refidence. Strabo reprefents it as an ancient city,
not inferior in magnificence to any in Afia; but he confiders
it as potterior to the fiege of Troy. Herodotus relates that
this city was taken by the Cimmerians, who were driven from
their country by the Scythian Nomades, under the reign of
Ardys, whofe reign commenced 680 years B.C. It re-
mained in poffeflion of the Cimmerians until the reign of
Alyattes II., who afcended the throne 619 years B.C.
took pofleffion of the capital, and drove the Cimmerians out
of Afia. Strabo informs us that the Tyrians and Lycians
took pofleffion of it, and it became fubjeé to the Perfians
in the year 584 B.C. It was in the plain before this city
that Cyrus gained a victory over Croefus, king of Lydia,
and then took the city after a refiftance of 14 days. The
Perfians thought Sardis of fuch confequence after they
gained poffeffion of it, that Xerxes hearing that it was ies

Y

The revenues are computed .

~~~

SAR

by the Greeks, commanded one of his attendants to cry
aloud every day while he was at dinner, ‘* The Greeks have
taken Sardis ;’? 2 practice which was continued till he re-
covered the city. ;

In the year 504 B.C., Ariftagoras, lieutenant of the
fovereign of Miletus, revolted againit the Perfians, who
had remained in poffeffion of Sardis from the deftruGtion of
the kingdom of Lydia. Sardis was taken without refiftance,
but the citadel was defended by Artaphernes with a good
garrifon. On this occafion a foldier fet fire to a houfe,
which communicated itfelf to other buildings, and occa-
fioned a conflagration that {pread through almoft the whole
city. The temple of Cybele was burnt. The city was
afterwards rebuilt, and pafled under the dominion of the
Greeks. In the year 333 B.C., after the battle of Granicus,
Sardis, which was confidered as the ftrongelft place occupied
by the Perfians near the fea-coaft, furrendered to Alex-
ander; who left it free, and allowed it to be governed by its
own laws.

In the war carried on by Seleucus againit Lyfimachus,
he took poffeffion of Sardis in the year 283 B.C.; the
citadel, with all the treafures of Lyfimachus, having been
delivered to him by Theodotus, the governor. In the year
214 B.C., Antiochus the Great made himfelf matter of the
city and its citadel, and kept poffeflion of it for 25 years.
It ferved for the place of his retreat after having lott the
battleof Magnefia of Sipylus, 190 years B.C. When this
prince left Sardis to join his fon Seleucus, he committed the
cuftody of it to Zenon, and entrufted the government of
the rett of Lydia with Timon. The inhabitants of Sardis
delivered themfelves up to the Romans, in whofe poffeffion it
remained. Under the reign of the emperor Tiberius, Sardis
was almoft wholly deftreyed by an earthquake ; but the em-
peror gave orders for rebuilding it at a great expence. The
emperor Adrian was alfo a very confiderable benefaGtor to
this city; and hence he obtained the title of Neocorus.
Antonine, his adopted fon and fucceffor, was particularly
honoured by the inhabitants of Sardis. This city is repre-
fented on fome medals as the metropolis of Afia; and it is
faid to have been the only city of proconfular Afia which
had affumed this denomination. A medal of Auguttus,
however, gives reafon for concluding that it had been a me-
tropolis under this prince. At Sardis were exhibited every
five years fome ao games, called “ Chryfanthius,”
on account of gilded flowers, which compofed the crown
afligned to the victor. Sardis was one of the firft towns
which embraced Chriftianity, having been profelyted, as it
is faid, by the apoltle John ; and fome have thought that
Clement, a difciple of St. Paul, wasits firft bihhop. It has
been alfo-reckoned among the number of the feven churches,
mentioned in the Revelation ; but others have thought that
this honour belonged to a village in its vicinity. The terri-
tory of Sardis was renowned for feveral valuable pag aria
The precious ftone, called fardonyx, is faid to have derived
its name from this city ; and it is fuppofed that the firft
mines were difcovered in this place. Pliny fays that the
tree which yielded a fragrant incenfe, grew in great abun-
dance in the environs of Sardis, where the kings of Afia had
made thefe plantations. The inhabitants were induttrious
and aétive, and celebrated for many valuable manufactures.
Pliny relates that the firft woollen manufactures were efta-
blithed at Sardis; and Athenzus informs us, that the inha-
bitants compofed a variety of precious perfumes. The im-
perial medals of Sardis are very numerous, but thofe {truck
in honour of the city are not fo many. It appears by an
infeription reported by M. Spon, that Jupiter was particu-
larly honoured at Sardis ; he was there called the proteétor of

Vou. XXXI.

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the city. Here are {till to be feen the ruins of a large palace,
with two magnificent churches, with a great many-pillars and

cornices of marble, the remains probably of a temple, and

alfo of the citadel. Near this city was to be feen, in the
time of Hermdotus, the fepuichre of Alyattes, the father of-
Croefus ; the foundation of which was ftone, but the whole
fuperitru€ture of earth, being 6 furlongs 200 feet in circum-
ference, and 1300 feet in breadth.

SARDOA, Sarpoum, or Sardonia herba, {o called
from its growing plentifully in Sardinia, in Botany, a name
given by the ancients to the water-crowfoot, with Jagged
leaves, called alfo apiaffrum and ranunculus apii folio, from its
leaves refembling in fome degree thofe of the {mallage.
This has been, in all ages, charaéterized as a poifon; nor
will the cattle touch it, though a fucculent and well-look-
ing herb; but Pliny has found means to confound this with
baum, under the name of apiaitrum, which he fays is fed
on by the bees in Italy, but is very well known to be a dan-
gerous poifon in Sardinia.

SARDOAL, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in
Eftremadura ; 3 miles N. of Abrantes.

SARDONES, in Anciert Geography, a people who in-
habited the weftern part of Gallia Narbonnenfis, according
to Pliny. Thefe people occupied that part which is now
called Rouffillon, in the environs of Rufcino.

SARDONIA, a town of India, on this fide of the
Ganges.

SARDONIAN Laveurer. See Risus Sardonicus.

SARDONIS, or Sarpanus, in Ancient Geography, a
river of Thrace, in the vicinity of the town of Olynthus,
according to Stobzus.

SARDONYX, in Mineralogy, is compofed of a milk-
white variety of chalcedony, intermixed with farde, or

cornelian. It is frequently in larger maffes than cornelian,
and is much valued by engravers of cameos. See CHaLce-
DONY.

SARE, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Pyrenées; 6 miles S.E. of St. Jean de Luz.

SARECTO, the chief town of Duplin county, North
Carolina, fituated on the N.E. branch of Cape Fear river,
which affords water for rafts to the town. It contains a
court-houfe, gaol, and about 20 houfes; 130 miles N. of
Wilmington.

SARENA, a town of France, in the department of the
Loiret ; 6 miles N. of Orleans.—Alfo, a town of South
America, in the kingdom of Chili. S. lat. 20° 4o!.

SAREPTA, or Zarepnarn, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Pheenicia, fituated S. ofSidon. This town is cele-
brated in Scripture as the abode of the prophet Eli in the
houfe of a widow, whofe fon he reftored to life. This
town, fituated on the fea-coaft, is the fame with that from
which, as the Greeks fay, Europa, the daughter of Agenor,
was ltolen away by Jupiter, and carried to the ifle of Crete;
or, as fome have faid, this young female, walking on the fea-
coalt, was perceived by fome Cretan merchants, who took
her away into their own country, in a veflel, on the prow
of which was the figure of a bull.

Sarepra, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Saratov, in which a vitriolic {pring was difcovered
in the year 1775; 8 miles S..of Tzaritzin.

SARFA, a town of Arabia, in the province of Nedsjed ;
63 miles §.W. of Kariatim.

SARFAR, aname given by fome of the chemifts to iron.

SARFE, in /chthyology. See Rep-Lye.

SARFEND, or Suanrrenp, in Geography, a town of
Paleftine, near the {ea-cuatt, fuppofed to be the ancient
Sarepta ; 8 miles S. of Saida.

¢E SARGA,

SAR

SARGA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Macedonia,
- upon the bank of the Singitic gulf.

SARGANS, in Geography, a town of Switzerland, and
capital of a county of the fame name. The county, about
15 miles each way in extent, and very mountainous, breeds
and fattens a great number of cattle, and its vallies produce
grain and fruit. In the mountains are found three kinds of
ore, black, red, and afh-coloured, which, fufed and properly
mixed, without any other procefs or addition, yield a genuine
fteel. The inhabitants are partly Calvinifts and partly
Catholics; 45 miles E.S.E. of Zurich. N. lat. 47° 5'.
E. long. 9° 32!.

SARGARAUSENA, in Ancient Geography, a country
of Cappadocia, which had the title of prefecture, and com-

rehended fix towns.

SARGASIS, Carsaais, or Carfat, a town of Afia,
in the Lefler Armenia; fituated on the route from Satala to
Meliténé, between Arauraci and Sinervz, according to the
Itin. of Antonine.

SARGATII, a people of Sarmatia in Europe; who
inhabited the territory between the Alauni and the Ama-
nobii. Ptolemy.

SARGAZO, or Sareaso, in Botany, a name for the
plant commonly called /ea Jentils; a {mall fea-plant found
among the rocks, and fometimes at open fea, and fuppofed
to bea good diuretic.

SARGE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Loire and Cher; 3 miles S.S.W. of Mont-
doubleau.

SARGEL, a fea-port town of Africa, where Andrew
Doria was defeated by Barbaroffa. N. lat. 36° 30’. W.
long. 2° 15'.

SARGETIA, in Ancient Geography, a river of Dacia,
which watered the town of Zernizagathufas, fince called
Ulpia-Trajana, and ran intothe Rhadon. Dion Caffius.

SARGNAG, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Gard; 6 miles N.E. of Nifmes.

SARGO, in Jchthyology, a name ufed by Aguftino
Scilla, in his book of PetrifaGions, for the name of one of
thofe kinds of fea-fifh, in the hinder part of whofe jaws are
found thofe round dentes molares, or grinder teeth, which,
when found’in a petrified ftate, are called bufonite, or toad-
ftones.

It is very certain, that by fargo, Scilla means no other fifh
than the fargus; yet Mr. Willughby fays, that the fargus
has none of thefe round grinders, or tubercula offea, as he
calls them, and makes this one of the charaéters by which
the fargus is to be diftinguifhed from the fparus and fearus,
and other fifhes of that tribe.

It is probable that Scilla, who wrote more exprefsly on
thefe fubje&s, diffeéted his nee with too much accuracy,
to be miftaken in this material part ; and it is poffible that
Mr. Willughby, though a very accurate writer, might
overlook thefe teeth in the hinder part of the jawof a fith,
which he was only defcribing in the common way, and had
no peculiar reafon for examining in fo nice a manner juft in
this part. Phil. Tranf. N° 219. p. 195.

SARGUS, the name of a fifh well known, and much
efteemed, among the ancients, and not uncommon at this
time in the markets of Rome, Venice, &c. being caught
in the Mediterranean and Adriatic in confiderable quan-
tities.

It fomething refembles the fparus in figure, but its nofe
is longer and more pointed, and turns up a little, and its
fore-teeth are fhaped like two human teeth, which ftand in
the fame part of the mouth. -It has no tubercles in the
hinder part of the jaws, as the fparus has; and its whole

SAR

body is variegated with brown tranfverfe rings, refembling
the variegations of the pearch, and has only one fin on the
back, the anterior rays of which are prickly, the hinder
ones not at all fo. Willughby and Gefner. See Sparus
Sargus.

Sareus is alfo the name of a river fifh, called by others
gardon, fardus, and cephalus, and by many fuppofed to be
no way effentially different from our common roach.

It is a river fifh, very much refembling the chub in its
general figure, and the fize of its fcales, but it has a fmaller
head, and a fomewhat broader body, than that fifth; its back
is blueifh, its neck greenifh, and. its belly white; it has no
teeth ; its eyes are yellow, and it is ufually lefs fat than the
chub. See Cyprinus Je/fes.

It is a very brifk and lively fifh, and is a fort of emblem of
health among the French, and ufed proverbially as fuch in
the fame manner as the roach among us. We fay of a
healthy man, 4e is as found as a roach ; they, he is as found
as a gard. It is common in the rivers of France, Italy,
and Germany, and is efteemed but a moderately fine fifh for
the table. Willughby.

SARHAUT, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 32 miles
W.N.W. of Nagore. .

SARHOU Horvun, a town of Chinefe Tartary ; 392
miles E.N.E. of Peking. N. lat. 41° 56’. E. long. 123°

52'—Alfo, a town of Chinefe Tartary, in the government —

of Kirin; 20 miles N. of Nimgouta.
long. 129°21'. :

SARI, a town of Perfia, the capital of the province of
Mazanderan, once the feat of Aga Mahomed Khan, and
now the refidence of one of the princes of Perfia. This is a
very ancient city, being frequently alluded to by Ferdoufee ;
and when vifited by Hanway, contained four or five temples
of the ancient Perfians, built of folid materials, and in the
fhape of rotundas, about 30 feet in diameter, and raifed to
a point near 120 feet in height. Sari is a {mall but well
fortified town, being furrounded with a good wall and deep
ditch. It is crowded with inhabitants, and a fociety of
Armenians is eftablifhed in the vicinity of the town. Here
are many merchants of credit, who carry on a brifk trade
with Aftrakhan, and the interior parts of Perfia. The
palace, though {mall, is commodious and neat. The country
in the vicinity of the town is flat, woody, interfperfed with
ftreams, and bounded on the N.E. and S.W. by a low
range of hills. Balfrafh, the fecond town in Mazanderan,
is larger than Sari, fituated, according to Forifter, in a low
damp valley, and about a mile and a half in circumference.
Here are four caravanferas, and the bazar denotes an ative
traffic. The houfes of Balfrafh are mean, and the ftreets in
the winter feafon are choaked with mud. The road be-
tween this place and Sari is hardly paflable in winter.
Ferrabad, though an ordinary town, fituated at the mouth
of a river, has a fmall trade in rice, falt-fifh, and pottery.
Sari is 25 miles W. of Ferrabad. N. lat. 35° 35’. ?.
long. 52° 58!. ’

Sart is alfo a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak;
60 miles N. of Nehavend. :

SARIANA, in Ancient Geography, a province of Africa,
but little known.

SARIATIM, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in Natolia; 21 miles S.W. of Kiangari..

SARIBROD, a town of European Turkey, in Bul-
garia; 28 miles W.N.W. of Sophia.

SARIBUS, in Botany, a name given by Rumphius to
a fpecies of Corypua. See that article.

SARIE, in Geography, a town of New Navarre; 118
miles $.S.W. of Cafa Grande.

SARIES-

N. lat. 44° 44’. E.

eee ke
SARIESNIEMI, a town of Sweden, in the govern-

ment of Ulea, on a lake; 28 miles N.W. of Cajana.

SARIGGIOLA, a town of European ‘Turkey, in
Macedonia; 20 miles S. of Edeffa.

SARIGNAN, or. St. Charles, one of the Ladrone
iflands, in the Eaft Indian fea; 18 miles from Guam.

SARIGOY, in Zoology, a name by which fome call the
creature we know by the name of the opoflum.

SARIKAUAK, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Tur-
key, in Caramania; 40 miles N. of Selefkeh.

SARINENA. See Carinena.

SARINHAYY®, ariver of Brafil, which runs into the
fea, S. lat. 8° 50!. :

SARIO, in Jchthyology, a term ufed by fome authors for
the falmon when in the middle itate of its growth, when it
is paft its younger itate, in which it is properly called falar,
and is not yet arrived at what is properly called a /almon.
See SALMo. ;

SARIPHI, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Afia,
in Margiana, in whichis the {pring of the river Oxus.

SARISSA, in Antiquity, a very long {pear ufed by the
Macedonians. Aélian fays, that by the ancient ufage they
ought to be fixteen cubits in length; but that in faét they
were but fourteen, two cubits being allowed for the handle,
and the other twelve to cover their bodies.

SARISSUS, in Botany, Gertn. v. 1. 118. t.25. See
HypropuyLax.

SARIZKO, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Tobolfk; 400 miles N. of Turuchanfk.
N. lat. 72° 20!. E. long. 84° 26’.

SARK, or Serk, (Cerg, French,) an ifland on the coaft
of Normandy, fubjeé&t to the crown of England; fituate
14 miles N.W. from Jerfey, 6 from Guernfey, and 24
from the French coatt: its length is not quite three miles,
extreme breadth a mile and a half, and medium breadth
under a mile. It is nearly divided into two parts, called
Great and Little Sark, which are united by a narrow, lofty
ridge, wafhed by the fea on each fide, at the depth of 250
feet, and affording on its fummit a moft narrow foot-path.
In 1549 the ifland, being then uninhabited, was feized and
fortified by the French. Soon afterwards, the garrifon was
sp and driven out by the crews of fome Flemifh
vellels; who prefented their acquifition to queen Mary,
then the wife of their fovereign Philip. In 1565, queen
Elizabeth granted the ifland in fee to Helier de Carteret,
feigneur de St. Ouen, in Jerfey, who colonized it from his
native iflaud; giving to his dependants, whom he removed
thither, hereditary eftates, which their defcendants, or pur-
chafers under them, {till enjoy. The remaining poffeflions
of the de Carteret family in this ifland have alfo been fold,
and are now the property of that of Lepellé, in Guernfey.
In 1812 the ifland contained 63 inhabited dwellings, 78
families, 416 individuals of each fex and every age, 87 men
fubje& to militia duty, and 22 capable of occafional duty.
lt is a fertile and healthy {pot, producing, beyond the wants
of its inhabitants, fome wheat, oats, and potatoes, annually
exported to Guernfey. Between 400 and 500 acres are
under cultivation; the remainder fheep-walk, or under
furze. This ifland and Alderney are fubjeé&t to the go-
vernor of Guernfey ; and an appeal lies to the royal court
there, from the decifions in civil cafes, and au petit criminel
of the fénéchal of the ifland, who adminifters juftice under
the feigneur. Criminal cafes of a ferious nature are re-
ferred, in the firft inttance, to the royal court of Guernfey.
The number of horfes in the ifland is 68, with 48 erage:
oxen, about 100 young cattle, and 120 cows; between
300 and 400 Sheep.

SA KR

F eee Little, a very {mall ifland, a little to the fouth of
ark.

Sarx, New. See Eamonr. }

Sark, a river of Scotland, formed of two branches, the
white and black, which runs into the Eden, four miles below
Carlifle.

SARKA Princeps, one of the Hebrew accents,
fometimes denoting a comma, and marked over a letter,
thus (- ).

SARKAPALLY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Myfore; 12 miles S.E. of Tademeri.

SARKAS. See Srerags.

SARKAW, a town of Pruffia, in the Curifch Nerang ;
24 miles N. of Konigtberg.

SARKFOOT, a {mall village and fea-port in the parifh
of Graitney, and county of Dumfries, Scotland, is fituated
on the northern fhore of the frith of Solway, which is here
about five miles broad. The harbour belonging to this vil-
lage is capable of admitting veflels of above 120 tons
burthen. Near Sarkfoot, on the farm of Graitney Mains,
is one of thofe ancient monuments, commonly called
Druidical temples. It is formed of large, rough, whin or
moor-ftones, which muit have been brought from a con-

' fiderable diftance ; there being no ftones of the fame defcrip-

tion within ten miles of this neighbourhood. One of the
largeft of thefe ftones, denominated by the common people
Lochmaben ftone, meafures 118 cubical feet, the total
weight of which, allowing 12 {tone to each cubical foot, is
upwards of zo tons. The other ftones are of {maller di-
menfions. According to traditionary report, the {cite of
this monument was anciently famous, as a place where al-
liances were made, and great public queitions difcufled and
determined. In Graitney parifh may likewife be feen the
remains of feveral {quare towers, which were probably
erected for defence again{ft the incurfions of the Englifh.
Some years ago a finall wooden box, containing filver coins,
was dug up in a mofs near the Hirlt: a few of them feemed
to have been ftruck at Canterbury, but the greater part
at London, apparently in the reign of one of the Edwards ;
though which of them could not be determined, on account
of the mutilated {tate of the figures and infcriptions. The
Statiftical Account of Scotland, &c. by Sir John Sinclair,
Bart., vol. ix. 8vo. 1793.

SARKINOS, a fmall ifland on the E. fide of the gulf of
Bothnia. N. lat. 63° 19’. E. long. 21° 48!.

SARLAT, a town of France, and principal place of a
diftri@, in the department of the Dordogne, before the re-
volution the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Bourdeaux. The
place contains 5924, and the canton 12,112 inhabitants, on
a territory of 2324 kiliometres, in 16 communes; 30 miles

N.W. of Calvados. N. lat. 43° 53. E. long. 1° 18!
SARLINGBACH, a town of Auftria; 7 miles S. of
Aigen. .

SARMAGANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
according to Ptolemy.

SARMALIA, a town of Afia, in Galatia, which be-
longed to the Taliftoboges, according to Ptolemy. In the
Itinerary of Antonire it is marked on the route from
Ancyra to Tavia, between Bolelafgus and Ecobrogis.

SARMATIA, a large portion of Etrope and Afia,
which was divided into European and ate, Sarmatia.
Sarmatia Europea, or Sarmatia in Europe, was ounded on
the N. by the Sarmatic ocean, and immenfe tracts of land,
and extended from the Viftula, now the Weitlel, parting it
from Germany, to the Euxine fea, the Bofphorus Cimmerius,
the Palus Meotis, and the Tanais, dividing it from Afia and
the Afiatic Sarmatia. The mountains of European Sar-

3E 2 matidy

SARMATIA.

matia, according to Ptolemy, were the Peuca, Amadoci,
Boudinus, Alaunus, Carpatus, the Vindelician, and the Ri-
phzan mountains. The towns in the interior of the country
were Carcina, Torocca, Pafiris, Ercabum, Tracana, and Nau-
barum, all near the river Carcinis ; thofe near the Boryi-
thenes were Azagarium, Amadoca, Sarum, Serimum, and
Olbia, the metropolis, called alfo Boryfthenes; near the
river Axius was Ordefus; towards the place where the
Boryfthenes made a bend were Leinum, Sarbacum, and
Nioffum ; near Dacia, on the Tyrus or Danaiter, were Car-
rodunum, Mztonium, Clepidava, Vibanta Varium, and Frac-
tum; and near the mouth of the Tanais, was the ifland
Alopecia, or of Foxes.

Sarmatia of Afia had towards the N. unknown bound-
aries, towards the W. European Sarmatia as far as the
fources of the T’anais, and this river itfelf as far as its
mouth in the Palus Mzotis, and this Palus to the Bof-
phorus. The mountains in this part of Sarmatia were the
Hippici, Ceraunti, Corax. Alexandri Columne, Pyle Sar-
matice, and Albanie Pyle. ‘The towns were Exopolis,
Naxarius, Tanais, &c. &c.

Cellarius has colleéted the opinions of the ancients con-
cerning the European and Afiatic Sarmatia ;*and M. d’An-
ville has, with his ufual fkill and accuracy, applied them to
modern geography.

In the immenfe traé& of land called Sarmatia, compre-
hending the prefent Poland, Ruffia, and a great part of
Tartary, dwelt, befides many others, the names of whom
it is unneceflary to enumerate, the following people:
viz. the Burgiones, Cariones, Sudeni, Geloni, Hamaxobii,
Agathyrfi, Borufz, Melanchleni, Alauni or Alani, Jazyges,
Roxolani, Baftarne, Carpi or Carpates, Sidones, Borani,
and Venedi, called by Jornandes Winide and Vinidi. The
five laft-named nations are thought to have come originally
from Germany, efpecially the Baitarne ; for even in the time
of Tacitus, who is at a lofs whether he ought to place
them among the Germans or the Sarmatians, they agreed
with the former in drefs and language. The Gelonians were,
according to Herodotus, of Greek extraction; . but had,
even in his time, adopted, in a\great meafure, the cuftoms
and manners of the Budini, among whom they had fettled,
efpecially the cuftom of painting their bodies, as we are in-
formed by Virgil and Claudian, The Budini dwelt near
mount Budinus, from which f{prung the Boryfthenes, now
called the Dnieper, or Nieper. The other nations above-
mentioned were Gothic. (See Gorns.) Thefe various tribes
were blended by the Romans under the common name of
Sauromate ; and fometimes by both, under the denominations
of Scythe or Scythians, and Gete. Each of them feems
to have had its own king, for hiltory mentions the kings
of the Roxolani, of the Baftarne, and of the Jazyges.
Ammianus Marcellinus defcribes the Sarmatians in general
as a favage people, infamous for their lewdnefs. » The
Melanchleni are reproached, both by Ammianus and He-
rodotus, as cannibals, who fed on human fiefh, and are
hence called by them, as well as by Mela and Pliny, an-
thropophagi and androphagi.

The Sarmatians, fays Mr. Gibbon, feem to unite the
manners of the Afiatic barbarians with the figure and com-
plexion of the ancient inhabitants of Europe. According
to the various accidents of peace and war, of alliance or
conquett, the Sarmatians were fometimes confined to the
banks of the Tanais ; and they fometimes fpread themfelves
over the immenfe plains which lie between the Vittula and
the Volga. The care of their numerous flocks and herds,
the ulblnit of game, and the exercife of war, or rather of
rapine, direéted the vagrant motions of the Sarmatians.

I

The moveable camps or cities, the ordinary refidence of
their wives and children, confitted only of large waggons
drawn by oxen, and covered in the form of tents. The
military ftrength of the nation was compofed of cavalry ;
and the cuftom of their warriors, to lead in their hand one
or two {pare horfes, enabled them to advance and to retreat
with a rapid diligence, which furprifed the fecurity, and
eluded the purfuit, of a diftant enemy. (Ammian. |. xvii.
c.12.) The Sarmatian horfes were ca{trated, to prevent the
mifchievous accidents which might happen from the noify
and ungovernable paffions of the males. Their poverty of
iron prompted their rude induttry to invent a fort of cuirafs,
which was capable of refiiting a {word or javelin, though it
was formed only of horfes’ hoofs, cut into thin and polifhed
flices, carefully laid over each other in the manner of {cales
or feathers, and ftrongly fewed upon an under-garment of
coarfe linen. The offenfive arms of the Sarmatians were
fhort daggers, long lances, and a weighty bow witha quiver
of arrows. ‘They were reduced to the neceflity of employ-
ing fifh-bones for the points of their weapons; but the
cultom of dipping them in a venomous liquor, that poifoned
the wounds which they inflicted, is alone fufficient to prove
the moft favage manners; fince a people imprefled with a
fenfe of humanity would have abhorred fo cruel a praétice,
and a nation {killed in the arts of war would have difdained
fo impotent a refource. Whenever thefe barbarians iflued
from their defarts in queft of prey, their fhaggy beards, un-
combed locks, the furs with which they were covered from
head to foot, and their fierce countenances, which feemed to
exprefs the innate cruelty of their minds, infpired the more
civilized provincials of Rome with horror and: difmay.

Ovid, in the nine books of poetical epiftles which he com-
pofed during the firlt feven years of his melancholy exile
among thefe montters of the defart, after their fettlement near
the Danube, defcribes in lively colours the drefs and manners,
the arms and inroads of the Getz and Sarmatians, who were
aflociated for the purpofes of deftru€tion ; and from the
accounts of hiftory, there is fome reafon to believe that
thefe Sarmatians were the Jazygz, one of the moft nume-
rous and warlike tribes of the nation. The allurements of
plenty engaged them to feek a permanent eftablifhment on
the frontiers of the empire. Soon after the reign of Au-
guitus, they obliged the Dacians, who fubfitted by fifhing
on the banks of the river Teyfs or Tibifcus, to retire into
the hilly country, and to abandon to the viGtorious Sarma-
tians the fertile plains of the Upper Hungary, which are
bounded by the courfe of the Danube and the femicircular
inclofure of the Carpathian mountains. The Sarmatian
Jazyge were fettled on the banks of the Pathiffus, | i-
bifcus, when Pliny, in the year 79, publifhed his N
Hiltory. (See l. iv. c. 25.) In the time of Strabo and
Ovid, fixty or feventy years before, they appear to: have in-
habited beyond the Getz, along the coatt of the Euxine.
In this advantageous pofition they watched or fufpended the
moment of attack, as they were provoked by injuries or
appeafed by prefents; they gradually acquired-the fill of
ufing more dangerous weapons; and although the Sarma-
tians did not illuftrate their name by any memorable ex-
ploits, they occafionally affifted their eaftern and weftern
neighbours, the Goths and the Germans, with a formidable
hols of cavalry. They lived under the irregular arifto-
cracy of their chieftains; but after they had received into
their bofom the fugitive Vandals, who yielded to the pref-
fure of the Gothic power, they feem to have chofen a kin
from that nation, and from the illuftrious race of the Af-
tingi, and who had formerly dwelt on the fhores of the
Northern ocean.

The

|

SARMATIA.

The Sarmatians firft began to threaten the Romar em-
pire in the reign of Nero, about feventeen years after Thrace
had been reduced to a Roman province by Claudius;
Thrace, till its redu@tion, having ferved as a barrier on
that fide between the Sarmatians and the Romans. Soon
after the latter became poffefled of it, the Sarmatians ap-
peared in great numbers on the confines, with a feeming
purpofe of making themfelves mafters of that province ;
but the Roman general having defeated the king of the
Battarnians and Roxolanians, the reft foon difperfed. Six
years after this tranfaction, A.D. 69, the Roxolanians,
having entered Mecefia and defeated two Roman cohorts,
ravaged the country. The Jazygians, another Sarmatic na-
tion, offered to join Vefpafian in the firft year of his reign,
immediately after his acceffion to the empire; but foon
altering their purpofe, broke into Meefia, and having killed
the governor laid waite the country: but-in feveral en-
counters with a Roman general, expeditioufly difpatched
againft them by the Roman emperor, many of them were
cut to pieces, and the reft were obliged to re-crofs the Da-
nube.

The Sarmatians in Europe broke into Ilyricum with
great fury in the year 11g, the fecond of Adrian’s reign ;
which obliged that prince to quit Rome, and march againft
them in perfon. Upon his arrival in Meefia, they repafled
the Danube with great precipitation, and encamped on the
oppofite bank; but the Roman cavalry fwimming acrofs
the river, in order to attack them, the Sarmatians were
ftruck with fuch terror, that they immediately fubmitted.

The princes of the Sarmatians quarrelled afterwards
among themfelves, and chofe Adrian for their umpire, who
compofed their differences to the general fatisfaction of
the contending parties.. On this occafion, the king of the
Roxolanians complaining to the emperor, that his penfion
had been reduced, Adrian ordered the fum, which had
been formerly allowed him, to be paid without the leatt
deduétion. In the year 135, the Jazygians fent am-
baffadors to Rome, to renew their alliance with Adrian,
who received them in a very obliging manner, introduced
them to the fenate, and, having granted them their requett,
fent them back loaded with rich prefents.

All the nations inhabiting Sarmatia confpired with the
Marcomans againft M. Aurelius; but were in the end fub-
dued, and almolt extirpated. Being afterwards abandoned
by the Marcomans and their other allies, they were reduced
to great extremity, and fuing for peace, they obtained it
upon conditions that were humiliating, and with which
they were under a neceflity of complying. The prifoners,
whom they difmiffed on this occafion, amounted, as it is
faid, to 100,000, though they had fold to other nations
many of thofe whom they had taken during the war. The
8000 Jazygian horfe were by the emperor fent into Britain.
To the other Sarmatic nations lands were allotted in Pan-
ponia, Melia, Germany, and even in Italy. The Jazy-
gians lived, it fecms, “se time in peace and amity with
the Romans; for in 180, one of the articles of the peace
concluded between the emperor Commodus and the Ale-
mans was, that they fhould not make war upon the Jazy-

jans, Burians, or Vandals. Befides, no mention is made

hiftorians either of them, or the other Sarmatic nations,
till the year 215, when the emperor Caracalla is faid to
have gained fome advantages over the Sarmatians, and
to have afflumed, on that account, the furname of Sar-
maticus.

In the year 228 the Carpi, a people of Sarmatia, dwell-
ing next the Carpathian mountains, which feparate Hun-

gary and Tranfylvania from Poland, demanded an annual
peniion, fimilar to that which was granted to the Goths ;
and their demand being rejeéted, they made feveral irrup-
tions into the empire. Aurelian, afterwards emperor, gain-
eda fignal victory over the Sarmatians and Sueves in the
reign of Claudius. In the year 278, Probus marched againtt
them in perfon, but they obtained peace upon a promife to re-
main beyond the Danube, and to fupply the Roman armies
with a certain number of troops. Ass foon as they heard of
the death of Probus, they invaded Illyricum, but were defeated
with great {laughter by the emperor Carus, who cut in pieces
16,000 of them, and obliged the reft to repafs the Danube.
About feven years after this event, they returned with a nume-
rous army, and committed great ravages in Thrace and IIly-
ricum ; but Dioclefian defeated them with great flaughter.
In procefs of time the Sarmatians, dwelling near the Palus
Mzotis, broke into the country of the Lazians in Colchis,
and having pillaged a great part of Pontus, advanced as
far as the Halys, a river of Paphlagonia. Conftantius,
then only tribune, but foon afterwards declared Czfar, was
fent by Dioclefian to reftrain their ravages ; the inferiority
of his army, however, allowed his doing no more than
preventing them from pafling that river. The emperor
Galerius made war on the Sarmatians, and gained over
them a complete victory. About this time the Carpi,
having been feveral times overcome, and reduced to great
diftrefs by Galerius, fubmitted to the Romans. Diocle-
fian tran{planted the whole nation into the Roman territo-
ries, ef{pecially into Pannonia, where great numbers had
been allowed to fettle in the reign of Aurelian. Conftan-
tine the Great, in the 17th year of his reign, gained a
great victory over the Sarmatians, and having feveral times
defeated them, he killed their king, laid wafte their country,
and returned with a very large number of ‘captives. The
Sarmatian f{ports, which were annually celebrated about the
latter end of November, probably took their rife from this
victory.

In the year 332 Conftantine efpoufed their caufe againft
the Goths, and gained a complete victory over them ; and in
this war near 100,000 Goths perifhed either by the {word, or
by famine. Unmindful, however, of their obligations to Con-
ftantine, the Sarmatians turned their arms againit their friends
and benefaétors, but the Romans under Conftantine feverely
punifhed them for their ingratitude, by entering their
country, and ravaging it with fire and fword. Two years
afterwards the Sarmatians were again attacked by the
Goths. ‘This war lafted fome years, but at laft the Sar-
matians were totally defeated on the banks of the Marifus,
in Dacia. In this battle they loft their king, Wifimar,
and with him the flower of their nobility, and fuch numbers
of men, that they were obliged to arm their flaves; but
thefe, turning their arms againit their matters, drove them
quite out of their native country, and feized on their lands
and pofleffions. ‘Thefe flaves are by Ammianus and St.
Jerom ftyled «* Limigantes,”’? whereas the free-born among
the Sarmatians were diftinguifhed by the name of * Acara-
gantes.””. The Sarmatians, thus expelled by their flaves, had
again recourfe to Conftantine, who received 300,000 of
them into the empire, incorporated fowe among his troops,
and allowed to the others lands in the provinces borderin
on the Danube, and even in Italy itfelf. Thofe who took
refuge among the Quadians, made an irruption, A.D. 355,
into Pannonia, in conjunction with the Quadi; and having
pillaged both that province and Upper Meefia, returned
unmolefted with an immenfe booty. | '‘l'wo years after this
expedition, they laid walte the fame provinces, while the

Suevi

SAR

Suevi committed dreadful ravages in Rhetia, and the Quadi
in Valeria; a province of Illyricum. Conttantius haftened
from Rome to oppofe the Barbarians, who threatened
Italy itfelf; but hearing of his arrival at Milan, they re-
tired with precipitation. The emperor, however, advanced
as far as Sirmium, and had feveral conferences with the
chiefs of the nations dwelling in the vicinity of the Danube,
who all promifed to live in peace and amity with the em-
pire. Inthe following winter they forgot their promifes,
and finding the Danube frozen, they feized the opportunity
of entering Meefia and Pannonia, and pillaging thofe pro-
vinces. Conf{tantius marched in perfon againft’the Sarma-
tians, who had been joined by the Quadians; and having
paffed the’ Danube on a bridge of boats, he entered their
country, and laid it wafle to a great extent. At length
they concluded a peace with Conftantius. The Limigantes,
whom we have already mentioned, after fuffering a dreadful
maffacre, were obliged to fubmit to the Romans, and to ac-
cept the fevere terms that were offered them. Thefe were,
that they fhould quit the country, on which they had feized
and which they had unjuftly held, and retire to another at
a greater diitance from the empire. The country which
they abandoned was reitored by Conftantius to the ancient
proprietors, who fettled there again, 24 years after (A.D.
358) they had been driven out by their rebellious flaves.
For thefe great achievements the victorious emperor Con-
ftantius took the furname of Sarmaticus. The Sarmatians,
notwithitanding their great obligations to the Romans, a
few years after broke into Pannonia, and laid wafte that
province, while the Roman troops were employed againtt
the Alemans in Rhetia, In the year 374 they joined the
Quadians, and in conjunétion with them committed dread-
ful ravages in Pannonia, and from thence advanced into
Upper Raia but they were there defeated with great
flaughter by Theodofius, afterwardsemperor. In the year
376, Athanaric, one of the chiefs of the Goths, being
forced by the Hunns to abandon his own country, re-
tired with his people to a place called Caucalanda, dif-
poflefling the Sarmatians, to whom it belonged. In 378
the Sarmatians, informed that the Goths, who had been
admitted by Valens into the empire, had taken up arms
againft the Romans, refolved to pafs the Danube, and join
them ; but Theodofius, afterwards emperor, meeting them
in Thrace, defeated them with great flaughter. The
victory is faid to have been fo complete, that Gratian, then
emperor, could not believe the account which Theodofius
himfelf gave upon his return to court, till he was informed
of the truth by perfons fent on purpofe to view the field
of battle. In the year 407 they entered Gaul, with the
Vandals, Sueves, Franks, Burgundians, and other Barba-
rians, arid committed dreadful deva‘tation. Thofe who re-
mained in Sarmatia were afterwards fubdued by Attila,
and ferved, with their princes, in his army, when he in-
vaded Gaul in 451. Upon that prince’s death, they fhook
off the yoke; and, having recovered their ancient liberty,
fubmitted to Marcian, then emperor, who allowed them to
fettle in Pannonia, Meefia, and the other provinces border-
ing on the Danube, where they continued quiet, till they
were reduced by the Goths. Thofe who refided among
the Goths became, in procefs of time, one nation with
them. Trom thofe who remained in Sarmatia, the prefent
Poles and Tartars are thought to have fprung. Univ. Hitt.
vol. xvii. Gibbon’s Hift. Rom. Emp. vol. iti.

The Sarmatians, after the example of moft other idola-
trous nations, had gods both natural and animated. Thofe
of the firft fort were the Sun.and Moon, Pogwid or the

SAR

Air, Tafla or Jupiter, Laéto or Pluto, Nia or Ceres, Mar-
zane or Venus, and Zicuonia or Diana. Among their ani-
mated deities were Lelus and Politus, which, according to
the Polifh hiftorians, were the fame with Caltor and Poliux,
whofe names were retained by the Sarmatians, after their
worfhip was abolifhed, and they had embraced Chriftianity,
and which they pronounced with expreflions of joy at their
feafts. The Sarmatians, according to Voflius, were led inte
an acquaintance with thefe divinitiés by holding commerce
with the people fettled on the banks of the Danube.

SARMATIANS. Seethe preceding article.

SARMATICA Insuta, the name of an ifland fituated
near the mouth of the Danube,. named Calofloma, according
to Pliny.

Sarmatica Lues, in Medicine, a name given by fome
authors to the plica Polonica. ‘

SARMATICI Mowves, in Ancient Geography, moun-
tains of European Sarmatia, on the confines of Germany.
Ptolemy.

SARMEE, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; 7 miles
E.N.E. of Noony. ‘

SARMENA, atown of Turkifh Armenia; 18 miles
E. of Trebifond. ,

SARMENIUS Lapis, in Natural Hiflory, a name
given by the writers of the middle ages to a ftone faid to
be ufed in the polifhing of gold, and to have virtues in me-
dicine alfo ; fuch as preventing abortion, and the like.

It feems to have been only a corrupt way of fpelling /a-
mius lapis, a {tone to which Pliny has attributed the fame
virtue. ’

SARMENTACES, in Botany, the eleventh natural
order among the fragmenta of Linneus, nearly an{wering to
Juffieu’s A/paragi. The name alludes to the long twining
or trailing {tems prevalent in this order, and the genera are
Gloriofa, Erythronium, Alfiromeria, Uvularia, Convallaria,
Rufcus, Afparagus, Medeola, Tullium, Paris, Smilax, Dio/-
corea, Tamus, Raiania, Menifpermum, Centella (erroneoully
placed here, being a Hydrocotyle), Ciffampelos, Ariftolochia,
Afarum and Cytinus. .

SARMENTOSUS Cautts, in Botany and Vegetable
Phyfiology, trailing or twining flem. See Cautis. .

SARMISK, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Chrudim ; 12 miles E.N.E. of Chradim. ‘

SARMUND. See SAarmMuND. ;

SARN y Buch, a cape on the welt coait of North
Wales, and county of Merioneth; 17 miles N. of Abe-
ryftwith. y

SARNA, atown of Sweden, in Dalecarlia; 100 miles
N.W. of Fahlun.

SARNABITIBA, a river of Brazil, which runs into
the Atlantic, 'S. lat. 17° 30

SARNACHE, a town of Portugal, in Eftremadura ;
18 miles N.E. of Thomar.

SARNADA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Pannonia ;
upon the route from Sirmium to Salone, between Zeufaba
and Silvie, according to the Itin. of Antonine. -

SARNE, in Geography, a river of France, which runs
into the Birs, near Talliperg.

SARNELLI, Pompey, in Biography, a learned Italian
prelate in the 17th and 18th centuries, was born at Polig-
nano in the year 1649. Being dettined for the clerical pro-
feffion, he was fent from the fchools of his native country to
purfue his {tudies at Naples. He commenced his career as
an author about the year 1668, and publifhed {ome pieces
connected with the belles-lettres department, which met with
avery favourable reception. In the year 1675, after he had

been

SAR

been admitted to priefts’ orders, pope Clement X. gave him
the appointment of honorary prothonotary. Four years
after this, he became an inmate with cardinal Maria-Vincent
Orfini, bifhop of Manfredonia, and upon the tranflation of
that prelate to the church of Cefena, in the Romagna, in
1679, he appointed Sarnelli his grand vicar. He continued
with the cardinal after he had been promoted to the arch-
bifhopric of Benevento, and accompanied him to the con-
claves which were held after the deaths of pope Inno-
cent XI. and Alexander VIII. He obtained confiderable
preferment in the church, and died in the year 1724. He
was author of “ Lettere ecclefiaftiche,”’ in g vols. 4to.; «Il
Clero fecolare nel fuo Splendore, overo della. vita commune
clericale ;?? ‘ Beftiarum Schola ad Homines erudiendos ab
ipfa rerum natura provide inftituta, &c. decem et centum
LeGtionibus explicata ;”’ and many pieces of a biographical,
chronological, and topographical nature.

SARNEN, in Geography, a town of Switzerland, in
the canton of Underwalden, near a lake to which it gives
name; 9 miles S. of Lucern.

SARNGANG, a town of Auftria; two miles S.S.E.
of Entzerftorff.

SARNIA, Sarnia, Sarma, or Armia Infula, in Ancient
Geography, an ifland fituated in the fea, which feparates the
Gauls from Great Britain.

SARNIUS, a river of Afia, which feparates a defart
of Hyrcania from the eaftern coaft. Strabo.

SARNO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Principato
Citra, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Salerno. In the
environs are collected annually about 400olbs. weight of filk,
fuppofed to be the fineft and beft wound in the kingdom ; 10
miles W.W.of Salerno. N. lat. 40° 48’. E. long. 14°35’.

Sarno, or Safata, a river of Naples, which runs into
the fea, 10 miles S.S.E. of Naples.

SARNUCA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Mefopotamia, fituated on the banks of the Euphrates, S.
of Apammafis, towards 35° 50! of lat.

SARNUS, a river of Italy, in Campania, which watered
the town of Pompeii, according to Strabo.—Alfo, a town
of Illyria.

SARNY, in Geography, a town of Hindoottan, in Dow-
latabad ; to miles E.S.E. of Darore.

SAROKA, a town of Moldavia, near the Dniefter ; 84
miles N.N.W. of Bender.

SARON, in Ancient Geography, a canton of Palettine,
between mount Tabor and the i of Tiberias. —Alfo, a
canton of Paleltine, between the town of Czfarea of Pa-
leftine, and Joppa.—Alfo, a canton of Paleftine, on the
other fide of Jordan, in the country of Bafan, and in a di-
vifion of the tribe of Gad.—Alfo, a mountain of Judea,
fituated in the weftern part of the tribe of Ather.—Alfo, a
townand river of the Peloponnefus, in the Troézené, ac-
cording to Euftathius, who fays that the river gave name to
the Saronic gulf.

Sanon, in Greek Mythology, was regarded as the par-
ticular god of the failors, and the Greeks for that reafon
— him a name from an arm of the fea near Corinth, or

the Saronic gulf.

SARONA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Judea, in
the tribe of Ephraim.

SARONIA, Yagunx, among the Greeks, a feftival kept
imhonour of Diana, furnamed Saronia, from Saro, the third
king of Trazene, by whom a temple was ereéted, and this
feftival inftituted to her.

SARONICUS Sinus, or Saronic Gulf, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a gulf of Engia. It was fituated between the two

SAR

promontories of Sunium in Attica, and Scylleum in the
Argolide. There are not lefs than twenty iflands in it ; but
only three of them are inhabited, viz. Calauyna, gina, and
Salamis. ‘

SARONIDES, in Ancient Hiffory, minilters of religion
among the Gauls, whofe province it was to initruét the
youth, and to inftil into their minds virtuous fentiments.

SARONILLA, in Geography. See SERRANILLE.

SAROS, Sajo:, in Chronology, a period of two hundred
and twenty-three lunar months. Suidas in voc. Zxpoc. Mem.
Acad. Infcrip. tom. viii. p. 283.

The etymology of the word is faid to be Chaldean, figni-
fying reftitution, or return of eclipfes ; that is, conjunc-
tions of the fun and moon in nearly the fame place of the
ecliptic. _

The faros was a cycle like to that of Meto. See Cycie
of the Moon. :

Saros, in Geography, a town of Hungary, in the vi-
cinity of which is a poifonous {pring ; 6 miles N.W. of
Eperies.

SAROSEL, in the Glaf; Trade, the name of the room
into which the mouth of the leer opens, and in which the
glafs veffels are placed, when taken out of the leer.

Themen who attend to do this are called the /ara/e men.

SAROTHRA, in Botany, from capwpor, a broom, al-
luding to the habit of the plant.—Linn. Gen. 151.
Schreb. 203. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1515. Mart. Mill.
Di&. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2.176. Juff. 303.. La-
marck [lluftr. t. 215. Gertn. v. 2. 161. t. 114.—Clafs
and order, - Pentandria Trigynia. Nat. Ord. Rotacee, Linn.
Caryophyllee, Juff. rather his Hyperica.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in five deep,
linear, acute fegments, ere&t, permanent. Cor. Petals ge-
nerally five, linear, inclining to lanceolate, obtufe, {preading,
fomewhat longer than the calyx, deciduous. Stam. Fila-
ments five, thread-fhaped, the lenoth of the corolla; an-
thers roundifh. Pi/. Germen fuperior, ovate ; ityles three,
thread-fhaped, the length of the germen; ftigmas fimple.
Peric. Capfule oblong, acute, membranous, coloured, of
one cell and three valves. Seeds numerous, minute, fome-
what cylindrical, very finely ftriated, ftalked, pendulous
from the inner margins of each valve.

Eff. Ch. Calyx in five deep fegments. Petals five. Cap-
fule fuperior, coloured, of one cell and three valves. Seeds
numerous, inferted into the margins of the valves.

1. S. gentianoides. Battard Gentian. Linn. Sp. Pl. 391.
Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. 1. (Hypericum Sarothra ; Michaux
Boreali-Amer. y. 2. 79. Purth vy. 2. 378. H. nudicaule ;
Walt. Carol. 190. Centaurium minus {picatum, anguftiffi-
mo folio, five Scoparium marilandicum novum ; Pluk. Mant.
43-t. 342. f. 2.)—Found in dry funny fituations, from
New England to Carolina, flowering from June to Auguft.
Root annual. Stem creét, about a fpan high, very much
branched in an oppofite manner, with minute, clofe-prefled,
oppofite /eaves at each joint. The whole herd is {mooth.

lowers terminal, folitary, creét, very {mall. Mr. Purfh
obferves that the number of /famens is very variable, ac-
cording to foil and fituation: He follows Michaux, per-
haps rightly, in confidering this fingular little plant as
a real Hypericum, notwithitanding its few and fimple
flamens.

SARP, or Sarren, in Geography, a town of Norway,
in the province of Chriftianfand; near which is a cafcade or
witatiill which king Harold Gille, in 1134, firit ufed
for the execution of criminals, by throwing a vaflal of king
Magnus down this dreadful cataract. Clole by the cafeade

5 ”

SAR

isan eminence, called “ Konigfhugel,” becaufe three kings,
who were father, fon, and grandfon, once itood upon it to
view this wonderful cataract ; it drives thirteen mills, and
its noife ts heard at the diftance of twenty miles from the
place; 10 miles W.S.W. of Frederickftadt.

SARPA, ariver of Ruffia, which runs into the Volga,
near Tzaritzin.

Sarpa, in Ichthyology, the name by which the falpa, a
very beautiful fifth of the Mediterranean, is knowa in the
Italian markets.

SARPEDON Promontorium, in Ancient Geography,
a promontory of Cilicia, near the river Calycadnus, ac-
cording to Strabo.—Alfo, a promontory of ‘Phrace, near

_ the river Erginus.—Alfo, the name of an ifland fituated
towards the Atlantic ocean, and which was inhabited by the
Gorgones, according to Suidas.

SARPI, in Biography. See Father Pau.

SARPICULA, among the Romans, a term ufed by
the old Roman writers to fignify a pruning-hook. :

SARPLAR of Wool, a quantity of wool, otherwife
called a pocket, or half fack ; a fack containing eighty tod,
a tod two ftone, anda ftone fourteen pounds. é :

In Scotland it is termed /arpliath, and contains eighty
itone.

SARPOLE, in Ichthyology, a name given to the fifh
called by authors falpa. ; ’

SARRA, in Geography, a town of Switzerland, in the
canton of Berne; 9 miles S.S.W. of Yverdun.—Alfo, a
town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 33 miles N. of Hajypour.
N. lat. 26° 13/. E. long. 85° 23/. t

SARRACENIA, in Botany, named by Tournefort, in
honour of his friend Dr. Sarrazin,.who colleéted nume-
rous plants in Canada, fpecimens of which we have {een
in the dried colleétions of the mufeum at Paris. While
they lay there for ages unnoticed, the difcovery of the
fame plants has been attributed to more recent travellers,
who indeed could know nothing of Dr. Sarrazin’s acqui-
fitions.—Tourn. Init. 657. t. 476. Linn. Gen. 264.
Schreb. 351. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 1150. Mart. Mill.
Did. v. 4. Purfhy. 2. 367. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 291.
Jul. 435. Lamarck Iiuitr. t. 452.—Clafs and order,
Polyandria Monogynia.. Nat. Ord. Rhoeadee, Linn. ? Un-
certain, Jufl. f

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, double, deciduous ;
the outermoft of three {mall ovate leaves; inner of five
very large, nearly ovate, coloured ones. Cor. Petals five,
ovate, inflexed, concealing the [tamens, their claws ovate-
oblong, ftraight. Stam. Filaments numerous, {mall ; an-
thers fimple, oblong. Pi/?. Germen fuperior, roundifh ;
ftyle cylindrical, very fhort ; {tigma peltate, dilated, con-
vex, five-angled, covering the ftamens, permanent. Peric.
Capfule roundifh, of five cells-and five valves, with central
partitions. Seeds numerous, fmall, roundifh, pointed, in-
ferted into acentral pentagonal receptacle.

Eff. Ch. Petals five. Calyx double; the outer of three
leaves; inner of five. Capfule fuperior, of five cells.
Style with a fhield-like ftigma. Hf) .

No genus can be more natural or diftin&t, either in habit
or fruétification, than this. Linnaeus conceived that, being
allied in conftitution to Nymphaea, it might probably re-
quire an extraordinary fupply of water ; and that the leaves
were made hollow to receive, and retain, this fupply from
the atmofphere. Perhaps thefe refervoirs may be explained
in the fame manner as_thofe of Nerentues; fee that
article.

1. S. purpurea.

Purple Side-faddle-flower. Lion. Sp.

SAR

Pl. 728. Willd. n. 4. Ait. neq. Purfh nox. Curt.
Mag. t. 849. Mill. Ic. t. 241. (Bucanephyllon america-
num, limonio congener diétum; Pluk. Amalth. 46. t. 376.
f. 6. Limonio congener; Ger. Em. 412.)—Tube of the
leaves obovate, tumid, contraéted at the top; border
{preading, obtufe, fomewhat heart-fhaped. Native of North
America; in cedar {wamps, and marfhes amon bog-mofs,
from Canada to Carolina, flowering in June and Figs Purfo.
It appears to have been cultivated in our gardens before the

year 1640, but, like other bog-plants, is but of uncertain”

duration in fuch fituations. The root is fibrous and peren-
nial. Stem none. Leaves feveral, radical, ttalked, afcending,

about four inches or more in length, of a moft fingular tu--

bular {welling form, coriaceous, veiny, externally {mooth,
furnifhed on the upper fide with an irregular longitudinal di-
lated appendage, and terminating in a wavy, fomewhat
heart-fhaped, {preading border, catching the rain like a fun-
nel, and clothed on its upper fide with numerous reverfed
hairs. Flower-falks one or more, radical, fimple, cylindrical,
naked, {mooth, taller than the leaves, each bearing one
large, drooping, inodorous flower, whofe calyx is of a dull
brownifh-purple ; the petals brownifh-red; the Mi
reen. ‘

: 2. S. flava. Yellow Side faddle-flower. Linn. Sp. Pl.
72g. Willd.n. i. Ait.n.1. Purfh n. 3. Curt. Mag.
t. 780. Andr. Repof. t. 381. (Bucanephyllon elatius
virginianum ; Pluk. Amalth. 46. t. 376. £. 5.)—Tube of
the leaves the length of the flower-italk, ftraight, gradually
dilated upwards ; border erect, heart-fhaped, fharp-pointed,
contra¢ted at the bafe.—In open fwamps, from Virginia to
Florida, flowering in June and July. Pur/b. Miller ap-
pears to have cultivated this {pecies, and it is ftill, from time
to time, introduced, but as frequently loft. The aves are
often two feet high, ereét, ftraight, and much lefs inflated
than the preceding, with hardly any longitudinal appendage,
or dilatation. /owers large, yellow with green veins,
drooping, their ftalks about as tall as the foliage.

3. S. adunca. Hook-leaved Side-iaddle-flower. Sm.
Exot. Bot. v. 1. 103.t. 53. Ait.n.2. (S. minor; Walt.
Carol. 153. Willd. n. 2. S. variolaris; Michaux Boreali-
Amer. v. 1. 310. Purfh n. 2.)—Tube of the leaves
{potted, {welling upwards, the length of the flower-ftalk ;
border roundifh, inflexed.—In open fwamps, on a fandy
foil, from North Carolina to Florida, flowering in June and
July. Purfh. With us it fucceeds beft in a ftove, with
abundance of water, as cultivated for many fucceflive years
at Meflrs. Lee and Kennedy’s, Hammerfmith. The {pecies
before us much refembles fava in its fowers, and the height
of its /eaves ; but the tube of the latter is more inflated,
their border fingularly inflexed, as if to exclade rain, and
the outfide of the tube is marked with femipellucid fpots,
which, according to Mr. Purfh, conftitute an effential cha-
racter. The flowers are ufually rather fmaller and paler
than in the lait.

4.5. rubra. Red Side-faddle-flower. Walt. Carol. 152.
Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 3. (S. pfittacina; Michaux Bo-
reali-Amer. y. 1. 311. Purfhn. 4. Bucanephyllon elatius
virginianum; Pluk. Phyt. t. 152. f. 3?)—Tube of the
leaves fhorter than the flower-ftalk, {welling gradually up-
wards; border rounded, pointed, vaulted, recurved.—Na-
tive of the {wamps of Georgia and Florida, flowering in
June and July. Flowers on very long ftalks, purple.
Leaves {mall, very handfomely marked with purple veins ;
their longitudinal appendage dilated upwards into a fome-
what wedge-fhaped termination... Purfh. The late Mr. Fra-
fer is faid to have brought this {pecies to England in 1786;

burt

i i i a i

SAR

but we have not heard of its flowering, nor do we believe
that it furvives at prefent in any colle¢tion.

SARRACENIA, in Gardening, contains plants of the her-
baceous perennial kinds, of which the {pecies cultivated are,
the yellow fide-faddle flower (S. flava) ; and the purple fide-
faddle flower (S. purpurea). Thefe plants are ufually
brought from North America.

Method of Culture—As thefe plants grow naturally in
foft boggy fituations, they are raifed with difficulty here in
gardens. The beft mode is to procure them from the places
of their natural growth, and to haye-them taken up with
large balls of earth to their roots, and planted in tubs of
earth ; they fhould be conftantly watered during their paf-
fage, otherwife they decay before they arrive: as there is
little probability of raifing thefe plants from feeds, fo as to
produce flowers in many years, if the feeds fhould even grow,
young plants fhould be taken up for this purpofe, as they
are more likely to ftand than thofe which have flowered two
or three times. When the plants are brought over, they
fhould be planted into pretty large pots, which fhould be
filled with foft fpongy earth, mixed with rotten wood, mofs,
and turf, which is very like the natural foil in which they

ow. Thefe pots fhould be put into tubs, or large pans
which will hold water, with which they mutt be conftantly
fupplied, and placed in a fhady fituation in fummer ; but in
winter be covered with mofs, or fheltered under a frame,
otherwife they will not live in this climate ; having free air
admitted in mild open weather.

Plants of this kind procured from North America are
commonly kept in moft of the principal nurfery grounds
about London.

SARRANA, in Ancient Geography, a town in the
fouthern part of Afia, and near the mountains N. of Mefo-
potamia, feparated by the mountains from Edefla. Ptolemy.

SaRRANA, a fpecies of flute, of which the tones were
acute and fhrill, refembling thofe of a flute. Some imagine
that Sarrana implied Tyrian.

SARRAN-COLIN, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Upper Pyrenées; 6 miles S. of La
Barth de Neftes.

SARRANDAGA,a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat ;
30 miles W. of Patlun.

SARRANGPOUR, atown of Hindooltan, in Bahar ;

3 miles N.W. of Hajypour.

SARRASIN, or Sarrazin, in Fortification, a kind of
portcullis, otherwife called a herfe, which is hung with
ropes over the gates of a town or fortrefs, and let fall in
cafe of a furprize.

SARRE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Lower Pyrenées; 9 miles E. of St. Jean
de Luz.

Sarne, or Saar, a river of France, which runs into the
Mofelle near Treves.—Alfo, a river of England, in the
county of Kent, which runs from Reculver to the Stour,
forming the W. boundary of the ifland of Thanet.

Sanne, or Saar, one of the thirteen departments of the
see of France, called the Reunited country, compofed
of a portion of the electorate of Treves and of Hund{ruck,
in N. lat. 49° 40/, bounded on the N. by the department of
the Rhine aoe the Mofelle ; containing 6. are og
or 244 {quare leagues, and 219,049 sahiitante. It is
divi into 4 pee or diftriéte, 34 cantons, and 1082
communes. The four circles are Treves, containin
66,196 inhabitants, Sarrebruck, 57,178, Prum, 31,578, Fy
Birkenfeld, 63,802 inhabitants. According to Fisienfrate,
its extent is 39 French leaguesin lenyth and 14 in breadth ;
its circles are 3, cantons 31, and population 440,000. Its

Vou. XXXI.

SAR

chief city is Treves. Its contributions in the r1th year of
the French era amounted to 1,718,283 fr. ; and its expences,
adminiftrative, judiciary, and for public inttru€tion, were
249,333 fr. 33 cents. This department, though hilly and
wooded, produces a fufficient quantity of grain for the
fupply of its inhabitants, but the improvement of the foil is
much negleéted. Here are mines of copper, lead, iron,
coal, and calamine, with mineral {prings.

SARREAL, a town of Spain, in Catalonia, on the river
Francoli ; rr miles S. of Cervera.

SARREBOURG, Saarsure, or Sarburg, a town of
France, and principal place of a diftri&, in the department
of the Meurthe ; 33 miles E. of Nancy. The place con-
tains 1454, and the canton 11,212 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 1874 kiliometres, in 23 communes. N. lat. 48°
44'. KE. long. 7° 8!.

SARREBOURG, or Sarburg, a town of France, in the
department of the Sarre, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri& of Treves ; 8 miles S. of Treves. The place
contains 1276, and the canton $216 inhabitants, in 43 com-
munes. N. lat. 49°48! E.long. 6° 9).

SARREBRUCK, a town of France, and principal
place of a diftri&, in the department of the Sarre. The place
contains 2714, and the canton 4925 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory comprehending four communes.

SARREGUEMINES, a town of France, and princi-
pal place of a diftriét, in the department of the Mofelle, near
the river Sarre. The place contains 2530, and the canton
10,932 inhabitants, on a territory of 135 kiliometres, in 22
communes. N. lat. 49°8'. E. long. 24° 47!.

SARRE-LIBRE, a town of France, in the department
of the Mofelle, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri&
of Thionville. ‘The place contains 4031, and the canton
15,772 inhabitants, on a territory of 130 kiliometres, in 27
communes.

SARRI, a town of the ifland of Corfica; 11 miles N.
of Ajazzo.

SARRIA, a town of Spain, in Galicia; 12 miles S.S.E.
of Lugo.

SARRIANS, a town of France, in the department of
the Vauclufe; 12 miles N.N.E. of Avignon.

SARRITION, Sarnirio, in Roman authors, the term
ufed to exprefs what we call hoeing in hufbandry, or fome-
thing analogous to it; that is, a way of fuirring up the earth
about young plants, and deftroying the weeds that would
grow among them. When the plants had been fome time
come up, they ftirred the land with wooden rakes or har-
rows, and then went over the fields, and pulled up the weeds
by hand.

They ufed two kinds of farrition; the one was intended
only to move the ground, and was done lengthways of the
furrows; the other was to cover up the young plants, that
they might grow the more ftrong and vigorous; and was
performed by ttirring up the earth crofs-ways of the furrows.

It is an error in the tranflators of the ancients, to render
the word /arritio by hoeing, without giving any farther ex-
plication of it; for the ancients truly hoed their vineyards
in an exaét fenfe of the word, but not their corn; neither
did they plant their corn in rows, without which they could
not give it their vineyard hoeing. This farculation was ufed
only among {mall quantities of fown corn, and is yet in ufe
for flax; for the farculum, which is a fort of very narrow
hoe, is fill ufed among the plants of flax growing irregu-
larly, but this is too tedious and expenfive ever to have place
in whole fields of corn.

If the ancients hoed their crops of corn ftanding irregu-
larly, as fown at random, they muft have made very bad

3° work

SAR

work of it, fince they were at no pains to fow in rows, and
hoe between them with their bidens, which was an in{tru-
ment with which they tilled many of their vineyards, and
which entered the ground as deep as the plough, and was a
much better inftrument than the Englifh hoe, which is very
ill calculated for the office its principal bufinefs lies in, which
is ftirring the ground. Tull’s Horfehoeing Hufbandry.

SARRO, Domenico, in Biography, vice-malter of the
chapel royal at Naples, who flourifhed from the year 1725
to 1734. This mafter was much elteemed, both for his
ecclefiaftical and fecular productions. Among the many
operas he compofed for the different theatres of Italy, the
two mott in favour were, “* Tito Sempronio Gracco,’’ for
Naples, 1725; and Metaftafio’s “* Didone Abbandonata,”
for Turin, 1727. He was one of the early reformers, who,
like Vinci, fimplified harmony, and polifhed melody, in his
produétions for the ftage. He left many excellent compofi-
tions for the church behind him, fome of which are ftill ufed
in the confervatorios.

SARROLA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Foola-
doo. N. lat. 13° 55’. W. long. 8° 55).

SARROWLY, a town of Hindoottan, in Baglana;
20 miles S. of Damaun.

SARS, a river of Mexico, which runs into the bay of
Honduras, N. lat. 15° 45’... W. long. 87° 5/.

SARSA, a town of Spain, in Arragon; 14 miles S. of
Jaca.

SARSANA, or Zarzana, a town and fortrefs of
Genoa, on the river Magra, near which is a fort in the moun-
tains, called «* Sarzanello:’’ it is a bifhop’s fee, held im-
mediately of the pope. For this town, Cofmo I., duke of
Tufcany, received Leghorn in exchange; 45 miles E.S.E.
of Genoa. N. lat. 44°8!. E. long. 9° 54’.

SARSAPARILLA, in Botany, fomewhat altered from
the Peruvian name zarza-parilla. See SMILAX.

SARSAPARILLA, SALSAPARILLA, or Sarfa, in the
Materia Medica, a medicinal plant, being the root of a
{pecies of rough bindweed, or /milax, (which fee,) growing
in New Spain, Peru, &c. chiefly ufed in decoétions and
potions for the venereal difeafe; being efteemed a great ab-
forbent and fweetener; and, with that view, fometimes
taken as a tea.

Bauhin derives the name from zar/a, the Spanifh term
for red, and parilla, a little vine ; or, according to others,
the name is formed of zarza, a brier or bufh, and parilla,
and denotes a ‘ bufhy little vine.”

Its root, which is the part in ufe, divides itfelf into a
great number of filaments, three or four feet long; of the
thicknefs of a quill; it is brownifh withoutfide and white
within, only marked with two red ftreaks. Its branches
creep on the earth, along the trunks of trees, &c. as the
ivy does, The dried root is imported from the Spanith
Welt Indies, packed in bales.

To be good, it mult be very dry, its filaments long, eafy
to cleave ; and, in cleaving, they muft not yield any dutt:
when boiled in water, it muft give it a reddifh tinture.
Some phyficians much doubt the medicinal yirtue of this
root ; as it does not difcover much, either in tafte, fmell, or
tinGure.

This root is inodorous, and has a mucilaginous, very
flightly bitter tafte. It communicates to boiling water,
and partially to alcohol and ether, any aétive matter it pof-
fefles. The watery infufion has a brown colour, reddens
litmus paper, and yields a precipitate with infufion of galls,
which is again diflolved when the infufion is heated. It is
precipitated alfo by limne-water, and folution of nitrate of
mercury, and fuperacetate of lead, but is not affeéted’ by

SAR

fulphate of iron, or any other of the metallic oxyds. The
alcoholic tin€ture has a yellowifh-red hue, is rendered turbid
by the addition of water, and yields an extra& flightly bit-
ter, and pungent. Ether takes up two parts in ten of the
powdered root ; and the tinéture, which has a golden yel-
low colour, when evaporated on water, leaves a {mall portion
of reddith-yellow infipid refin, and a larger of yellowifh ex-
traétive diflolved in the water.

Sarfaparilla, which is demulcent, and faid to be diuretic,
was firft brought into Europe by the Spaniards, about
the year 1530, with the character of a fpecific for the
cure of the lues venerea, which made its appearance a
little before that time. The method of preparing it by
the Spaniards and Indians of South America is as fellowes
they macerate an ounce of the root in almoft four pints of
water for twenty-four hours, and boil it away to one-half.
They give of the expreffed decoétion half a pint twice a day,
four hours before their meals, in bed, covered with clothes,
where they {weat two hours, mixing a fufficient quantity of
the fine powder of the root with each dofe of the decoétion.
They purge them every tenth day. The reputation of
this medicine declined, after its introduétion into Europe ;
though it appears from experience, that, in many cafes,
{trong deco€tions of it, drank plentifully, and duly con-
tinued, are of very confiderable iervice for promoting per-
{piration, and fweetening or purifying the blood and hu-
mours. Dr. William Hunter and fir W. Fordyce revived
its reputation. In the London Medical Obfervations, vol. i.
art. 16. there are feveral inftances of its efficacy in venereal
maladies, as an afliftant to mercury, or when mercury had
preceded its ufe. It frequently and fpeedily anfwered after
mercurial unétions, and long continued courfes of {trong
decoétions of guaiacum, had failed. Three ounces of the
root are boiled in three quarts of river water, till the liquor,
when ftrained, amounts to about one quart, which is taken
at three or four dofes, either warm or cold, every twenty-
four hours. Dr. Harris fays, that infants who have received
the infeétion from the nurfe, though full of puftules and
ulcers, and fometimes troubled with nocturnal pains, are
cured by farfaparilla without mercurials. He direéts the
powder of the root to be mixed with their food. See Luxs
VENEREA. i

Sarfaparilla is alfo recommended in fcrofula, elephantiafis,
or cutaneous affections refembling it, and chronic rheuma-
tifm ; but its efficacy is doubtful. The dofe of the pow-
dered root is from 9j to 3j, given three or four times a
day. Its officinal preparations are * decoétum farfaparille,”
L.E.D.; “ deco¢tum farfaparille compofitum,” D.; and
“ extractum farfaparille,’? E. The decoétion of farfaparilla
is prepared, according to the Lond. Ph., by macerating four
ounces of the root fliced in four pints of boiling water for
four hours, in a veflel lightly covered and placed near the
fire: then taking out the Tanfapabilag and bruifing it. Re-
turn it again to the liquor and macerate in a fimilar manner
for two hours more; then boil it down to two-pints and
itrain. The Ed. Ph. direéts fix ounces of farfaparilla fliced
to be digefted in eight pounds of water for two hours, in a
temperature of about 195°, then to take out the root and
bruife it, and to put it again in this ftate into the liquor,
and boil it with a‘gentle fire down to four pounds; then
exprefs it and {lrain. The Dub. Ph. orders one ounce and
a half of the root fliced to be digefted in two pints of boil-
ing water for two hours in a indtlendee heat; then take out
the farfaparilla, and bruife it; return it to the liquor and
again digeft it for two hours; then boil down to one-half,
exprefs, and {train the liquor through a linen cloth. This
decoétion, fays Thomfon, may be regarded as little _

t

:
{

SAR

than a folution of mucus, and a fimple demulcent, which
may be ufeful during the exhibition of mercury; and is
found to be fo in dyfuria, and incontinence of urine arifing
from a morbid irritability of the bladder. It affords pre-
cipitates with lime-water, folution of muriate of barytes,
and of fuperacetate of lead, which are therefore incompa-
tible with it in formule.

The compound decoétion ofthe Lond. Ph. is obtained
by boiling four pints of decoétion of farfaparilla, faflafras
root fliced, guaiacum root rafped, and liquorice root bruifed,
of each an ounce, and three drachms of the bark of meze-
reon root, for a quarter of an hour, and itraining. The
Dub. Ph. dire&s to take of farfaparilla root fliced and
bruifed, one ounce and a half, rafpings of guaiacum wood,
bark of faffafras root, and liquorice root bruifed, of each
two drachms, bark of mezereon root, a drachm, and of
boiling water, three pints: to digeft the farfaparilla, the

jacum, and the faflafras, in the water, with a moderate
a for fix hours; then boil down to one-half, adding to-
wards the end of the co¢tion the liquorice and the mezerecn ;
and finally, ftrain. This decoétion is an imitation of the
once celebrated * Lifbon diet-drink.”? It operates as a
diaphoretic and alterative, and is found to be ufeful in the
treatment of fecondary fyphilis, chronic rheumatifm, and
in lepra, and fome other cutaneous affeGtions. The dofe is
from fZiv to f3vi, taken three or four times a day.

The extra& of farfaparilla is obtained, according to the
Lond. Ph. by macerating a pound of farfaparilla root fliced,
in a gallon of boiling water, for twenty-four hours; then
boiling down to four pints, {training the folution while it is
hot, and evaporating it to a proper confiitence. The de-
coétion of the reot is in every refpe& preferable to this,
but neither poileffes much efficacy. The dofe is from

- ix to 3j diffolved in the decoétion, and given in the
o- of pills.

There is another kind of farfa, the filaments. of whofe
roots are thicker, growing in the ifland of Marignan, on the
coaft of Brafil: this is not efteemed fo good as the former.

There is a third kind brought from Mufcovy, whofe
roots are ftill bigger, but good for nothing.

SARSAR, in Geography, a town of the Arabian Trak,
on the Nahr cl Malek; 10 miles S.E. of Bagdad.

SARSER, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Au-
run 3 65 miles N. of Aurungabad.

ARSINA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in
Umbria, in the interior of the country, upon the left fide
of the river Sapis. Silius Italicus {peaks of it :

« —___. Hic Sarcina dives laétis,”’

Sanrsiwa, or Zarfina, in Geography, a town of Italy,
in the department of the Rubicon, the fee of a bifhop, fuf-
of Ravenna; it has no church but the cathedral ; 11

iles W.S.W. of Rimini.

SARSKAR, a {mall ifland on the E. fide of the gulf
of Bothnia. N. lat. 62° 19/. E. long. 21° 3’.

SARSTADT, or Saxstrepz, a town of Weltphalia,
in the bifhopric of Hildefheim ; 4 miles N.W. of Peina.

SARSURA, in Ancient Geography, Sufi a town of
Africa Propria, of which Cxfar took pofleflion ; fituated
6 miles W. of Turris Annibalis.

SART, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
Natolia, anciently called Sardis, which fee: inhabited at
prefent by fome Turks and afew Greeks; zo miles E.N.E.
of Smyrna. é '

SARTA, one of the fmaller Shetland iflands. N. lat.
60” 37’. W. long. 2° 4/.

Santa, in Ancient Geography, a town fituated on the

‘graceful compofer, born at Faenza in 1730.

SA R

Bre gulf; between Tingos and the promontory Am-
pelos.

SARTAM, in Geography. See Sexram.

SARTE, or SarruHe, a river of France, which rifles
near Sees, in the department of the Orne, and near Angers
is joined by the Mayenne; 4 miles below which the united
itreams join the Loire. It is navigable from Le Mans.

SartTE, or Sarthe, one of the nine departments of the
N.W. region of France, compofed of Upper Maine and
Anjou, in N. lat. 48° ro!, bounded on the N. by the de-
partment of the Orne; on the E. by the departments of the
Eure, and Loire and Cher, and Cher; on the S. by the
Indre and Loire, and Mayxse and Loire; and on the W.
by the department of the Mayenne. Its form is nearly
circular, containing 64674 kiliometres, or 321 fquare
leagues, and 387,166 inhabitants. It is divided into
4 circles, 33 cantons, and 413 communes. According to
Haffenfratz, the extent is 25 French leagues in length, and
20 in breadth, and comprehends 9g circles, 33 cantons, and
347,817 inhabitants. Its chief town is Le Mans. The
contributions in the r1th year of the French era amounted to
3,986,579 fr. and its expences, adminiftrative, judiciary, and
for public initruétion, to 292,814 fr. The foil is various, and
tolerably fertile ; but a confiderable proportion of it is un-
cultivated. The produéts, according to the quality and
melioration of the foil, are wheat, rye, barley, wine, fruits,
with abundance of paiture.

SARTENE, a town of Corfica, and principal place of
a diftri@ ; the canton of which contains 4924 inhabitants.

SARTI, Gruserrr, in Biography, a iweet, tender, and
In 1756 he
went to Copenhagen as maeftro di cappella to the young
king of Denmark, for whofe theatre he compofed an opera,
which had no great fuccefs. In his way back to Italy he
came through England, and publifhed fix fonatas for the
harpfichord. In 1769 he went to Venice, where he was
appointed matter of the confervatorio of La Pieta, and
compofed an opera, which was in fuch favour, that it was
faid to be celettial mufic of the other world, “ mufica
dell’ altro mondo.’”’ He next compofed for Milan four
operas, in which Marchefi fung, and which had all very
uncommon fuccefs. In 1782 he was appointed maettro di
cappella to the Duomo in that city. His opera of « Giulio
Sabino”? was fung at the fame time by Marchefi at Milan,
and by Pacchieretta at Venice. In 1784 it was brought on
the {tage at Vienna, after it had been performed at all the
principal theatres of Italy during two years. His harmony
was {weet and fimple, and his melody truly vocal.

At the end of 1784 he again fteered northward, having
been engaged in the fervice of the emprefs of Ruffia for
three years. In 1785 he eftablifhed a concert fpirituel at
Peter{burg, for which he compofed, in the choral ftyle, a
pfalm in the Ruffian language, which was performed by 66
voices and 100 inftruments, among which there were wind
inftruments of every kind. In 1788 he compofed a Te
Deum for the viétory over the Turks at Ockzakow. He
was appointed dire¢tor, the fame year, of a confervatorio,
for the eftablifhment of which the emprefs expended 3500
rubles, and allowed 1500 in annual falaries and other inci-
dental expences; and in order to engage Sarti to remain
in Ruffia, her imperial majetty oe him an eflate, with
woods and feats upon it of confiderable value. And he
{pent the chief part of his remaining days in cultivating his
lands morethan mufic. His opera of « Armida,’’ in 1786,
had pleafed the emprefs fo atu, that fhe gave him a golden
vafe or bowl, and a ring of great valuc. In 1790, at 60
years of age, he died in his way back to his own country

o's for

SAR

for the recovery of his health, which had been much im-
paired by the feverity of the climate.

We fhall give a lift of his principal works for the ufe of
curious colleGtors, as they are well worth feeking, being
compofed in fo elegant, natural, and pleafing a ftyle, as is
not likely to be foon out of fafhion.

For the church, 1. A miferere, accompanied only by a
tenor and violoncello in folo parts, aad ripieno violini in the
chorufes. 2. A motet, confitebor tibi, 26. Soprano and
contralto in the folo verfes. 3. A gloria, in nine parts, for
the Ruffian or Greek church.

For the theatre, twenty-fix operas.
in Gerber, t. ii. p. 390.

Chamber mufic printed. Symphonies in nine parts at
Leipfig, 1758. Three fonatas for the harpfichord, with a
flute accompaniment, Am{terdam. ‘Three fonatas, in Lon-
don, 1769. Giulio Sabino charaéteriftica, Vienna, 1787.

SARTIGAN, in Geography, a town of Lower Canada,
on the Chaudiere. N. lat. 46° 12'. W. long. 70° 30!.

SARTILLE, a town of New Mexico, containing a
large population of Spaniards and Indians. The churches
and fquares are tolerably handfome ; the ftreets broad and
clean, and lined on each fide with houfes of ftone. Never-
thelefs the houfes, and particularly thofe of the Indians, are
conftruéted without regard to convenience in the diftribu-
tion of their apartments. This town contains a confider-
able number of merchants, and is the chief mart for various
produdtions procured from the favages, and which are re-
tailed in the vicinity. It is alfo a repofitory for all the dif-
ferent articles of apparel, as well as the luxuries of life,
which the favages take in exchange for their horfes’ {kins
and dried provifions. De Pages Travels, vol. i.

SARTILLY, a town of France, in the department of
the Channel, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of
Avranches ; 4 miles N.W. of Avranches. The place con-
tains 952, and the canton 9831 inhabitants, on a territory
of 1624 kiliometres, in 14 communes.

SARTINE Istanps, J/les Sartine, a clutter of iflands
in the North Pacific ocean, fo named by Peroufe. Pro-
bably, he fays, there might be found a paflage between
them; but it would be imprudent to attempt it without
much precaution. Thefe are the iflands of Beresford of
captain Dixon, who lays them down in N. lat. 50° 52!, and
132° 3' W. long. from the meridian of Paris.

SARTO, Anprea vEL, in Biography, the cognomen
of a painter of very confiderable celebrity, whofe real name
was Andrea Vanucchi. He was a native of Florence, the
fon of a taylor, from whence he obtained the name of del
Sarto. He was born in 1488, and having exhibited at an
early age a propenfity for drawing, he was placed with a
goldfmith to learn the art of engraving on plate. Here he
was noticed by a painter called Giovanni Barile, an artift
but little known, with whom he: ftudied for three years,
and then entered the {chool of Pietro Cofimo. His greatett
acquirements, however, were obtained by {ftudying the
works of Maflaccio and Il Ghirlandaio ; and afterwards the
cartoons of Michael Angelo and Lionardo da Vinci; upon
the {tyle of the latter of whom he ultimately built his own.
But his progrefs was not marked by any degree of extra-
ordinary brilliancy or rapidity ; being rather the effect of
fobriety of judgment, and continued praétice, than of that
intuitive and active principle by which his great teachers were
urged forwards in their career.

On leaving the {chool of Cofimo, he formed an intimacy
with Francefco Bigio; and as there exifted a great degree
of fimilarity in their tempers and minds, they agreed to
dwell together. They painted many works in conjunGtion,

See their names

SAR

in the churches and. convents at Florence, and obtained
confiderable reputation. The defigns he made for the
feries of pi€tures he was engaged to paint in the church of
the Scalzi, or bare-footed Carmelites at Florence, are pre-
ferved in the Palazzo Rinuccini. The fubjets are taken
from the life of St. John the Baptift. In thefe thé gradual
progrefs he made in his art is extremely bide iuies and
prepared him for the fuccefsful profecution of his next
labour, the life of St. Filippo Benizi, in ten pi€tures, for
the church of the Servi. There his cultivated tafte exhibited
itfelf in a more vigorous ftretch of imagination ; and thofe
pictures are confidered as among his moft excellent pro-
dutions.

Although thus occupied, and in high renown at Florence,
yet the reputation then acquired by Raphael excited him to
vifit Rome, where, on his arrival, Vafari fays, ‘ that on
feeing thofe works which had been the obje& of his journey,
defpair of ever being able to rival them affeéted his timid
difpofition fo much, that he made hatte to leave the city,
and returned to Florence.”? This ftory, however, appears
{carcely credible in its full extent, fince in many of kis
works he evidently appears to have imitated the ftyle of
Raphael, which he hardly could fo well have done, if he
had not taken fome time to ftudy his works and principles.
After his return from Rome he finifhed three pi€tures for
the monattery of the Servi; the fubjeéts of which were, the
Birth of the Virgin, the Defcent of the Holy Ghoft, and
the Laft Supper. Of the beauty of the latter work, Sanzi
relates this remarkable occurrence: ‘ that at the fiege of
Florence in 1529, fome foldiers who attacked the fuburb
in which the convent was fituated, and had deftroyed the
church and part of the monaftery, on coming to the refec-
tory, where this picture was placed, they were fo ftruck
with its perfection, that they defiited from their work of
ruin:’? as ina fubfequent period, other mercenaries paid
inftinétive refpe& to the power of art, in preferving the
works of Parmeggiano at Rome; and as Demetrius Polior-
cetes had done at Rhodes, to the labours of Protogenes.

Of Andrea’s power in imitating the work of another, and
no lefs fkilful a hand than that of Raphael, Vafari mentions
a very remarkable inftance. Raphael had painted, for the
cardinal Julio de Medici, the portrait of Leo X. between
thofe of that prelate and cardinal Roffi, in which the
drapery and back-ground were painted by Julio Romano.
Frederick, fecond duke of Mantua, pafling through Flo-
rence to Rome, requefted Clement VII. to make him a
prefent of it; when the pope ordered it to be fent to him.
Unwilling to deprive Florence of fo great a work of art as
that picture, Ottavia de Medici employed A. del Sarto to
make a copy of it, which was fent to the duke of Mantua
at the time when Julio Romano was in his fervice ; and fuch
was the fpirit and exaétnefs of the copy, that even Julio
himfelf never fufpeéted the deception, till he was informed
of it by Vafari, who fhewed him del Sarto’s private mark,

The fame of Andrea reached the ears of Francis I. of
France, who, defirous of embellifhing his country by the
works of ingenious artifts, commiflioned him to paint him
a picture; and he fent that monarch a dead Chriit, with
the Virgin, and John, Mary Magdalen, and other figures,
which is now in the gallery of the Louvre. In confequence
he was invited by the king to the court of France, and be-
ing then in penurious circumftances, owing to the troubled
{tate of the country, he gladly accepted fo flattering: a tetti-
monial of his merits. He was received there with great
refpe& and diltin@ion. The king was pleafed with him as
a man and an artift; loaded him with attentions; and for a
portrait of the dawphin paid him three hundred —

gold.

———

a

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ase He painted a piture of Charity, now in the Louvre,
or his majefty, and a great number of works for the nobles
about the court: fo that he wanted nothing conducive to
happinefs, as far as efteem, affluence, and honours, could
gratify him. In the midft of this profperity, while he was
painting a portrait of the queen-mother, and before he had
completed it, he received, unfortunately for him, letters
from his wife prefling him to return to Florence. To in-
dulge her withes, he obtained the king’s leave to go, pro-
mifing to return in a few months with his family, and fettle
in France. The monarch confided in his integrity; and
not only made him feveral prefents with royal liberality,
but alfo entrufted him with a large fum of money, to pur-
chafe itatues, pi€tures, &c. worthy of a royal colleétion.
Unhappily, on Andrea’s return home he forgot his engage-
ments, broke through all ties of gratitude and honour, and
fhamefully fguandered both the gifts and truit of his gene-
rous patron with his improvident wife, and faithlefs friends.
Ic is almof needlefs to add that he never returned to
France. At laft he fell into. that poverty to which, by
his prodigality and ingratitude, he feemed juitly entitled,
and funk into wretched defpondency ; when, being deferted
by the woman who was principally inftrumental in bring-
ing him into this ftate of mifery, he fuffered a variety of
difficulties and diitreffes, and died of the plague; which
affli€ted his native city, in 1530, in the forty-fecond year
of his age.

The moft renowned picture of del Sarto is a compofi-
tion known by the name of the Madonna del Sacco, from
the cireumftance of St. Jofeph, who is near her, reclining
on a fack of grain. The fimplicity and beauty of this
work place him far above his ufual rank; and indeed it
might well pafs for a production of Raphael. In general,
his groups have more of common nature, and his expre{-
fions border on infipidity. The quality moft efteemable in
his produétions, and which is extraordinary, confidering
that he was a Tufcan, is the clear and evanefcent tones of
his colouring, which are as pure and harmonious, if not fo
luminous, as thofe of Correggio. The fame, however,
which he acquired by a few pictures, has given a value to
all thofe which proceeded from his hand, to which many of
them are by no means entitled: and he certainly is not one
of thofe unfortunate fons of genius, who have enjoyed lefs
than their due portions of praife. His compofitions are
agreeable ; his defign partakes of the ftyle of Michael An-
gelo, without his beldnefs, or breadth, and his execution
1s light and clear, though fometimes weak. His pidtures,
when they are brought to fale, bring high prices, and are
but rarely to be met with in this country.

SARTORIO, Antonio, a Venetian maeftro di cap-
pella of St. Marc’s cathedral. He was long in the fervice
of the court of Brunfwick, and regarded as an excellent
matter. His compofitions for that court are numerous, as
are thofe for the theatres of Italy, and for the chapel of
St. Marc. Between the years 1652 and 1681, he produced

ten 8, chiefly for Venice.

SA RTORIUS, in Anatomy, (le couturier, iléo-pretibien),
a mufcle of the thigh, fituated on the anterior, and then
on the inner furface of the limb; elongated, (being one of
the longeft mufcles in the body,) flattened, about two
fingers Sends in width, and extended from the os innomi-
natum to the tibia. Its anterior furface 1s covered by the
fafcia lata; the pofterior lics on the iliacus internus, the
re€tus, the eitiedl velitla, the triceps, the gracilis, and the
internal lateral ligament of the knee. The edges are un-
conneéted, and prefent nothing peculiar.

The fuperior extremity is fixed to the anterior and fupe-

SAR

rior {pine of the ilium, between the iliacus internus and
the tenfor vagine. Thence the mufcle defcends obliquely
inwards, crofling the front of the thigh at its upper part,
and running along the inner fide of the limb in its inferior
third part. It goes behind the internal condyle of the
femur and the knee-joint; then bends forwards to be at-
tached to the front of the tibia, below its tuberofity, and
in front of the gracilis and femitendinofus.

The -fartorius is tendinous at its extremities, and muf-

cular in the reft of its extent. The upper tendon is-very
fhort, the lower mufcle longer, and expanded into an apo-
neurofis, of which the edges are conneéted to the fafcia
ae furrounding the knee, and to the aponeurofis of the
eg.
The fartorius bends the leg on the thigh, and carries
it obliquely acrofs the oppofite limb, as in fitting crofs-
legged on a flat furface. When the knee is bent, it will
bend the thigh on the pelvis. If the knee be maintained
in extenfion, the fartorius will carry forwards, and at the
fame time rotate outwards, the whole lower extremity. It
will bend the pelvis on the thigh, and fupport it in equi-
librio in the ereét pofition of the body. F .

SARTOROE, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the North
fea, near the coaft of Norway. N. lat. 60° 17.

SARU, atown of Perfia, in the province of Irak ; 35
miles S.E. of Kom.

SARUA, a town of Perfia, in the province of Kerman ;
60 miles N. of Kermanfhir.

SARVAJAYA, in Mythology, a name of the Hindoo
goddefs Parvati, given to her in her martial charaGer of
Durga. The name means “ all-conquering.”? Jaya and
Vijaya, fee thofe articles, have fimilar derivations.

SARVAMANGALA, a name of the Hindoo goddefs
Parvati; which fee. The name is faid to mean ‘ all-pre-
ferving,” or ‘ all-foftering,’”” alluding to her prefiding over
the welfare of all nature: an appellation and charaéter that
we fhould rather have deemed applicable to Lakfhmi, the
confort of the confervative Vifhnu; but the funétions and
appellations of thefe goddefles are often found to coalefce, as
noticed under their refpeétive names, and under SARASWATI.

SARUAN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in Segeftan,
on the Heermund, oppofite to Dergafp.

SARVAR, a town and fortrefs of Hungary, at the con-
flux of the rivers Raab and Guntz; 48 miles S.S.E. of
Vienna. N. lat. 47° 30!. E. long. 17° 9!.

SARVITZ, a river of Hungary, which rifes about fix
miles N.N.E. of Stuhl Weiffenburg, and runs into the Da-
nube near Mohacs. ;

SARVITZA, a town and fortrefs of European Turkey,
in the province of Theflaly ; 30 miles N.E. of Larifla. N.
lat. 40° 3'. E. long. 21° 58!. :

SARUKS, the ancient Sarigo, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Khorafan or Chorafan, 38 furfungs from Methed,
and 24 from Mery; now inhabited by 6000 families of
Turkomans.

SARUM, or Saron, in Ancient Geography, a town of
European Sarmatia, and one of thofe which Ptolemy places
at the mouth of the Boryithenes. .

Sanum, Old, in Geography, a {pot in Wiltfhire, England,
one mile N. of Salifbury, was formerly a city of note, and
is flill invefted with the privilege of a borough town, by
fending two members to the parliament, but is now deprived
of houfes and inhabitants: yet though defolate, and with
fearcely a velltige of human habitation, it is peculiarly in-
terefting in its annals and affociations to the topographer and
to the antiquary. Once a proud, populous and flourifhing

city, adorned with a cathedral and other religious edifices,
6 and

SARUM.

and guarded by lofty bulwarks, towers, and a caftle: now
difplaying nothing of human art, but ditches and banks,
which are partly overgrown with wild brufh-wood, while
the more level land is appropriated to corn and grafs. The
foundation of Old Sarum is referred, by tradition and all
the early accounts extant, to the Britons at fome era prior
to the Roman invafion; and this opinion is confidered by
mott antiquaries to be itrongly corroborated by the circular
form of the fortifications, and their pofition on the fummit
of aneminence. Uhder this impreffion, fir Richard Hoare
confiders it to have been probably one of thofe fortrefles
which was wrefted from the Britons in the reign of the em-
peror Claudius, “when his general, Vefpafian, is faid to
have taken twenty Britifh towns, and to have fubdued two
powerful nations, one of which is fuppofed to be the Belge,
who inhabited the weftern counties of Hampfhire, Wilt-
fhire, and Somerfetfhire.”’? Whether this city was among
the number taken by Vefpafian, or was firlt founded by the
Romans, it is univerfally allowed to have been very early one
of the principal ftations of that people, and to have been de-
nominated Sorbiodunum, or Sorviodunum ; though whether
this appellation was originally applied by the Romans, or was
a mere modification of the Britifh name, is altogether uncer-
tain ; nor is its hiftory under the Romans better afcertained.
But that they continued to occupy it for a long time, and
probably to the lateft period of their refidence in Britain,
may fairly be inferred from the extent of its works, and
from the military roads communicating with it. Thefe
roads appear to have been fix in number, and communicated
with the following ftations, &c. One proceeded fouth-
welterly to Durnovaria, Dorcheiter ; a fecond, ealterly to
Venta-Belgarum, Winchetter ; a third north-eafterly to Vin-
donum, Silchetter; a fourth appears te have branched off
from the latter to Cunotie, near Marlborough ; a fifth fouth-
wefterly towards Ifcalia, Ilchefter; and a fixth to Aque
Solis, Bath. Some of thefe military ways, or roads, are
ftill feen in bold ridges in different parts of the neighbouring
downs. Soon after the Romans left this iland, Old Sarum
was occupied by the Saxons.

In the year 552, it was befieged and captured by Kenric,
the fecond king of Weflex-; and proved a moft important ac-
quifition to the Weft Saxons, as it put them in poffeffion of
a ftrong poft within the dominions of the enemy, in which
they could eftablifh magazines, and thereby become enabled
to extend their conquefts with greater rapidity. We ac-
cordingly find, that within a few years Kenric fubdued the
whole of Wiltfhire, and fome diftri€ts of the adjoining coun-
ties. From this period to the diffolution of the heptarchy,
but few notices occur of the hiltory of Old Sarum: it was
unquettionably throughout the whole time a royal cattle, and
was frequently occupied by the Weft Saxon monarchs.
Afterwards, it feems to have been ufually committed to
fome powerful nobleman ; but ftill continued the peculium
of the monarch himfelf. In the time of Alfred an outer
ditch was formed by his order; as appears evident by an
original document preferved in the Cottonian library ; and
which is thus rendered by fir Richard Hoare, in his * Ancient
Wilthhire.”” « I Alfred, king and monarch of the English,
have ordered Leofric of Wiltunfhire, not only to preferve the
ealtle of Sarum, but to make another ditch to be defended
by pallifadoes, and all who live about the faid caltle, as well
as my other fubjeéts, are immediately to apply to this
work.” King Edgar convoked a parliament or great coun-
cil at Sarum in the year 960, to confult about the belt mode
of defence for the northern counties again{t the depredations
of the Danes; and feveral laws for the better government
of the church, as well as the {tate, appear to have been

12

enaéted at the fame time. In 1003, Swein, king of Den-
mark, is faid to have pillaged and burnt the cattle of Old
Sarum: but the injury could not have been'very great ; for
foon afterwards we find that bifhop Herman eftablifhed his
epifcopal feat here. He alfo laid the foundation of a cathe-
dral church, but died fhortly after its commencement, and
left it to be completed by his fucceflor, Ofmund, who was
lord of Say in Normandy, earl of Dorfet in England, and
Jord chancellor. This prelate was lavifh of expence, both
in the execution of the building, and in the eftablifhment of
the clergy and fingers: by his care and affiduity in fele@ting
perfons properly qualified, and by his munificence in reward-
ing merit, his choir furpafled every other in the ifland. To
give greater dignity and permanency to the church, he granted
to the dean and chapter a charter, conveying to them for
ever many towns, with lands, churches, and oblations. This
charter is dated in 1091, was figned by thirty-feven prelates
and great dignitaries, and confirmed by the king, William
Rufus, as it was alfo at a fubfequent period by Henry II.
Ofmund was exemplary for his piety and morality in an a
peculiarly diffolute, and alfo for his literary induftry. He
compofed the celebrated form of church fervice, which was
received and adopted in moft choirs in England. During
his prelacy feveral events of great political importance ap-
pear to have taken place at Old Sarum; particularly, an
affembly of all the nobles, bifhops, and landholders in the
kingdom, fummoned thither by king William in 1086, to
{wear allegiance to him, and to introduce that remark-
able change in our conttitution, the formal and full efta-
blifhment of the feudal fyitem; whereby the king at once
placed the country in {trong defence againft foreign enemies,
and fecured the fidelity of his fubjeéts. Another great
council was held at Old Sarum by William Rufus in tog5
or 1096. On the death of Ofmund, which occurred in
1099, Roger was advanced to the fee by the favour of
king Henry I. who had raifed him from obfcurity to the
higheft offices in the ftate. With the bifhopric, the cattle
of the city was committed to his cuitody ; he environed the
whole with a new wall; axgmented the ftrength of the
fortifications ; and embellifhed the cathedral in the moft
coftly ftyle. The prelacy of Roger was marked by im-
portant national events; king Henry held his court here for
fome months in 1100, and again in 1106; and in 1116 he
affembled here all the nobles and barons of the realm, to
{wear allegiance and do homage to his fon William, as fuc-
ceflor to the throne. But William died long before the
throne was vacant ; and at the death of Henry, Matilda, his
only furviving child, became the rightful poffeffor of the
crown. But no fooner had Henry breathed his laft, than
his nephew Stephen determined to feat himfelf on the throne.
In this object he was principally favoured by the influence of
bifhop Roger, ‘whom Henry had left guardian of the
realm, and who fhamefully betrayed the truft he had fworn
to preferve. But Roger foon had caufe to repent of his
condu&t, from the cruel policy and bafe ingratitude of
Stephen; which fo ftrongly affected the bifhop’s mind that
he died of grief in 1139. After a vacancy of three years,
Joceline de Bailul was confecrated, and prefided over this
diocefe for forty-one years, when he retired to a convent and
aflumed the habit of a Cittercian monk. During the con-
tefts between Matilda and Stephen, Sarum appears to have
been alternately occupied by each party; and each, when
obliged to abandon it, razed the fortifications, that the poft
might be lefs tenable by their antagonitts. When Henry II.
therefore afcended the throne, he found the cattle in a dif-
mantled {tate. ‘The fee was not filled till the year 1189,
when Hubert Walter was confecrated ; but he being foon
advanced

_ =

a ae eee

SAR

advanced to that of Canterbury, the bifhopric of Sarum
devolved on Herbert Poore, in 1194. During his prefiding,
the contentions between the caftellans and the clergy, which
had rifen to a great height in the prelacy of Joceline, be-
came more violent and ferious ; which, joined to the other
difficulties attendant on the fituation of Old Sarum, deter-
mined the bifhop and canons to have the fee tranflated to a
place of greater freedom and convenience. Leave was ob-
tained from king Richard to build a new church in the
valley at fome diftance from the caftle ; but the defign was
relinquifhed by the bifhop, -from the idea that the expence
would far exceed his abilities. He died in 1217; and was
fucceeded by his brother, Richard Poore, when the proje&
of tranflating the church was refumed; and the dean and
chapter fent f{pecial meflengers to Rome to urge the neceflity
of it. Pope Honorius inftituted an. enquiry into the
grievances complained of, and granted a bull for the defired
removal. On the receipt of this indulgence, a general con-
vocation of the bishop and -canons-was held; and it was
folemnly determined that a new church fhould be built on
the fcite of the prefent cathedral at Salifbury. (See Sa-
LispuRY.) This refolution was foon carried into effet ;
and from that time may be dated the ruin of Old Sarum.
For the people foon deferted their ancient habitations,‘ and
built others in the immediate vicinity of the new cathedral.
Hence no hiftorical event of importance relative to this place
occurs fubfequent to that period.

The prefent appearance of Old Sarum is wild and dreary ;
the natural feature is a gentle eminence, rifing from a valley
on the weft, and conneéted with a ridge which extends to
the eaft. This pofition is artificially raifed at the centre,
where. the keep or citadel was placed, and which was
guarded by a deep fofle on the outfide, and a lofty rampart
or vallum within. The inclofed area i3 about 500 feet in
diameter, On its eaft fide was’ the principal entrance ;
where it is fuppofed there were ba{tion towers, a bridge
acrofs the fofle, and other defenfive works. -A large area,
or outer ballium, furrounded the citadel, which was again
circumvallated with a bank and ditch. Thefe inclofed the
chief part of the city, meafuring, according to fir Richard
Hoare, feven furlongs twenty-fix yards in circumference,
and comprifing an area of twenty-feven acres and a half.
On the outer fide were the fuburbs on-the fouth-eaft and
weit parts ; chiefly on the latter. The valla of each of the
great ditches are nearly of equal height ; the former being
one hundred and fix feet, and the latter one hundred feet.
Both are exceedingly fteep on the {carp fide, particularly the
inner rampart ; snd both were furmounted by mallive walls,
fome foundations of which are {till vifible, and thew them to
have been at lealt twelve feet in thicknefs. A large mafs of
one of thefe walls, apparently of Roman workmanship,
crowns the outer vallum on the north fide. The {pace
between the two works is interfeéted at three places
by a ditch and vallum, connecting the two circular
banks, and intended for the defence of the remaining
portions of the city, fhould an enemy have fucceeded
in obtaining poffeflion of one part of it. The two en-
trances to this fort, mentioned by Leland, are of very
curious conftruction, each pafling the fides of a remarkable
mount, refembling a rude horn-work, which has a deep ditch
and high bank, peculiar to itfelf. The principal one faces
the eait ; and the other, called the poftern-gate, faces the
welt, Near the latter, a {pot is {till pointed out where the
aticient cathedral ftuod ; but uo diferiminating veltiges are
now extant. On the north fide of the large vallum, and
immediately at its junétion with the tranfverfe vallum, is a
fubterraneous paflage, which was difcovered in the year

SAR

17953 and, on being explored, was found to extend, in a
floping direCtion, from the inner area to the outer ditch.
The mouth, or entrance, is about four feet in width ; thence
a covered way of about feven feet broad, and from eight to
ten feet high, defcends in an angle nearly parallel to the
glacis of the fide of the hill, to the depth of an hundred and
fourteen feet. The defcent was by means of fteps exca-
vated in the chalk rock, and is faid to have been not much
worn, which feems to indicate the fecrecy of the paflage.
Nearly on the oppofite fide of the area is a fimilar finking of
the ground, which may be confidered as denoting the exift-
ence of a fimilar cavity. Within the keep a hollow in the
ground may itill be obferved, which, according to tradition,
is the fpot where a well was funk to a great depth; but it
is now nearly filled up. Four other wells are mentioned as
having been fituated in the city portion of the works, though
none can now be difcovered. ,

The borough of Old Sarum has long been a fubje& of
popular notoriety. Ever fince the thirty-fourth year of
Edward III. this place has continued to fend two members
to parliament ; and it was reprefented in the twenty-third
year of Edward I. Whether this privilege, as now exercifed,
is derived from charter, or is a prefcriptive right, does not
appear from any publifhed work: but at prefent the pro-
perty of the borough is wholly vefted in the earl of Caledon,
who purchafed it of the late lord Camelford. The burgage
pieces or plots of ground are traditionally faid to be the
{cites of the laft houfes which remained within the limits of
the borough, and amounted to ten or twelve about one hun-
dred years back. The houfes appear to have conftituted
part of a ftreet, which abutted on the Roman road, imme-
diately on the fouth-wett fide of the circumvallated city.
In the general eleGtion in the year 1802, there were five
electors aflembled here, befides the bailiff, who is the return-
ing officer.

John of Salifbary, one of the moft eminent {cholars of his
age, was born at Old Sarum, in the early part of the twelfth
century ; but the exaé date is not recorded.

Stratford, called Stratford under the Caftle, is a parifh
extending along the valley on the eaftern banks of the Avon,
and derives its name from its pofition on the ftream where
the old Roman road crofled it: and thus was originally
called Street-ford. Great part of the church of Stratford
was built by an anceftor of the late lord Camelford. Under
an old tree near this church, is the {pot where the members
for Old Sarum are cleéted ; or rather deputed to fit in par-
liament.—Account of Old Sarum, gto. 1787. Antiqui-
tates Sarifburienfes, by Dr. Ledwich, 8vo.,1777. Ancient
Wilthhire, by fir Richard Hoare, bart. folio, 1813. Ac-
count of Wiltthire, by John Britton, F.S.A. in vol. xv. of
the Beauties of England and Wales, 8vo. 1814.

SARUOM, in Ancient Geagraphy, a town fituated in the
interior of Arabia Felix. Ptolemy.

SARUN, in Geography, a circar of Hindooftan, in Bahar,
bounded on the N.E. by the Gundak, which feparates it
from Bettiah and Hajypour, on the 5.W. by the Ganges,
and on the W. and N.W. by Onde ; about 75 miles long,
and 45 broad. Chuprah is the capital.

SARUNNA, a town of Hindooltan, in the province of
Tatta; 20 miles S. of ‘Tatta.

SARURPOUR, atown of Hindooltan, in the circar of
Schaurunpour ; 30 miles S.W. of Merat.

SARUS, Sainoun, in Ancient Geography, a river of Afia,
in Cilicia; it fprung from the mountains of Armenia, tra-
verfed the ancient Cilicia, and running a $.W. courfe, dif-
charged itfelf into the Mediterranean, at a {mall diftance
from the town of Adana, or Antioch. It was near a4

mouth

SAS

mouth of this river that the fleet of Antiochus the Great
was almoft deftroyed by a tempeft, in the year 196 B.C.
—Ailfo, a river of Cappadocia, in Cataonia; which watered
the town of Comana, according to Strabo.—Alfo, a river of
Afia, in Caramania, having its mouth in the gulf of Para-
gonte, between Gogana and Magida, according to Ptolemy.
—Alfe, a mountain of Italy, in which was the fource of
the river Sarnus.

SARWERDEN, in Cosgraptys a town of France, in
the department of the Mofelle, formerly the chief place ofa
county, governed by independent princes, but afterwards
divided into the houfes of Naflau and Lorrain; 34 miles
N.N.W. of Strafburg.

SARZANELLO, a town of Genoa, fituated on a
mountain of the fame name; 1 mile N. of Sarzana, or
Sarfana.

SARZEAU, a town of France, in the department of
the Morbihan, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of
Vannes ; 7 miles S. of Vannes. The place contains 5986,
and the canton g581 inhabitants, on a territory of 1674
kiliometres, in 3 communes.

SARZEDAS, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Beira; 7 miles N.W. of Caftel Branco.

SARZENA, a town of Italy, in the department of the
Mela; 6 miles N.E. of Brefcia.

SAS de Ghent, a town and fortrefs of Flanders, fitu-
ated on a canal made from Ghent to the Scheldt ; f{mall,
but regularly fortified, with fluices, by means of which the
whole country can be laid under water. The Spaniards
built it for the fecurity and convenience of Flanders, parti-
cularly of the city of Ghent, which might receive veflels
by the canal ; but in 1644 the Dutch became matters of it,
and obftruéted the paflage. In 1747 it was taken by the
French, but reftored at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle ; 25
miles W. of Antwerp.

SASAF, ariverof Maryland, which runs into the Che-
fapeak, N. lat. 39° 25’. W. long. 76° 10’.

SASAMON, a town of Spain, in Old Caftile; 20 miles
N.W. of Burgos.

SASANAH, atown of Hindooftan, in Oude; 32 miles
S. of Lucknow.

SASANAN, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Cicacole ; 20 miles N.E. of Tickely.

SASANDA, in Ancient Geography, a fortified and
maritime place of Afia Minor, in Caria, placed by Dio-
dorus Siculus at 150 {tadia from the town of Caunus.

SASANQUA, in Botany, altered from the Japanefe
name Safankwa, a fhrub nearly refembling tea, found in
Japan, about Nagafaki; fee Cameciia and Tnea. The
leaves of Camellia Safanqua, having, when dried, a fragrant
{mell, are ufed in the form of a deco&tion, by the Japanefe
women, for wafhing their hair. Thunberg informs us like-
wife, that thefe leaves are mixed with thofe of the tea fhrub,
to improve the odour of the tea.

SASAW, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the
eircar of Gangpour; 26 miles N.E. of Pada.

SASCAVETZ, a town of Hungary, near the Drave ;
8 miles W. of Cfakathurn.

SASEAGUR, a town of Hindoottan, in Bahar; 5
miles W. of Saferam. N. lat. 24° 58. E. long. 84° 5/.

SASERAM, a town of Hindooftan, and one of the
chief places of the ciredr of Rotas, in Bahar; 75 miles S.W.
of Patna. N. lat. 24° 58’. .E. long. 84° 9’.

SASHES, in Military Language, are badges of diftinc-
tion, worn by officers, either round the wailt, or over the
fhoulders. They are made of crimfon filk.

SASL, or Sastn, in Mythology, aname of the Hindoo deity

SAS

Chandra, or Soma, regent of the moon. The name is faid
by fome Sanfcrit fcholars to be derived from the antelope ;
fome fpecies of this ammal being fpotted, or marked, fome-
thing like the face of the moon. Sir W. Jones gives this
interpretation in his hymn to Surya, or the fun, in which he
thus invokes the lunar orb:

« Thou neétar-beaming moon,
Regent of dewy night
From yon bright roe that in thy bofom fleeps,
Fawn-fpotted, Safin hight.”

And in his tranflation of the Hetepadhfas he fays that
“ the moon is alfo called Saganka, or fawn-fpotted.”” The
epithet ‘ ne€tar-beaming,’’ above applied, is from a Sanferit
compound, as noticed under Soma.

Mr. Colebroke, in the Afiatic Refearches, vol. ix. finds
on a grant of land engraven on copper, about 600 years ol;
an epithet of the moon, which he tranflates ‘* hare-fpotte:
luminary ;”’ and adds, that ‘* the moon is named Safin from a
fancied refemblance of its {pots to a leveret.’’ :

Mr. Wilkins, in his tranflation of the Hetopadefa, coun-
tenances the latter tranflation as applicable to the moon,
making, however, the rabbit, initead of the hare, the em-
blem of Chandra, and confecrated to him; adding, that
«the Hindoo poets have imagined the moon as a deity drawn
by antelopes, holding in his right hand a rabbit.”” Safi, or
Safa, it may be noticed, is ftill a common name for the hare
in the Hindoo dialect.

We thus fee that both the antelope and hare or rabbit
are attributes of the moon. It has been furmifed, that the
hare or rabbit, being a nocturnal and {wift animal, may have
been deemed a fit emblem, as referring to the feafon, and
(as well as the antelope) to the apparent celerity of the
moon. And farther, as to the hare or rabbit ; it 1s fancied
in India, that this animal is fubjeét to periodical fecretion,
fimilar to the catamenia of the human female ; and fimilarly
regulated by lunar influences. Hence it may be inferred
that the hare, being deemed fymbolical of Chandra, may
bear a phyfiological allufion. The great fecundity of the
rabbit, to the extent, as is fuppofed, of monthly parturi-
tion, may alfo have been thought an additional reafon for
afligning it to the moon; that luminary being farther
reckoned very influential in promoting the growth of vege-
tables. See Soma.

In the plates of the Hindoo Pantheon the figure of
Chandra or Soma occurs feveral times, and always drawn
by, or mounted on an antelope ; as he is alfo in the Indian
zodiac, given with fir W. Jones’s differtation in the fecond
volume of the Afiatic Refearches. We recolleé only one
inftance where a rabbit or hare appears as a lunar emblem,
and this is in Cordiner’s Account of Ceylon, where, in
the place evidently of the moon, that animal is feen.
Vol. 1. p. 196.

SASIGNES, a general name, which, in Mr. Muller’s
arrangement of the flands between Kamtfchatka and Anie-
rica, comprehends the following fix; viz. Behring’s and
Copper iflands, and the neareft Aleutans, of which Otma,
Samia, and Anatto, are moft eminent.

SASINA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Cappadocia,
upon the route from Ancyra of Galatia, to Faultinopelis,
in pafling by Archelais, according to the Itinerary of
Antonine.

Sasina Portus, a port of Italy, in Meflapia. Pliny.

SASKARON, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the gulf
of Bothnia. N. lat. 65° 46".

SASKATCHIWINE, ariver of North America, which
rifes above N. lat. 54°, W. long. 114° 30', pafles ak

wi

SAS-

Mod take and Cedar lake, is navigable nearly to its fource,
and runs into lake Winipeg, or Winipic. A few miles from
the lake, it has rapids for three miles, where it is about a
mile wide. At the foot of the falls is an excellent ftur-

n fifhery.. The Englifh have on this river five factories
Fe radius with the Indians; among whom are the Ne-
pawi,- Knifteneaux, Stone Indians, Affiniboins, and fome
others.

SASNAH, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude; 25 miles
S.E. of Cawnpour.
_ SASO, Sasox, Safonis, or Saffon, in Ancient Geography,
an ifland of the Ionian fea, towards the coaft of Illyria,
and encompaffed with rocks and fand: thus Silius Italicus
fays of it:

« Adriatici fugite infauftas Saffonis Arenas.”

SASONES, a people of Scythia, who inhabited the ter-
ritory on this fide of the Imaus, and S. of the Maffei and
Alani mountains, according to Ptolemy.

SASRAM, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the gulf of
Siam, near the coaft of Camboja. N. lat. 10% E. long.
103° 48!.

SASSA, atown of Naples, in Abruzzo Ultra; 7 miles
S.S.W. of Aquila.

SASSAFRAS, a {mall navigable river of America,
in Maryland, which rifes in the {tate of Delaware, and runs
weitward into Chefapeak bay ; feparating Kent county from
that of Cecil, and having the towns of Frederickitown,
Georgetown, and Saflafras on its banks.—Alfo, a town of
Maryland, 20 miles S. of Elkton.

SassArRAS, in Botany, a fragrant wood, the produce of
the Laurus Saffafras of Linneus. (See Laurus.) Such
at leatt is the common American Saflafras ; but we procured,
in a fhop at Venice, a different and more powerfully fcented
wood, though of a fimilar flavour, which was called
Oriental Salfafras, but with whofe origin we are not ac-
quainted.

The wood of this tree, which is very common in motft
parts of North America, is of a brownifh-white colour ;
and the bark ferruginous, within fpongy, and divifible into
layers. The wood, root, and bark are odoriferous, of a
brifk aromatic fcent, fomewhat refembling fennel. The
natives call it pavama ; the Spaniards and French call it cin-
namon-qwood ; becaufe, at the conquett of that country, under
Ferdinand Soto, in 1538, they imagined this to have been
the true cinnamon-tree.

The lignum faflafras, and chiefly its bark, wherein its
principal virtue is fuppofed to refide, as it does alfo in the
fmaller twigs more than in the larger pieces, was formerly
fold at an incredible price, to be ufed with farfaparilla and
China-root in the cure of the venereal difeafe. It is very
drying and hot, though not quite fo much as the guaiacum.
It is imported in logs, which are {traight and branched
pieces, light, and of a fpongy texture, oa covered with the
thick rough bark. ‘T'he bark is feparated from the wood,
which is cut into chips, as is alfo the root.

It is fomewhat come into fafhion in families as a common
tea, which the fhavings of it make agreeable enough; but
the feandal of being good in venereal cafes is a detriment to
it, and prevents much good being done by it. Choofe
that covered with a thick bark, reddifh, and rough, of
a tharp tale, and a ftrong aromatic fmell. It gives out its
virtues, together with 2 reddifh colour, totally to {pirit, and
lefs perfeét ytowater. Diftilled with water, it yields a fra-
grant effential oil (fee Orn of Saffafras), of a penetrating
pungent talte, the heavielt of all eflential oils, and fo pon-
derous as to fink in water; limpid and colourlefs when

ao, tao 1.

SAS

newly diftilled ; by age growing yellowifh, and at length of
a reddifh-brown colour ; the remaining decoétion, infpiflated,
yields a bitterifh fubaftringent extraét. The infpiffated ex-
traét, obtained from reGtified fpirit, diftilled from the tinc-
ture made in that menitruum, retains, along with the bit-
ternefs and fubaftringency, nearly ali the aromatic matter of
the root.

Saffafras isa ftimulating diaphoretic and diuretic, and has
been employed in cafes of {curvy, chronic rheumatifm, and
gout, and in cutaneous affections ; and was formerly regarded
as beneficial in /ues venerea (which fee), but it has no pre-
tenfion to the charaéter of an antifyphilitic. For thefe pur-
pofes, both the volatile and the fixed parts, the diftilled oil,
and the watery extraét, have been given with fuccefs: the
{pirituous tinéture, or extraét, which contain both, appear
to be the moft elegant preparations. Infufions of the corti-
cal or woody part, rafped or fhaved, in water, are apt, by
their fragrance, on firtt taking them, to affe€t the head; but
this inconvenience, to which neither the watery nor {piri-
tuous extra& is fubje¢t, is commonly remedied by continued
ufe. The infufion is the beft form of giving the remedy, as
much of the oilis diflipated in making the decoétion.

The oil is fometimes given with the fame intention as the
infufion. The officinal preparations are, ‘ oleum fafla-
fras,” L.E.D. (fee Om of Saffafras) ; ‘ decoétum farfa-
parille compofitum,” L.D. (fee SARsAPARILLA); the
«© deco@tum guaiaci,’”? L.E.D. (fee Guaiacum) ; and
“aqua calcis compofita,’”’ D. This compound lime-water
is prepared by taking of rafpings of guaiacum wood, half
a pound, liquorice root, fliced and bruifed, an ounce, faf-
fafras bark bruifed, half an ounce, coriander-feeds, three
drachms, and lime-water, fix pints; and macerating without
heat for two days, and ftraining. Lewis. Woodville.
Thomfon.

SASSANO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Prin-
cipato Citra; 11miles N. of Policattro.

SASSARI, a city of the ifland of Sardinia, on the
river Torres, about feven miles from the fea: the fee of an arch-
bifhop, and refidence of the viceroy, containing 16 convents,
and 27,000 inhabitants. In its vicinity are mines of gold and
filver, for which reafon it is fometimes called «‘ Logodari ;”
88 miles N.N.W. of Cagliari. N. lat. 40°45’. E. long.
8° sol.

SASSE, in fome of our ftatutes, denotes a kind of
weir, with flood-gates, commonly ufed in navigable rivers,
for the damming and loofing the itream of water, as occafion
requires, for the better pafling of boats and barges to and
from places. i

This, in the weft of England, is called a /ock, in the river
Lee, a turnpike, and in other places, a /luice. '

SASSELO, in Geography, a town of Genoa; 1o miles
N. of Savona.

SASSELOT, a town of France, in the department of
the Lower Seine ; 6 miles W. of Ceny.

SASSENAGE, a town of France, in the department
of the Ifere, celebrated for its cheefe; 3 miles E. of Gro-
noble.

SASSENBERG, atown of Germany, and capital of a
bailiwick, in the principality of Munfter, about two miles
fromthe Embs; 12 miles E. of Muntter.

Sassenpenc. See SACHSENBERG.

SASSENFURTH, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric
of Bamberg ; 5 miles N.W. of Forcheim.

SASSO-FERRATO, whofe real name was Giovanni
Batista SALVI, in Biography, was a native of the terri-
tory of Urbino, and born in a cattle, from whence lie was
named Safle-ferrato, in 1605. He was the fon of an ob-

3G {cure

SAT

feure painter, who ‘fent him, when young, to ftudy at Rome.
He afterwards vifited Naples and other places ; and having
no great power of genius, amufed himfelf by imitating in
turn different mafters. His compofitions were confined to
Madonnas and Infants, and are in general but heavily exe-
cuted. His moft confiderable work 1s an altar-piece, painted
for the church of St. Sabina, at Rome, reprefenting the Vir-
gin and Child, with St. Catharine and St. Dominic. He
died at Rome in 1685. ;

SAsso-FERRATO,, in Geography, atown of the marquifate
of Ancona; 16 we: 4 §.W. of Jef.

SASSCQLIN, in Mineralogy, concrete native boracic
acid, fo called from having beer found on the banks of a hot
{pring at Saffo, near Sienia, *s Italy, I+ is alfo found -in
fome of the fmall lakes in Tufcany. Saffolin is compofed
of minute brilliant fcales, of a pearly-white colour. The
talte is flightly acid, and (omewhat bitter : it is eafily fufible
by the blowpipe. It is alfo mixt with the foil that fur-
rounds thefe lakes, and prefents itfelf in the form of ftalac-
tites, foft and foapy to the touch. The white colour is
fometimes fpotted with yellow. The lakes which furnifh
this acid difenzage an abundant quantity of gas witha
hiffing noife. The nature of the gas has not been afcer-
tained. ;

SASSONE, in Biography. See Hasse.

SASSOROLLA, in Ornithology, the name of a peculiar
{pecies of pigeon, called by fome columba rupicola, or the rock

igeon.
: It is of the Mape of the common pigeon, but fmaller, and
has red legs, and a grey variegated back. It feems the
fame with the livia of other authors.

SASSUM, in Geography, a town of Hungary ; 20 miles
N.W. of Podolicz.

SASSUOLO, a town of Italy, in the department of the
Panaro, on the Secchia, with a caftle. At the diltance of
two miles is an aperture in the earth, called « La Salfa,”’
which frequently difcharges {moke, flame, and afhes, with a
fulphureous fmell, to the height of 120 feet, efpecially in
the {pring and. autumn, attended oceafionally with great
noife. The whole hill is tterile, and when the eruption be-

ins, the petroleam wells become muddy. Many petrified
Fubflandes are found here ; 7 miles S.S.W. of Modena.

SASTAGO, a town of Spain, in Aragon; 13 miles
N. of Bucfea.

SASTENALA, atownof Sweden, in the government
of Abo; 25-miles N. of Biorneborg.

SASTY, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 33 miles
$.S.W..of Patna.

SASURA, in Ancient Geography, 2 town of Africa Pro-
pria, according to Ptolemy ;° Gtuated to the fouth of Car-
thage, between the river Bagrada aid Triton.

SASUTZA, in Geography, a river of Walachia, which
runs into the Syl, three miles S. of Tergofyl.

SASWA, a town of Hindooltan, in Rohileund; 20
miles W.N.W. of Budayoon.

SASZINKOWITZ. See Sosznitzowtrz.

SATABAGO, a province of Afiatic Turkey, on the
borders of the river Kur, S. of Imiretta; generally fertile,
and producing principally wine, honey, and cattle.

SATADOO, a town of Africa, and capital of a country
of the fame name, on the E. fide of the Falema, and S.W.
of the kingdom of Bambouk. N. lat. 12° 30'. W. long.

P 52!,

SATAFI, Kasnaire, in Ancient Geography, an ancient
town in the interior of the eaflern part of Mauritania
Cafarienfis, towards the fource of the river Ampfaga, ac-
cording to the Itinerary of Antonine.

SAT

SATALA, a town of Afia, on the banks of the Eu-
phrates, on the frontiers of Cappadocia, Pontus, and Ar-
menia.—Alfo, a town of Afia, in the interior of Leffler
Armenia, according to Ptolemy. Juftinian repaired it, and
built a fortrefs in its environs.

SATALDERE, a river of Natolia, which runs into
the fea of Marmora; 8 miles W. of Artaki.

SATALIA, or Antaxta, a fea-port town of Afiatic
Turkey, in Caramania, at the bottom of a gulf of the
Mediterranean, to which it gives name. It is large, and
contains three towns: the environs are very fertile ; and
the .citrons and oranges are very fine. The inhabitants
carry on a confiderable trade in wool, goats’ hair, agaric,
tragacanth, opium, and bees’ wax. ‘The navigation of the
gulf is dangerous; 134 miles S. of Kiutaja. N. lat. 37°.
E. long. 30° 20/. ‘ at

SATALY, a town of Samogitia; 18 miles N.W. of
Birza.

SATAN, in Sacred Criticifm, a Hebrew word, which
fignifies an adverfary, perfecutor, or accufer. See Devit.

SATANOOR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Myfore ; 30 miles E. of Seringapatam.

SATANOW, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Podolia ; 40 miles N. of Kaminiec.

SATAPA, a town on the S.E. coaft of the ifland of
Borneo; 69 miles E.N.E. of Banjer-Maffin.

SATAPHARA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
in the Greater Armenia. Ptolemy.

SATARCHA, TcwerTeErtick, a town of the Tanric
Cherfonefus, in the northern part of the peniafula, S.E. of
Taphra. ;

SATASHYGUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in the province of Benares ; 12 miles S.W. of Chunar,

SATEBA, a town of Mexico, in New Bifcay ; 60
miles N.W. of Parral. ;

SATELLITE, Sartetves, Guard, a perfon attending
on another, either for his fafety, or to be ready to execute
his pleafure.

Among the eaftern emperors, fatellite originally exprefled
the dignity, or office, of captain of the life-guard.

The term was afterwards applied to the vaffals of lords ;
and afterwards to fuch as held fees, called /ergeanties. See
SERGEANTY.

SATELLITES, in Anatomy, the veins which accompany the
arteries. See VEIN. ; :

SATELLITES, in Affronomy, certain fecondary planets,
moving round the other planets, as the moon does round
the earth ; they are thus called, becaufe always found at-
tending them, from rifing to fetting, and making the tour
of the fun together with them.

The fatellites move round their primary planets, as their
centres, by the fame laws as thofe primary ones do round
their centre the fun. For the phyfical caufe of their
motions, fee Gravity. See alfo Secondary PLANETS.

The words moon and fatellite are fometimes ufed indif-
ferently ; and thus we fay, either Jupiter’s moons, or
Jupiter’s fatellites; but, ordinarily, we diftinguifh; re-
{training the term moon to the earth’s fatellite ; and fatel-
lite to the little moons more lately difcovered about Jupiter,
Saturn, and the Georgium Sidus, by the affiftance of the
telefcope, which is neceflary to render moft of them vifible.
See Moon, and PLANet.

We do not know of any fatellites befides thofe juft men-
tioned ; what farther difcoveries may be made by im-
proving the magnifying powers of telefcopes it is impof-
fible to fay. ’

Satetiites of Jupiter are four little fecondary sag Ve

ome

SATELLITES.

fome bigger and fome lefs than our earth, performing their
revolutions about Jupiter, as that planet does round about
the fun.

Simon Marius, mathematician of the eleGor of Branden-
burg, about the end of November 1609, obferved three
little ftars moving round Jupiter’s body, and proceeding
along with him; and in January 1610, he found a fourth.
In January 1610, Galileo alfo obferved the fame in Italy,
and the iame year he publifhed his obfervations; from
which time commenced the obfervation of the circumjovial
fatellites.

Galileo, in honour of his patron, firft called them a/ra
Medica, Mediczan ftars; Marius, the firft difcoverer,
called that next Jupiter, Mercurius Jovialis, Jupiter’s Mer-
cury; the fecond, Venus Jovialis, Jupiter’s Venus; the
third, Jupiter Jovialis ; and the fourth, Saturnus Jovialis,
Jupiter’s Saturn.

Indeed, Antony Maria Schyrleus de Rheita, a Capuchin
of Cologne, imagined, that, befides the four known fatel-
lites of Jupiter, he had difcovered five more, on the 29th of
December, anno 1642, and, in honour of Urban VIII., the
pope then reigning, he denominated them Sidera Urbanoc-
taviana. But, upon Nauda’s communicating the obferva-
tion to Gaffendus, who had obferved Jupiter on the fame
day, he foon perceived that the monk had miftaken five
fixed itars, in the effufion of the water of Aquarius, marked
in Tycho’s catalogue 24, 25, 26, 27, and 28, for {atellites
of Jupiter ; whence it is no wonder they fhould appear to
the dilcoverer to move a contrary way to that of the reft;
viz. from weit to eait. See Epiit. Gaffend. ad Gab.
Naud. de Novem Stellis circa Jovem vifis.

The difcovery of thefe fatellites was, in its confequences,
of great importance, as by means of their eclipfes, it afforded
a ready method of finding the longitudes of places cn earth ;
and as the eclipfes led M. Roemer to the difcovery of the
progreflive motion of light, and Dr. Bradley was. thus
enabled to folve an apparent motion of the fixed ftars, for
which he could not otherwife account. See LonairupeE,
and Licut. | See alfo the fequel of this article.

Thefe fatellites of Jupiter may generally be feen with a
telefcope which magnifies thirty times; but when the air
is uncommonly pure, the third and fourth may fometimes
be feen with the naked eye. When viewed through a
common telefcope, they appear to be of different magnitudes ;
but their diameters are fo extremely f{mall, that an ac-
curate meafure of them cannot be obtained by a micro-
meter. But a method of cltimating their relative magnitude
is furnifhed by their eclipfes, the larger fatellite taking a
longer time to enter into the fhadow than the {maller.
Thus Bailly (Mem. Acad. 1771) determined their diameters,
as in the annexed table of their elements. This method
Dr. Herfchel pronounces to be very fallacious, and that
it ought not to be ufed. (See Jurirren.) The other
meafures that follow them in the fame table were deduced
by La Place from the mafles of the fatellites, and may be
confidered as very accurate. (See Mecanique Celelte,
tom. iv.) According to Dr. Herfchel oa Tranf. 1797,
vol. Ixxxvii. part ii.) the third fatellite of Jupiter 1s
confiderably larger than the reft ; the firft is a little larger
than the fecond, and near the fize of the fourth; and ‘the
fecond is a little fmaller than the firit and fourth, or the
{malleft of the four. Hence he exprefled their relative

magnitude by the following numbers: 3 — © dt,

Sarescites of Jupiter, Rotation of. M., Caflini concluded
that the fatellites revolved round their axes, as in their
paflage over Jupiter's dife they were fometimes vifible, and

at other times invifible ; hence he conjetured, that they had
{pots on one fide and not on the other, and that they became
vifible in their paflage when the fpots were next to the earth.
At different times alfo they appear of different magnitudes
and of different brightnefs. For an account of their dif.
ferent magnitudes, as obferved by Dr. Herfchel with dif-
ferent magnifying powers, we refer to his paper in the
Phil. Tranf. ubi /upra. Mr. Pound obferved, that they
appear more luminous at one time than another, and hence
he concluded that they revolve about their axes ; and from a
greater variety and number of fimilar obfervations, Dr.
Herfchel has difcovered that they all revolve about their
axes in the times in which they refpectively revolve about
Jupiter. The firit fatellite ({ays this excellent aftronomer)
appears evidently to have a rotation upon its axis, that agrees
with its revolution in its orbit. It cannot be fuppofed
that, in the courfe of 470 revolutions, all the bright obfer-
vations could have ranged themfelves in one-half of the
orbit, while the fainter ones were withdrawn to the other.
This fatellite appears in the middle of the duration of its
brightnefs, when it is nearly half-way between its greateit
eaftern elongation, in the neareft part of its orbit ; or when
advancing towards its conjunction: this fatellite, there-
fore, revolves on its axisin 14 185 28/.6. The fecond fatellite,
though much lefs fubjeét 40 change, on account, as we
may fuppofe, of having only a {mall region on its body,
which refleéts lefs light than the reft, has, neverthelefs, its
rotation dire€ted by the fame law with the firft. The
brightelt fide of this fatellite is turned towards us when it is
between the greateft eaftern elongation and the conjunction.
It revolves, confequently, on its axis in 3213" 17!.9. The

‘third fatellite fuffers but little diminution of its brightnefs,

and is in full laftre at the time of both its elongations. It
revolves on its axis in 74 3" 59.6. The fourth fatellite pre-
{ents us with a few bright views when itis going to its
oppofition, and on its return towards the greatett elongation ;
but otherwife it is generally overcait. Its colour alfo is
confiderably different from that of the other three ; and
it revolves. on its axis in 16% 18" 5/1. Maraldi had for-
merly deduced the fame refult for the fourth fatellite, by ob-
ferving the period of its variations. (See Jurirer.) The
colours of the fatellites, deduced from all the author’s obfer-
vations, are as follow: The firft is white ; but fometimes
more intenfely than at other times. ‘The fecond is white,
blueith, and afh-coloured. The third is always white;
but the colour is of different intenfity in different fitua-
tions. The fourth is dufky, dingy, inclining to orange,
reddifh, and rufty at different times ; and thefe tints may
induce us to furmife that this fatellite has a confiderable
atmofphere.

Sareviites, Periods, Diflances, Sc. of the.—Their pe-
riods, or revolutions, are found from their conjunctions with
Jupiter, after the fame manner as thofe of the primary
planets are found from their oppofitions to the fun: and as
it is in the primary planets, with regard to the fun, fo it is
in the fatellites, with regard to their primaries; the fquares
of the periodical times are in a triplicate ratio of their
diftances from their centres refpectively. For determining
the diftances by obfervation they are meafured with a
micrometer, in femidiameters of Jupiter.

In order to obtain the mean times of their /ynodic revo-
lutions, or of their revolutions with refpeét to the fun,
obferve, when Jupiter ig in oppofition, the paflage of a
fatellite over the body of Jupiter, and note the time
when it appears to be exaétly in conjunétion with the
centre of Jupiter, and that will be the time of conjunétion
with the fan. After a confiderable interval of time, repeat

3G 2 the

SATELLITES.

the fame obfervation, Jupiter being in oppofition, and divide
the interval of time by the number of conjunétions with the
fun in that interval, and you get the time of a fynodic revo-
lution of the fatellite. This is the revolution of principal
confideration, as it is that on which the eclipfes depend.
But this, on account of the equation of Jupiter’s orbit, will
not give the mean time of a fynodic revolution, unlefs Jupiter
was at the fame point of its orbit at both obfervations :
otherwife we muft proceed thus, according to the dire¢tions
given by Mr. Vince in his « Elements of Aftronomy,”
- 168.

Let AIPR (Plate XX. <Aflronomy, fig. 1.) be the
orbit of Jupiter, S the fun in one focus, and F the other
focus; and as the excentricity of the orbit is {mall, the
motion about F may be confidered as uniform. Let
Jupiter be ia its aphelion at A in oppofition to the earth
at T; and L a fatellite in conjunétion; and let I be the
place of Jupiter at its next oppofition with the earth at
D, and the fatellite in conjunétion at G. Then, if the
fatellite had been at O, it would have been in conjunétion
with F, or in mean conjunction; therefore it muft de-
feribe the angle F1S before it comes to the mean con-
junction, which angle is the equation of the orbit, accord-
ing to the /imple pid Aypothefis, which may be here ufed,
as the excentricity of the orbit 1s but {mall ; the angle F1S,
therefore, meafures the difference between the mean /ynodic
revolutions in refpeét to F, and the fynodic revolutions in
refpe& to the fun S. If, therefore, n be the number of
revolutions which the fatellite has made in refpect to the
fun, n x 360° — SIF = the revolutions in refpect to F ;
hence, n x 360° — SIF : 360° :: the time between the
two oppofitions : the time of a mean fynodic revolution
about the fun. :

As the fatellite is at O at the mean conjunction, and at
G when in conjunétion with the fun, it is manifeft, that if
the angle F 1S continued the fame, the time of a revolution
in refpeét to S would be equal to the time in refpect to F,
or to the time of a mean fynodic revolution ; hence, the
_ difference between the times of any two fucceflive revolu-
tions in refpe@ to S and F refpeétively, is as the variation of
the angle F 1S, or variation of the equation of the orbit.
When Jupiter is at A, the equation vanifhes, and the times
of the two conjun@tions at F and S coincide. When Jupiter
comes to I, the mean conjunétion at O happens after the
true conjunction at G, by the time of deferibing the angle
SIF, the equation of Jupiter’s orbit. This is what aftro-
nomers call the frf! inequality; and by this inequality of
the intervals of the times of the true conjunctions, the times
of the eclipfes of the fatellites are affected.

But as a conjunétion of the fatellite may not often happen
exatly at the time when Jupiter is in oppofition, the time
of a mean revolution may be found, when he is out of oppo-
fition, thus. Let H be the earth when the fatellite is at
Z in conjunétion with Jupiter at R; and let V be another
pofition of the earth when the {atellite is at C in conjunction
with Jupiter at I; and produce RH, IV, to meet in M;
then the motion of Jupiter about the earth, in this interval,
is the fame as if the earth had been fixed at M. Now the dif-
ference between the true and mean motions of Jupiter is R F I

~ RMI = FIM + FRM, which fthews how much the
number of mean revolutions, in refpeét to F, exceeds the
fame number of apparent revolutions in refpe& to the earth ;
hence, n x 360° — FIM — FRM : 360° :: the time
between the obfervations : the time of a mean fynodic
revolution of the fatellite. If C and Z lie on the other
fide of O and Y, the angles F 1M, F R M, mutt be added
toa x 360°; and if one lie on one fide, and the other on

the other, one muit be added and the other fubtraéted,

according to the circumitances.

As it is difficult, from the great brightnefs of Jupiter,
to determine accurately the time when the fatellite is in
conjunction with the centre of Jupiter as it pafles over its
difc, the time of conjunction is determined by obferving its
entrance upon the difc, and its going off; but as this
cannot be determined with fo much accuracy as the times
of immerfion into the fhadow of Jupiter, and emerfion
from it, the time of conjunétion can be moft aecurately
determined from the eclipfes.

Let I (Plate XX. fig. 2.) be the centre of Jupiter’s
fhadow F G, N mz the orbit of a fatellite, N the node of
the fatellite’s orbit upon the orbit of Jupiter; draw Iv
perpendicular to IN, and Ic to N¢; and when the fatel-
lite comes to v, it is in conjunétion with the fun. Now
both the immerfion at m, and emerfion at ¢ of the fecond,
third, and fourth fatellites may fometimes be obferved, the
middle peint of time between which, gives the time of the
middle of the eclipfe at ¢; and by calculating cv, from
knowing the angle N and NI, we get the time of conjunc-
tion at v. If both the immerfion and emerfion cannot be
obferved, take the time of either, and after a very long in-
terval of time, when an eclipfe happens as nearly as poffible
in the fame fituation in refpe@& to the node, take the time
of the fame phenomenon, and from the interval of thefe
times you will get the time of a revolution. By thefe
different methods, M. Caffini found the times of the mean
Jynodic revolutions of the four fatellites to be as follows :

Firft. Third. Fourth.

Second.

14 182 28! 36!"134 13% 17! 54!i73 3" 5! 36168 18> 5! 9!

Hence it appears, that 247 revolutions of the firft fatel-
lite are performed in 437" 3° 44'; 123 revolutions of the
fecond, in 437? 3" q1'; 61 revolutions of the third, in
437° 3" 35'5 and 26 revolutions of the fourth, in 435% 14%
13'. Therefore, after an interval of 437 days, the three
firit fatellites return to their relative fituations within nine
minutes.

In the return of the fatellites to their mean conjunétion,
they defcribe a revolution in their orbits, together with
the mean angle a® defcribed by Jupiter in that time ; there-
fore, to get the periodic time of each, we mutt fay, 360°
+ a°: 360°:: time of a fynodic revolution : the time of a
periodic revolution ; hence, the periodic times of each are ;

Third. Fourth.

Firft. Second.

— ——— |

Bereta! 33"3" 13" 13! g2"i7¢ 3h 42! 33! 164 16% 32! 8!

|

The diftances of the fatellites from the centre of Jupiter
may be found at the time of their greateft elongations, by
meafuring with a micrometer, at that time, their diftances
from the centre of Jupiter, and alfo the diameter of Jupiter,
by which you get their diftances in terms of the diameter.
Or it may be Sane thus. When a fatellite pafles over the
middle of the dife of Jupiter, obferve the whole time of
its paflage, and then, the time of a revolution : the time
of its paflage over the dife :: 360° : the arc of its orbit
correfponding to the time of its paflage over the difc ;
hence, the fine of half that arc : radius :: the femidiameter
of Jupiter ; the diftance of the fatellite. Thus M. Caffini

determined

a

SATELLITES.

determined their diftances in terms of the femidiameter of
Jupiter to be, of the firft. 5.67; of the fecond, g; of the
third, 14.38 ; and of the fourth, 25.3.

Or, having determined the periodic times, and the diitance
of one fatellite, the diftances of the other may be found
from the proportion of the {quares of the periodic times
being as the cubes of their diftances. Mr. Pound, witha
telefcope 15 feet long, found, at the mean diftance of
Jupiter from the earth, the greateft diftance of the fourth
fatellite to be 8! 16; and by a telefcope 123 feet long, he
found the greateft diftance of the third to be 4/ 42"; hence,
the greateit diftance of the fecond appears to be 2! 56! 47!",
and of the firft, 1! 51!" 6". Now the diameter of Jupiter,
at its mean diftance, was determined, by fir I. Newton, to
be 372" ; hence the diftances of the fatellites, in terms of the
femidiameter of Jupiter, come out 5.965; 9-4943 15-1413
and 26.63 ref{peGtively. Prin. Math. lib. ter. Phen.

Hence, by knowing the greateft elongations of the fatel-
lites in minutes and feconds, we get their diftances from the
centre of Jupiter, compared with the mean diftance of
Jupiter from the earth, by faying, the fine of the greateft
elongation of the fatellite : radius :: the diftance of the
fatellite from Jupiter : the mean diftance of Jupiter from

_the earth.

SaTELLitEs of Jupiter, Eclipfes of. The fatellites of Ju-
piter, in going from the weit to the eaft, are eclipfed by the
fthadow of Jupiter, and as they go from eaft to welt, they
are obferved to pafs over its difc ; hence, they revolve about
Jupiter, and in the fame direétion as Jupiter revolves about
the fun. The three firft fatellites are always eclipfed, when
they are in oppofition to the fun, and the duration of the
eclipfes are found to be different at different times; but
fometimes the fourth {fatellite pafles through oppofition
without being eclipfed. Hence it appears, that the planes
of the orbits do not coincide with the plane of Jupiter’s
orbit, for, in that cafe, they would always pafs through
the centre of Jupiter’s fhadow, and there would always be
an eclipfe, and of the fame, or very nearly the fame, dura-
tion, at every oppofition to the fun. As the planes of the
orbits which they defcribe fometimes pafs through the eye,
they will then appear to defcribe ftraight lines pafling
through the centre of Jupiter ; but at all other times they
will appear to defcribe ellipfes, of which Jupiter is the
centre.

Let S (Plate XX. Affron. fig. 3.) be the fun, E F the
orbit of the earth, I Jupiter, abc the orbit of one ofits
fatellites. When the earth is at E before the oppofition of
Jupiter, the {pe€tator will fee the immerfion at a; but if it
be the firft fatellite, upon account of its nearnefs to Jupiter,
the emerfion is never vifible, the fatellite being then always
behind the hody of Jupiter: the other three fatellites may

have both their immerfions and emerfions vifible ; but this
will depend upon the pofition of the earth. When the
earth comes to F after oppofition, we fhall then fee the
emerfion of the firft, but can then never fee the immerfion ;
but we may fee both the emerfion and immerfion of the other
three. Draw EIr; then sr, the diitance of the centre of
the fhadow from the centre of Jupiter, referred to the orbit
of the fatellite, is meafured at Jupiter by sr, or the angle
sIr, or the angle EIS. The fatellite may be hidden be-
hind the body at r without being eclipfed, which is called
an occultation. When the earth is at E, the conjunGtion of
the fatellite happens /ater at the earth than at the fun; but
when the earth is at F, it happens /ooner.

The diameter of the fhadow of Jupiter, at the diftance of
any of the fatellites, is beft found by obferving the time
of an eclipfe when it happens at the node, at which time
the fatellite pafles through the centre of the fhadow ; for
the time of a fynodic revolution : the time the fatellite is
paffing through the centre of the fhadow :: 360°: the dia-
meter of the fhadow in degrees. But when the firft and
fecond fatellites are in the nodes, the immerfion and emerfion
cannot both be feen. Aftronomers, therefore, compare
the immerfions fome days defore the oppofition of Jupiter
with the emerfions fome days affer, and then, knowing
how many fynodic revolutions have been made, they get the
time of the tranfit through the fhadow, and thence the
correfponding degrees. But on account of the excentricity
of fome of the orbits, the times of the central tranfit muft
vary ; for example, the fecond fatellite is fometimes found to
be 2" so! in paffing through the centre of the fhadow, and
fometimes 2" 54! ; this indicates an excentricity.

The duration of the eclipfes being very unequal, fhews
that the orbits are inclined to the orbit of Jupiter: fome-
times the fourth fatellite pafles through oppofition without
fuffering an eclipfe. The duration of the eclipfes muft de-
pend upon the fituation of the nodes in refpeé to the fun,
juft the fame as in a lunar eclipfe ; when the line of the
nodes pafles through the fun, the fatellite will pafs through
the centre of the fhadow; but as Jupiter revolves about the
fun, the line of the nodes will be carried out of conjunétion
with the fun, and the time of the eclipfe will be fhortened,
as the fatellite will then defcribe only a chord of a fe&tion of
the fhadow inftead of the diameter. See Vince’s Elements
of Aftronomy.

The following table, extraéted from Brewiter’s edition of
Fergufon’s Aftronomy, vol.ii. (with the addition of the
diftances in miles, and of the angles under which their orbits
are feen from the earth, &c.) contains a full view of the
elements of the fatellites of Jupiter, as deduced from the
theory of La Place, and from the moft recent obfervatiens of
modern altronomers,

Periodical revolution,
Do. do.
Synodical revolution,

Motion in 100 Julian years,

Epoch for 1760,

Epoch for the midnight, be-
ginning Jan. 1ft, 1750,

Daily motion,

Diftance. of each fatellite,
the radius of Jupiter being

unity,

Diftance in miles, Jupiter's
radius being 44585 miles,

Firft Satellite.

1¢ 19° 97’ 33”
1° 769137787
17 18" 28'35".947909

Circles.
20655 7% 249 47! 45"
20645 7° 25° 28/11”

6° 26° 19’ 24”

15 45

5.67
5.698491

265949.525
252796.95
254067.221235

99/19" 19" 49"

SATELLITES.

Second Satellite.

3.551181017

3°13" 17/53/.74893

Circles.
10285 3° 22° 31/40"
10285 3° 23°13! 53”

yd a’ 48!
‘

|

Third Satellite. Fourth Satellite.

According to Wargentin.
Ufed by La Place.

16° 16% 32! 8”
16.689019396
164 185 5! 7".09174

78 9° 49/93"
7154552808
74 3" 50/35". 86754

Circles. Circles.
5105 1% 21° 19/37”1 9188 6% 24° 50’ 0”

According to Wargentin.
5105 1% 22° 6! 49/9188 6° 24° 49/49"

According to De Lambre.

6* 19° 97/ 43” ee Al According to Wargentin.

10 11 26 49 0 10 16-20 2 12 33 4 According to De Lambre.
3° 11° 29! 20" 42 (1° 20° 19/ 8” 27/5] 08 21° 34’ 10” 0” | According to Wargentin.
9.494 15.141 26.630 According to Newtons
9.000 14.38 25.3 According to Caffini.

9.066458 14.461893 25.43590 Deduced by La Place from
Kepler's law.
423289.99 675061.485 1187298.55
401265 641132.3 1128000.5

404228.02993

644781.499405 1134063.60150

Apparent mean diftance, rik Ly Jyh 4! 49” 8’ 16” According to Wargentin.

Inclination of their orbits, 3° 18' 38 3° 48/0 3° a5! 57 2° 36’ o According to Maraldi.

Mean inclination, 3° 18/ 38 3 18 0 3° 13° 58 2° 36’ 0 According to Wargentin.

Diameter of the fatellites, as 60' 20” 29/ 40! Seige 9 39! According to M. Bailly.
feen from the centre of Ju- 182083464 129836520 127119456 56668896 According to La Place’s
piterattheir meandiftance, theory,

Radius of the thadow, in de- 9° 35! 37” 6° 1! 33” 3° 43’ 58” 20° 6! ‘9! According to Wargentin.
grees of the orbits of the 10° 3’ 36/ SAT Me Key! SY SBf a? pie An (id According to La Place’s
fatellites, theory.

: : . 15 7! 33% 1. 95! 39%4 1° 46! 20"3 2" ai! 45%4 According to De Lambre.

Semiduration of eclipfes, 10 10 53.45 zh 2s! 57" yn 50! 9/1 gh 97! 13/1 According to La Place’s

theory.
en ka ¥ Divi; Sale aa | xa C7,

be Me ria wt wae 220'.01036 306".20730 604".50604 630.007 62 According to La Place.

’ .
ae of the node, 10° 14° 30/ 10° 13° 45/ 105 14° 24’ 10° 16° 39/ According to Wargentin.
’
Annual motion of the node, gg! 4! 19"
Maffes of the fatellires, that 0.0000496591'

0.0000173281 0.0000232355

of Jupiter being 1,

Angles under which the or-
bits of the fatellites are
feen from the earth, at its
mean diftance ftom Ju-
piter,

3! 5s” 6! 14"

The following refults, obtained by La Place from a com-
parifon of his formule, with obfervations, are annexed by
Dr. Brewtter to his account of Jupiter’s fatellites.

He found that the orbit of the firit fatellite moves upon a
fixed plane, which paffes conftantly between the equator and
the orbit of Jupiter, by the mutual interfeétion of thefe two
lait planes, whofe refpective inclination is 3° 5/ 30", accord-
ing to obfervation. The inclination of this fixed plane upon
the equator of Jupiter, is only 64 feconds by the theory.
The inclination of the orbit of the fatellite to its fixed plane
is equally {mall, fo that we may conceive the firft fatellite
as in motion upon a plane pal ing through the equator of
Jupiter. Although no excentricity has yet been detected
in the orbit of this fatellite, yet it partakes a little of the
excentricities of the orbits of the third and fourth fatellites ;
for in confequence of the mutual aétion of all thefe bodies,
the excentricity belonging to each extends itfelf to all the

0.0000884972 Calculated by La Place.

—_———

of 58” 17’ 30”

reft in proportion to their proximity to the moft excentric
orbit.

The orbit of the fecond fatellite moves upon a fixed
plane, which pafles conftantly between the equator and the
orbit of Jupiter, and which is inclined to the equator of Ju-
piter 65.1, and to the orbit of the fatellite 27/ 49.2.
The nodes of this fatellite have upon this fixed plane, a
tropical retrograde motion, whofe period is 29 years, 9142.
The excentricity of this fatellite is not yet determined, but,
like the firit, it participates in the excentricities of the fecond
and third.

The orbit of the third fatellite moves upon a fixed plane,
which pafles conftantly between the equator and orbit of
Jupiter, and which is inclined to the equator of Jupiter
30° 5' 1.6, and to the orbit of the fatellite 12! 20". The
nodes of this fatellite have upon this plane a tropical retro-
grade motion, whofe period is 141 years, 739. Atrono-

mers

=

SATELLITES.

mers had fuppofed that the orbits of the three firft fatellites
moved upon the equator of Jupiter; but they found that
this equator had a fmall inclination upon the orbit of the
planet, by the eclipfes of the three firit fatellites. This
difference, of which they did not know the caufe, La Place
has found to arife from the motion of the orbits of thefe
fatellites upon planes inclined to the equater, at different
angles, increaling with their diftance from the planet. He
obtained alfo a iimilar refult for our moon. The excen-
tricity of the orbit of the third fatellite prefents very fiagular
anomalies, of which La Place has difcovered the caufe.

The fourth fatellite moves upon a fixed plane, inclined
24! 33! to the equator of Jupiter, and pafling by the line
of the nodes of this equator, between the latter plane and
that of the orbit of the planet. The orbit of the fatel-
lite is inclined 14! 58! to this fixed plane; and its nodes
have upon this plane a tropical retrograde motion, whofe
period is 531 years. In confequence of this motion, the
inclination of the orbit of the fourth fatellite to the orbit
of Jupiter is perpetually varying. The excentricity of its
orbit is much greater than that of the orbits of any of the
other fatellites. :

The pofition of Jupiter’s fatellites with refpe& to the
planet, and the. figure of their orbits, as feen from the
earth, may be eafily found, for any given time, from tables
that are publifhed inthe Tables de Berlin. Their relative
pofition is given in the Nautical Almanac, for every day
when Jupiter is at fuch a diftance from the fun that the fatel-
lites can be readily feen; or it may be eafily found, by an
inftrument called a jovilabe, which was firft conftruéted by
Flamftead, aud afterwards by Caffini. Flamftead’s jovilabe
is defcribed in the. Phil. Tranf. N° 178, and in Whifton’s
Longitude Difcovered, &c. A detcription of Caffini’s
may be found in Weidler’s Explicatio Jovilabii Caffiniani,
1727, or in La Lande’s Aftronomy, tom. iii. 197.

As the eclipfes of Jupiter’s fatellites afford the readieft
method of determining the longitude of places at land, the
editor avails himfelf of the liberal permiffion granted to
him by profeffor Vince, by annexing the following tables,
with inftruétions for the ufe of them. In order to reduce
them within the limits of the Cyclopzdia, he has made fome
alteration in the arrangement, &c. fuggelted to him by an
ingenious friend.

he profeffor apprifes the obferver, that on account of
the uncertainty of the theory of the fatcllites, he mult be
fettled at his telefcope a few minutes before the expected
time of an immerfion; and if the longitude of the place
be alfo uncertain, he mult begin to look out proportionably
fooner. Thus, if the longitude be uncertain to two de-
anfwering to eight minutes of time, he mutt begin
to look out eight minutes fooner than is mentioned above.
However, when he has obferved one eclipfe, and found the
error of the tables, he may allow the fame correétion to
the calculations of the Epheméris for feveral months, which
will advertife him very nearly of the time of expe@ting the
éclipfes of the fame fatellite, and difpenfe with his attend-
ing fo long. Before the oppofition of Jupiter to the fun,
the immerfions and emerfions happen on the welt fide of
Jupiter, and after oppofition, on the ealt fide; but if the
telefcope invert, the appearance will be the contrary. Be-
fore eppolition, the immerfions only of the firlt fatellite
are vilible ; and after oppofition, the emerfions only. The
fame is generally the cafe with refpeét to the fecond fatel-
lite; but both immerfion and emerfion are frequently ob-
ferved in the two outer fatellites.

When the obferver is waiting for an emerfion, as foon

as he fufpeéts that he fees it, he fhould look at his watch

and note the fecond, or begin to count the beats of the
clock, till he is fure that it is the fatellite, and then look at
the clock, and-fubtraét the number of feconds which he
has counted from the time then obferved, and he will have the
time of emerfion. If Jupiter be eight degrees above the hori-
zon, and the fun as much below, an eclipfe will be vifible ;
this may be determined near enough by a common globe.

The immeriion or emerfion of a fatellite being obferved
according to apparent time, the longitude of the place
from Greenwich is found, by taking the difference between
that time and the time fet down in the Nautical Almanac,
which 1s calculated for apparent time.

£x.—Suppofe the emerfion of a fatellite to have been
obferved at the Cape of Good Hope the gth of May, 1757,
at 10" 46! 45" apparent time ; now the time in the Nautical
Almanac is g® 33! 12"; the difference of which time is
15 13! 33", the longitude of the Cape eait of Greenwich
in time, or 18° 23! 15".

But to find the longitude of a place from an obfervation
of an eclipfe of a fatellite, it is better to compare it with
an obfervation made under fome well-known meridian, than
with the calculations in the Ephemeris, becaufe of the im-
perfection of the theory; but where a correfponding ob-
fervation cannot be obtained, find what correétion the cal-
culations of the Ephemeris require, by the neareft obferva-
tions to the given time that can be obtained; and this cor-
rection, applied to the calculation of the given eclipfe in
the Ephemeris, renders it almoft equivalent to an actual
obfervation. The obferver muit be careful to regulate his
clock or watch by apparent time, or at leaft to know the
difference ; this may be done, either by equal altitudes of
the fun, or of proper ftars; or the latitude being known,
from one altitude at a diftance from the meridian, the time
may be found. .

In order the better to determine the difference of lon-
gitudes of two places from correfponding obfervations, the
obfervers fhould be furnifhed with the fame kind of tele-
{copes, For at an immerfion, as the fatellite enters the
fhadow, it grows fainter and fainter, till at la{t the quantity
of light is fo {mall that it becomes invilible, even before it
is immerfed in the fhadow; the initant, therefore, that it
becomes invifible will depend upon the quantity of light
which the telefcope receives, and its magnifying power.
The inftant, therefore, of the difappearance of a fatellite
will be later the better the telefcope is, and the fooner
it will appear at its emerfion. Now the immerfion is the
inftant the fatellite is wholly gotten into the fhadow, and
the emerfion is the inftant before it begins to emerge from
the fhadow ; if, therefore, two telefcopes fhew the difap-
pearance or appearance of the fatellite at the fame diltance
of time from the immerfion or emerfion, the difference of
the times will be the fame as the difference of the true
times of their immerfions and emerfions, and therefore will
fhew the difference of longitudes accurately. But if the
obferved time at one place be compared with the computed
time at another, then we mult allow for the difference be-
tween the apparent and true times of immerfion or emerfion,
in order to get the true time where the obfervation was
made, to compare with the true time from computation at
the other place, This difference may be found, by obferv-
ing an eclipfe at any place whofe longitude is known, and
comparing it with the time by computation. Obfervers,
therefore, fhould fettle the difference accurately by the
mean of a great number of obfervations thus eaivared with
the computation, by which means the longitude will be
afcertained to a much greater accuracy and certainty. After
all this precaution, however, the different Slates of the air

at

SATELLITES.

at different times, and alfo the different ftates of the eye,
will introduce a fmall degree of uncertainty; the latter
cafe may perhaps, in a great meafure, be obviated, if the
obferver will be careful to remove himfelf from all warmth
and light for a little time before he makes the obfervation,
that the eye may be reduced to a proper ftate ; which pre-
caution the obferver fhould alfo attend to, when he fettles
the difference between the apparent and true times of im-
merfion and emerfion. Perhaps alfo the difference arifing
from the different ftates of the air might, by proper obfer-
vations, be afcertained to a confiderable degree of accuracy ;
and as this method of determining the longitude is, of all
others, the moft ready, no means ought to be left untried to
reduce it to the greateft certainty.

On the Conflrudiion of the Epochs in the Tables for finding the
; Configurations.

The epoch of a fatellite for any year is found from acon-
junction of the fatellite: this will be beft explained by an
example. The time of a mean conjunction of the firft fatel-
lite in 1764, was January 1, 8" 26! 47", as computed for
the conftruétion of tlie tables ; but this is not the true time
of the mean conjun¢tion; but it is that time diminifhed by the
fum of the maxima of all the equations, except that arifing
from the equation of Jupiter’s orbit, which fum is 29! 22!’;

add this therefore to the above time, and it gives January 1, ,

8" 56! 9! for the true time of the mean conjunétion, or the
time when the mean place of the fatellite upon its orbit was
the fame as the mean place of Jupiter in its orbit ; but, by
computation, the mean place of Jupiter at that time was
2° 8° 56! 41", this therefore is the mean place of the fatellite
at the fame time ; but the mean motion of the {fatellite in
14 82 56! 9! was 9° 9° 14! 10"; fubtraét this therefore from
2° 8° 56' 41", and we have 4° 29° 42! 31! for the mean
place of the fatellite at the beginning of 1764, or the epoch
for that year, at Paris. The conftruétion of the tables here
explained, has been for the mean diftance of Jupiter from the
earth, that is, to reprefent the fatellites as feen from that
diftance, becaufe we applied the equations of light, which
reduces the time at the place where the earth is at the time of
obfervation, to the time at which the fame phenomenon of the
fatellite (its conjunétion) would have appeared if the earth
had been at its mean diftance from Jupiter. As Greenwich
is 9! 20! eaft of the obfervatory at Paris, if 1° 19! 8”, the
mean motion of the fatellite for that time, be added to
45 29° 42! 31", it gives 5° 1° 1! 39! for the epoch for Green-
wich, the year at Greenwich beginning 9! 20" later than at
Paris. But the epochs in thefe tables are for the /eaf
diftance of Jupiter from the earth, and confequently they are
found from the epochs at the mean diftance, by adding to
them the mean motions of the fatellites for 10! 10", that
being the time which light takes in pafling over a {pace
equal to the difference between the leaft and mean dif-
tances. Forasany fituations of the fatellites appear 10! 10!
fooner at the leaft than at the mean diftance of Jupiter from
the earth, at any point of time they mu{t appear forwarder
in their orbits at the former than at the latter diltance by
their motions in that time. Now the mean motion of the
fatellite in 10! 10! is 1° 26! 12"; hence the epoch for 1764,
for the leaft diftance of Jupiter, is 5* 2°27! 51": the tables
which are here given were con{truéted from other obferva-
tions. Having determined the epoch for any one year, the
epochs for the following years are found by continually ad-
ding to it the mean motions for a year, as will be explained
hereafter, and the epochs for the preceding years are foundby
fubtraétion ; thus we continue the tables as far as we pleafe.
I

.

The firft table contains the epochs of the fatellites at the
beginning of the year, that is, on December 31{t of the
preceding year by the civil account, at twelve o’clock at noon,
mean time ; except on leap-year, in which the place is put
down for January 1, at twelve o’clock at noon, mean time.

The fecond table contains the mean motions for months,
fhewing at theend of each month, how much forwarder the
fatellites are than they were at the beginning of the year.
If, therefore, to the place at the beginning of the year, you
add the mean motion for any month, it gives the mean place
for the end of that month, or for the beginning of the next.
The month of February is here fuppofed to contain 28 days.
Now in leap-year, the epoch being fer the 1ft of January at
noon, mean time, when we add the motion for January, it
gives the place on February 1, at noon; and adding the
motion for February, it gives the place for the laft day at
noon; becaufe from January 1, to February 29, in leap-
year, is the fame as from December 31 to February 28, in
the common years: hence the mean motions for the other
months, added to the epochs, will give the mean places as
well in leap-year as in the common years. ,

The third table contains the mean motions for days, as
far as 31; that being fufficient, as we have the mean mo-
tions for months. But in leap-year, in the months of Ja-
nuary and February, we muit take the motion for one day
lefs than. the day of the month, becaufe (as above explained)
the epoch is for the 1{t of January, and the motion for a
month being added, gives the place on the 1ft of February ;
the places, therefore, being thus obtained after one day i
each month has pafled, the motion from that time to any
other day mutt be one day lefs than the number of days of
the month.

The fourth table contains the mean motions for hours;
and the fifth table contains the mean motions for minutes
and feconds.

The fixth table contains the apparent diftances of the fa-
tellites from the centre of Jupiter, in terms of its femi-
diameters, according to their fituations in their orbits, and
the geocentric place of Jupiter.

The feventh table contains the firft equation of light ; the
eighth contains the fecond equation of light. Thefe tables
are conftructed to the nearett diftance of Jupiter from the
earth; and, therefore, at all other times, the fatellites will
appear to come later to the places found from the tables
than the time to which they were computed, by the equa-
tions in the tables.

Table the ninth contains the equation of the centre of the
fourth fatellite. “*

Thefe tables give only the mean places of the fatellites,
except for the fourth fatellite, whofe place may be correéted
by the equation of the orbit. This accuracy is fufficient
for the purpofe for which the tables are here given, they
being principally intended to find the configurations of the
fatellites. In the tables for computing the eclipfes, the
epochs for each year are thofe of the firit mean conjunétion
of the fatellite, after the commencement of the year. The
con{truétion of thefe epochs, and alfo the ufe of the tables,
will be explained in the fequel of this article.

If it be required to find the apparent pofitions of the
fatellites at any given apparent time, that time muft be con-
verted into mean time, (the tables being conftruéted to mean
time,) by applying the equation of time; and then from
that mean time, the equation of light mult be fubtracted,
and the computation made for that time; and from the
places thus found, we mult fubtraé& the geocentric place of
Jupiter, and proceed as hereafter exemplitied.

TABLES

“a

|

|
|
:
|
|
|
|
|
jf

SATELLITES.

TABLES for finding the CONFIGURATIONS of Jupiter's Satellites.

Taxsre I. Epochs of the mean Motions of Jupiter’s Satellites.

II. Satellite.

Years. I. Satellite.
New Sryle.

III. Satellite. cs IV. Satellite. | IV. Sat. Apf.

Sy) SD. IS. S- D. MM.
3, 020) st: 150 ly RY
2 11, 28 go ray -a9
H 1673 16 ro 34
Ir 29 58 26 Eo ay 29
10 13 25 46 rig (2 yeh t
§- 26, 53 6 I 10 49
8 1 54 42 TIr 35
ad NS feck Satin 1h NE Fol
4 28 49 22 TESg. 25
cee ee GT Oe I 13 50
2 FA 25 AAS inant 114,35
° Oe Op 12. 22 Teneo
9 IO 22 39 42 116 6
7 9. .0n Fy 2 t 16953
| Se ts 68) 38 1.17 36
5 O24 ich cd ithe in
2 5 3 18 I 1p 6
II 2,21. 30, 38 I 19 51
° Zi 200 32,218: I 20 37
10 I Qe $9. 34. 1 222
7 36 4 40 T0223) 420. 6A: 7 TG
4-27. 5%. 57 10 54, 14 I 22; 52
LT Ae Se sy 9 12, 559558 0°23, 37
a 2 tage mh 25, 23) 10 I 24 22
o 14 36 18 | 6. - 8. 50; 30 L2sy 68
6 25-952 Ab 7a gh} gaa 17.,.50..1| Rae oe
IO. 519 °44, 121 | Bh iroese hs T4r.i|\) Sp 27g iQ, 2b 1 26 38
SP eae 38 lige tee zby 4g 2 10 46 46 1 27, 23
ie YP ss wel 2a. 268) 27 © 24. 14. 6 128, 8
Pan (Sho 1g Sy 2032 49 ie -Feohhe-26 128 53
3 18 4 59 5 25 38 24 | 10 12 43 2 | 129 39

Vo... XXXII. ,H

SATELLITES.
Tase [1]. The mean Motion of Jupiter’s Satellites for Months. 3

Months. - Satellite. II. Satellite. III. Satellite. IV. Satellite. IV. Apf. 5

3t January : 32" 8° 22° 39! s 29° so!
28 February 2 7 1 6 28 na4

31 March ° 34 ; 28 35
30 April 2 46 14 7

31 May 6 ee ty) 57
30 June 21 30 29 It 18 29
31 July 29 I Il 26 20
31 Auguft 32 ed

30 September TO) 15
31 Ottober | 7
30 November | 19
31 December 11

I II | III IV. IV. Apf.
Days. --

SST oT wie EE. SI Sige BBE Pam Tp es eS S77 Ds) ate 8 M. S
I 6* 23*).29,°20 Rema 22620, | “Te 2oe ome ce Oo 21--34 16 Ona
2 iP iOerho™ Ae GE 22, 447-58 |||) “aero 8s 4 Tee toa e on ie
3 Oto) 125" OF TO. Ae ae a ee Ow ioe 2 he Aras o 22
4 Be yas S722 re 5 20" 57 |) (8 ore Or era, we 26" ne me Oo 30
5 oy Oe he ee 20) 52 20" |F ou eb 1S eg ly MRL ao) Oo. 3%
6 AP 20-956 AW Sea Or tio WAY Fe 10 Gam 20 we 9 25. a6 oO 44
7 11 14 25 22 | It 19 37 24 [Bl the Mc Ae G* of Fo 152 ohre2
8 6 7 54 43 3p eo oe OS I 12 32 28 5 22 34 «8 Ox
9 hy er) a Ve as Le 6 La ely Bee ze oie 22 Gt .14>> S) 24 bad er] ’
10 7 24 53, 23 Cp ssi. Ga Su ae 2G) TONS Ph (SRR eG I 14

= }

11 2) 18% 22 44 I 7 aE! (Gt Wee zoe s4g Wt 27° 1G 56 eee)
12 GehrLdi52e 4316" 2950 8° 3 48 42 Sr ES" Gt iz 2] I"
13 B05" 2a 2 ie 27 bee 1G Q), (aie 740 og! ol 25 28 | I 36
14 TOR S20eNGO) vit et) OF ie a6 It 14¢ 26° Fo OR 1" 560" sae P44
15 ie maa 32, Ca AU cy A a: Sa” a i TON 235 tO I oe
16 Oo 15° 49 26 6* *7 re 50° “46 | 2 2Ge a G7 i i Se | 1 59
17 PE Or ls* 46 Orig. 22" 15 Re Unt 23" o (6 42” 32 het
18 2 a) 48°" 16 6! 24% 44° 45 Ge Ee anh a o 28 16 48 | aris
19 8- 26° 17 27 Geor wae Ih hae | a hag Te TO” chile ee av ai
20 S» 1646" 47 | we 48 29> AS 92 16 o7* xt a~ ¥1 25 20 238
21 | 10>/)73. 76 2S t6'-+28. 5a tx2 11 4G, JH. .|. ots | oe UGE ESO 2 36
22 5 6 45 29 2 Ton TA) AT 16" 26" 7gOr “LS fs 224. 39 ce 2 43
23 Oy Or IA AG Saray "TO 2) 7 NG oat 4 16, “8 2 ie ikal
24 6 23 44 9 9 2 59 39 rae Ae LES 5-742 34 2. 58
25 LON yes a “1432 ~ 16 5 27 howe 5 29 16 50 Stas
26 |} SB 10 «42 50 g aie “4a 25 7 te 1h 328 | OF aG. ho. kG Sere
27 A te eek oe A a i Me ie |. le
28 9.27 4b Jo 1o 18 29 36 10 628 653 «39 By 8) kG aor 3 28
29 4 21 10 51 1 29 52 § © 19 12 43 8 25 33 44 3. 35
30 Pista, 40. x2 5 Stra 44 a9 S10 46 9 17 ° 3 42
41 Gs 8H "Dg ee ae) | S26" Somes 10. 8. 445 56 | 350

Ta leap-year, for January and February take one day lefs, for reafons already given.

SATELLITES.

TaxsLe IV. The mean Motions of Jupiter’s Satellites for Hours.

D

an
na
.

mm O00
Bw et wp
Qe OnTIw
oo00a000
ooooo

w

wy Ww ee
wp

wo aw Oo
ooo0o°0
ooo0oo0o°0

2 www WwW
Rw Ne
II1woton
~O0OO0O0

Vai
ot
On

oe

~

yi
6
6
6

ooooo°o

cooo$°o

M. S&S.

|
.

NN NN WN
ww
iS]

Www nr
“
n

WAAAA!] Anan |] Uunuunn | papas | pROWw
nN
vn

NSn~ss™
iS)

0 ce CO CON?
=

.

SATELLITES.

Tas_e V.—continued.

| | ee)

nv NNN N

WNWWW WAwwns nv

pe eeile

ie ale oie aio

M.

ee) ~~ om ee a) ee ~s O00 ©0000 oo000°0

NNN ee

Tasce VI.

I 0.10 | 0.16
2 0.21 | 0.33
3 | 0-31 | 0.49
4 | 0-41 | 0.66 |
5 O51 | 0.82

Ooo ONIN

VI. Weft. | I. Eatt. VIL. Wett. LI. Eatt. VIII. Wett.
m.jaiv. | t | u. Wve |. Lyle | I. | iv. |
Semid. Semid. | Semid.| Semid.| Semid. | Semid. | Deg
ar = | =
0.0 0.0 | 2.95 | 4.70 13-19 | 5.12 |. 8.14 | 12.99 | 22.85 30
0.26 0.46 | 3-04 4.84 13.59 | 5-17 | 8.22 | 13.12 | 23.07 29
0.52 0.92 | 3-13 | 4-98 13.98 | 5.22 | 8.30 | 13.24 | 23.29 28
0.78 1.38 | 3-22 | 5.12 14.37 | 5-27 | 8-38 | 13-36] 23.51 27
1.05 1.84 | 3-30 | 5.26 | 14-75 | 5-31 | 8.45 | 13-48 | 23.71 26
1.31 2.30 | 3-39 | 5-39 | 15-13 | 5-36 | 8.52 | 13.59 |-23-9% 25
1.57 2.76 | 3-47 | 5-53 8.82 | 15.51 | 5-40 | 8.59 | 13.70 | 24.10 | 24
1.83 | 3.22 | 3-56 | 5.66 | 9.03 | 15.88 | 5-44 | 8.66 | 13.81 | 24.28 | 23
2.09 3.67 | 3-64 | 5.79 9-24 | 16.24 | 5.48 | 8.72 | 13.91 | 24.46 22
2034 4-13 | 3°72 | 5-92 9-44 | 16.60 | 5.52 | 8.78 | 14.00 | 24.63 21
2.60 4-58 | 3-80 | 6.04 | 9.64 | 16.96 | 5.55 | 8.84 | 14.10 | 24.79 20
| 2. | 5.03 | 3°87 | 6.17 9-84 | 17-31 | 5-59 | 8.89 14.18 | 24.95 19
3 5-48 | 3-95 | 6.29 | 10.04 17-65 | 5-62 | 8.94 | 14.27 | 25.09 18
he 5-93 | 4:03 | 6.41 | 10.23 | 17-99 | 5-65 | 8.99 | 14.34 | 25.23 17
6.38 | 4:10 | 6.53 | 10.42 | 18.32 | 5.68 | 9.04 | 14.42 | 25.36 16
| 6.83 | 4-18 6.65 | 10.61 | 18.65 } 5.71 g-08 | 14.49 | 25.48 15
7:27 | 4-25 | 6.76 | 10.79 18.98 | 5-73 | 9-12 | 14.56 | 25.60 I4
7-71 | 4-32 | 6.88 | 10.98 | 19.30 | 5-76 | 9.16 | 14.62 | 25.71 13
8.15 | 4-39 6.99 | 11-15 | 19.61 }| 5.78 | 9-20 | 14.67 | 25.81 12
8.59 | 4-46 | 7-09 | 11-32 | 19.91 | 5-50 | 9-23 | 14.72 | 25-90 II
9.02 | 4-53 | 7-20 | 11.49 | 20.21 | 5.82 | 9.26 | 14.77 | 25-98 10
——— | ae Spee Js Seale OE Re
9-45 | 4-59 | 7-31 | 11-66.) 20.50 | 5-83 | 9.2 14.81 | 26.06 9
9-88 | 4-66 | 7.41 | 11.82 | 20.79 | 5-85 | 9-31 | 14.85 | 26.13 8
10.31 | 4-72 | 7-51 | 11.98 | 21.07 5-87 | 9-33 | 14.89 | 26.19 7
10.73 | 4-78 | 7.61 | 12.14 | 21.34 | 5-88 | 9.35 | 14.92 | 26.24 6
11.15 | 4-84 | 7-70 | 12.29 21.61 | 5.89 | 9-37 | 14.94 | 26.28 5
11.57 | 4-90 | 7-80 | 12.44 21.87 | 5.89 | 9-38 | 14.96 | 26.32 4
11.98 | 4-96 | 7.89 | 12.58 | 22.13 | 5-90 | 9-39° | 14.98 | 26.35 3
12.39 | 5-01 | 7-97 | 12.72 | 22-37 | 5-91 | 9-40 | 14.99] 26.37 2
7.27 | 12.79 | 5-07 | 8.06 | 12.86 | 22.61 | 5-91 | 9-40 | 15.00 | 26.38 I
7-50 | 13-19 ] 5-12 | 8.14 | 12.99 | 22.85 | 5-91 | 9-40 | 15.00 | 26.38 °
Vv. Eaft. | X. Weft. | IV.Eaft. | IX.Wet. [IL Eat.

SATELLITES.

Diftance of the Satellites from the Geocentric Place of Jupiter.

Apparent Diftances of the Satellites from the Centre of Jupiter, in Semidiameters of Jupiter.

¥
a

0D DI Al MNPWNKHO

SATELLITES.

Taste VII. The Firff Equation of Light.

Argument.

Diltance of Jupiter from the Sun.

Sig. II. | Sig. ITI.

g

s~I~sI ~~

NAANANXN AnNOonon

seat

PPP PR | PRR

| Sig. VIIL.

90000 oo0o00 00000 oo00oo00o

00000

Oo RWS wm Qn ww

Taste VIII.

SATELLITES.

The Second Equation of Light.

Argument. Anomaly of Jupiter.

Deg Sig. O Sig. I Sig. II. Sig. IIT. Sig. IV. Sig. V Deg.
4 ae 3! 47! 3' i! 2! i yooy! o! 16! 30
I 4 4 3 46 Ste Ze Oo ° 59 o 15 29
2 4 4 3. 45 2 59 1 58 o 57 Oo 14 28
3 4 4 3 44 2 57 1 56 Sieh; o 13 27
4 4 4 3. 43 2 55 oy 3 o 54 "Oo 12 26
= 40% Bo AZ 2) S89 Menten 5 Oo. 52 On t2) 25
Ghs| Anan Seo Zea Fi I 49 Gang Omni 24
7 4.63 3 39 2- 49 1 47 ° 49 © 10 23
oi 4683 33 «38 2 47 I 45 ° 47 Orpr9 22
9 | 4552 Se3Pe | (2 45. te Ff 143 °o 46 o 68 21
10 415.2 3%y 350 |. 48 rte Ot iy! 20

eas oe nah a] eet)
II aC ae | ae ey eee ee eer 2 I 39 oO 43 o..,-6 19
IZ ok 4m 2 3 32 2 40 es Oo 4I Cc. 6 18
13 |} 4810 3 31 2 38 35 oO 40 oa 17
4 | 4°40 3. 30 2536 19133 o 38 Os 16
I5y 1) 4310 3 «28 2 34, |p I 830: g| 40: 36 Oo” 2 15

} } — | a
6 [bg 59 I) gay | 4 ge 1. 28 ° 35 ° 4 14
PPS ASS || REZ ly E22, ty E26. ghz - 33 o 3 13
LS e355 3 24 2 20 We I 42 i 30 92 o 3 12
BOA 2: 257 Ge 22hy | 2 25 ie 6 T122 Bt yO. “30 Om c2 II
Zo! + | --3 150 Weak, | (2 26. ty 1 520 =| ow, 29 Ona 10
21 Bere 3 20 Ze 2ik Ie 18.1]. + 0...29 Cs: 9
22 55S Neh Set Pg 2% “10 1 16 ° 26 o I 8
3 Sees oi 30 US 2 17 Eyl 4. QO. 25 Dp 4 7
24 er ee 2 tg Ap? Dy 123 oe 6
oe 3052 "R12 2°18 Ter Q 22 ep 6 5

—

| a ae Zr LO 2 neLO oe 0.21 On0 4
Ze le Se5O | + He 8 2. a7 Qo 20 eyes Te) 3
28 | 3:49 2.4 6 BAS A Wa oO 19 °o oO 2
29 2.545) ) -Se4 Ff 2 4 ‘We WE °o. 17 Oo »o I
30 3.47 | Si py |) |. '¢ fc Mee o 16 °o Oo )

| Sig XI. | Sig. X. | Sig. IX.

SATELLITES.

Taste IX. Equation of the Centre of the Fourth Satellite.

Argument. Mean Anomaly.

+ VIII — Ii.

22"
48

OK RWS nA Am!

SATELLITES.

To jind the Configurations of Jupiter’s Satellites at any Time.
Find by Tables I, II, III, IV, V, the mean place of

~ each fatellite for the given time, which will be fufficiently

near to the true place, except for the fourth fatellite, for
which we muit apply the equation of the centre; for that
purpofe we muit, with its mean motion, take out the place
of its apfide, which fubtraGted from the mean longitude

ives its mean anomaly, to which find the equation in
Table [X, and apply it to the mean longitude, and it gives
the true longitude.

From the place of each fatellite thus found, fubtra& the
geocentric longitude of Jupiter, (fee Jupirer,) and in
Table VI. with that difference, find ‘the correfponding
numbers, which reprefent the apparent diftance of each
from the centre of Jupiter in terms of its femidiameter.
When the argument of this table is //s than fix figns, the
fatellite will be to the caf of Jupiter ; when greater, to the
wef, This is Dr. Halley’s method.

Us If.

1795 retz5o. <ah aria se:-9 gt
March BO? Fr4on wT Aes gh gan
5 days Gr 27 27 4 26 52
16 hours 4 15 40 9 Rok a hae

2122) eG DL e225 10
2% Geo. 10 3 50 10. /§°3/5-50

4 18 26 EietOee2zp

Eaft 5.91 Eaft 7.14

Hence this configuration,
I

As the principal defign of finding the configurations of
the fatellites is to diftinguifh one from another, the equa-
tion of light is commonly of but little importance, and
may be neglected. Or if that accuracy be defired, com-
pute the configuration to any hour mean time, and then
add the equation of light to it, and you have the configur-
ations as they appear at that time. The operation is ren-
dered fhorter by calculating to an hour ; and it will be fuf-
ficient if the places be calculated to minutes of a degree.

To find the equation of light ; from the fun’s longitude
fubtra& the heliocentric longitude of Jupiter, and with
the remainder enter Table VII, and take out the firft part
of the equation; and with the anomaly of Jupiter enter
Table VIII, and take out the fecond part. The anomaly
is found by fubtraGting the place of the aphelion from the
longitude.

£2x.—To calculate the configuration of the fatellites on
April 6, 1795, at 4 o’clock in the morning, mean time, by
the civil account ; or on the 54 16%, aftronomical time.

Ill. IV. Apf. IV.
Beis soityis! 8° 26° 53! T= tro: 40!
Gi 28) 25 A P2h 2m On FO 1.1
SPI 35 Pa G abel OM Ores
Eero. 25 ota 23 abit
—_—— Ty Edie sS
TOs A: 5 20,31 Gi ss20ui22

He wwe ES et)
te eee AO) 2k

Di A eh. Sa Lae

10) 9350

ET Oo ae?

Welt 14.95 Welt 18.98

3
fe ee ee, ieee
2*

The line A B thews the dire€tion of the belts.

Sun’s longitude 2 3 2 oF
Jupiter’s hel. long - - - 9
Difference - J 4 2
Jupiter’s aphelion = - - 2) eG

Jupiter’s anomaly -

This configuration, therefore, which is calculated for
a mean time, is fuch as will appear at 10! 36! after
our; but it will not fenfibly differ from the appearance at
four. ‘To have computed ike configurations as they appear
at 4.0’clock, we muft have computed for 3" 49! 24! mean
time.
The configuration at the fame hour, for a month, may
be very readily determined, without repeating the whole
tion, in this manner. ‘The difference from day to day
arifes from the addition of the daily mean motions, and
from the variation of the geocentric place of Jupiter, the
mean daily variation of which for a month will be fuffici-
ently accurate for our purpofe. As the geocentric place
of Jupiter is fubtratied Fou the mean place of the fatel-
lite, if the geocentric motion be diref, fubtrad its mean

Vor. XXXI.

It $9 - -

*4
rac aal
ES eae
24 21 - - Equation of light $!. 59"
ir 4

Equation of light 1 37

/

Total Equation of light 10 36

daily variation from the mean daily motion of the fatellite ;
but if the geocentric motion be retrograde, you mult add,
and you will have the whole daily motion to be applied
to the calculation for any one day in order to get the fitua-
tien of the fatellites for the next day; and thus you may
continue the procefs for a month, at the end of which it
may be proper to refume the firft calculation, and then pro-
ceed for that month in like manner.

To take our example, I find Jupiter’s geocentric motion
is direé, at the mean rate of about 2! in a day for the
month; fubtract therefore 2' from the daily motions of
the fatellites, and we have 6° 23° 27', 3° 11° 20/, 1* 20° 17!,
and of 21° 32!, for the relative daily motions of the firit,
fecond, third, and fourth fatellites in refpeét to Jupiter:
hence,

qI

SATELLITES.

I. Il. Ill. IV.
s 0a i m2 ed 3 ols Se;o.
4 18 26 I 9g 29 G.v4.. 4 716 2
6 23 27 3 II 20 I 20 17 © 21 32
7 on a KE Dh 8 420 49 10 24 21 8 7 34
6 23 27 3 11 20 2047 © 21 32
ny TRE Te) ee © 14 38 8 29 6
6 23 27 3 11 20 I, 20 17 O 21 32
Cvs 26 47. 240 13 25 2 455 9 20 38

Hence, by Table VI, we get the following configurations ;

72 Weft 1.84 Eaft 5.94 Welt 8.75 Weft 24.38
S$? Weito.s4 Welt 8.31 Eaft 3.79 Welt 26.38
go? Eaft 2.82 Welt 2.67 Eaft 13.58 Welt 24.71

As there is the fame motion of the fatellites to be added
every time, it will be beit to put them down upon a {trip of
paper, and by laying it under, the addition may be made
from it without the trouble of writing the motions down
every time. In this manner we may lay down the con-
figurations with great expedition, and with more accuracy

than by the mechanical contrivances of Flamfteed and
Caffini. 7

The mean time at which thefe configurations are fhewn,
may be'reduced to apparent time, by applying the equation
of time ; thus the configuration on the fixth day at 10! 36!
after 4 o’clock mean time, is 8! 11! after 4 apparent time ;
to have calculated therefore for 4 apparent time, we muft
have calculated for 35 51! 49".

The principle upon which the fixth table is conftruéted is
this. Let E (Plate XX. Aflronomy, fig. 4.) be the earth,
I Jupiter, a the place of a fatellite in its orbit; join EI,
and produce it to the heavens at m, and produce I a to n, and
draw ac perpendicular to 14. Now m is the geocentric
place of Jupiter in the heavens, and z the true place of the
fatellite ; if therefore from sp 2, the longitude of the fatel-
lite, we fubtract op m, the geocentric longitude of Jupiter,
we get mn, or the angle 4 I a, whofe fine ac reprefents the
apparent diftance of the fatellite from Jupiter ; therefore, if
ac be exprefled in terms of the femidiameter of Jupiter, we
fhall get the apparent diltance in femidiameters, and in this
manner the tables are conftructed.

When a fatellite is approaching Jupiter, the figure is put
between Jupiter and the point ; when it is receding, the figure
is put on the other fide.

A Taste of the apparent Diftances of Jupiter’s Satellites from its limb at the time of an Eclipfe, for every tenth day
of Jupiter’s Diftance from Oppofition or Conjunétion; by the Rev. Dr. Mafkelyne, Aftronomer Royal.

Difiance
of Jupiter
from

oppofition
to the @)

Diftance of the Satellites from Jupiter's limb at
the Eclipfes, in femidiameters of Jupiter, and
decimal parts.

The diftances of the {fatellites from Jupiter’s limb in this
table, are to be meafured either in a line with Jupiter’s
equator, or longer axis, or in a line parallel thereto; or,
which is the fame thing, to its belts,. for the fatellites gene-
rally appear a little to the north or fouth of this line.

In this table, the apparent diftances are thofe of the regular
eclipfes, that is, at the immerfions before oppofition and
emerfions after; but at the emerfions which are vifible before
oppofition, and immerfions after, the diftances from Jupiter's
limb will be lefs than in the table, by a quantity which is in
the fame proportion to Jupiter’s diameter, as the duration
of the eclipfe is to the longeft duration when in the nodes.

On the Conflru&ion of the Epochs of the Mean Conjundtions of
Jupiter’s Satellites.

The epoch of the mean conjunétion is the moment when
the fatellite arrives the firlt time every year at the mean place
of Jupiter, reckoned upon the orbit of the fatellite, diminifhed

6

Diftance
of Jupiter
from
oppo/ition
to the ©

Diftance of the Satellites from Jupiter's limb at
the Eclipfes, in femidiameters of Jupiter, and
decimal parts.

by the fum of the maxima of all the equations (the equations
being exprefled in time), in order to render the equations all
additive; the maxima of the equations being added to the
equations themfelves, in order to make up for that fub-
traGtion. For example, the firit i ge of light, at its
maximum, is 8! 7/5, the time therefore is, in the epoch,
diminifhed by this quantity. Now let us fuppofe that at
the time we are making any computation, this equation of
light is + 4', then the equation, as we fhall find it, is 8! 7.5
+ 4! = 12! 7!.5, or 4! 7.5, both additive, and this 1s
manifeftly the fame as if 8! 7!.5 had not been fubtracted at
firft, and the equation + 4! applied, what was at firft fub-
trated being now added ; and as we add the maximum, the
quantity by which it is diminifhed can never render it ne-
gative. It is the fame with all the other equations, except
that depending on the excentricity of Jupiter’s orbit, which
being variable, does not admit of this method. All the
pee are thus put down; and the computations a
e

SATELLITES.

dered more eafy and fimple by making the equations ad-
ditive.

To find the epoch for any year, we will take and explain
that example which is given by M. de la Lande in the latt
edition of his Aitronomy, vol. ii. p.185. On January 2,
1764, the firft fatellite was eclipfed, the emerfion of which
was at 10" 27! 44" mean time, at Paris. Now to make
the equation of time always additive, we muft fubtra&
14! 42", which is the greateft equation fubtraétive, and
we have 10" 13! 2" for the time of the emerfion, according
to the conftru€tion of M. Wargentin’s tables.

The diftance from the node was 60° 17’, the femidiameter
of the fhadow 1» 7! 55", and the inclination of the orbit
° 782!; hence the femiduration of the eclipfe was 1 4! 51!’;
therefore the time of the middle of the eclipfe was g* 8! 11".
From this we muft deduce the time of the mean conjunc-
tion, by applying all the equations for that time.

The mean anomaly of Jupiter was about 7° 8°.5, and the
equation of its orbit was 4° 51! 30" additive, which, con-
verted into time according to the motion of the fatellite,
gives the equation 34! 39!’ to be {ubtracted from the middle
of the eclipfe, and hence there remains 8" 33! 32".

The maximum of the ff? part of the equation of light
is 8! 7.5; but at the time of the eclipfe the equation was
found to be 7! o!.5 additive ; hence we have to fubtra&
only 1! 7", which gives the time 85 32! 25".

The maximum of the /econd part of the equation of light
is 2! 2.5; but the equation was 59.5 additive at the time ;
therefore we muft fubtra& 1! 3", which gives 8" 31! 22",

The maximum of the equation, marked in the tables C,
is 3! 30"; but that equation at the time of the eclipfe was
of 27" additive; hence we have to fubtra& 3! 3", which

ives 8 28! 19".

The {mall equations which come from the inequalities of
Jupiter amounted at the fame time to 15! fubtractive ; and
the maximum being 1’, we muft fubtraé 1! 15", which gives
gb 27' 4".

Laftly, we muft fubtra& 17" for the redu@tion, and we
have 8" 26! 47" on January 2; but it being biilextile, we
mutt fubtraét one day, which gives January 1, 1764, 8 26!
47! for the epoch of the mean conjun@tion for that year,
by M. Wargentin’s conftruétion of the tables.

Having fhewn how the epochs for any year are eftablifhed,
we have only to fhew how they are carried on for any
number of years. According to M. Wargentin, the fynodic
revolution of the firft fatellite is 14 18" 28! 35!'.947909 5
of the fecond, 34 13" 17! 53".74893; of the third, 7% 3h
59' 35".86754; and of the fourth, 164 18" 5! 7!o9r74.
Let us take for our example the firft fatellite. If we mul-
tiply 14 18" 28! 35".947909 by 207, it gives 366% 8» go!
1.21716, which is a common year of 365 days, and 14 8
40! 1.21716 over. Therefore at the beginning of the next
year the fatellite will be forwarder than it was at the begin-
ning of the preceding, by 12 8® ao! i!.21716. If we add
again 12 8) go! 1!.21716, it gives 24 17" 20! 2".43432,
which being more than a revolution, by fubtraéting a revo-
lution from it, we get of 22" 51! 26'.48641, which is
the quantity by which the {fatellite will be forwarder at
the beginning of the fecond year. If to this we again add
the fame quantity, it gves 24 75 31! 29!.70357, which
being more than a revolution, by fubtra¢ting a revolu-
tion from it, we get of 13" 2! 51!.75566, the quantity
by which the fatellite will be forwarder at the beginning of
the third year. But as the fourth year is fuppofed to be
biflextile, the epoch will take place on the rit of January,
therefore this year confifts of 366 days, and confequently
contains 207 revolutions, and of 8" 4o! 1.21716; this,
therefore, added to of 13> 2! 51''.75566, gives of 214 4a!
52".97282, the quantity by which the fatellite is forwarder
at the beginning of the fourth year. But as this year be-
gins on the rft of January, inftead of December 31, in the
mean motions for days in January and February, we muit
take the day of the month one lefs than it is, as will be
further explained in the con{tru&tion of the tables. Hence
it appears, that if we begin at the epoch of any leap-year,
and add to it 14 8" go! 1".21716, of 22” 51! 26".48641,
of 135 2! 51".75566, and o4 21" 42! 52".97282, the fums,
rejecting a whole revolution when neceflary, will be the
epochs for the firft, fecond, third, and fourth years after.
Thus we may continue the epochs as far as we pleafe. In
like manner, we proceed with the arguments A, B, C,
&c. of the equations, rejeéting a revolution when the fum
exceeds it.

The following Tables are calculated for finding the
Eclipfes of Jupiter’s Satellites.

gla TAsLe

SATELLITES.

Taste I. Common to the four Satellites of Jupiter.

Corrections of the Arg. Corrections of the Arg. Corrections of the Arg. Correétions of the Arg.

Arg. | Cor. | Cor. } Cor.| Arg. | Cor. | Cor.|Cor.} Arg. | Cor. | Cor. Cor. | Cor. | Cor.
A B Cc H AS +} 3B Cc H Pe ee Cc B Ce H
o | 153 | 76| 153] 4500 | 257 | 24] 49] go00 | 306 ° 266 | 20] 40
1oo | 156| 75 | 150] 4600 | 259] 23] 4714 QI00 306 fo) 264 | 25 | 42
200 | 158} 74 | 148} 4700 | 260} 23] 46] 9200 | 306 ° 2624 22 | ae
300 | 161 | 72] 145 | 4800 | 262 | 22| 44] 9300 | 306 ° 260 | 23 | 46
400 LOZ 7 143 | 4900 | 264 | 21 | 42] 9400 | 306 ° 259 24 | 47
500 | 166]+70| 140] 5000 | 266] 20] 40] g500 | 306] o 256] 25 50
Goo | 168 | 69] 138] 5100 | 267} 19] 39] 9600 | 308] o 254 | 261 52
yoo | 171 | 67 | 135 | 5200 | 269 | 18] 37] 9700 | 306 ° 252 "| a7 54
Sco | 173 | 66 | 133 | 5300. | 271 17 | 35 | 9800 | 306 fc) 250] 281 56
gco | 176 | 65 | 130 | 5400 | 272] 17 | 34] 9900 | 305} © 248 | 29] 53
re ee =o —
Iooo | 178 | 64 | 128 | ‘5500 | 274} 16 | 32] 10000 | 305 | I 245°" 30 )""6r
treo | 181 62°| 525 [° 5600) )"276 1" 15 | 30 | isoxazole a 243)']) 837-1") 63
1200 183 | 61 | 12 57007 10277 I¢ | 29 | 10200 | 304 |) Sa 241 | 32 | 65
1300 | 186] 60] 120] 5800 | 279] 13] 27 | 10300 | 304 1 238 | 34 | 68
1400 | 188 | 59] 118 | 5900 280 | 13 | 26] 10400 | 303 2 236! 351 7o
1500 | 190] 58 | 116 | 6000 | 282 | 12 24 | 10500 | 303 2 234.1 36}: 72
1600 | 193 | 56] 113 | G6roo | 283 II | 23 |. 10600 | 302 2 231 37 | 75
1700 195 55 | 111 6200 | 284 II | 22 | 10700 | 302 2 229 | 38 77
1800 | 198 | 54 | 108] 6300 | 286) 10] 20] 10800 | 301% | 3 [226 | 40] 80
Igco | 2c0| 53] 106} 6400 | 287 | 10] 19] 10900 | 300 howd 224 | 41 | 82
| i Pal ee ae ee
z000 | 203 | 51 | 103 | 65c0 | 288 9 | 18] 11000 | 300 3 221 42 | 85
2100 | 205 50 | Tor 6600 289 8 17 | I1100 | 299 4 219}. 43 87
2200 207 |} 49| 99] 6700 290 8 16 | 11200 | 298 | 4 217 | 45 | §9
2300 | 210] 48] 96] 6800 | 291 7 15 | 11300 |. 297 | 5 214 | 46.) 92
2400 | 212] 471] 94 293 6| 13] 11400 | 296 | 5 211 | 47) 95
2500 | 214 | 46 | 92 294 | 6 | 12] 1500 | 295 | 6 208 | 49] 98
2600 | 217| 45 | 89 295 | 5 | x1 | 11600 | 204. 6 | 206 | 50} 100
2700 | 219 43 | 87 296 5 10 | 11700 | 293 7 | 13] 16200 | 203 | 5% | 103
2800 -| 221 2| 85 297 4 g | 11800 | 292] 7] 14] 16300 | 20c } §3 | 106
2900 | 223 | 41 | 83} 7400 | 298) 4 8 | I1g00 |} 291 8 | 15 | 16400 | 198] 54 | 108
3000 | 226] 40 7500 | 298 4| 8] 12000 | 290] 8 16 | 16500 | 195 | 55 | 111
3100 | 228 39 | 78 | 7600 | 299 3 | 7] 12100 | 288 9 | 18] 16600 | 192] 57 | 114
3200 | 230] 38] 76] 7700 | 300} 3] 6] 12200 | 287 9 | 19] 16700 | 190] 58 | 116
3300 | 232 37. | 74] 7800 | 301} 2] 5 | 12300 | 286] 30} 20] 16800 | 187] 60 | 119
3400 | 234 | 36 72 7900 {oD il hogan’ 5 | 12400 | 284 | IT 22 | 16900 | 184 | 61 | 122
3500 | 237] 35 69 {| 8000 | 302 2| 4] 12500 | 283 | 12 23 | 17000 | 181 62 | 125 {
3600 | 239} 33 | 67] 8100 | 303 2] 3] 12600 | 281 | 12] 25] 17100 |'178] 64) 128
3700 | 241 2] 65 8200 | 303 1] 31] 12700 | 280 13 26 | 17200 | 176] 65] 130
3800 | 243} 31 | 63] 8300 | 304 I 2°} 12800] 278 | 14} 28 | 17300 || 1724) GG) ies
3900 | 245! 30] 61 8400 | 304 I} 2] 12900 | 276} 15 | 30] 17400 | 170} 68} 136
' | |
4000 | 247 | 29] 59 8500 304 I 2 13000 o75|* 16 gt 17500 | 167 | 69 139
4100 249 |. 28 | 57] 8600 | 305 I 1 | 13100 | 273 | 16] 33 | 17600 | 164] 71 | 14a
4200 | 251 | 27 55 8700 } 305} Of I 13200 | 271 17 35 17700 | 162} 72] 144
4300 | 253 | 26) 53] 8800 | 305 | o 1 | 13300 | 270] 18} 36] 17800] 159 |: 73 | 147
4400 255} 25 51 8900 306 | Oo Oo | 13400 | 268 | 19] 38] 17900 | 156] 7 150
4500 | 257 | 24] 49] gooo | 306 ° o | 13500 | 266 20} 40] 18000 | 163 | 76 | 153

SATELLITES.

Taste [.—continued.

Correétions of the Arg. | Correétions of the Arg. Correétions of the Arg. Correétions of the Arg.

Cor. Cor.]. Arg. | Cor. | Cor. | Cor.
H A B Cc H

266 | 27000 153 | 306
268 | 27100 153 | 306
270 | 27200 305
271 | 27300 305)
273 4 27400 35)

27500 152 | 304
27600 |
27700 |
27800
27900
283 | 28000 |
284 | 28100
286 | 28200
287 | 28300
288 | 28400

es III | |r 290 | 28500

19600 108 | J i 291 ‘| 28600
19700 | 2 242 292 } 28700
19800 | 3 3 | 293 § 28800

294 aay

295 | 29000
296 | 29100
297 | 29200
298 | 29300
29400
29500
29600
29700
29800
29900

120 | 241
63 | 121 | 243 | 25900 |
ae }

61. 122 260c0 | : 35000
58 26100 | 3 |e f 3.5100
56 26200 3 |! ] 35200
54 26300 | “6 te $7°| 2 35300
52 26400 : : : 35400

5° 26500 ar « 31000 | 1: 35500
47 | 129 26000 | 153° 4 31100 32 | 2 35600
46 | 130 26700 f D 31200 4 | 35790
44 | 130 | 26800 | ‘ 31300 30 | 2 35800
42 | 132 26900 | 9. | 31400 i 35999
40 | 1: 27000 | E 31500 128 | 257 36000

SATELLITES.

Taste II. Taste III.
Common to the four Satellites of Jupiter. The Correfponding Dec. Parts of

a Common Year.

Correction of B depending on the Argument S*.

Dec. Parts
of a
Com. Year,

Days of a
Common Year.

10 January.
20

February.

March.

O@ober.

6 December.
16
26

Equation —
Arg. | of Time. Diff.

= M. S. | SEC.
o|— 3 21.2 |
_— 4.18 40.6
200] 4 37-5| 377
300) 5 85
—| 25.0
oe 5 33-5
5cO| 5 51.0
6 1.8
7OO 6 5.0
800 6 0.0
228 5 47-2
1000 5 26.2
BICC 55
1200 4 21.5)
neo SY ool
1400 2 47.8
1500 I 51.8
1600|/— © 49.5
1700/+ © 16.4
1800 27.2
}
1900 2 40.0}
2000 3 55-6}
2100 5 11.9
2200 6 28.2
2300 7 44-4
2400 8 59.2
2500| 10 10.7
2600} 11 18.5)
2700| 12 21.7
2800| 13 18.4
2goo| 14 9.6|? °°
3000} 14 52.8)
"A —| 349
3100) 15 27.7) ,
3200) 15 53:4) 178
3300) 16 9.2} 5
3400|4 16 14.8)

" SATELLITES:

Taste IV. Common to the four Satellites.

Equation of Time for 1780, with the Secular Variation.

Argument S. Sun’s mean Anomaly.

Sec lace | Equation Diff. Sec. Dif | Equation
Var | ‘| Arg. | of Time. a peWviare : of Time.
SEC. | SEC. M. S | sec SEC. | SEC M. Be
— 34.8 3400 | +16 14.8 + 5-4 —I!I 28.8
32.8 i 3500| 16 9.3 me + 09 a8 10 33.2
BEA atop Se) 75153°3 | colaten 39 Wie a Q 33-2
27-4 3700} 15 25.5 8.3 , 8 29.8
3-4 ai mam ete) a
14° 46.2 49-9 12.9 ra 7 23.3
13 56.3 60.5 17-3 4.2 6 16.0
12 55.8 21.5 by os2
—| 70.8 3-9 —
10 24.8| 802] 28.8| 34 2 542
8 56.3 3205 31.8 3-9 I 50.4
96.1 2.4 —
7 202007. 34:2] 1 9 — 0 50.4
5 38.7 eer 36.0 ra +O 7.1
3 52-3 37-2 o 58.8
107-9 ; 0.4 —
2 44 li009.4 37- 0.3 Aes)
O52 lneag 37-3 0.9 7A Digan
T3429 sje 2 58.7
106.3 1.6
ZN2E.2 103-7 34.8 2.3 + 3 24.9
2 ee 98.2 pee) 2.9 744°
43 29-6 3 55+2
i Tes: 6 3-4 =
13°5 | 35.8 Zr eane Seeger
6.3| 22° ab
53053 74.0 ae 4.2 3 55:3
IO 50.3 18.2 3 43-
: 64-3 465
Il 54. : :
12 ee pac? Hi! He ; cas
13 32.6 43-9 | _ 4.2 * 2 29.5
—| 32.5 4.8 —
v4 aoa] 2E2|* 54) 4-6 ate
14 36.8 10.6 9:7 45 +0 28.9 |
—| 0.2 43 —_
ra ong| 27] ae] 4] Srool a eg
14 8.0| 793 21.8| 3°7 I 51.4
28.9 3-3 =
I A : ‘
13 2:5| 355] 38.0| 91 1o000|— 9 312
12 19.1 43-4 30-4 A$
6800 |—11 28.8 | 593

Diff.) yo a
SEC. SEC. SEC.
Giles ehltr.6
Ac oe a
Ge ane 0.6
66.5 | 0.0
67.3 8 0.4
67.8 ; :
Bl egg
67-7 1.3
ae sre 1.9
3.8 28.9 252
60.0 2.6
26.
57-5 | ae 3-1
51-7 19.8 3-4
46.5 3°7
8 16.1 |
Lae Tans
33. 8.0 42
26.2 4.5
19.1 a aa 45
11.2 5-5 45
4.2 3
10.0
ee 14.3 4.2
; 18.5 | 3°9
18.6 3-6
22.4
2501 26.0| 32
3° 29.2 ay,
36.1 2.2
31-9) 1.8
or a ae
it, da°9
45.8 0-4
47-4 ved 0.0
47.1 “ae 0.8
46.1 1.6
: 36.4
43>7 |__ 34.8 |

Argument B
Correéted.

SATELLITES.

Tasie V. Equation of Light, common to the four Satellites.

Argument A.

| 00 | 3000 | Boodt | goco | 12000
Argument Bo | 36000 | 33000 ee 30000 | 27000 | 24000
Correéted. eS (OS Se) eS

SEC. SEC.

I
I
1

wm O
nm &

einedtey | eterna

PREP | RER | RRR

Nor
rote)
oles
+

Taste VI. Equation of Light, common to all the Satellites.

Argument S. The mean Anomaly of the Sun.

1500 | 2000 | 2500 | 3000
8500 | 8000 7500 | 7000

SEC. | SEC.

Pp
www

9 G0
Www

PP
Www

Now oe

me NM

4000 |
6000

9909
Me DWviw

xa

4500

| 5500

y

SATELLITES.

Tasre VII. Equation B.

Equation B.

Equation B. | Diff.

Argument B Argument B Equation B. | Diff. Argument B

CorreGted. Correéted. EAT Corre&ed.

1700 | 8300 | 12° 43.6 3400 | 6600
1800 | 8200 | 12 18.6 3500 | 6500
1900 | 8100 | IL 52.5 3600 | 6400
ze00 | 8o00 | 11 25.6 3700 | 6300
—

2100 | 7900} I0 57-7 3800 | 6200 |
2200 | 7800 | 10 291 3900 | 6100
2300 | 7700| 9g 59.8 4000 | 6000
2400 | 7600 Q 30.2 — 4100 | 5900
2500 | 7500 8 59.9 4200 | 5800
2600 | 7400 8 29.3 ; 4300 | 5700
7300 | 7 58.4 4400 | 5600 }
7200 | 7 29-5 4500 | 5500
i Da onal
7100 | 56.6 | 4600 | 5400
7000 . : 4700 | 5300

i 4800 | 5200
6800 | - : 4900 | 5100

6700 |
| 6600

1896
6062
5249
9415
8601

2766
1951
6116
o281
4445
3630

Vor. XXXI. 3K

SATELLITES.

Taste VIII.—continued. Epochs, &c. of Jupiter’s Second Satellite.

Mean Conjun&.

—

D H. M. S.

13 10 14 8.8 353 | 2703 | 468 7 928 3401 | 5137 To55 | 5985
i 0 a2 39 29. 6845 | 544 | 675 | 4238 | 5993 | 1965 | 7153
© 22 42. i 6028 | 621 85 | 429 | 5083 | 6857 | 2884 | 8333
Fe Foe 5210 | 697 183 | 5928 | 7720 | 3803 | g512
3 49 II. 4392 | 774 937 | 6773 | 8584 | 4722 | o691

Wwreo

16 14 32. 8534 | 851 | 52: 683 | 7609 | 9438 | 5631 | 1858
17 57 46. 7715 | 927 | 437 | 8451 | 0300 | 6546 | 3036
19 41 0. 6897 ! 19t | 9295 | 1163 | 7465 | 4214
21 24 15. 6079 35 | 945 | 0139 | 2025 | 8383 | 5392
9 49 35- 0221 § 692 | 0976 | 2881 | 9293 | 6560

Onwvre O

II 32 49. 3 | 9403 | 234 | 935 4 1 446 | 1822 | 3746.| 0213
newer) Vee i 8586 200 | 2669 | 4611 | 4134
14 59 18. | 7769 | 388 | 954 | 3516 | 5477 | 2055
1gt2 | 720 | 4353 | 6333 | 2966
1095 | [5265 454 | 5199 | 7198 | 3884

mr ON Ww RK

0277 | 61 208 | 6043 | 8061 |} 4804
9459 | 6 ( 962 | 6887 | 8924 | 5722
| 8641 | 716 | 7731 | 9786 6639
2782 | & I 463 8566 | 0640 | 7547
| 1963 | ‘ai 217 | 9410} 1501 | 8464
| 1144 | 97° | 0253 | 2364 | 9382

1815
1816
1817 |
18:8 |
1819
1820 |

AN| Vw

n=

Pw onod

vn OWN Wb

| Mean Conjun&.
|

|

| |

A | B | c LOD TELE | Gao
|
=—|——

|
|D. H. M.- Se |
—— ——— |

| 5 8 41 42.0 |25148| 5156 5400 751) 544 468 | 113 085 | 425 3406/5143 | 1060 5989
| 5 20 21 9.2 | 28184! 5162 4563935 379| 545) 195 843) 177 4250, 6006 | 1977 | 7168
| 6 8 oO 36.3 | 31221) 5168 3726) 120 214) 621 | 278 602 930) 5093 6865 2894 | 8346
|6 19 40 3.4 | 34258] 5174 2888 | 304 050 | 698 | 360 360 , 683 | 5937 | 7730 | 3812 | 9523
6 7 19 30.5 01295 | 5180 Zotar | OBS 7751442 118 | 436 e7ta |ep92 4729 | 0701

6 18 58 57.6 | 04334) 5186 1215 673 720\§ 877 188 | 7623) 9454 5646 1877
© 2 38 48.9 | 07308) 4996 | 286 539 |605 62 | 8448 | 0297

| © 14 18 16.0 | 10345 }.5003 9: 47° | 374 88 37 9290/1158
O 1 $7 43-1 | 13381 5009 8577) 655 209 |
© 13 37 10.2 | 16418 | 5015 [PAO | Ores

1 16 37-4 |19454/ 5021 6852|024 879) 2: 35 37 45 0212/7738
12 56 4.5 | 22491 | 5024 209 714] 412 | 690, 26 1131 | 8g18
© 35 31-6 | 25528) so24 | 393 | 549 | 388 170 |.443 | 3 | 2051 | 0097
58.7 | 28564) 5040 4335 | 578) 385 83 929] 195 | 43 337. 2989 | 1276

25.8 | 31601 | |s046 3496 | 762 | 020 687 | 948 202, 3888 | 2455

52-9 134638 | 5052 | 2660 | 947 | 055/618 347 445) 701 | 6042 | 8062 4804! | 3631

3 20.0 |01674) 5058 | 1824| 132! 890/695 430 204 454/ 6886 8923 5720/4807
47°1 | 04711 | 5065 | og88 | 316) 725] 772 512 962) 206) 7729\9785 6637 | 5984

14.3 , 97748 §071| 0152] 501 560} 848 594 720) 959 8570 | 0645 >552| 7160

41-4 | 10785 | $077 | 9316) 685 | 396) 925 676,479) 712] 411 | 1505 es 468 8335

| 43821 | 5083 | 8481 | $70 | 230] oot | 759) 237| 465 | 0254 | 2367, 9384 | 9512

SATELLITES.

Tasrie VIIL.—continued. Epochs, &c. of Jupiter’s Fourth Satellite.

—

| Mean Conjun@tion. | |
Years pe A S B Cc D E
: De Hehe eS | |
—— —_—_—_ — ; a=
1500 .| -% 42) «$2) 535-2 | 25114 | sost | 5321 1150 | 467 | 421
1801 4 16 45 9:8 | 28176 | 5142 | 4562 1981 | 544 | 853
1802 | 8 6 37 44-3 | 31238 | 5232 | 3802 | 2812 | 622 | 284
1803 LE .2O 130 518-9 34300 | 5323 | 3042 | 3644 | 699 | 716
B. 1804 | 14 10 22 53-4 | 01363 | 54l4 | 2282 | 4474 | 777 | 147

20.9 paeks 5046 | 1103 | 5266 | 850 | 241

18c6 | 4 20 2 55-5 7349 | 5137 | 0346 | 6097 | 928 | 672
30.1 ea I 5228 | 9587 | 6925 | 005 104

B. 1508 | to 23 48 4.6 13473 | 53!9 | 8828 | 7755 | 082 | 535
1809 | 14 13 40. 39.2 16536 | 5410 | 8068 | $586 | 160 | 967

3 1810 Oe TR, 19459 | 5042 | 6888 | 9380 | 234 | a6o
Wir | 4 23 20. 41.2 22521) | 5133 | 6826!) 0273 0) 3r1 | 402

B. 1812 | 7 43 13 «15-8 | 25584 | 5224 | 5364.| 1046 388 | 924
1813) 11 5 abe | eP46.| Sard |. 4005 ub 187391 467. 10355
1814 | 14 16 58 24.9 31708 | 5405 | 3843 | 2799 | 544 | 787
1515 BF AS S284: | 34632 | 5037 | 2664 |) 3502 | 618 |. 881

B. 1816 Awe 6227-6 1694 | 5128 | 1905 | 4332 | 695 | 312
18:7 BegG Bituee 6 4756 | 5219 | 1146 | 5161 | 773 | 744
Tote, Ii) 20 23 36.5 7818 | 5310 | 0388 5991 | 850 | 175
i819 | 14 20 16 10.7 10881 | 5401 | 9631 | 6820 | 927 | 606

38.2 5°33

Months.

January

February

Months.

February -

February
March

SATELLITES.

Tasre iX.—continued. Revolutions of Jupiter’s Firf Satellite for Months.

a

Se A
324 1066
338 I114
353 1163
368 1211
382 1260
397 1308
AXZ 1357
426 | 1405
441 1454
456 1502
2 | 471 1551
2 | 485 1599
22.1 | 500 1647
} 500 1647
: 515 1696
529 1744
Peeks 1793
559 1841
573 18g0
588 1938
603 1987
| 618 2035
| 632 2084
| 647 2132
662 2180
676 2229
691 2277
706 2326
72% aoe
735 2423
5e 2471
765 2520
| 779 2568
| 794 2617
809 2665
823 2713
838 2762

SATELLITES.

Taste IX.—continued. Revolutions of Jupiter’s Firff Satellite for Months.

Months. Doe eit Me 1S A s B
April - - 30 8 24-443 1900 3295 3017
May - - |, OnE S 2498 44.3 1000 3295 3017

| b2eh 2.) petzo3 1015 3343 3062

Ba 121) 2h 6.2 1029 3391 3106

ee gta G222 feet 3449 3252

i Sor TON 283 105g | 3489 | 3195

—————e

|) 985 4 47°. 44-0 1073 3537 3239

| 10 23 16 20.0 1088 3586 3283

| 12 17 44 55.9 1103 | 3634 | 3328

EAP U2) WBS 1118 3683 3372

161+ 6 427. 29.8 1132 3731 3416

r8i\ I ToO}443:8 1147 3779 3461

rs

19 19 39 19.7 1162 3828 3505

| 21 14 7 55-7 | 1176 | 3876 } 3550

| 23 8 36 31.6 1191 | 3925 | 3594

| 25a eS, 7 TET 1206 | 3973 | 3638

| 26 21 33 43.5 1221 4022 3683

| 28 16 2 19.4 1235 4070 3727

May - - | 30 TO 30° 55.4 1250 |} 4119 | 3771
June - = |} © 4 59 313 1265 4167 3816
| 2 23 2 7-3 1279 | 4216 3860

|" 4 17 56 432 1294 | 4264 | 3905

| 6 12 25 192 | 1309 | 4312 | 3949

|} 8 6 53 55.% 1323 | 4361 | 3993

| to 3 22 31.0 |° 1338 4409 4038

Ir Ig 51 7.0 1353 | 4458 | 4082

13 14, 19 42.9 | 1368 4506 4126

15 8 48 18.9 1382 | 4555 | 4171

17, 5.3- 1675548 1397 4603 4215

18 21 45 30.8 1412 4652 4260

ZOV ED: “TAPE 6:7 1426 4700 4304

Lh ene | setts 7 1441 | 4749 | 4348

24 5 I 18.6 1456 | 4797 | 4393

25 23 39 54-5 147¢ | 4846 | 4437

27 «18 39-5 1485 | 4894 | 4481

June - - Sy O12 | 37180 6.4 1500 4942 4526
July - - 1 7 5 42-4 1515 | 4991 | 4570
3 1 34 18.3 1529 | 5039 | 4614

4 20 2 54.3 1544 | 5088 | 4659

6 14 31 302 | 1559 | 5136 | 4703

8 9 0 62 1573 5185 | 4748

10 «632842 1588 5233 4792

Iu ‘21 57° 18.0 1603 5282 4236

13 16 25 54.0 1618 5330 4881

15 10 54 299 1632 | 5379 | 4925
LESS | 2350 1647 $427 4969
1B 23 51 418 | 1662 | $475 | so14

SATELLITES.

Taste 1X.—continued. Revolutions of Jupiter’s Firf Satellite for Months.

Months. ft Waied oH. | aK. 1S- A Bie vl Wie | FE G H
July - - | 20 48 20, 517.8 1676 | 419 | 416 466
| 2ae 2 48) 553-7 1691 422 | 419’ | Ago
24.7 +17 29-7 | 1706 426 | 42 474
abo. 1 46 :195.6 1720 | 430 | 426 478
27 20 14 415 1735 433 439 | 482
29 14 43 437-5 | 1750 | 437 | 434 | 486
July - - 31.9 IL 53-4 1765 441 | 437 | Ag
Auguft - - |) * (a e3)) 4Oun29.4 1779 444 441 495
Biz le?! © Orgs 5-3 1794 448 445 499
5 16 37 41.3 1809 452 | 448 | 503
#0) Gage 2 1823 455 452 | 507
9 65 34 53-2, |. 1838 459 | 456 | 5ur
\) ie 30929-T 1853 463 459 | 515
| W2g8) Baese5:0 s-21868 466 463 519
T4543 . Q.241.0 1852
16 2916.9 | 1897 474 | 470 | 527
18. 1 57 529 | 1912 477 | 474 | 53%

470 | 467 523

be
A al
~
aS
nn
we
aN
wo
Na)
i —s

250-53! $26016.7 1971
26.22 20552:6 |). 1985
28 16 49 28.5 2000
Auguft - - ZO:RETL) TSiceAsk he Zou
September - TDS AGpcAOA ioe 2029
Bra O UGi16.4 2044
4 18 43 52.3 2059

FONG 2) \Oncdo.2 2103
Ir 20 38 16.1 2118
160,15) Geag2.0 2132
15 9 35 28.0 2147
2162

22 411 29 51.8 2206

24..°5 58 927-7 2220

20; 40 | 57.3.7 2235

27 18 55 39.6 2250

September - 1) 205: 23 | 2) 15.5 2265
Oober - - 1 7 §2 §1-5 | 2279
Sogn ? Me pa7eg 2294

4 20 50 3-5 | 2309

6 15 18 39.4 | -2323

| 8 9 47 15-4 | 2338

f WOher4 1S Fg 2353

—_——_ ~~

Months.

OGtober - =

O@ober -

SATELLITES.

November

November
December

December
January -

8918
8963

goo7
gost
9096
Q140
gis

4125
Qi45
4165

Q1os5

Qgito

TasLE 1X.—continued. Revolutions of Jupiter’s Firft Satellite for Months.

Months.

January

February

February -
March

SATELLITES.

apie 1X.—continued. Revolutions of Jupiter’s Second Satellite for Months.

Change of the

|
|

|
|

Mean Conjunétion. A Ss
D. He M. S.
| Oo) td, A 7 ieaaed, aoa 97
ioe 2 85 ATES) Spee |S es
| 10 15 53 41-2 9 | 292
| m4 WE or ae 118 | 389
ly 08) 20)5 2un7 148 | 487
| 21-7 47. 2%4 | 177 | 584
eal

24 OY Sie HORT 207 | 681

28) 10) 2350 G.5 236} 778

gr 23 4.1 35276 266 | 876
4 12 58 57.3 | 295 | 973
8 212 165510 9325") 1070

II 15 34 44.8 ) 354 | 1168

15 4 52 38.5 | 384 | 1265

18 18 10 32.2 413 | 1362

22.) 7 28). 20.0 443 | 1460

aA Lee —

25 20 46° 19.7 472 | 1557
P10 Ane lesd: 502 | 1654
4.824) 2aNe oe 0 532 | 1751
8 I2 40 0.9 561 | 1849

[ i2 $95 57 154.6 591 | 1946

15 15 15 48.3 | 620 | 2043

| IQ 4 33+ 42.1 650 | 2141
| 22 fry GL8'35.8 679 | 2238
}26 7 9 29.5 709 | 2335
|29 20 27 23.3 | 738 | 2433
20 an rasl yo 768 | 2530

5 23 3 107 | 797 | 2627
1 9 882 2 iMag 827 | 2724
}13 ©X 38° 58:2 | 856) 2822
}16 14 56. 51.9 | 886 | 2919
| 20 “4 1444616 | 915 | 3016

23 17 32 39-4 | 945 | 3114

27 6 §0 33-1 | 974 | 3211

30 20 8 26.8 | 1004 | 3308
4 9 26 20.6 | 1034 | 3406
7 22 44 14.3 | 1063 | 3503
Ile” ‘2 7880

1093 | 3600

B Cc
89 | 5040
178 | o81
267 | 5122
356 162
446 | 5203
DSS ah ee
62 5284
123) 325
802 | 5365
891 406
980 | 5447
1069 | 487
1158 | 5528
1247 | 568
1337 | 5609
1426 | 650
1515 | 5690
1604 | 73!
1693 | 5771
1782 | 812
1871 | 5853
1960 | 893
2049 | 5934
2138 | 975
2228 } 6o15
2317 | 1056
2406 | 6096
AOS abe Si7
2584 | 6178
2673 | 1218
2762 | 6259
2851 | 1299
| 2940 | 6340
3029 | 1381
3119 | 6421 |
3208 | 1462

SSS SO eee

3297

6502 |

Dp

I I

I 2

Ci age)

EP es)

4\ 4

4 5

5 6

6} 6

Dien

7 8

8/9

9 | to

Io | 10

Io { 11

i bts

ead SY)

13 | 14

1s el leet
a |

1 al als

15 | 16

16 | 17

16 | 18

17 | 18

18 | 19

1g | 20

Ig | 21

| 20 | 22
21 | 22 |
22 23)
22 | 24 |
23 as |
24 26 |
25 ae
25 | 27 |
26 | 28 |
| 27 |.29 |
| 28 | 3° |

mS

In Biflextile Years, add 1 Day in the Months of January and February.

EF, | (.G¢ I K
Flies? | 8) Ss
Te ts ly 16) tea
Don e22)) 2° | 2h away
29 | 29| 33} 34] 36
Sie viuol | S409 Sea as
44} 44|.49) 5°) 54
184 | 183.| 205 | 210 | 223
192 | 190 | 213 | 218 | 232
199 | 198 | 221 226 | 241
206 | 205 | 230 | 235 | 250
214, | 212 | 238 } 243 259°|
221 | 220 | 246 251 | 268
229.| 227 | 254 | 260 277
236 | 234 | 262 | 268 | 285
243 | 241 | 271 | 277 | 294
25%] 249. | 279.) \ 25h See
258 | 256 | 287 | 293 | 312
265 | 263 | 295 | 302 | 326
273 | 271 | 304 | 310 | 330

SATELLITES.

Taste [X.—continued. Revolutions of Jupiter’s Second Satellite for Months.

Change of the
Mean Conjunétion.

bye i
6584 |
1624
6665
1705
6746

1299 1787
1329 6827
1358 1868

1388 6908
1417 1949
1447 6990

1476 | 4865 |. 2030
1506 | 4962 7071
1536 | 5060 21

1565 | 5157 | 4722 | 7152
1595 | 5254 | 4811 | 2193
1624 | $352 | 4901 | 7233

1654 | 5449 | 4990 | 2274 459 | 47° | 500
1684 | 5546 | 5079 | 7314 68 | 478 | 509
1713 | 5644 | 5168 | 2355 486 | 517

1742 | 5741 | 5257 | 7396 | 44 495
1772 | 5838 | 5346 | 2436
1801 | $935 | 5435 | 7477

1831 | 6033 | 5524 | 2518
1860 | 6130 | 5613 | 7558
1890 | 6227 | 5702.| 2599

1919 | 6325 | 5792 | 7639 |
1949 | 6422 | 5881 | 2680 |
1978 | 6519 | 5970 7721

eaccdl 6617 | 6059 | 2761
2038 | 6714 6148 | 7802
2067 | 6811 | 6237 | 2842
2097 | 6909 | 6326 | 7683

2126 | 7006 | 6415.) 2924 | §31 | 527
2156 | 7103 | 6504 | 7964 538 | 534
2185 | 7200 | 593 | 3005 546 | 541

Vou. XXXL 3 L

SATELLITES.

Taste [X.—continued. Revolutions of Jupiter’s Second Satellite for Months.

Change of the

Monti. Otc tm te | ont ee |
ae Jah a fg Natl ts tel
September - | 23 13 22 9.8 | 2215 | 6683 | 8045
27.2 40 3.5 6772 | 3086
September - | 30 15°57 57-2 6861 | 812
O@ober - | 4 § 15 51.0 | 6950 | 3167
7 18 33 44.6 | 7039 | 8208
12.07 51,.38-4 | 7128 | 3248
14 21 9 32.1 | 7217 | 8289
18 10 27 25.9 7306 | 3330
21 23 45 19.6 7395 | 8370
SENS) etigiaes 7484 | 3411
Ofober - | 29 221 7.1 | 7574 | S4g1
November - | 115 39 0.8 | 7663 | 3492
| 5 4 56 54.5 | 7752 | 8533
8 18 14 48.2 ’ | 7841 | 3573
12.7 42 42.0, | 2628 | 8660 | 7930 8614
| 75:20) 55. A5-7a9 2658 | 8757.1,80%9 ng os4
19 10 8 29.4 | 2687 | 8855 | 8108 | 8695
22 23 26 23.2 | 2717 | 8952 | 8197 3736
26 12 44 16.9 | 2745 | go4g | 8286 | 8776
November - }30. 2 2 10.6 | 2776 | 9147 | 8375 | 3817
December - 3.15 20 4.3 | 2805 | 9244 | 8465 | 8857 779 848 | 1088
7 4 37 58.1 | 2835 | 9341 | 8554 | 3898 787 856 | 1099
10 17 55 51-7 | 2864 | 9438 | 8643 | 8939 796 | 813 | 865} 1118
14 7 13 45-5 | 2894 | 9536 | 8732 | 3979 723 | 717 | 804 | 822 | 874 | 1122
17 20 31 39-3, | 2923 | 9633 | 8821 | goz0 730 | 725 | 812 830 | 883 | 1134
Se Se PES le Hee
21 9 49 33-0 | 2953 | 9730 | Bg10 | 406t 737 | 732 a] 839 | 892 | 1145
24 23 7 26.8 | 2982 | 9828 | 8999 | giol 745 | 739 | 829 | 847°} got | 1156
December - | 28 12 25 26.5 | 3012 | 9925 | go88 | 4142 752 |. 747 | 837 | 855 | g10 | 1168
January - I I 43 14.2 | 3042 | 0022 | 9177 | 9182 760 | 754 | 845 | 864 | 919 | 1179
Taste [X.—continued.
Change of the
Siatho. Mean Conjunétion. A L
January - 7 3°59 35-8 60 23
14 7 59 11-7 | 119 40
21 1% 58 47.5 | 179 69
January - | 28 15 58 23.3 | 238 92
February . 4 19 57 59-2 | 298 |
Il 23 §7 35-0 | 357 | 1177 | 1078
19 3.57 10.8 | 417 | 1373 | 1258 |
February 26 7 56 46.7 5 119 |
March - 5 11 56 22.4 134, 133 | 149 | 152 1 62) 208
12 15 55 58.2 149) 148 | 165 | 169 | 180) 231
19 19 55 34-1 164 | 162 |} 182 | 186 | 198 254
March - | 26 178 | 177 | 198 | 203 216 | 2977

45 55. 9

SATELLITES.

Tasie 1X.—continued. Revolutions of Jupiter’s Third Satellite for Months.

Change of the
Mean Conjunction.

774 | 2551 | 2336
834 | 2747 | 2515
893
953

o12 |
072 |

4120 | 3773
4316 | 3953
4513 | 4132
4709 | 4312

4905
5101
5297
5494

5690

6082
6278 | 5749

6475
6671
6867
7003

7259 | 6647
7456 | 6827
7652 | 7007
7848 | 7186

8044 |} 7366
8240 | 7546
8437 } 7725
8633 | 79°5

751 | 737 68 | 73 | 669
69 | 74 | 684
70 Ed

786 | 72 | 78 [784 an 794

8o2 74 79 | 729 | 723 B10 | B29
819 | 15 he | 744 | 738) 827 i

835 | 77 | 82 | 758 | 753 | 844

3L 2

Months.

January -
February -

March - |
April Z

Auguft -

September

O@ober -

November
December

January -

Taste I1X.—continued. Revolutions of Jupiter’s Fourth Satellite for Months.

Change of the

Mean Conjunction.

FAN 7 alt F325;
B12) 2065

ET, PO NAT 2795

3 13 52 346

In Biffextile Years, add 1 Day in the Months of January and February.

SATELLITES.

SATELLITES.

Taste X. Equations arifing from the Perturbations TasLe X.—continued. Equations arifing from the
of Jupiter’s Firf Satellite. Perturbations of Jupiter’s Second Satellite.

Equation. | Diff. Equation. | Diff.
Years. } | Years.|<—<$<$—$—$—<—|
M.S SEC. M. Ss SEC.
8 4.0 , | 18101 6 0.2
Sp 55.2 a 6 10.3 es
3! oy AG 6 21.5 11-7
3 8 3 1.9 6 33-2 i2.2
3 10.2 6 45.4
og 12.7
3 8 12.5 25 1811} 6 58.1 12.9
3 8 15.0 2.5 7 11.0 13-1
3 S75 Da Pee 12.3
3 8 19.6 ae 7 30:4 12.3
3 8 21.8 748.7
1.9 12.0
3 8 23.7 1812 | 8 0.7
4 8 24.9 |. to Bir’ | 1)3
4 8 25.9 0.4 8 22.3 :
4 8 26.3 8 31.7 9-4
g 6 o.1 8 8.6
4 = oes
= Os —s 7-4
4 ¢8 25.7 ro | 1813 | 8 47-7 a
; Bane | 29 £533 | 46
4 22. 2.7 8 57-9 3-3
4 8 20.1 3-6 g 1.2 2.4.
4 8 16.5 9 3-6
-| 4-4 ———-| 14
4 8 12.1 4.8 1814 | 9 5.0 0.5
E Bee | (a6 poe |: Om
4 7543 | 74 pie | Ee
6.8 ike) 3-4
4 7 40. ; 9 0.0
ri -| 4.0
4 7 38-7 | g 8 56.0 | 6,
4 7 30.0 . 8 51.0 5.8
4 7 20.6 ‘ 8 45.2 2+
4 7 I1.0 8 39.1 6
4 a Oly 8 32.2 ‘9
= =| 97
4 1806 | 6 50.2 8 24.5 oh
- 6 40. 8 15.9 ’
g Ba On os
6 7 56.5 ,
6 7 45.9 [77°
11.1
1807 | 6 7 34.8
5 7 age | 12
33 5 tbe Cit wl ee
Ue 5 ce ie
5*5 5 6 50.0 tw
oof) —| 11.1
1808 | 5 6 38.9
5+4 5 6 28.5 10.4
ip 5 6 18.6 an
5 6 O.4 ?
4-4 5 Cow o7
3°7 -| 6.9
1809 5 27.8 5 53.8 6
3-4 5 31.6 5 47-4 4
2.5 5 36.9 ua ri
1.8 Be 3-3
11 5 43-1 5 385 | Ty
§ 543 5 37-4
0.3 —- ——_——-| 0.2
18104 6 o.2 5 37-2

SATELLITES.

Taste X.—continued. Equations arifing from the
Perturbations of Jupiter’s Third Satellite,

wnt

a aa a GAS SA ibe tS

Bw Wnarnw~th

>]

1801

COw oO

wN We to

N
~

1803 1813

1804 |

UR NT SS ST fos te
OMO 0 Wah eH

1805

1808

1809

*Tasix X.—continued. Equations arifing from the
Perturbations of Jupiter’s Fourth Satellite.

Equation. | Diff.

Years. — Years.
; M.» Se SEC. Mews “SEC.
—

1800 a 5 6d 1810
38 4-4 | O9
3812.3 | 79
38 21.8 | 9°5

—|/ 10.8 -}——

1Bo1 33 anf 11.9 1811

| 28 45 | 11.4
3° 55-9 | 30.8
es a ee
| 39. 15-7
— —| 81
1802 23.8 812
29-288 | o5se |
{39 33-8 | #°
93085 bug.
| 39 84:9 |
—|. 4.0

1803 | 39 30.9 | +
30.955 bao.6
3094-9 | 3.6
PARED. Foe

38 44.6 73
- 21.2
(804 2 oo ayia 1814 | 42
aise 28.2
37 31-0
36 59.8 | Se
| 36 23.6 3°
39
1805 2 43-9 | 421 1815
| 34 17-6 pare
33 318 | 33".
32 433 ee

coo [ar szs | 20 [amie

180 :
ety $4 ec Be

1817

1808

1810

Equation.| Diff. [|

ro

Taste XI. Equation of the Centre of Jupiter’s Firf Satellite, with the principal Part of the Equation of Light.

Arg. A.

Equation A.

is in iain)

H.

oooo0o$o cooo0°o ooooo — mm om a a ee) me et

e000 8

M.

15
14
14
13

12

QW Pus Ax CO

ooOnNDN

SATELLITES.

Equation A.

(op CoPTo) Toy Lo)

°
°
°o
°
°o

Equation A.

Hy M. ‘Ss.
Oo 34 31-3
O 34 27-1
© 34 23:5
O 34 207
Oo 34 18.5
© 34 <I7e3
Q- 3416.5
o 34. 16.6
QO 34 ate

OQ 34 548.

OQ 34. 21.0
9 34 24.0
© 34 27.6
Oo 34 31:9
Oo 34 37:2
Oo 34 43:1
© 34. 49-7
Os) 3405729
GQ. 20 edbek
Oo 35 13-9
Oo 35 4354
O 35 33-6
© 35 44:5
Oo 35 56.3
o 36 8.7
o 36 21.9
o 36 35.6
Oo 36 50.3
o 37. 5:8
0. 37). G21s7
© 37 354
© 37 55:9
o 38 13.9
o 38 .32.8
Oo 38 523
© 39 12.6
9 39 335
Oo 39 55-2
© 40 174
oO 40 493
O 4Iy 40
o 41 28.2
© 41 53.2
o 42 18.7
© 42 45:0

Arg. A.

13500
13600
13700
13800
13900

14000
14100
14200
14300
14400

14500
14600
14700
14800
14900

15000
I 5100
15200
15300
15400

15500
15600
15700
15800

15900

16000
16100
16200
16300
16400

16500
16600
16700
16800
16900:

17009
17100
17200
17300
17400

W500
17600
17700
17800
17900

Equation A.
ti Gis

© 43 119
O'S 3932
O) AA pst
0. 44.3527
OQ) Asi aascck
9 50853
o 46 5-5
o 46 36.4
°o 47. 8.0
© 47 40.0
© 48 12.7
Oo 48 45-9
O-+ 49.65937
© 49 53.8
© 50 28.6
GQ) Sil waigas
9. $1 6894:
0) 52 niles
© $2 pupa.2
O52 20.2
o 54. 68
Oo 54 ofaet
CVG MEER
o 56 1.3
° 56 40.3
O57 79-5,
OQ 37. 659:2
o 58 39.6
2 59 20.0
1 oO 06
I 0 4165
ly UT azar
i" 12 Aadays
1. 2 45.9
i 13,2800
I 4&- 10,0
hh (4.05833
y 15. 0349
r 6 17.6
hy 47 oad
17 ofgt
i 8 26.5
L . 19 4.98
y Dodge
1 10 3665

SATELLITES.

Taste X1.—continued. Equation, &c. of Jupiter’s Firf Satellite, with the principal Part of the Equation of Light. p

Equation A. Equation A. | Equation A.
Arg. A. | ————— Arg. A. |

nn fn
QW 23
nom

“MN

BO HN
CMON n Ww

21600

4 26300
21800 : _ 26400
2:900 [ : i 26500

26600
26700
26800
26900
27000
27100

SATELLITES.

Tasie X1.—continued. Equation, &c. of Jupiter’s Second Satellite, with the principal Part of the Equation of Light.

ve Equation A. Equation A. Equation A. Equation A.

Arg. A. | Arg. A. |———— Arg. A. |}————— Arg. A. |——
at ee A Wau. SS: HM. ‘Ss. HM. S. He iM. S:

fe) iS dy feck cate | 1. 54 -44.8 4500 Tf “4 SOqy gooo ©) 334.5 277,0 13500 OlBs) e250

100 Is 53 caytg 4600 Ie O CORG goo © 34-°or3 13600 ©) 54 (21-9

200 Pa-52 660:8 4700 © 59) «64.6 g200 © 34 16.4 13700 © 55 19.8

300 I> 50 52-3 4800 of 58 "7:3 9300 © 34 12.8 13800 & 56. “19-2

400 I 49 34:8 4900 OF 57 S1'I<O 9400 © 34 10.7 13900 © 57 19.6

5000 OF 56 S1527 9500 © 34 I0.1 14000 © §8 21.3

51G0 OF, 55 °2153 g600 © 34 I1.0 T4100 © 59 24.0

5200 OF 54 29°77 9700 ©) 34 i3-3 14200 i ON 25758

5300 © 53 35.0 9800 o 34 16.8 14300 1 ARIAS)

5400 Of 52 43.2 9900 ©) 64) 22-0 14400 | i, gS

5500 Of ST 52:5 10000 © 34 28.8 14500 1 PE Deady. U5)

5600 Of 51 295.0 10100 o 34 36.8 14600 hbase)

5700 © 50 14.4 10200 © 34 46.3 14700 1, Re e280"

5800 °o 49 26.8 10300 O 34 57.2 14800 i) GS

5900 o 48 40.1 10400 Sl ek Ouy 14900 Ue ey he)

6000 © 47 54.6 10500 OQ Aipeckey 15000 i 1 0035-9

6100 O% 47 “10:2 10600 © 35> 39:1 15100 I Wor (48.7

6200 o 46 26.8 10700 © 35°" 55-0 15200 1 A2 sez

6300 © 45 44.4 10800 © 36° 14.3 15300 bie G83}

6400 © 45 3.0 10900 o 36 34.0 15400 I 14 32.8

6500 O 44 23.1 T1000 © "36 "55-3 15500 1g ge icymie Coe}

6600 © 43 44-2 11100 ° 37 18.0 15600 Be rr Ord:

6700 © 43 «6.6 11200 © 37 Aa.2 15700 tO 24.2

6800 © 42 30.1 11300 OF Bor eye, 15800 I 19. 42.7

6900 O 41 54.7 11400 o 38 34.9 15900 Tet 2.0

7000 Oo 41 20.4 11500 © B89. a3 16000 Y 22. 22.0

7100 ©. 40 47-5 11600 © 39 33-3 16100 I 23 42.8

7200 Oo 40 15.7 11700 © 40°" 16200 L 25st

7300 © 39 45.2 11800 © 40 37.6 16300 1 26 26.0

7400 °o 39 «16.1 I1g00 © 41° T1.6 16400 1’.27 45.5

7500 o 38 48.1 12000 © 41° 47.3 16500 E 129. 0ian

7600 © 38 21.4 12100 © 42 24.3 16600 IL 30,.25.0

7700 © 37 56.0 12200 Oo 437 2.9 16700 I 81 59.0

7800 Oo 37 31.8 12300 © 43 42.6 16800 x Bs 23k.

7900 o* 37 “92 12400 © 44 23.8 16900 I, 34 40.3

8000 © 36 47.7 12500 ° 45 ~ «(6.5 17000 TY 46 ya

8100 @ 36 27.6 12600 © 45 50.4 17100 I 37 320.1

8200 °o 36 = 8.9 12700 © 46 35.7 17200 XT BO4.1550

8300 0.35 “G14 12800 © 47 22.3 17300 I 40 31.2

8400 © 35 35-4 12900 o 48 10.3 17400 ey AO A)

8500 © 35 20.6 13000 17500 I 43 . 24-5

8600 o2 4g 9.7 13100 17600 Il 44. $163

8700 © 34 55-2 13200 17700 1 46 18.4

8800 ° 34 44.8 13300 17800 1 47 45.6

8g00 o 34 35:5 13400 17900 1 49 14-9

Vout. XXXI. 3M

SATELLITES.

[apie XI.—continued. Equation, &c. of Jupiter’s Second Satellite, with the principal Part of the Equation of Light.

Equation A.

Equation A. Equation A.

Arg. A.
: Hs OM. ase H,
18000 rE 5O 3
18100 i 52 3
18200 E58 3
18300 eS 3
18400 1 56 3
18500 mags 3
18600 se, 3
18700 | 2 oOo 30 9
Meso (| 2 12 20 FO
18900 | 2 3 tee)
Ig000 -| 2 3815
19100 | 2 3 8
19200 2 36.°8
19300 | 2 3657
19400 | 2 ah
19500 2 BY ee 28700 Ba OF
19600 | 2 Bsa 28800 30.76
19700 | 2 Eee Ve 28900 35 6
19800 | 2 oe 29000 | 3. 5
19900 2 2 Fa 29100 36 oF
—_ j=
20000 | 2 19 14.6 24600 a” a5 29200 Ra 4:
20100 2 20 36.2 24700 3 15 So
20200 2 BY 73 24800 g 6 35 48
20300 2 eat 24900 2 Oo 3g 92
20400 2 BA ayes 25000 eG) 30 ts
20500 2 4 25100 ra 3
20600 2127 TG 25200 gre es 3
20700 2 Bh oad 25300 a Bs 3
20800 2 29 49-1 25400 a ¥S 2
20900 2 4 25500 2° to 2
21000 2 25600 z £9
21100 2, Be 25700 EAD) Te)
21200 2 84 45.5 25800 a 59
21300 Z 396 --0,8 25900 3. 10
a1g00°'} 2 37 26000 3 10
21500 38 26100
21600 26200
21700 26300
21800 26400

26500

TABLE

SATELLITES.

X1.—continued. Equation, &c. of Jupiter’s Third Satellite, with the principal Part of the Equation of Light.

Equation A.

-Equation A.

Arg. A. Arg. A.
HiiM. .8 | H. M He, Me Ss
° 3 14 2333 4500 I 26 13500 Te 145 Ss8
100 3 IL 47-0 4600 132 13600 Tie 1G, 522
200 3.9 dO.7 4700 i, = 22. 13700 Iie 1S) 43-8
300 3 6 345 4800 I 20 13800 1% 20) 26:0
400 3-4 3 Ges3 4900 1 18 13900 Tig, 220 pi Oed:
500 Jp H 222 5000 Loy 7 14000 Ty (24 L4sk
600 2 58 46.3 5100 Lists 14100 Le 26) 2258
700 2 56 10.6 5200 I, 313 14200 I, 28 32.2
800 255% 3Gek 5300 Epil 14300 I 30 44.6
goo 2 50 59:9 5400 LAro 14400 Ty 325 5O02
1000 2 48 25.1 5500 fir eS) ana 10000 ° I» 35) 15:8
1100 2 45 50.6 5600 I> 6 43.6 10100 fo) Ty 37) 34:5,
1200 2 43 16.5 5700 Tem 5) iis 10200 fo) 1% 300 Obes
1300 2 40 42.8 5800 15 3) gas 10300 fo) Dy 420 2920
1400 2.38 <9 5900 Ls 2t oO 10400 ° T 44 42.5

1 —_—Saa0 | ——

1500 2.25 373 Seagal. o °o 36 Lia 47s 8e8
1600 ZuZe cial 6100 °o 59 Oo 37 I 49 .37.0
1700 2430 3355 6200 oO 57 Os 37 Lie 529 eno
1800 2 28 2.6 6300 o 56 o 38 I 54 38.8
1900 2.25. 32:6 6400 }.° 54 Oo 39 Te Sipe lize
2000 2423 oQey 6500 °o 53 Oo 40 1) 59° 474.
2100 2 20 34.6 6600 | o 52 Oo 40 2% 2) (2358
2200 2 18 6.6 6700 | oO 51 Oo 41 Pig 5 pike
2300 2 15 39.6 6800 | o 49 °o 42 Bik Pe Al
2400 BIZ Is 6900 | o 48 Oo 43 2, 19 22.2
2500 2 10 48.2 7000 O 47 Oo 44 24 125 «A:6
2600 2. & 23:9 7100 o 46 Oo 45 2, 15) Axe
2700 Ze © Os 7200 Oo 45 o 46 2 18 32.9
2800 Zs 3 gout 7300 Oo 44 Oo 47 2) 21) iso
2900 ZZ. Ano 7400 ° 43 o 48 Zu 2AY EG
3000 1 58 56.9 7500 lo 42 12000 | © 50 2 26 53.8
3100 j} I 56 37.9 7600 | © 41 o SI 2 29 43-1
3200 | I 54 20.1 7700 °o 40 0, 52 2532) Beat
aoe fit. 53 3-6 7800 | © 40 o 54 2 35 23-9
34020 | 1 49 «48.3 7900 | © 39 o 55 2 38 15.4
3500 1 47 34-2 8000 o 38 12500 Oo 5 24 AXy psttity,
3600 | 1 45 21.7 8100 o 38 12600 | o § 2 44 09
9700 | 1 43 105 8200 O.- 37 12700 | I 2 46 54.8
ego bel <4 6-05 8300 o 36 12800 | 1 2 49 49.0
3900 1 38 §2.0 8400 | 0 36 12900 | 1 2, 52 439
4000 lis 2 36 45-1 8500 oO 35 13000 | x 2 55. 38:9
4100 1 34 39-7 8600 o 35 13100 i 2 58 345
4200 I 32 45-8 8700 °o 35 13200 | ! 2. Ke B02
4300 I 30 33.6 8800 | Oo 34 13300 | 1 3 4 20.4
4400 1 28 32.7 8900 | 0 34 13400 | I 37 2265

3Mz2

SATELLITES.

Tasre XI.—continued. Equation, &c. of Jupiter’s Third Satellite, with the principal Part of the Equation of Light.

Equation A. Equation A. Equation A.
Arg. A. Arg. A. | _— Arg. A, -———_-—_—.

H. Me Si HeillM, Ss
18000 5 5 '50 “9.4 31800 MESS Baez
18100 5 5 49 54:3 | 31900 | 4 53 IQ
18200 5 5 49 36.6 32000 425i “Om
18300 5 5 49 16.0 32100 4 49 45
18400 5 5 48 52.8 32200 4 46 584
18500 5 5 48 26.7 32300 4 44 ris
18600 5 5°47: 7G 32400 4°42 B22
18700 5 5 47 25-9 | 32500 | 4 40 318
18800 iz 5 46 51-4 32600 | 4 38 20.0
18g00 5 5 46 143 32700 | 4 36 6.8
19000 5 5 45 343 | 32800 | 4 33 52.6
1g10o 5 5 (44 52.0 329C0 4°31 3677
19200 5 5 44 69 33000 4 29 198
19300 5 5, 43) 290 33108 42h ES
19400 5 5 42 28.7 33200 4 24> 4292
19500 5 5 41 356 33300 4 22 21.8
19600 | 5 5 40 40.2 33400 4° 20 2
19700 5 5 39 421 33500 | 4 17 37-9
19800 4 | 5 5 9°38 415 33600, | 4715 FAD
19900 | 4 | 5 5 37 38-5 | 33700 | 4 12 49.5
20000 | 4 24600 5 5 36 32.9 33800 4 10 236
20100 | 4 24700 | 5 5 35 249 | 33900 | 4 7 57-5
20200 4 24800 5 34 TE 34000 | 4 5 30.2
20300 4 24900 5 5.933) SG 34100 4° 3 Ge
20400 4 25000 | 5 5 31 4654 34200 4° © 33.0
20500 4 25100 5 5 30 28.9 34300 3°58 304
20600 4 eae 5 Sp 29) Soe 34400 30° 5p Soe
20700 | 4 25300 | 5 5 27 46.9 | 34500 | 3 53 2.0
20800 4 2§400 5 5 26 22.5 34600 3 50 30.4
20goo | 4 25500 | § 5 24 56-1 | 34700 | 3 47 58.1
z10o0o0 | 4 25600 5 5 Pag) 27y 34800 3°45 a5
21100 | 4 25700 5 5 an 56:2 34900 3°42 Gast
21200 4 25800 | 5 5 20 235 35000 340 18.3
21300 |" 4 25900 5 5 18 47.8 35100 3 37 441
21400 | 4 26000 | § 5 17 106 | 35200 | 3 35 96
aisoo | 4 26100 | 5 49 43-8 30700 5 Pr FE 35300 332 345
21600 4 26200 5 50 0.6 30800 5 13 50.0 35400 3 29 5O-4
21700 4 26300 5 50 14.7 30900 giz 46H 35500 327 23.8
21800 4 26400 | 5 50 25.6 31000 5 10 21.4 35600 3 24 48.1
21g00 4 26500 5 59 33-7 31100 5 8 34.2 35700 3 22 12.6
22000 | 4 26600 | 5 50 388 31200 | 5 6 45.1 35800 | 3 19 35.8
22100 | 4 26700 5° 50 4IeI 31300 | 5° 4. 542 35900 3 16 59-4
22200 | 5 26800 5 50 40.5 31400 5 PF YER 36000 | 3 14 23.0
22300 5 26900 sg So San gigoo FFs o£ ORG
22400 5 27000 5 50 30.6 31600 4 59 10.8
22500 5 27100 5 gO 214 31700°> |-—-g"-"57 12.9

te

SATELLITES.

Taste XI.—continued. Equation, &c. of Jupiter’s Fourth Satellite, with the principal Part of the Equation of Light.

Equation A. Equation A. Equation A. Equation A.
Arg: A Arg. A. |———— Arg. A. -

HouM. ¢ Ss: Hi Me 'S: H. M.S. H.

° 6 45 45-2 4500 25833; “SIs9 Bee2 Sr+33 2032 2
100 6-39 38-3 4600 2 28 58.6 gioco © 32 Alek 2
260 > 6933 31-7 4700 22524 29.3 g200 OF 32 GAKeyz 2
300 65127 25:1 4800 25f20 ost 9300 O; 32 Gizek 2
400 | 6 21 18:9 4900 2 15 43-3 9400 O, 32 515-3 2
500 6 15 13:0 5000 2 It 26.9 9500 O 32 -204 2
600 Gi g 75 5100 297 «ao 9600 O 32 32.3 2
700 Gor 3 GeR 5200 2503 Os 9700 O 32-5502 2
800 5 56 58.0 5300 Ti 59 422 9800 © 33 16.6 2
hd ie 5? ORS 5400 Ist55 0559 Bg22 OF 33 a
1000 5 44 «51-5 5500 Ist 5 <A22 10000 Oo 34 28.6 2
Iroo 5 38 40:5 5600 IStAy 233 TO100 Oo 35 14.8 3
1200 5° 32 48.6 5700 1543 39-4 10200 O° 36-o09s3 3
1300 5 26 48.5 5800 i140 54 10300 Q 37 oct? 3
1400 5. 20 49.8 5900 1 36 26.2 10400 | 0 38 514.7 3
5 14 52.6 6000 Bi 35° hys2 10500 © 39 28.8 3

5 68 56.5 6100 |} L 29 33-5 106co0 o 40. 49.6 3

5 1.7 6200 br 26 14.8 10700 Q 42 od7-t 3

4 8.6 6300 E23 Ochs 10800 Oo 43. 51.7 3

4 17-2 6400 Et 19> 53-4: 10900 © 45 33-1 3

2000 4 45 27.6 6500 EYI6 cho-9 T1000 o 47. 21.6 3
2100 4 39 39:9 6600 bi t3 54.0 III00 °o 49 .16.7 4
2200 4 33 54:0 6700 Inet -1l- cca 11200 o 51 18.8 4
2300 4 28 9.9 6800 me 8 4264 11300 Q 53 o27-7 4
2400 4 22 28.1 6900 RES Big 11400 © 55 43-4 4
2500 | 4 16 48.6 7000 | bi 3. 22 T1500 OQ: 58: en ge8 4
2600 ‘| 4 II Ito 700 F] EEO cBgud: 11600 E 10 351 4
2700 4 5§ 36.1 7200 o 58 10.6 11700 E 13 eeiilso 4
2800 4 .O 93.4 7300 | ° 55 53-8 11800 i | 35 oboe 4
2900 | 3 54 33-4 7499 | QO 53 43-1 11g0co | It 8 43.1 4

—_——— Ne es ees

3000 3.49 «61 7500 |} O° 51 38.3 12000 I II «39:0 4
3100 x 43 gus 7600 ° 49 39.6 12100 I 14. 41.6 5
3200 3 38 19.8 7700 °° 47 47.0 12200 Eo WFory SO 5
3300 | ) ga. x0. 7800 °o 46 06 12300 E27 py 8 5
3400 Zz 27 44.7 7900 © 44 205 12400 I 24. 28.3 5
3500 | 3 22 31.9 Booo O 42 46.7 12500 I 27 SRO f 5
300 |} 3 17 22-4 8100 o 41 19.0 12600 1 31 32.8 5
3700 | 3 12 «15.9 8200 °o 39 58.0 12700 I 35 129 5
3800 | 3 7 12.8 8300 Oo 33 43.3 12800 i 30 a0 hat 5
3900 | 3 2 13.3 8400 © 37 35-0 129V0 I 42-537 6
4000 2 $7 “7-2 8500 0 36 33.2 13000 1 46 53.4 17500 6
4100 a §2 24.6 8600 | 0 35 37-9 13100 I 50. 50.2 17600 6
4200 | 2 47 35°7 8700 | O 34 49-3 13200 § 55 qed 17700 6
4300 2 42 50.6 $800 | ©: 34 © Jt 13300 1 59 28.8 17800 6
4400 2 38 92 8900 | oO 33 31-8 13400 Q 19 egdad 17900 6

SATELLITES.

Tasis X1.—continued. Equation, &c. of Jupiter’s Fourth Satellite, with the principal Part of the Equation of Light,

Equation A. | Equation A. Equation A. Equation A.
Arg. A. | ———————— Pree ———_——_| Arg. A. | pa

18000 | d 27200
18100 | . 27300
18200 ; ‘ 27400
18300 : 27500
18400 : : 27600

18500 . . 27700
18600 : s 27800
18700 . 27900
18800 : s 28000
18900 : ; 28100

19000 J 28200
Igloo ] : 28300
19200 . 28400
19300 : 28500
19400 : 28600

19500 : 28700
19600 ‘21. i 28800
19700 : 28900
19800 : 29000
T9900 : : 29100

29200
29300
29400
29500
29600
29700
29800
20700 : ‘ 29900
20800 . : 30000
20900 : i 30100

CreoemMmann MaAamamniwouowuwrs wownows

21000 | ; 30200
21100 30300
21200 | 30400
21300 | Seek)
21400 | 30600

30700

30800
30900
31000 |
31100

31200 |
31300 |
31400 |
31500 |
31600 |
31700 |

ANN NSunnN SIN NnnuNSs

—~ nt

SATELLITES.

Taste XII. Equation C of Jupiter’s Fir Satellite.

} Bavaton C; [-

° ooo ooo oo°o a) nH Paes aie ann~ a

SLR PHU] QQal] ana setellawenll sacs PAP 1 wwn

SATELLITES.

Taste XI1.—continued. Equation C of Jupiter’s Second Satellite.

o. | Eavation €- | Dif. Diff. Diff.
Arg. C.
SEC. SEC. SEC.
°
113.7 40.1 65-7
100 3500 jo 0 1.9
aS 111.6 3600 30 27.8 26.1 17°4
108.3 —_————| 119 87.6
300 3790 baie 320)
“eo 103-8 3800 30° 3703 a4 96-7
500 a 3900 30 20.5 : 193:
88.2 | 30-7 110.6
600 4000 29 49-8
700 ze5 4100 2 5-8 be 113-5
800 7-3 4200 | 28 -g.0 a SEae7
55-4 | | 68.5 116.1
goo k 4300 27° O§
ie gt | feo | sae | 382 iis
Ir10o ” 4500 | 24 12.8 c ’
14-4 =a ced ca 96.6 104.0
1200 4 22 36.2
1300 wee 4700 20 52.6 103-6 98-5
1400 4:5 4800 19 455 oe 92:9
28.9 ———_———— 11.2 79.8
1500 4900 17° 13:3
1600 nae 5000 15 20.0 : 133 ad
1700 5% 5100 13" 26.49 3-3 ate
68.5 T1T.2 42.7
1800 5200 rrvi35-5 8
1900 798 | $300 Qt tyr ee | eee ed
2000 SPs 5400 ee Ess 03+ 1435
98-5 . 96.6 0.0
2100 5500 27.2
2200 1 $600 4 58.6 he aoe
2300 mi $700 3 30-5 ail v
II4.1 68.5 42.4
2400 5800 2 31.0
3500 116.1 $900 1 34.2 56.8 55-4
2600 a 6000 O 50.2 44-0 73
113-5 - 30.7 78.5
2700 100 mIO* “19.5 7
2800 Ae 6200 O° 29 16.8 6.
2900 “4 6300 or 04 a8 3
3000 we 6400 oma By AD 123s
87.6 26.1 108.3
3100 6500 o 38.3
3200 ne 6600 I 18.4 40rn Ata
$300 pt 6700 2-117 53-3 113-7

SATELLITES.

Tasie XI1.—continued. Equation C of Jupiter’s Third Satellite.

Equation C. Diff. Equation C. | Diff. Equation C.
ooo Arg. C. Arg. C. |———
Bs > 8. SEC Be, Ys - SEC Sy
6 | fo} | I 670 O 17.0
2 7 { 8.3 sus 3 54 4.6 680 5 1364
aa, 8 35 Wheelie SS0rs 5.0
2 24.3 | ys 360 3 44.5 ees 690 Oy tOcr
“3 al >
2 2.6 370 3° ane pies) O° yet
2 ae ee 380 3 33-6 - 710 o 8 64.8
2 48.6 | - 390 a a7 720 oO 2.8
7. 3 — -
6 2 56. 400 3. zie 730 oO 4
70 ai ten | ous 410 | 3° 14.9 oa 740 0 Og
80 Baars. 7-3 420 q Cee , 750 o 00
13820 aa
: 60 o 860.0
<a ; oe 6-7 ae 3 a 733 Ls ° 0.5
110 : re &3 450 a “46: 7-4 780 ° 1.4
| 3 313 5 3
—— 6.0 75
= | Me 5-7 = a oes 17 ap +| Poe eo
130 Z 43.0 | . 4 - 8
4. °3 48.2 - | = 480 22253 : i 810 Or V7.5
4-9 - : -
8 ° Io
150 | ol 490 2. ak 20 5
se 4 oa 4-3 500 2 76 ke 830 Oo 13:9
170 Re A 3-9 510 I 59:7 ; 840 o 17.8
3-4 7 eu
180 has Ao 520 E. 51-9 8 850 O 22.5
3-0 lp 860 Oo 27.0
190 e. 77 Fhe Secs ; 7
200 4 10.2 | sbi 540 I 36.4 Le 870 © 32.2
ee 725 —
210 Yas Pr 6 550 I 28.9 880 © 37-9
220 A 13.8 = 560 X% 205 = 890 © 43-9
230 4. 14.7 aD 570 Ir 1452 3 goo Oo 50.2
0.5 Fak
4 15.2 eis 580 I 7-1 6.8 910 o 56.9
15.2 z 59° I 0.3 920 I 3-9
: as my 600 o . 53.8 6.5 930 I Ih
1.0 6.3
13.8 610 O 47-5 940 r 188
¥ “es ae 620 O 41.6 a2 950 1 26.6
4 10.4 ope 630 °° 36.0 5° g6o I 34.6
4 8&1 2-3 640 O 30.7 fe 970 I 42.6
3.0 - 0 —
Bi chor 650 Oo 25.7 4.6 980 I 50.9
4 1.8 54 660 O' 21.3 ; 990 I 59-3
g 58.2 ea 670 o 17.0 3.4 1000 2 7.6
BS 545

Vow. XXXI. 3N

SATELLITES.

Taste XI1.—continued.

Diff.

6700

Arg. (eH

3400
3500
3600

3700
3800
3990

4000
4.100
4200

4300
4400
4500

4600

4700
4800

4900
5000
51co

5200
5300

5400

5500
5600

5790

5800

5900
6000

6100
6200

6300
6400
6500
6600

Equation C of Jupiter’s Fourth Satellite.

Equation C

H. M. Ss.

1 44 46.3
I 42 45-3
LY 49 33-5
I 38 11.6
I \ 35) Ac:0
I

3%) 59-3

I (30) 10;2
ie eye)
Wy SBR

I 20 58.9
i 7543-0
Flat 2452

Ly BOs ie 3
I 7 29.1
I Beto

I °o 26.0

OQ 56 53.1
Ov 530 20.2

Cee
o 46 17.1

© 42 48.9

© 39 23.0
On 0n yae2
O 32 47-3 |

© 29 36.9
© 26 32.9
O23 36:0

© 20 46.9
Omer. 10.2
OM The 94.0
Onis 2.
OTR ici9
o 8 59.9

71.8

108.6
120.0
13%.2
141.7
151.6
160.9
169 7
177-9
185.0
191.8
197-7
201.6
207.9
210.4
212.8
214-9

Se ee

Aertel

300

310
320
330
34°

Equation c.

M. =
©. 36.8
o 33-1
O° 29-4
° 5.8
G* 22.5
O> ‘19.4
o. 16.7
Oo 14.5
o 12.6
Ce pe 2
Oo 10.3
Oo 10.0
oO 10.1
°o «10.8
O- 22:0
Oo 13.8
°o 16.0
o 18.6
Oo 21.6
°o 24-9
Oo 28.5
So 32.4
Oo 36.3
QO 40.2

° z
° F
i ;
I £3
i 7.8
I 9.8
I 11-4
r 12.6

SATELLITES.

Tasre XIII. Equation c of Jupiter’s Third Satellite.

moe OD ~ay

oe
3:
3
3-
Be
2

hk On a

war
- Cn

Win
NAO wv
ets
wnrnn

ooo

vb
oMWUO AHO N FH

~

DP WwWWwW WwW Ww SP SPH PhP WW WwW WW HN
Bee tem Sette. amr sw gen ee

mh OA D SS O

bm N

Equation c.

Me =) Ss
) 2.2
Oss
© .+ 5.8
Ch tsi
On erie
O 14-4
OQ; 4r728
° 2 [5
O 25-4
O 29.4
SY HS
Cesc:
Oo 41.3
© AGE
o 648.8
O) §2.2
OQ 55-2
On 57-0
°o 659.8
I 1.6
I 2.8
I 3-5
I 3.6
» 3:3
1 2-4
I 1.0
© 59.1
o 56.9
O 54.2
Oo 51-1
Oo 47.8
O 44.2
Oo 40.5
Oo 36.8

aN 2

Noe
oD

to

OO A HON

PP bey © wo
ys

Bw WwW WwWwnNnN
= 6 v4 ee Elo
SIS OD Ow I

ome

SATELLITES.
Taste XIV. Equations F and G of Jupiter’s Firfl Satellite.

Eq. F. |Eq- G. Eq. Fo |Eq.G: Eq. F.. |Eq. G.
Arg. F and G. Arg. F and G. = |———— Arg. F andG. |————
SEC. SEC. SEC. SEC. SEC. SEC.
250 250 0.0 0.0 5.8 Ts 590 glo 17.0 5-7
260 240 Ot 0.0 6.4 2.1 600 goo 17.6 5.8
270 230 O.1 O.1 7-0 2.3 610 890 18.2 6.0
280 2200115 50:3 O.1 7.7 2.6 620 880 18.7 6.2
290 210), | 0.4. O.1 8.4 2.8 630 870 19.2 6:3
300 | 200 | 06 | oz 9.0 3.0 640 860 19.6 4 6.5
310 | 190 0.8 0.3 9-7 3.2 650 850 20.0 6.7
320 | 180 I.1 0-4 10.4 3-5 660 840 20.4 6.8
Bz0n |) 170 Leg 0.5 11.1 3-7 670 830 20.8 6.9
340 | 160 1.8 0.6 11.8 3-9 680 820 2161 7-0
350 150 2.2 7 12.5 4.2 690 810 21.4 75¥
360 |-140 | 2.6 0.9 13.2 4-4 700 800 21.6 7-2
370 130 | 3.0 Ie] 13.8 4.6 710 790 21.8 73
380 120 | 3-5 1.2 14-5 4.8 720 780 21.9 73
390 110 4.0 1.4. 15.2 5-1 730 770 22.0 73
400 100 | 4.6 1.6 15.8 5-3 740 760 22.1 74
ae =—
410 GOs jt h.2 > | Stay 16.4 5.5 750 750 22.2 7-4
420 80 | Geb. allakeg 17.0 5-7
TasLe XI1V.—continued. YEquations D, E, F, and G, of Jupiter’s Second Satellite.
Arg. D,E,F, | EVD Eq. D. | Eq. E.| Eq. F. [Eq G
and G. i reer eee oa]
SEC. | SEC. | SEC. | smc SEC
250 250 57-0 28.6) Vrete | 47-0 | 24.0
260 240 56.9 26.7 14.6 9)|\. 44k 22.5
270 230 | 56.8 24.9 13.5 411 21.0
280 220 56.5 23.2 12.6 38.2 19-5
290 210 56.1 21.4 11.6 35+3 18.0
300 200 55-6 19.7 10.7 3265 16.6
310 190 55:0 18.0 9.8 29-7 15.1
320 180 54-3 16.4 8.9 27.0 13.8
330 17O | 53-5 14.8 8.0, | “24.4 12.4
340 160 52.5 13.2 7.2 21.8 Il.
350 150 51.5 | 11.8 6.4 19.4 9-9
360 140 50.4 10.3 5:6 17.0 8.7
370 130 49-3 9:0 49 14.8 7:6
380 120 48.0 77 4.2 12.7 6.5
390 110 46.7 6.6 3.6 10.8 5°65
400 100 45-2 ray 3:0 9:0 4.6
410 go | 43-8 | 445 264 73° 3-7
420 80 | 42.2 | 3-5 1.9 5S 2p Rio
430 72 | 40.6 } 2-7 1.5 4:5 2.3
440 60 | 39.0 } 2.0 se 3-3 1.7
450 50 | 37-3 ha | UO 2.3 1.2
460 | 40-]| 35.6 0.9 0.5 1.5 OF
470 «(| 30 33-8 0.5 0.3 °.8 0.4
480 20 32.1 O2 | Of Og O.2
49° | 10 30.3 0.0 0.0 oe |
500 | ° 28.5 0.0 o.1 0.0

SATELLITES.
Taste XIV. 7 i
—continued. Equations D, E, F, and G, of Jupiter’s Third Satellite

Equation er
Diff. Equation : f

D E. pig, | Equation pig, | Equation a
iq.

Arguments D, E,
F, and G. F. G
SE Ee Ee | ee See eee | SEC. M Ss. SEC Mr 7 :
130 750 ° ea ee oe —<—— Pea eee | a SCS SEC.
7 | 749° ° 0.5 0.0 °
| o.5 ° 0-3 0.0 °
pee 4. - 873° i do 1.5 0-3 3135) ‘oral | see 0.0
780 720 ° 6 2.6 ° I.1 ey ro) oO! O.1 ° 0.0 ec
79° 710 fe ) 3.7 ° 2.6 1.5 ° P 0.2 ° [orp § Ot
800 700 movies 3 Ae De 4.6 ae te) ere aA Ih ote Me
: —¥ es oO | 7-2 mon ae = al Oks AOss =
$f) 6 : maa) ; Oo 0.5 :
820 680 he o 10. ca Sas llc :
8 . eer one es ° 3 3.7 ° 1.0 ° ie
Be 670 O 32.7 7-6 14-0 a aa 4 0.4 C7 a,
840 660 sti ae ge | OTe 4.2 hey eg h.| eel ine :
850 650 ° WE 9:3 Oo 622.9 oe ° ; 0.5 Orel oe
860 6 | 5°5 o 28.1 5 as orttia. t| . 3
40 ee: 0.7 10.2 a 8 5-7 fo) 2.8 0.5 5 : 0.3
870 630 me) X37 . = 6.1 ee ees Saal ie OF
880 6 : ; ° ; eby | ;
890 ae x? 2354 SG ize EE eos) | bo tg C3
goo pa = 35-9 23 ° 53 : 6.9 © 4-7 Os fe} 2.8 0.4
I . O. ,
gio 59° at) ae 13:7 ro peeaelt BS) oe tr Pe hpor ea ile
g20 580 pees a eo gy Ae 8.3 ie a or Be os 11° ..3°0 eu
gfe ome | 4] oes | 9] 8 T8 feel eke 0.5
93° 570 Bae ae = 8.3 f Oo 4.6 5
3 560 2 ae sp ies ale a 8.6 wip RSC 0.4
go | go | 327 | ee] ane | gg | e104 SNe SA ieee
70 j I : 9 : OO. 0.
Bese arte [ieee | bs eerste ad | os coe hae
eS: a Me 8.7 9.2 (Shoe Er ee Oo 2 0.6
990 510 16.6 9.2 ee Ue Do | to Paty 0.5
° soos i me Gide ee a ak ee ie O.5
10 490 | 4 4.1 16.6 2 27-1 9: ° 1.0 | 1.0 ° 8.2
20 480 | 5 16.6 2 36-3 oie o a 1.0 o 68.8 2.6
30 eA oes 18 2 ; 9.2 10.0 c ; 0.6
47° 52 14st 16.4 45-5 o. 616 0.9 9-4
40 pee | ba Sect Pe SET de ouleoe Bebili aap. |} Soaps OS
1a 3S 3 O37 9.0 7 © 10.4 0.5
yo. bea | ys -36 16.0 8.9 OY 2B 29) 1) 5 ®Et.o 0.6
| 40. O NOd (rata 5
60 440 fie a 15.6 3. 12.6 8.7 0 19.6 SBS) 0.5
a 450 1) GE rst ae : ade Gen a ee op sf te 41 0.6
20 14. 4 7 [ Oo. > :
go ae0 one oe a 3 8.0 8.3 | Bh see oe oO 12.6 0.5
+ 6 6 4-4 3 BP. 22.2 8
el we /' SF) us) a be |g) e Be [cele ae | a
— | ; aN. 20) fey BO) | vo |) 835) pl ce
110 390 13.1 7.3 cla EY Oo 14.0 oS
120 380 | ; 73 12.5 4 0.9 6 0 14.6 0.8 0.4
130 370 11.7 | 4 78 4 eel Wa gan) |S gate
140 260 | Z 37°3 Sony at BES 6.5 4 5-3 ys o 14.8 0.4
150 ° 403 a ak | a. Set 6.1 5°9 °. Oo (15:2 ant
35 7° 58.5 0-2 o 26.6 7 °.
160 340 s 7.8 9:3 | + 26.1 Ks ° 27.2 0.6 Oo 15.5 se
eel ee TS 4. 3%3 Be O° 27. Te EAST) “4
170 330 «| 8 (16 i! pany EA PR 0 16.2 | %3
~ 320 | 8 ae ea ie se Oo 28.2 id Ons
igo 310 B 30.5 Bato 4e AOA Ble ond TO. 02806 + | Oe Cote? | 08
ese 300 R 36.1 5.6 4 43-9 377 ; 9 29.0 0-4. 2 16.7 ek
210 290 8 40.7 a6.| 428 3f a ee oe. S 16.9 s
220 280 8 a : 4 49-6 a 9-3 0.2 Oo 14.1 0.2
— 44-4 37 | 4 51.6 B.Do lu Se ae. eae Raat 0.2
230 270 +~«| «#8 P: cd Be I So been! O 17-4 dt
250 | ato | 8 ahs eee Le ; eo) ake oe
250 250 8 49. og | + 53-9 CP 1 oO! “go.0 Ralid enve
zs pee Be BC a> fie ae he
30-0 o 17.6 0.0

SATELLITES.
_ Tasre XIV.—continued. Equations D and E of Jupiter’s Fourth Satellite.

Equation D. | Diff. | Equat. E. Equat. E.
Argument D. Arg. E. Arg. E. |—————
M. Ss. | SEC. | SEC. SEC.
750 75° ° 0.0 | Bey fo} 13.1 510 12.9
760 740 oO OL | al fe) 14-5 520. 12.6
770 730 Oo + (0.6 oF 20 16.0 530 12.4
780 720 ° 1.3 at 30 17-4 540 12.3
790 710 o* \ia.ga 4 ss 40 18.7 550 32.1
800 |. yoo OG 1/:3.6 3 50 19-9 560 11.9
1.6 —
810 | 690 Gib. 1.8 Gow) |g 21-5 570 11.6
820 680 5. 70 i BO ill se 280m 580 Ile
830 | 670 SO) F°Oa KE Bo, | |!" 823.6 590 1.1
840 660 oO Ti 2 go 23-9 600 50.9
850 | 650 © 14.0 * 100, ||." 24.8 610 | 10.6
= as J
860 640 QO) 16:98, | : Tio) ) |” Sage 620 10.3
870 630 | © 200 3-} T2000 Wy a 2h 7 630 10.0
880 620 O) 23-4 3-3 136%) 226:0 640 9-7
890 610 oO 26.7 3-4 T40) ||) 26.1 650 9-4
goo 600 O 30.4. 37 150 | 26.2 660 8.9
8 =e
gio O 34.2 ‘ae 160) ye 620-0 670 | 8.5 x
g20 oO 38.2 | 42 170 25-9 680 8.1
930 O 42.3 a 180 25.7 690 7:6 :
940 Oo 46.5 sz 190 25-4 700 Fel
950 oO 50.8 4:3 200 24-9 710 | 6.6
4+ ies Semi
960 O 355-31) |} i 210 24.4 7290) 6.0
970 Oo 59.5 He 220 23-9 730 5-4
g8o 1 4nd a 230 23.2 740 ‘| dey
ggo 510 I go | Gi 240) 2257 7EOR 4.1
° 500 I}. 13.6%] he 250 | 0 22eI 760 =| 3-5
—— ——_—_ ——————. 4.6 —_——
10 490 ie ts | 6 260 | 21.5 770 | 3-0
20 480 I 22.8 Hi 270, | 20.8 780 | 2.3
30 470 I 27-4 a 280 |. 20.3 790 =| 1.8
40 460 iy 3.om 4 4:5 290 19-6 800 1.3
5° 450 | I 36.4 | 4:5 300 Ig.1 810 0.8
| | 4- a PEARS Se Na
60 440 I 40.7 : 310 18.6 820 0.5
7° 430 I 44-9 Far 320 | 18.0 830 | 0-3
80 420 I 49:0 «| ae 330 "|" "17-6 840 O.t
go 410 I 53.0 as 345) | WRT 850 0.0
160 400 1; 350.5 3: 350 | 16.8 860 oI
110 390 2 5 ay 360 16.5 870 0.2
520... |, 9450 2 3:9 3-4 370 16.2 880 O-5
130 BHO |) a 7.2 3-3 380 15-9 890 1.0
140 360 ai 10.3% Si 390 15-6 goo 1.5
150 350 Z. 13.2 as 400 15-3 gto 2.3
———— 7 2.6 -- — jt
160 pear ee Soe Ce | 4 410 15-1 920 3.2
170 g40 | oa 18ers 2+3 420 14.8 930s 4-0
180 ga0. «(| a 020.2) | is 430 14.6 640° |? “Gest
1g0 310 Z 22:0 ue 440 14-3 95°C} 6.3
200 300 2 23.6 | ’ 450 14.1 960 705
— 1.3 —o a ee
210 290 2. 24.0700 de 460 13-9 970 8.8
220 | 280 | 2 25:9 6: 470 13-7 980 10.2
230 | 270 | 2 26.6 | ne 480 13.6 990 | * tru
240 s60. | 2) apr fe OS 490 13.3 1000 13.1
250 250 | 2 27-2 si 500 13-1

SATELLITES.

Taste XV. Reduétion H of Jupiter’s Firf Satellite.

| Red Diff
Arg. H. =
| SEC SEC.
ro) 5000 23.4 z6
100 5100 | 20.5 >
200 5200 | 17.6 me
300 | 5300 | 14.8 ;
= 2.7
400 5400 | yay ae
500 5500 9.6 “5
600 5600 if 22
700 | 5700 5:3 |
—_— 117
800 5800 3-6 7
goo 5900 2.2 ie
1000 6000 I.I - | 0.8
b 8 fore) 6100 rep) ell Mee
— —| 0.3
1200 6200 0.0
1300 6300 0.0 a
1400 6400 3 | 68
1500 6500 Me |
— ox
1600 6600 2.2 ;
1700 6700 3:6 mn

Arg

I7oo |
1800
1900
2000
2100
2200
2300
2400
2500
2600
2700
2800

2900
3000
3100
3200

oias

6700
6800
6g00
7000

7100
7200
7300
7400

750°
7600
7709
7800

7900
8000
8100
8200

3300
3400

1700
1800
1900
2000
2100
2200
2300
1400

2500
2600
2700
2800

2900 °
3000
3100
3200

3300
3400

8300
8400

6700
6800
6900
7000

7100
7200

7300
7400
7500
7600
7700
7800

7900

12.1
14.8
17.6
20.5

23.4
26.3
_ 29.2
32.0

34-7
37-2
39-5
41.5

a pihe
44.6

29-4
35°
40.8

46.6
52-4
58.2
63.8

69.0

ONO

Wee eH nan on pho
Ame © OAbw

Arg. H.
3400 8400
3500 8500
3600 8600
3700 8700
3800 8800
3900 8900
4000 gooo
4100 gioo
4200 9200
4300 0309
4400 9400
4500 9500
4600 9600
4700 970°
4800 g800
4900 ggo00
5000 | 1@000

8900
g000
g100

9200
9300
9400
9500
9600
9700
goo
Q9Co

10000

5000

6200
6300
6400
| 6500

| 6600
6700

°
Oo 0.2
o 2.8
o 8.1

© 15.7
° 25.9|

SATELLITES.

Taste XV.—continued. ReduGion H of Jupiter’s Third Satellite.

Red. H, Dif.

SEC.

12.9
14-4
16.2
17-7
19.0
19.9
20.7
20.9
20.9
20.7
19-9
19.0

Red. I.

SEC.

S800

gooo
goo

8900

5 18.3
5 25.9, 7°

3
2.6

5 33-8}
5 gia
5 25-9
5 18.3

mere enn

SATELLITES.

Tarte XVI, Semidurations of Jupiter's /irf Satellite,

Argument H,

' | Semidurations, | Difference.
Argument H, N
H M, &. SEC.
© | 5000 5000 | OM sper. °3q-2 6° | at 100
109 4geo | 5100 ggco | 1 7 33:2 le 1co
200 4800 52co g8ao Et 70) 80.4 | : 100
lia Toth tls 1 oo. +9
300 |. * 4700 5300 joo} 7 25-5 6.6 100
400 | — 4690 5¢90. | + 9600 4 |. 7 7 18% 8.3 99
§cO | . 4590 5500 0500 Pei 79 O:0%R ol i: 99
— - — | 10.Q ——__
600 4400 5600 UVC tal eee ae ae ‘e 98
7c9 43°00 57990 | 9390 | § 6 49.2 says 97
800 4200 5S8G0)| ++ )G2G0'F leet Og 6:6 rs 96
a — —_— 13-9 =
goo 4100 5900 | 9100 EG. 2207 Bey: 95
reco. | = 4000 Gogo.) | 290004 aig 367 ©2823 : 94
1109 | — 3990 6100 BOO) | (eneL EG pay. 5-4 93
eo Sate | ite 15-7
1z00 | 3800 6200 S8co T64 37-0 Jae gz
1309. 6 |S 3790 6300 $7CO Ip oye ict 3) foo gl
1400 | — 3690 6400 8690 Ter 54k SO ; go
ip aw Sr a9 a ee oe al, SAS: |
1500 3500 6500 8500 I 4 49-5 Behe 88
1609 3400 6600 84q0 | 1 4 34-4 Pes 87
17090 ~=6| ~—- 3390 6700." | 830=0 | I 4.20.2 28 86
( — —— — ——— i132 |————
1800 =| =. 3200 6800 8200 | 1 4 7-0 f 85
1900 | 3190 6900 BIO §- (Fas: Soon ii 84
2000 | 3900 7ooo | Booo: § iP. T 3k HEY “4 83
Se - - —_ OOO 8.8
2100 2900 7100 OOO *fs [Ps DS e 2G S 82
2200 | 2800 7200 | .78¢0 hd eta 5 tia 81
2300 2790 7300 | | woo | | k tg0.98) 5 81
. Bre oT ua Pea Pee ee va
2400 2600 7409 | 76090 | 1 3. 208 * 8r
2500 | « 4590 7599 759° oe sda BI

) Vou. XXXI,

39

SATELLITES.

1.3300
1.3400
1.3500

1.3600
1.3700
1.3800

1.3900
1.4000
1.4100

1.4200

1.4300
1.4400
1.4500
14600
1.4700

1.4800

1.4900
1.5000

_ co

Argument M.

0.6400
0.6300
0.6200

0.6100
0.6000

0.5900

0.5800
0.5700
0.5600

0.5500
0.5400
0.5300

0.4600
0.4500
0.4400

Taste XV1.—continued. Semidurations of Jupiter’s Second Satellite.

Semidurations.
He M. S.

i 20. 37-0
Tez) Que
E19 54:5,
LO EEE ae)
19 14.6

Do XS) 153.7
YO Ze
se Tei
I 37 47%,
Fae 7 RLS Sy
I 16 59.2
I 16 34.2
1316 8:5
TG" 4 a0
I. x5 514.9
I'14 49.0
I 14 18.3
I 13 48.8
I. 13 18.5
1 12, age
EW RC)
1 II 42.9
1 PAG Se ask oT
1 lOues4.0
ee TR |
T '9) 230
1 8 45-7
ata oa A
i” y 280
¥° "G47
y 6) Gre
Gm ac ty,
1 Ae

—

‘cg

SATELLITES.

TasLe XVI.—continued. Semidurations of Jupiter’s Third Satellite

!

| Semidurations.
Argument M. |

| He) Mo) eS
1.00000 | I.oo000 | I 47 0.0
I.0FO00 | 0.99000 | rt 46 59.7
1.02000 | 0.98000 |: 46 58.7
1.03900 | 0.97000 | I 46 57.1
1.04000 | 0.96002 | 1 46 54.9
1.05000 | 0.95000 | I 46 52.0
1.06000 {| 0.94000 | I 46 48.4
1.07000 | ©.93000 | 1 46 44.3
1.08000 | 0.92000 | 1 46 39-4
1.09000 | 0.91000 | t 46 33-9
I.I0000 | O.Q0000 | I 46 27.8
I.f1000 | 0.Sgooo | I 46 21.0
I-12000 | 0.88000 | 1 46 13.6
1.13000 0.87000°; £ 46 5.5
1.14000 | 0.86000 | 1 45 56.8
I.15000 | 0.85000 I 45 47-4
1.16000 | 0.84000 Yr 45 B7=4
1.17000 | 0.83000 | 1 45 ~ 26.6
1.18000 | 0.82000 | y 45 15-1
1.19000 | 0.81000 | 1 45 3-5
1.20000 | 0.80000 I 44 59.3
1.21000 | 0.7gQ000 I 44 36.8
1.22000 | 0.78000 | 1 44 22.7
1.23000 | 0.77000 | I. 44 1°70
1.24000 | 0.76000 | I 43 52-4
1.25000 | 0.75000 | L 43 36.1
1.26000 | 0.74000 | 1 43 19-2
1.27000 | 0.73000 | race" 1.6
1.28000 | 0.72000 | 1 42 43-2
1.29000 | 0.71000 | I 42 24.1
1.30000 | 0.70000 | t 42 4.3
1.31000 | 0.69000 x 4rvi437
1.32000 | 0.68000 | I 41 22.4
1.33000 | 0.67000 | I 41 0.3
1.34000 | 0.66000 | I 40 37-5
1.35000 | 0.65000
1.36000 | 0.64000
1.37000 0.63000
1.38000 0.62000
1.39000 0.61000
1.40000 0.60000
1.41000 | 0.59000
1.42000 0.58000 I
1.43000 | 0.57000 | 1
1-44000 | 0.56000 I
1.45000 | 0.55000 1 3-
1.46000 | 0.54000 | 1 Oo.
1.47000 | 0.53000 t 34 26.7
1.48000 | 0.52000 1 33 2

M is the Argument ufed in

Diff.

SEC.

~ DOR DAOW

Pe PWN NR HO

Hf GOH OS

PH OOD RANA

ne
rn won wash 2

-
w

| 33-7

34-6

|
|
}
|
|
|
{
|
}

Argument M.
1.48000 | 0.52000
1.000 } I.49000 4 0.51000 |
0-999 | 1.50000 | 0.50000
©2999 | 1.51000 | 0.4g000
0.998 | 1.52000 | 0.48000
0.996 | 1.53000 | 0.47000
0.995 | 1-54c00 | 0.46000
0-993 | I-55000 | 0.45000
0.990 } 1.56000 | 0.44000 |
0.988 | 1.57000 | 0.43000 |
0.985 | 1.58000 | 0.42000 |
0.982 } 1.59000 | 0.41000 |
0-978 | 1.60000 | 0.40000 |
£.61000 | 0.39000 |
0.970 | 1.62000 | 0.38000
0.966 } 1.63000 | 0.37000
0.961 # 1.64000 | 0.36000
0.956 | 1.65000 | 0.35000
0-951 } 1.66000 | 0.34000
0.945 | 1.67000 | 0.33000
1.68000 | 0.32000 |
1.69000 | 0.31000 |
0.926 § I.70000 | 0.30000 |
0.919 | I-71000 } 0.2g000 |
0.912 } 1.72000 | 0.28000 |
0.904 || 1.73000 | 0.27000 |
0.896 | 1.74000 | 0.26000 |
1.75000 | 0.25000
1.76000 | 0.24000
0.869 } 1-77000 | 0.23000 |
0.860 | 1.78000 | 0.22000
0.850 ]| 1.79000 | 0.21000
0.839 }| 1.80000 | 0.20000
0.829 }| 1.81000 | 0.19000
1.82000 | 0.18000
1.83000 | 0.17000
0-794 | 1.84000 | 0.16000
0.782 } 1.85000 | 0.15000
0.769 | 1.86000 | 0.14000
0.756 } 1.87000 | 0.13000
1.88000 | 0.12000
Ee |
0.713 | 1.90000 | 0.10000
0.698 } 1.91000 | 0.09000 |
0.682 | 1.92000 | 0.08000 |
0.666 | 1.93000 | 0.07000 |
0.650 | 1.94000 | 0.06000 |
0.633 1.95000 | 0.05000 |
1 | 0.04000

0.615 +g6000

Semidurations. | Diff. |

|
| N
H. om. os. | sEc. | =
|
Tee eS Seg 62d. 0.615
T2322” 16.5 35:6 | 0.596
r 32 39.9 | 36 |‘ 0577
I 32 2.3 | Te | 0.558
I gl 23.7 | 3 6 0.538
130 44.1 Lee | 0.517
Te SOners5 ae | 0-495
: 41-7
Le 202i 0.473
Ee 528) > 35-Oauts age , O45
hee 27k AO ae | 04:26
yO MOE 2s 0-402
is | 26,2856 49-3 0.376
I 25 36.0 | os 0.350
I 24 47-3 | ae] 0.323
|, 50-2
CA ANT 7 feat 0.295
15 22 OS 47 ae 0.266
I 22 13.0 5 a | 6.235
1 21 18.8 54-2 | 9.204
1 2s ae | 0.072
I 19 26.0 ae 0.138
Pe LO ee 62 | Se ONE C2)
60.4 |
I. 17. 26.8 | 0.066
U tO), 24-8 62.0 |¥ 0.028
63-8 |
Til 2 EO —0.012
Th jlAs BES 65-7 0.053
Er tl Funds 17277 up | 0.096
ie tees Oar oo O-141
I 10 46.4 he | 0.189
73°9 3
P1955 285) Ces
ey 763 0.291
Bap 6 : ed 0.346
Eye 81 34
ty + bee 30:2 8 2 0.405
eM ee RO STB Bet 0.467
TE | 2754450 ; 0.532
Ry) Cth TASS. 99-3 see
Ce Legg (eae
° 59 40.8 0.677
0 58 3-4 Hib 0.758
© 56 22.0 roi + 0.545
© 54 361 |, ay, 0.939
© 52 45:4 Ee 0.042
© 50 493 | no6 | 1155
o 48 47-3 oe 1.281
—| 128.9
o 46 38.4 1.4.22
Bag pr | 1809 [cebs
oO 41 560.1 ne, 16767
© 39 19-7 op | 1-5
0 36 303 | igre | 2-245
O ae A. rel 678
9 57.6 | 297) g.0n1

finding the Semiduration, and N ferves for the Correétion of it

30 2

SATELLITES.

TaBLe XV1.—continued. Semidurations of Jupiter’s Fourth Satellite.

| Semidurations. | Diff.

Argument M. N Argument M.
H. M. 5. | SEC. ia
2.0000 2.0000 273 19 o | + 1-000 2.3700 1.6300
2.0100 1.9900 2 23. 10 A 1.000 2.3800 1.6206
2.0200 1.9800 2.823. 30 fi 0.999 2.3900 1.6100
2.0300 1.9700 25226 9.999 2.4000 1.6000
P cer.
ieee 1.9600 Zu 22 aes 4 0.995 2.4100 al pe
+0500 1.9500 2 22 59 0.996 2.4200 1.5800
aoe 1.9400 2 aa 55 2 0.995 2.4300 1.5700
2.0700 1.9300 2. 22) Ad 0.993 2.4400 1.5600
ee en ¥ ~~ ee
1.9200 2 22 42 7 0.990 2.4500 1.5500
1.9100 2s 22a 8 0.985 2.4600 1.5400
1.9000 2°22" oF 6.985 2.4709 | 1.§300
1.8900 DN 22) ab 9 0.982 2.4800 | 1.5200
—_——— 10 —- —|-——
oe 2uee 3 - 0.978 2.4900 | 145100
1.87¢0 2 2t thy = 0.974 2.§000 - | 1.5000
1.8600 “a et aig Ex 0.970 2.5100 | 1.4900
1.8500 2) 27 33 5 | 0.966 2.5200 | 1.4500
} 14 |+———__—— a =
| 1.8400 as a | 0.961 300 1.4700
1.8300 Bred 4 RS al eee 0.956 54.00 1.4600
1.8200 2) 205, 50 Bre 0.951 -§500 | 1.4560
| 1.8100 DE 25 Bit 0.945 5600 | 1.4406
Beat) eS Dey i cocete J = we |
1.8000 2 30) 1G 18 0.939 2.6960 1.4300
2.2100 }.:#-7900 zg 58 18 0.933 2.§800 | 1.4206
2.2200 1.7800 2 I9 Ad ny 0.926 2.5900 1.4100
2.2300 1.7700 2 30 20 0.919 2.6000 1.4000
bins se eee ‘es a Fach k Se Toe
2.2400 | 1.7600 2 18 59 (to> | Sage 2.6100 | 1.3900
2.2500 | 1I-7500 2 LG Sy Sa | 0.904. 2.6200 | 1.3800
2.2600 1.7400 Mes hs era | = 0.896 2.6300 | ~1.3700
3.2700 1.7300 US ty a3 yl 4 | 0.887 2.6400 1.3606
——— — ——— 25 | Aad
| 1.7200 2° 17 . BOs Pp 0.878 2.6500 1.3500
TZ NOQr | ea LP eka 0.869 2.6600 1.3400
1.7006 *) -2° i6 gd ie) CB eos 2.6700 | 1.3306
1.6900 ROUEN Eh es 0.850 2.6800 *| 53.3206
| | 20 EK —|_—
| 1.6800 AR Et ii jalan att fo) 2.6900 |. 1.3100
1.6700 Ae Cy teal on 0.829 27000 | 2.3000 | 1 42
| 31
: 1.6600 2 Th. 135 0.818 2.7100 142900 1.40 49
—|—_—_—_——— 31 0.806 — |—_—__—.
: 1.6500 og vy 2.7200 | 1.2800 | 1 39
» 1.6400 2; £3 94H ae 0.794 2.7300 | 1.2700 b 27
37 1.6300 2°18) 16 34 0.782 2.7400 9.2600" | 37°96
|
ete ete

SATELLITES.

Tastes XV1.—continued. Semidurations of Jupiter’s Fourth Satellite.

Semidurations.

Argument M.

>

2.9400 1.2600
2.7500 t-2500
2.7600 1.2400
2.7700 1.2300
2.7800 | 142200
2.9900 1.2100
2.8000 1.2000
2.8100 1.1900
2.8200 1.1800
2.8300 | 1.1700
2.8400 1.1600
2.8500 1.1500
2.8600 1.1400
2.8700 1.1300
2.8800 | 1.1200
2.8900 | 1.1100

2.9000 1.1000

2.9100 1.0960

2.9200 1.0800

2.9300 | 1.0700

2.9400 |. 1.06c0

a Sa
2.95000-| 1.05000 | 9 44 42
2.95100 1.04900 © 44 16
2.95200 | 1.04800 | 9 43 49
2.95300 | 1.04700 | O°4F 2
2.95400 | 1.04600 | 0 42 56 |
2.95500 1.04500 | © 42 28
2.95600 1.04400 | 0,42 0
2.95700 1104300 | -O 41 432
! |

2.95800 | 1.04200 | 0 41 3 |
2.95900 1.04100 | O 40 35. |
2.96000 | 1.04000 | 9 40 §
2.96100 1.03900 | © 39 36
2.96200 1.03800 | 0 39. 5
2.96300 | 1.03700 | 0 38 35 |
2.96400 | 1.03600 | 0 38 4
2.96500 | 1.03509 QO 37 83

Diff.

SEC,

fom eon Argument M.
—O.141 2.96500 1.03500
0.189 2.96600 1.03400
0.239 2.96700 1.03300
0.291 2.96800 1.03200
0-346 2.96900 1.03100
0.405 2.97000 1.03000
0.467 2.97100 1.02900
0.532 2.97200 1.02800
0.602 2.97300 1.02700
0.677 2.97400 1.02600
0.758 2.97500 1.02500
0.845 2.97600 1.02400
0.939 2.97700 1.02300
1.042 2.97800 1.02200
1.155 2.97900 1.02100
1.281 2.98000 1.02000
1.422 2.98100 1.01900
1-583 2.98200 1.01800
1.768 2.98300 1.01700
1.985 2.98400 1.01600
2.249 2.98500 1.01500
2.58 2.98600 1.01400
2.62 2.98700 1.91300
2.65 2.98800 1.01200
2.69 2.98g00 1.01100
2674 2.99000 1.01000
| 2.78 2.99100 1.00900
2.82 2.99200 1.00800
2.87 2.99300 1.00700
2.91 2.99400 1.00600
2.95 2.99500 1.00500
ae oY 2.99600 T.004.00
3.06 2.99700 1.00300
3.12 2.99800 1.00200
S17 2.99900 | 1.00100
3.23 3:00000,| 1.00000
3-29

Semi-
durations.

SATELLITES.

Taste XVII. The Correétion of the Semidurations of Jupiter’s Firf Satellite.

Arguments C and N.

Argument N.

Argument C.

SATELLITES.

Taste XVII.—continued. The Corre€tion of the Semidurations of Jupiter’s Second Satellite.

Number N.

1-000 | 0.900 0.300 | 0.200 | 0.100
Argument C. 2S Se fe 2 ee eee

SEC | SEC SiC. | SEC. | SEC

5000 | 5000 0.0 4.8 34-0 | 37-8 | 43.7

100 | 4900 | 5100 0-4 5-2 34-1 | 38.9 | 43-7
200 | 4800 | 5200 T5 6.2 34-4 | 39.1 | 43-8
3-5 | 8.0 34-9 | 39:5 | 44-0

6.0 | 10.3 35-7 | 40:0 | 44.3

Q-2 | 13-2 36.7 | 40.6 | 44.6

13-2 | 16.7 38.0 | 41-4 | 44.9

17-6 | 20.6 39-2 | 42.3 | 45-4

ACIS ESI 42.7 | 43-3 | 45-9

27-8 | 29-9 42.2 | 44.4 | 46.5

33-5 | 35-3 44-0 | 45-5 | 46.9

39-4 | 40-4 45-7 | 46-7 | 47-5

45-4 | 45-7 47-3 | 47-9 | 48.2

51-6 | 51-3 49-4 | 49-1 | 48.8

57-6 | 56.6 513 | $03 | 49-4

63-5 | 64.0 53:0 | 51-5 | 50.0

69.1 | 67.1 54-6 | 52.6 | 50.6

74:5 | 71-9 56-3 | 53-7 | 51-1

79-4 | 76.3 57-8 | 54.6 | 51.6

83.8 | 80.3 59-0 | 55-6 | 52.0

87.8 | 83.8 60.3 | 56.4 | 52.5

91.0 | 86.8 G1.2 | 56.9 | 52.7

7800 93-6 | 89.1
7300 | 7700 | 95.5 | 90.8

7600 | 96.6 | 91.9
7500 | 97-0 | 92.2

SATELLITES.

Taste XVII.—continued. The Correétion of the Semidurations of Jupiter’s T/ird-Satellite,

Arguments | Arguments . =

CD, E. C 1) Dagan. © | fel ota | eRe

+ _ sEc. | SEG SEC os ag — | SEC. ~ | ~ “SECs | sre

ae Se ne ee

° 500 4.5 | 8.9 4. 250 | 750 a9 | oa 0.9
Ke) 510 4-5 | 8.6 4. 260 769 ° 0:4. a og
20 520 4.5 | 8.6 4: 270 770 OG 1 s.% | 0.6

30 | 530 4-5 8.5 4. 280 | 780 | 2-9 1.6 | o-g

40 540 £4 1 hse 4. 290 790 Tels Hl eae Ze E 12
50 550 Rp 8.2 a 300 Boo ig 2. Tag
60 560 A-24{) 618.9 4-4 310 | S1Q | 1.7 2.2 | 1.8
Te) 570 4.1 | 7-8 4-3 32 820 [ero | PE {2:9
80 580 40 | 76 4.2 330 | 830 | 2-2 78S Me fhe FFE)
es a —_ _ ST Sanaa - =

9° 59° 38 7+3 4:0 3: S40 2d 4-6 | 2-5
100 600 3-7 5.0 3-9 850 2.7 ‘" 2-8
I10 610 3.5 6.3 3.7 860 a fa | Sa 2 | HH >

| oe a —_—

120 620 3-3 6.3 345 870 | 3.1 | “5.9 8-3
130 630 3.1 5-9 3-3 ¢ 880 3-3 6.3 3-5
140 640 2.9 5°5 3-0 890 | 3-5 | 6.6 357
150 650 2.4 4-1 : goo 3677 7.0 | 3-9
160 660 2.4 4.6 gic 3.8 703 4-2
1470 670 2.2 41 920 4.0 7-6 | 4-2
- ——— ————_-———. —| ——-——

180 680 1.9 7 930 Al | 9.8 4.3
190 690 167 3-2 940 4-2 8.0 4-4
200 700 1.4 2.7 950 43 | 8.2 405
2.1 960 4e4 8.4 4-6

1.6 970 455 8.5 47

1.1 g80 4.5 8.6 | Ae?

0.6 | 990 4-5 8.6 4.8

0.0 fo) 4-5 8.7 4.8

SATELLITES.

TasLe XVII.—continued.. The Corre&tion of the Semidurations of Jupiter’s Fourth Satellite.

: Number ;
Argument C. Cor. Argument C.
a Diff. Diff.
=e
= SEC.

° 5000 63.2 0.01482 0.00000 93
100 4900 63.1 0.01479 4.0 0.00093 98
200 4800 62.7 0.01470 7-9 0.00186

-_—$$ |} ——____ ; —_________ 92
300° 4700 62.1 0.01455 11.8 0.00278 90
400 4600 61.3 0.01435 15.7 0.00368 89
500 4500 | 60.2 0.01409 19-5 0.00457 a
600 4400 ~| 58.8 0.01377 23-3 86
7OO 4300 57-2 0.01340 26.9 84
800 4200 55-4 0.01298 30.5 3
goo 4100 53-4 0.01251 33-9 76
1000 4000 41.2 0.01199 37-2
1100 3900 48.7 O.01142 40.3 73
0.01080 43-3 0.01014 66
O.O1014 46.1 0.01080 :
0.00944 48.7 O.01142
57
0.00871 51.2 0.01199 52
1600 3400 33-9 0.00795 53-4 0.01251 47
1700 3300 30.5 0.00715 55-4 0.01298
— — 42
1800 3200 26.9 0.00631 57-2 0.01340 37
1g00 3100 23-3 0.00545 58.8 0.01377 32
2000 3000 19.5 0.00457 60.2 0.01409
BS SS eee oe Se 26
2100 2900 15-7 0.00368 61.3 0.01435 =
2200 2800 11.8 | 0.00278 62.1 0.01455 ;
2300 2700 7-9 0.00186 62.7 0.01470 5
oe a — 9
2400 2600 4-0 0.00093 : 9900 5100 63.1 0.01479
2500 2500 0.0 0.00000 93 ° 5000 63.2 0.01482 3

The Number X has the Sign — in the firft Column of the Argument, and + in the fecond ; it has therefore a
different Sign from its Argument.

The Number X is only ufed with the Table of the Semiduration, and then the Correétion in this Table
is not ufed.

Vor. XXXI. 4 P

SATELLITES.

Tasre XVIII. Second Part of the ReduGtion, which depends on the Sum of the Ar ments H and L; with the
Numbers H, I, K, and L, the Sum of which isthe Argument of the Half-Duration of Supierte Second Satellite.

Number

0.0026
0.0026
0.0026
0.0026
0.0025
0.0025

‘Number

Number
ip

0.1658
0.1656
0.1651
0.1643
0.1632
0.1617
p-1599
ERT 2)
ELIS
0.1529
0.1499
0.1468
0.1433
0.1396
SES)
0.1316
0.1273
0.1228

0.1182

0.1134
0.1085

0.1035
0.0985
0.0933

0.0881
0.0829
0.0777
0.0725
0.0673
0.0623
0-0573
0.0524.
0.0476
0.0430
0.0385
0.0342
0.0301
0.0262
0.0225
0.0190
0.0159
0.0129

0.0006
0.0004.
0.0003
0.0002
0.0001
©.0000

0.0000
0.0000
0.0000

0.0103
0.0079
0.0059
0.0041

0.0026
0.0015

Peas

0.0007
0.0002
0.0000

Diff.

a i a ee

a

SATELLITES.

TasrE XIX. Reduéion H + K of Jupiter’s Third Satellite.

8300 6700 165 | ° 5000 12.0 1700 3300 2265
8 6600 | 1.9 an 100 4900 12.8 a 1800 3200 22.8 0-3
ate 0.4 0.7 °.
8500 6500 2.3 0.5 200 4800 13-5 as 1900 3100 255 <=
8600 6400 2.8 | 300 4700 14.3 ‘ 2000 3000 23.4 3
Os 0.7 O.2
8700 6300 rele 400 4600 15.0 2100 2900 23.6
8800 6200 3.8 ae 500 4500 nay de 2200 2800 23.8 “Bs
8g00 6100 4-4 ae 600 4400 16.4 3 2300 2700 23.9 ‘
gooo 6000 5-0 700 4300 17.1 a 2400 2600 23.9 oe
| 06 [— 0.7 O.1
gloo 5900 5. 0.6 800 4200 17.8 ae 2500 2500 24.0
g200 5800 6. | goo 4100 18.4 5

Taste XX. The Numbers H, I, K, and L, of Jupiter’s Third Satellite; of which the Sum M is the Argument of
the Semiduration.

Arguments Number ; Number ; Number : Number
71, BL I K Th

7500 7500 171 0.02222 0.11650 0.00000
7600 7400 oe 0.02220 0.11638 0.0000 I
7700 7300 2. 0.02213 0.11604 0.00004
7800 7200 33 0.02202 0.11546 0.00009
— 1188) |——_-—__- — --—— —
ca 0.02187 0.11467 0.00016
3 6 0.02168 0.11365 0.00025
a: 0.02145 0.11240 0.00036
4 0.02116 0.11095 0.00049
2435

2774
3062

3339

7100 0.08542
7000 0.10062

6goo 0.11908
6800 O.14112

0.02084 0.10929 0.00064.
0.02049 0.10743 0.0008 1
0.02010 : O-10$37 * 0.00099
0.01967 0.10313 0.00119
3603 |——-—_— ———-—— —

0.29323

0.01921 .0.10071 O,00141
0.33176

3853 0.01872 0.09812 0.00164

3F,2

TABLE XX.—continued. The Numbers H, I, K, and L, of Jupiter’s Third Satellite; of which the Sum M is the
Argument of the Semiduration.

Arguments
15 9 gy ap Be
8800 6200

8900 6100
6000

g100 5900

5800

0.46074

Number
H

0-33376
0.37263
0.41568

0.50764
0.55618
0.60619

0.70977
0.76294
0.81675

0.87099

0.92545
O19799%
1.03415
1.08796

1.14113
OU)
1.24471
1.29472

1.34326
1.39016
1.43522
1.47827

1.51914
1.55767
1.59370
1.62709

1.65771
1.68545
1.70978
1.73182
1.75028

0.65745

|

SATELLITES.

0.01872
0.01819
0.01764
0.01706

0.01646
0.01584
0.01520
0.01454

0.01387
0.01319
0.01250
O.O1181

O.O1TII
0.01041
0.00972

0.00903

0.00835
0.00768
0.00702
0.00638

0.00576
0.00516
0.00458
0.00403

0.00350
0.00301
0.00255
0.00212

0.00173
0.00138
0.00106
0.00077
0.00054

Number
K

0.09812
0.09538
0.09249
0.08946
0.08631
0.08305
0.07969
0.07625

0.07273
0.06917
0.06555
0.06191

0.05825

SAShE SW,
0.05095
0:04-733
0.04377
0.04025
0.03681
SASK fi 2)

0.03019
0.02704
0.02401
0.02112

0.01838
0.01579
0.01337
O.01113
0.00907
0.00721
0.00555
0.00410
0.00285
0,00183
0.00104
0.00046
0.00012
0.00000

Number

L

0.00164
0.00188
0.00214
0.00241

0.00269
0.00298
0.00328

0.00359

0.00390
0.00422
0.00454
0.00486
0.00519
0.00552
0.00584.
0.00616

0.00648
0.00679
0.007 Io
0.00740

0.00769
0.00797
0.00824
0.008 50

0.00874
0.00897
0.00919

0.00939

0.00957
0.00974
0.00989
0.01002
0.01013

0.01022
0.01029
0.01034
0.01037
0.01038

Ss

The Number H is taken with the Argument H ; and the fame for the other Numbers, which are taken
; with their refpective Arguments,

Taste XXI.

. (H+1)

Reduétions H + I and H + K of Jupiter’s Fourth Satellite.

- SATELLITES.

Arg. (H +1)
Arg. (H + K)

mio 9 | Tin | wu bp
moO CO amon

n oO-

se N

wom) maw]! KOO | 010
Qu oj}; OO

DAN | A | sao
OwnM Cow Wi ~T0 mn

Ayn
nun

ae
nO

SATELLITES.

Tasre XXII. The Numbers H, I, and K, of Jupiter’s Fourth Satellite ; of which the Sum M is the Argument of the

Semiduration,

Arguments H, I, K. | NumberH | Diff. | Number I | Diff. | Number K | Diff.

5000 1.85582 0.12571 0.018,
4900 1.94084 | aso 0.11782 789 mae x16
4800 2.02552 a 0.10996 7 0.02079 178 .
4700 2.10953 Pes 0.10215 ae: 0.02193 ben
4600 2.19254 ake 0.09446 Ao 0.02306 TH3
4500 2.27422 a 0.08686 a 0.02418 Ate
Ps ae ae 8003 743 109
354 0.0 0.0252
4300 2.43231 oe eee (a cae 106
4200 2.50810 7579 0.06515 ze 0.02737 ae
4100 2.58131 Seca 0:05835 6 0.02837 ae
4000 2.55166 ee) 0.05182 eee 0.02932 95
3900 2.71887 bi 0.04558 24 0.03024 a
6381 2 8
3800 2.78268 65 0.03966 i 0.03111 ;
3700 2.84282 ee 0.03407 559 0.03193 ye
3600 2.89907 ae 0.02885 Te 0.03271 bi
3500 2.95121 5 es 0.02401 tot 0.03341 ue
34.00 2.99902 aie 0.01957 pe 0.03407 Ee
3300 3-04231 4379 0.01555 sei 0.03466
—— |__| 3862 - 358 |-
3200 3.08093 8 0.01197 0.03518
3100 3-11471 sae 0.00883 238 0.03564
3000 3-14352 e 0.00615 ri 0.03604.
2900 3-16725 aie 0.00395 ch 0.03636
2800 3.18581 F - 0.00223 cue 0.03661
2700 3.19912 0.00099 4 0.03680
— lore) gp |e
2600 3.20712 a6 0.00025 i 0.03690
2500 3.20979 7 0.00000 = 0.03694.
7500 0.50185 ae 0.25142 3 0.00000
7400 0.50452 mal 0.25117 ee 0.00004.
7300 0.51252 Haws 0.25043 a 0.00014
7200 0.52583 33 0.24919 ~t 0.00033
. ——_—_— 1856 172
7900 7100 0-5 : 0.2 0.00058
8000 7000 Be tH, cere, see ; Gnecee
8100 6900 0.59693 s g 0.24259 . 0.00130
8200 6800 | 0.63071 bed 0.23945 va 0.00176
8300 6700 | -0.66933 sae 0.23587 35° | 0.00228
8400 6600 0.71262 4329 0.23185 er 0.00287
— — 47381 ———_—_—_— —
8500 6500 | 0.76043 0.22741 | we 0.00353
8600 6400 0.81257 rs 0.22257 | 44 | 6.00423
8700 6300 ~6| 0.86882 3 A) O2179 5. Tu) aa? 0.00501
8800 6200 | 0.92896 | east 0.21176 | 559 0.00583
8g00 6100 | 0.99277 ve : 0.20584 | Je 0.00670
gooo 6000 «=| «1.05998 39} 77? 0.19960 | Ga 0.00762
| 9100 | 5900... | Tel bie Be: 8 J
+130 0.1930 | 9.00857
id ar Spee ene aw ee
9300 5700 | 1.27933 ne | 0.17923 704 | 9.01061 |
9400 | 5600 1.35739 =| Ser | O17199 | bp 0.01167
9500 5500 | 1.43742 | Brae 0.16456 | ie 0.01276
9600 5400 1.51910 | 0.15696 | co 0.01388
- : 8301 | 769. |
9700 5300 1.60211 0.1492 O.O1 501
g800 5200 1.68612 | oie Hat zo pe
ggoo 500 1.77080 | fee 0.13360 Le 0.01731
° 5000 1.85582 20 0.12571 7°9 0.01847

|

The Number H is taken with Argument H ; the Number I, with Argument I; and the Number K, with Argument K.
Alfo, H +14+K= M.

SATELLITES.

Taste XXIII. Another Table of the Semidurations, to be ufed near the Limits.

Arg. Q.

0.0160
0.0170

0.0: 80
0.0190
0.0200

0.0210
0.0220
0.0230

Semidurations.

ee

ae

Ee

sss] es |iss

Diff.

SEC.

0.0230
0.0240
0.0250

0.0260
0.0270
0.0280

0.0290
0.0300
0.0310

0.0320
0.0330
0.0340

0.0350
0.0360
0.0370

0.0380
0.0390
0.0400

0.04.10
0.0420
0.0430

0.0440

©.0450
0.0460

0.0470
0.0480
0.0490

0.0500
0.0510
0.0520

0.0530
0.0549
0.0550

Semidurations.

Diff. {

SEC.

28
27

Expla-

SATELLITES.

Explanation of the Tables for computing the Eclipfes of
Jupiter’s Satellites.

Thefe tables were originally computed by M. de Lambre
from the theory of the mutual attraGtions of the fatellites,
given by M. de la Place in the Memoire de |’Academie for
1784 and 1788: the forms of the equations were there
given, but their values were found from. obfervation,
Hence there are no empyric equations, as were in the tables
of Wargentin. In order to bring thefe tables within the
compafs prefcribed by the nature of our work, we have
omitted the years preceding 1800, and have in many places
put four tables into one, by omitting fome columns of dif-
ferences, which were not eflential, as well as fome inter-
mediate lines, that were fra€tional parts of the year, and
which therefore may be calculated by the ufe of firit and
fecond differences, when necellary. By thefe means we
have been able to reduce the fifty-one tables, as they origi-
nally ftood, into twenty-three, without affecting their ac-
curacy ; and have moreover rendered one fet of precepts,
for computing an eclipfe, general for all the four fatellites,
which before were diflin& for each. To thefe precepts we
have annexed an example for each {atellite, adapted to the
year 1815, which will fufficiently illuftrate their ufe, as
well as prove their accuracy.

Profeffor Vince adapted M. de Lambre’s Tables, as
-publifhed by Lalande, to the longitude of Greenwich ;
and thefe are the tables that we have condenfed for our
purpofe, in which, however, we deteéted fome typogra-
phical errors, which it was incumbent on us to correét.
The epochs in Table VILL. are all dimini/bed by the fum
of the maxima of the fubtraétive equations, while the
equations themfelves are increa/ed by their like maxima re-
fpectively, which arrangement renders all the equations and
reductions additive; and the mean conjunctions are fuch as
they would be, after the aberration of light is deducted.

The Arguments A, S, B, &c. to be taken our with

Tables VIII and IX, are not the fame, either in their
number or properties, with all the fatellites, and may
therefore require fome explanation, before we proceed to
the precepts for the ufe of them, in working the calcula-
tions. .
The Arzument A is the fame with all the fatellites, and
is the mean anomaly of Jupiter, exprefled by hundredth
parts of a degree, fo that the whole circle contains 360co
equal parts. In this argument regard is had to Jupiter’s
great inequality of motion, arifing from the excentricity of
his orbit.

The Argument S is always the mean anomaly of the fun,
and in it the circle is fuppofed to be divided into 1oc00
equal parts.

The Argument B is always the mean longitude of the
fun, diminifhed by the mean heliocentric longitude of
Jupiter; by the fum of all the perturbations for the inftant
of the firft mean conjunction of the year; by the greatelt
equation of the centre of Jupiter; and by the greatett
equation of the fun’s centre: therefore, if to this value of
B be added the great equations of the fun’s and of Jupiter’s
centre, and if the equation of their orbits be applied, the
difference will be had between the true longitude of the
fun and the true heliocentric longitude of Jupiter, the
circle being divided into 10000 equal parts.

The Argument C, ufed with the firft fatellite, is the
difference of the mean longitudes of the firlt and fecond
fatellites, as feen from Jupiter: when ufed with the fecond
and third fatellites, it is the difference of the mean longi-
tudes of the fecond and third fatellites; with the firft and

fecond fatellites the circle is divided into 10000 parts, but
with the third into tooo only; and in all of them the
numbers C are diminifhed by half the greateft equation
of the centre of Jupiter. But with the fourth fatellite the
argument C is its own mean anomaly, the circle being
divided into 10000.

The Argument c, peculiar to the third fatellite, is the
difference of the longitudes of the third and fourth fatel-
lites ; the circle being divided into 1000. .

The Argument D is not ufed with the firft fatellite ;
with the fecond fatellite, it is its diftance from the apfide
of the third; with the third fatellite, it is its own mean
anomaly ; and with the fourth {atellite, it is its diftance
from the apfide of the third.

The Argument E alfo is not ufed with the firft fatellite ;
with the fecond fatellite, it is the diftance of the fecond
from the apfide of the third; with the third fatellite, it is
its diftance from the apfide of the fourth; and with the
fourth fatellite, it is (like c with the third) the difference
of the longitudes of the third and fourth.

The Argument F, with the firft and fecond fatellites, is
the mean longitude of the firft fatellite, diminifhed by #awice
the longitude of the fecond, and increafed by the longi-
tude of the apfide of the third; with the third fatellite it
differs from the two former by nearly a femicircle; and
wit) the fourth fatellite it is not ufed.

The Argument G is the fame as Argument F in all re-
fpedts, except that in it the apfide of the fourth is fub-
ftituted for that of the third; neither is it ufed with the
fourth fatellite.

The Argument H, with each fatellite, is the true diftance
of Jupiter from the node of that fatellite, and ferves for
finding the firit reduction of each fatellite’s orbit to that
of Jup'ter; which, with the firft fatellite, is all that is
neceflary.

The Arguments I, K, and L, which are not wanted for
the firft fatellite, and the laft of which is not wanted for
the fourth, are ufed in addition to Argument H, with re-

‘ference to the latitudes of the fatellites, the femidiameters

of the fhadow of Jupiter, and his flatnefs, in order to de-
termine certain numbers. the fum of which conftitutes the
Argument M, to be fubltituted for H, as ufed for the firft
fatellite, in determining the femidurations refpetively of
the fecond, third, and fourth fatellites, and alfo in finding
the number N, on which the corre&tion of the femidura-
tions arifing from perturbation depends.

The equations depending on the preceding arguments
are converted into mean fynodic time of the fatellites,
and, as we have faid, are all made additive; the greateft
equation of Jupiter’s centre being taken as it was in 1750,
and the mean equation of light, for Jupiter’s radius veétor,
at 42! 56", that of the fun being’ 8’ 13'.2, and his aber-
ration 20'.255.

It may be proper to notice further, that the Arguments
B, C, aid H, contain alfo the perturbations of Jupiter,
which may alter the annual motions two or three parte of
the circle ; likewife, that when B is lefs than 5000, the
echipfe is defore oppofition, and therefore indicates that an
immerfion oily is vilible of the firlt and fecond fatellites 5
but that when B exceeds 5000, the eclipfe will be after
oppofition, and the emerfion only will be vifible. The ume
calculated from the tables being mean, may be turned into
apparent time by the Nanitical Almanac, or Solar Tables.

Precepts for computing an Eclipfe of any of Jupiter's Satellites.

1. From Table V{II, denominated Lporhs, &c. take out
the days, hours, minutes, and feconds, together with the

numbers

SATELLITES.

numbers ftanding under the various Arguments A, S, B, part of the reduction, which, for the firft fatellite, is the
&c. and arrange them in fo many correfponding columns whole reduétion, and concludes the fums to be added for it.

along one horizontal line, as feen in the fubjoined examples.

2. From Table 1X, denominated Revolutions for Months,
take out, in the fame manner, the time and arguments cor-
refponding to the given day, or, if that be not given, the
neareft preceding day, and arrange them under the firft line
in their own ref{pe€tive’ columns. :

3. Add up the numbers of Arguments A and S, re-
jeéting 36000 in A, and 10000 in S, when they amount to
more than thefe numbers.

From Table I, and with Argument A thus deter-
mined, and found in the left-hand vertical column under A,
take out the corrections under B, H, and C, with the
firit, fecond, and third fatellites, but under B and H
only with the fourth, and place them, as before, under the
laft line in their refpe€tive columns, taking care always to
add or fubtra& the proportional parts of the numbers fo
found under the arguments, accordingly as the Argument
A exceeds or falls fhort of the neareft tabular number:

‘which attention muit be paid to all the other arguments

hereafter mentioned, when not exatily found in the tables.
The correGtion of H is alfo the correétion of I, K, L,
with the fecond and third fatellites ; and of C, 1, K, with
the fourth ; all which columns muft be filled up with the
fame refpettive correCtioas; alfo th of the correGtion of
H is the correétion of D and E with the fecond fatel-
lite, as well as with the third, and of D with the fourth;
which columns may next be filled up with fuch tenths refpec-
tively ; and likewife th of the fame correétion of H is
the correGtion c of the third fatellite; but correétion E of
the fourth fatellite is equal to 1,3,ths of correGtion D of
the fame; which numbers muft alfo be put to their re-
fpeétive columns ; when columns F and G will have only
each two lines of figures, but the reft each three.

5- With Argument S, already found, take out a fourth
correGtion of B from Table II, and then column B will
have four lines of figures.

6. Add up all the remaining columns now, and rejeét
10000 or 1000, as the cafe may be, when neceflary ; that
is, when the numbers exceed thofe given in the refpeétive
tables.

7. From Table III. take out the decimal part of the

ear anfwering to the day of the month given, and annex

it to the year, under the month written in the firft column, —

as in the examples hereafter put down.

8. From Table X. take out the equation for the
year, together with the fractional part, afcertained by pro-
portional differences, and infert the fum into the fecond
column, or column of time.

g. With Arg. A enter Table XI, and take out the
equation into the laft-mentioned column of time; as alfo
the fubfequent equations.

to. With Arguments B, A, enter Table V, and take
out the equation.

11, With Arguments B, S, enter Table VI, and take
out the equation.

12. With Arg. B enter Table VII, and take out the
equation.

13. With Arg. C enter Table XII, and take out the
equation. Alfo, with Arg. c, for the third fatellite ‘only,
enter Table XIII, and take out the equation.

14. Enter Table XIV. with Arguments F and G for
the firft fatellite, with D, E, IF, and G for the fecond and
third, and with D and E for the fourth; and take out the
refpective equations.

15. With Arg. H enter Table XV, and take out one

Vou. XXXII.

Alfo, with I, for the fourth fatellite, take out the fecond
part of the reduGtion.

16. Second fatellite.

With Argument H + L enter
Table XVIII, and take out the
other part of the reduction.

, With Argument H + K enter
Third fatellite. { Table XIX, and take out the
other part of the redudtion.

( With Argument H + [I enter
Table XXI, and take out the
; third part of the reduétion ;
and with Arg. H + K enter
the fame table, and take out the

L fourth part of the reduction.

_17- Add up the whole column of time, which will now
give the mean time of the middle of the eclipfe.

With Arg. H enter Table XVI,
and take out the femiduration,
and alfo the number N.

( With the Arguments H, I, K, L
enter Table XVIII. for the fe-
cond fatellite, and XX. for the
third, and take out the corre-

and {ponding numbers, the fum of

which, M, muft be fubftituted
for H, toenter Table XVI. for
| the femiduration, and alfo for
number N, refpeétively.
(The Arg. L is omitted in this
| fatellite, otherwife the fame

i:
|
U

Fourth fatellite.

18. Firft fatellite. {

Second fatellite,

Third fatellite.

Fourth fatellite precept will apply to it in
Table XXII, as to the fecond
and third above.

( With the Arguments C, N, enter

1g. Firft fatellite, | Table XVIJ, and take out the

senith Z correétion to apply to the femi-

duration, of which it has always

Second fatellite. | the fame figa, for the correct
femidurations.

With the Arguments C, D, E,
enter Table XVII, and take
out the three correfponding
numbers with their figns, the
fum of which, regarding their
figns, is called x, the produé
of which, with number N, is
the correction to be applied to
the femiduration.

With the Argument C_ enter
Table XVII, and take out the
equation + or —, accordingly
as the argument is + or —j;
then this equation, multiplied
by number N, regard being had
to the figns, will be the cor-
reétion to be applied to the
ferniduration.

Third fatellite.

onl i

Fourth fatellite.

20. The correét femiduration added to, or fubtraéted
from, the mean time of the middle of the eclipfe, accordingly
as B is more or lefs than 5000, will give the mean time of
emerfion, or of immerfion, as the cafe may be, which, by
the equation of time, may be converted into apparent time.

3Q Lxempli-

ff Example.

Epoch 181 5
June -
1815-49 -
Equation A
Equation B, A
Equation B, S
Equation B
Equation C
Equation F
Equation G
Reduétion H

Time of middle
Semiduration

Mean time of emerfion
By Nautical Almanac

2d Example.

Epoch 1815
July - bs
1815-53 » =
Equation A
Equation B, A
Equation Bys
Equation B
Equation C
Equation D
Equation E
Equation F
Equation G
Equation H
ReduGtion H + 7

Mean time of middle
Semiduration -

Mean time of emerfion
By Nautical Almanac

SATELLITES.

Exemplification of the Precepts.

To calculate the Time of the Emerfion of the Firf Satellite, June 27, 1815.

Semiduration H gives -
N = 86 with C correétion

Correéted femiduration -

To calculate the Time of the Emerfion of the Second Satellite, July 13, 1815.

D: He. Me Ss A S Bat 1D Be eGo see, a Reis
2 6 GY eat 34636 po 618 3471037 208|6043 8061|4804 363 1
10 22 6 21.4 1595 40} 43/398)395| 443) 453) 482) 618
Sigel) SS ae 15| 15 147) 147! 147) 147

I 51 45. 36231 43
-5 |— 36000

aoc

231 7669/2544 673)

H. M. s. [N = 585
Semiduration M gives 1 14 0.6
Correction CN - I 16.7

13. 7 26 58.9 re
1 15 17-3 | Correéted femiduration 1 15 17.3

13, 8 42
13 8 42

m

SATELLITES.

Exemplification of the Precepis.

3¢ Example. _ To calculate the Time of an Eclipfe of the T4ird Satellite, July 22, 1815.

TE 33 52-9). 34! 638

Equation G
Reduétion H -

Mean time of
middle
Semiduration

Mean time of
immerfion
Mean time of

emerfion

4th Example.

Epoch 1815
February -
1815.1 -
Equation A
Equation B, A
Equation B, S
Equation B
Equation C

Reduétion | .
Reduétion H + I
Reduétion H + K

Mean time of middle,
Semiduration °

Mean time of immer.
Mean time of emer.

i

5 50 30.6
8 19 6.2

1 12 45 $24) 34632
12 10 14.1

2

| $

4 10
4 12 20 27.0

4 48.4
I 14. 17.8

2660 | 947 | 055 | 618
Se 225) || G52) |) og
Peers) PEAS)
"36 re ee Aa

[052

43-1; 1667 7 | 5494

305 | 546 | 7888 | 977 | 586 | 674 406

LSI LS:

——

445 | 701
416 | 413

861 | 114

H

6042
463
e145

6650

K L

| 4804 | 3631

Ei
H +: K=

14-6) Semiduration M
aap Correction x N=
3

Semiduration
corrected

t I 14 17.8 | “2 7
By Nautical Almanac.
229" 5™ ro™ 58°

22 AQ 32

5037 | 2664 3502 | 618

917 | 840 76 7
| 181 18

278

Arg. C Equat. — 4!!.5 | |
Arg. D Equat. — 4.0
Arg. E Equat. — 4.0

— 12.5

— 0.053

881

676 | 77
23 181

Arg. H gives
Arg. I s
Arg. K -
Argon) {=

Arg. M -

‘To calculate an Eclipfe of the Fourth Satellite, Feb. 4, 1815.

79
181

1.2 | | |

meatiabticels loi

34910 | 5954 | 3713 | 3759 | 643, 580 | 6298 | 8320

6298

— —|—

0.17932

0.01933
0.07460
0.00703

0.28028

_c ih Lem gh 1365, H+ &

Semiduration -
Correétion -

10 §3.5| Semiduration corrected

9 33+5
| By Nautical Almanac.

4° 10" 1™ 20%
4 32-20 24

I 20.0

Arg. H gives

Arg. I
Arg. &

Arg. M =

N=
Arg. C

Correétion

— 1.123
- 45"

Numb.
0.87002
0.23506
0.01769

1.12277

50-535 Product.

In

SATELLITES.

__ Inthis laft example the fourth fatellite approaches the
limits, where an eclipfe will ceafe to take place ; and if M
had exceeded 2.98, or been lefs than 1.02, the method here
ufed would not have been fufficiently exa& for finding the
true femiduration. Whenthis happens, thelaft Table XXIII.
muit be ufed inftead of Table XVI: thus ;

Let V = 3 — M in the firft cafe, and = M — 1 in the
fecond; and takein Table XVII. the number X, and make
Q= X+2V — V'; and with Q enter Table XXIII.
and you have the femiduration without an error of more than
halfa fecond. But if you with to correé this error, let D
= the femiduration found by the number Q ; and the true
femiduration "= D— XD. The number X hasa different
fign from its argument. When Q is pofitive there willbe
an eclipfe, but when Q is negative there will be no eclipfe.

Example.—Let M = 2.998, or 1.002, V being the fame
in each, and C = 2400.

Then V =3— M= M — 1= — 0.002; alfo X = —
2.00093; the argument C = 2400 being + ; hence

X = — 0.00093
2V = + 0.004:
— V? = — 0.00c004
Q = + 0.003066

With this value of Q enter Table XXIII. and you get the
duration DE aling!
— XD=+4 04

Correct femiduration == 7 55.4

IfC had been 100, then X would have been = — 0.01479,
and Q = — 0.010794, a negative quantity, which fhews
that there would have been no eclipfe under thefe circum-
ftances.

Sareiites of Saturn, are feven little ftars revolving
about Saturn, and affording fome light during the abfence
of the fun.

One of thefe fatellites, viz. the fourth, was difcovered by
M. Huygens, anno 1655, 25th of March, by means of a tele-
feope twelve feet long; and he publifhed a table of its mean
motion in 1659; the other four were difcovered at different
times, by M. Caffini; viz. the firft and fecond in March,
1684, by help of Campani’s glaffes of one hundred and
one hundred and thirty-fix feet; the third in December
1672, by a telefcope of Campani’s, of thirty-five feet ; and
the fifth in OGtober 1671, by a telefcope of feventeen feet.
He afterwards publifhed tables of their motions. He
called them “ Sidera Lodoicea,’”? in honour of Louis le
Grand, in whofe reign, and obfervatory, they were dif-
covered; but Dr. Halley having found by his own obferva-
tions in 1682, that Huygens’s tables were about fifteen
degrees in twenty years too forward, compofed new tables
from more correé& elements. He alfo reformed M. Caffini’s
tables of the mean motions; and about the year 1720, pub-
lifhed them a fecond time, correéted from Mr. Pound’s ob-
fervations. He obferves, that the four innermoft fatellites
defcribe orbits very nearly in the plane of the ring, which,
as he fays, is, as to the fenfe, parallel to the equator; and
that the orbit of the fifth is a little inclinedto them. The
following table contains the periodic times of the five fatel-
lites, and their diftances in femidiameters of the ring, as
determined by Mr. Pound, with a micrometer fitted to the
telefcope given by Huygens to the Royal Society. Mr.
Pound firft meafured the diftance of the fourth, and then
deduced the reft from the proportion between the {quares

4

of the periodic times and cubes of their diftances, and thefe
are found to agree with obfervations.

Diftance in Diftance in| Dift, in} Dift. at
Satel-| Periodic Times femid. of @ femid..of |femid. of} the mean
lites. by Pound. King by | Saturn by | Ring by |diftance of
Pound. Pound. | Caffini. | Saturn.
I. | rai" 1827", 2.097 4-893 | 14% Jol 4gits

ani 2 17 4122| 2.686 | 6.286 | 23

|TII.| 4 12 25 12 | 3-752 | 8.754

how yee 22 4112] 8.698 | 20.295

v. 79 7.49 0} 25.348 | 59-154

The laft column is from Caffini; but Dr. Herfchel
makes the diltance of the fifth to be 8! 31.97, which is
probably more exact. In this table the fatellites are num-
bered from Saturn as they were before the difcovery of the
other two. ;

Or the 9th of June, 1749, at 10" Mr. Pound found the
diftance of the fourth fatellite to be 3! 7” with a telefcope
of one hundred and twenty-three feet, and an excellent mi-
crometer fixed tc it; and the fatellite was at that time
very near its greateit eaftern digreflion. Hence, at the
mean diftance of the earth from Saturn, that diftance be-
comes 2! 58.21; fir I. Newton makes it 3! 4!

The periodic times are found as for the fatellites of
Jupiter. To determine thefe, M. Caffini chofe the time
when the femi-minor axes of the ellipfes which they de-
{cribe were the greateft, as Saturn was then ninety degrees
from their node, becaufe the place of the fatellite in its
orbit is then the fame as upon the orbit of Saturn ;. whereas
in every other cafe, it would be neceflary to apply the
reduétion in order to get the place in its orbit.

As it is difficult to fee Saturn and the fatellites at the
fame time in the field of view of a telefcope, their dif-
tances have fometimes been meafured, by obferving the
time of the paflage of the body of Saturn over a wire ad-
juited as an hour-circle in the field of the telefcope, and the
interval between the times when Saturn and the fatellite
pafled. From comparing the periodic times and diftances,
M. Caffini obferved, that Kepler’s rule agreed very well
with obfervations.

By comparing the places of the fatellites with the ring
in different points of their orbits, and the greateft minor
axes of the ellipfes which they appear to defcribe, com-
pared with the major axes, the planes of the orbits of the
firft four are found to be very nearly in the plane of the
ring, and therefore are inclined to the orbit of Saturn about
thirty degrees; but the orbit of the fifth, according to
M. Caffini the fon, makes an angle with the ring of about
fifteen degrees.

M. Caflini places the node of the ring, and confequently

the nodes of the four firft fatellites, in Cy 22° upon the
orbit of Saturn, and 5° 21° upon the ecliptic. Mi, fen
gens had determined it to be in 5* 20° 30’. M. Maraldi,

in 1716, determined the longitude of the node of the ring
upon the orbit of Saturn to be 5* 19° 48! 30"; and upon
the ecliptic to be fi 16° 20’. The node of the fifth fatel-
lite is placed by M. Caffini in 5° 5° upon the orbit of
Saturn. M. de la Lande makes it 5° 0° 27'. From the

obfervation

SATELLITES.

obfervation of M. Bernard at Marfeilles, in 1787, it ap-
pears that the node of this fatellite is retrograde.

Dr. Halley difcovered, that the orbit of the fourth fatel-
lite was excentric ; for, having found its mean motion, he
difcovered that its place by obfervation was at one time
three degrees forwarder than by his calculations, and at
other gbfervations it was 2° 30! behind; this indicated an
excentricity; and he placed the line of the apfides in
10° 22°. Phil. Tranf. N° 145.

The fatellites of Saturn move in orbits that may be called
vertical with refpe& to our view of them, whereas thofe of
Jupiter’s fatellites are horizontal; confequently the latter
bodies pafs through Jupiter’s fhadow, and are eclipfed, but
the former can never be fo circumitanced as to be eclipfed,
as they never come near Saturn’s fhadow, except perhaps
when the ring looks edgeways to the earth by means of its
paralleliim, which will happen twice in every 29 years,
but revolye round Aim in circles that ftand at nearly right
angles to the fhadow, and confequently do not vary their
diflance from the fun, as thofe of Jupiter do in every revo-
lution.

M. Caffini obferved, that the fifth fatellite difappeared
regularly for about half its revolution, when it was to the
ealt of Saturn; from which he concluded, that it revolved
about its axis ; he afterwards, however, doubted of this. But
fir I. Newton (in his~ Principia, lib. iti. prop. 17.) con-
cludes from hence, that it revolyes about its axis, and in
the fame time that it revolves about Saturn; and that the
variable appearance arifes from fome parts’ of the fatellite
not refleGting fo much light as others. Dr. Herfchel has
confirmed this, by tracing regularly the periodical change
of light through more than ten revolutions, which he found,
in all appearances, to be contemporary with the return of
the fatellite to the fame fituation in its orbit. This is
further confirmed by fome obfervations of M. Bernard, at
Marfeilles, in 1784 ; and is a remarkable inftance of analogy
among the fecondary planets.

The fixth and feventh fatellites were difcovered by Dr.
Herfchel, with his forty-feet reflector: the fixth was firft
obferved the rgth of Augult, 1787, and afcertained to be
a fatellite of Saturn the 28th of Augult, 1789, and in-
terior to all the others; and the feventh was difcovered
the 17th of September, 1789, interior to the fixth. (See
Phil. Tranf. for 1789.) In a paper upon Saturn and its
ring (Phil. Tranf. for 1790, vol. lxxx.) he has given an
account of the difcovery, with fome of the elements of
their motions. He afterwards added tables of their motions.
With hig twenty-feet telefcope he zpprehended that he faw
a fixth fatellite ; but as foon as he had finifhed his telefcope
of forty-feet focal length, he direéted it to Saturn, and
was prefented with a view of ‘fix of its fatellites, in fuch a

fituation and fo bright, as rendered it impoflible to miftake
them, or not to fee them. The retrograde motion of
Saturn amounted at the time to nearly 43 minutes per day,
and this circumftance made it very eafy to afcertain whether
the ftars, which he took to be fatellites, were fo; and in
about 25 hours he had the pleafure of finding, that the
planet had vifibly carried them all away from their places.
He continued his obfervations, ‘and difcovered, as we have
already faid, the feventh fatellite. ‘Thefe two fatellites lie
within the orbits of the other five. Their diftances from
the centre of Saturn are 36!.7889 and 28!'.6689 ; and their
periodic times are 14 8" 53! 8"<g and 22" 37! 22!.9, The
planes of the orbits of thefe fatellites lie fo near to the
plane of the ring, that the difference cannot be perceived.
All the fatellites of Saturn are fo {mall, and fo remote
from the earth, that very good telefcopes are neceflary for
obferving them. Wargentin faw the five old fatellites with
an achromatic telefcope of ten feet; and on the roth of
December 1793, Dr. Herfchel faw them diftin@ly with a
power of fixty applied to his ten-feet refleGtor. Phil. Tranf.
for 1794, vol. lxxxiv. p. 56.

Of all the feven fatellites, the fixth and feventh, viz.
thofe difcovered by Dr. Herfchel, and neareft the planet,
are the {malleft ; the firft and fecond are the next in fize;
the third is greater than the firft and fecond; and the fourth
is the largeit of all: the fifth exceeds all of them but the
fourth in brightnefs, when it is at its weftern elongation
from Satura, but at other times it is extremely {mall, and at
its eaftern elongation entirely difappears. This phenomenon,
firft obferved by Caffini, eta to arife from one part of
the fatellite being lefs luminous than the reft. By its rota-
tion on its axis, which this phenomenon feems to eftablifh,
this obfcure part of its difc is turned, like the earth’s, when
it is in the part of its orbit eaft of Saturn; and the lumi-
nous part of its furface becomes vifible while it enters into
the weltern part of its orbit. Dr. Herfchel obferved this
fatellite, nor ever loft fight of it with his twenty-feet tele-
{eope, through all the variations of its light, and hence
concluded, that it revolved round its axis in the fame time
that it performed its rotation round the primary planet.

sete fatellite of Saturn revolves at the diftance of
4.893 femidiameters of the planet, in 1° 21" 18! 26’; the
Jecond at 6.268 femidiameters of Saturn, in 24 17" 44! 51!'5
the third at 8.754 femidiameters of Saturn, in 4°12" 25! 11";
the fourth at 20.297 femidiameters of Saturn, in 15% 22"
41! 11'.092 by La Lande; the fifth at 59.154 femidiameters
of Saturn, in 79% 7" 53! 43"; the fixth at 3.080 femidia-
meters of the planet, in 22" 37! 23"; and the feventh at
3-952 femidiameters of Saturn, in 14 8" 53! 9". The fol-
lowing table fhews the feveral particulars that are known

concerning the fatellites of Saturn.
>

SATELLITES.

Seventh Satel. |Sixth Satellite.| Firft Satellite.
Periodical revolution, 148% 53’ 9”| a9® 37’ 93) 1591418! 26.2
Synodical revolution, 18 53 24|22 37 30 21 18 54,8
Periodical revolution, D. D. D.

in days and decim. 0.04271 ~ 1.37024 1.88780
Do. in feconds, 81443" 118389" 163106”
Se ae eee
Longitude 1ft January
1788,
Daily motion,
Motion for 365 days, 4

10° 27° 53
6 10 41 53”
4 44 42

of therings, accord- 1.0435
ing to Bradley,

In diameters of Saturn,

In min. and fec.

Tn French leagues,

——

Inclination of orbit,

Diftance in aor}

2.5465
43/5
65149

30°

Place of node, accord-
ing to Lalande, }
According to Caffini, S$ 22
According to Maraldi, 5 16 20
According to Huygens,} 5 20 30

59279:

5 22
5 16 20
5 16 30

5% 17° 3! SRL 7 Smo

5 22
5 16 20°
5 20 30

The pofition of the fatellites of Saturn may be eafily found
for any particular time, by tables of their motions, calculated
by Caffini, and given in the Tables de Berlin; from tables
calculated by Dr. Herfchel, and publifhed in the Philofo-
phical TranfaGtions for 1790; and from Dr. Mafkelyne’s
Tables, given in vol.i. of Vince’s Aftronomy. They may alfo
be found by a very fimple inftrument called a Saturnilabe,
which is defcribed in La Lande’s Aitr. vol. ili. p. 203.

The elements of the fatellites of this planet are lefs
perfe&t than thofe of the fatellites of Jupiter. The dif-
ficulty of meafuring their elongations from Saturn, have
prevented aftronomers from determining, with their ufual
precifion, the mean diftances, and the revolutions of thefe
fecondary planets. In the pofition of their orbits, how-
ever, there is fomething very remarkable. While the
orbits of the fix inner fatellites, that is the firlt, fecond,
third, fourth, fixth, and feventh, all lie in the plane of
Saturn’s ring, the orbit of the fifth deviates confiderably
from this plane. La Place imagines that the accumulation
of matter at Saturn’s equatorial parts retains the orbits of
the fix firft fatellites in the plane of the equator, in the fame
manner as it maintains the ring in that plane. The aétion
of the fun, indeed, tends to draw them from the plane ;
but the effeét of this action becomes fenfible only on the
orbit of the fifth or outer fatellite, which fufficiently ac-
counts for the deviation of its path from the general plane
in which Saturn conftrains the other {fatellites to move.
The orbits of the fatellites of Saturn move, like thofe of
the moon, and the fatellites of Jupiter, upon fixed planes,
which pafs con{tantly by the nodes of the equator and the
orbit of Saturn, between their two laft planes. Their
orbits preferve their inclination almoft invariable, and their
nodes have a retrograde motion nearly uniform. See Me-
canique Celefte, tom, iv. cited by Dr. Brewlter in the
fecond volume of his edition of Fergufon’s Attronomy.
See alfo Vince’s Elements of Aftronomy. See PLANET
and SATURN.

The great diftance between the fourth and fifth fatellite,

ave occafion to Huygens to fufpeét that there might be
fome intermediate one; or elfe, that the fifth might have
fome other fatellite moving round it, as its centre.

Satec.ites of the Georgium Sidus. ‘Two of thefe fatel-

Second Satellite.| Third Satellite. | Fourth Satellite. | Fifth Satellite.

2917% 44! 51.2
217 45 51.0

4%jobosl ai
4 12 27 55.2

159299" 41'13".1|79% 7553/40!" 5

15 23 15 20.23/79 22 3 12,9
D.
15.9453
1377973

D.
79.3295
6854023
5® 12° 20! 4° 20° 29!

“0 22 34 38”| 0 4 39 17”
10 20 40 41/7 6 23 87.

D.
4.51749
390311

D.

2.73948

236991”
10° 7° 45! 55 25° 25!
411 ‘32 6"
410 1519

2,19 41 24”
9 16 57. 5

1.876 4.349 12.674
4.377
1/18
116458

10.1475
3/10
270048

29.577
8’ 42.5
884152

50°
5°17° 6! 58 17% +5! 4°25° 5f

5 22 22 : 4 5
5 16 20 16 20
5 20 30 20 30

lites were difcovered by Dr. Herfchel, January the rith,

17873; and they were afcertained to be fuch in the courfe
of the enfuing month. Of this difcovery an account was
given in the Philofophical Tranfaétions for 1787, vol. lxxvii.
p- 125, &c. Inthe Philofophieal Tranfaétions for 1788,
vol. lxxviii. part z, he publifhed a further account of this
difcovery, comprehending their periods and diftances, and
the pofitions of their orbits, as far as he was then able to
afcertain them. In order to fettle their periods, he availed
himfelf of the fynodic revolutions, and the mean of feveral
refults gave that of the firft fatellite 84975 1! 19.3, and
that of the fecond 13411" 5'1".5. For the diitances, he
found one by obfervation, and then the other from the
periodic times. In attempting to difcover the diftance of
the fecond, the orbit was apparently elliptical. On March
18th, 1787, at 8" 2! 50", he found the elongation to be
46'.46, which was the greateit of all the meafures he had
taken. -Hence, at the mean diftance of the Georgian from
the earth, this elongation will be 44".23. Admitting then
for the prefent, fays Dr. Herfchel, that the fatellites move
in circular orbits, we may take 44!'.23 for the true diftance,
without much error: hence, the fquares of the periodic
times being as the cubes of the diftances, the diftance of the
firlt fatellite comes out 33.09. Here were ufed the fy-
nodic revolutions, inftead of the fidereal, which aflumptien
makes but a {mall error. In determining the inclinations of
the orbits, and the places of their nodes, our author met
with a difficulty ; for at the time of his firft obfervation, it
could not be alcertained which part of the orbit inclined to
the earth, and which declined from it. Dr. Herfchel,
therefore, computed, on thefe two fuppofitions, the in-
clinations of the orbits, and the places of the nodes, and
found them as follows: the orbit of the fecond fatellite is
inclined to the ecliptic 99° 43! 53.3, or 81° 6' 4!.4; its
afcending node upon the ecliptic is in 18° of Virgo, or 6° of
Sagittarius; and when the planet pafles the meridian,
being in the node of this fatellite, or about the year
1818, the northern part of its orbit will be turned towards

the 1 sy } . M.de Lambre makes the afcending node in
weit
The

5° 21°, or 8° 9°, from Dr. Herfchel’s obfervations,
fituation of the orbit of the firit fatellite does not materially

differ

ee ee ae

~

_—

SA T

differ from that of the fecond. The light of the fatellites is
extremely faint: the fecond is the brighteft of the two,
but the difference is inconfiderable. This faintnefs of luftre
is evidently owing to their great diftance. Thefe fatellites
are probably not lefs than thofe of Jupiter. In the year
1818 we fhall have eclipfes of thefe fatellites, when they
will appear to afcend through the fhadow of the planet,
almoft in a dire€tion perpendicular to the ecliptic. _ Dr.
Herfchel has fince difcovered four more fatellites of the
Georgian, and found that their motions are all retrograde.
We have an arrangement of the fix fatellites in the Phi-
lofophical Tranfaétions for 1798, vol. Ixxxvili. part 1.
~ which is as follows: :

Firft fatellite, the interior one of January 18, 1790.

Second fatellite, the neareft old one of January 11, 1787.

Third fatellite, the intermediate one of March 26, 1794.

Fourth fatellite, the fartheft old one of January 11, 1787.

Fifth fatellite, the exterior one of February 9, 1790.

Sixth fatellite, the moft diftant one of February 28, 1794.

The firft of the new {fatellites will hardly ever be feen
otherwife than about its greateft elongation, but cannot be
much inferior in brightnefs to the other two; and if any
more interior fatellites fhould exift, we fhall probably, as
our author conceives, not obtain a fight of them, for the
fame reafon that the inhabitants of the Georgian planet
perhaps never can difcover the exiftence of our Earth, Venus,
and Mercury. The fecond new or intermediate fatellite is
confiderably fmaller than the firft aud fecond old fatellites.
The two exterior, or fifth and fixth fatellites, are the
f{malleft of all, and muft chiefly be looked for in their
Aoga elongations. Although the diftances of thefe fatel-
ites cannot be accurately afcertained, without a greater
number of obfervations, Dr. Herfchel thinks that we may
admit the diftance of the interior fatellite to be 25.5, as his
calculation of the eftimation of March 5, 1794, gives it;
and hence we may compute that its periodical revolution
will be 5421" 25'. If we place the intermediate fatellite at
an equal diftance between the two old ones, or at 38".57,
its period will be 104 23" 4'. The diftance of the neareit
exterior fatellite feems to be about double the diftance of
the fartheft old one : hence its periodical time is found to be
38% 1" 49. The moft diftant fatellite, according to the
calculation of the obfervation of February 28, 1794, is full
four times as far from the planet as the old fecond {atellite :
it will therefore take at leaft 1074 16" 40! to complete one
revolution. For other particulars relating to thefe fatellites,
fee Groraian Planet. No other aftronomer befides Dr.
Herfchel has feen thefe fatellites, nor do the French altro-
nomers believe that there are any belonging to this planet :
we admit them, however, for the prefent on the authority of
this excellent obferver.

SATELLITIAN, or Satesiite- Machine,in Aflronomy,
isa machine by which the motions of the fatellites, or fecond-
ary planets, are produced by the aid of wheel-work, in the
fame way that the motions of the primary planets are effected
by a planetarium. As the fecondary planets, with the ex-
ception of our moon, were not difcovered till after the
invention of telefcopes took place, a machine for exhibiting
their motions is not of fach ancient date, as fome of the
machines which were firft contrived to reprefent the Ptole-
maic and other fyitems of the primary planets, and which we
have defcribed under our article Pranerany Machines.
The fatellites of Jupiter being nearer to the earth than. thofe
of Saturn or Ggorgium, were difcovered by Simon Marius
and Galileo in the years 1609 and 1610, as we have above
flated ; and in 1679 we find Roemer prefenting a machine for
exhibiting their appareat places to Mr. Flamiteed, which was

Sear

only four yearsafter the Royal Obfervatory of Greenwich was
founded. An account of this machine was firft publifhed
by Dr. Derham in his ‘ Artificial Clock-maker,” and was
thence copied by Mr. John Harris into his ** Lexicon Teehni-
cum.”? We propofe to defcribe the fatellite-machines in the
order of their invention, as we have before done the orreries
and planetaria. j

Roemer’s.—In fig. 1. of Plate XII. of Planetary Ma-
chines, we have given a fection of Roemer’s fatellite-machine,
in which A BC Dis an oblong frame or box, containing the
wheel-work neceflary for giving the requifite motions to the
four {mall balls, carried by as many bent arms round the
central ball, that reprefents Jupiter. The numerals attached
to.each wheel indicate the refpe€tive numbers of teeth in
each wheel, and the arbor which carries the week-hand, under
the box, is affumed as revolving in an exact week, in order
to indicate the feven days, when the machine was in ufe, it
mutt therefore have been placed in a vertical pofition, to fhew
the graduations of the day {paces, which were probably fub-
divided into hours on the face of indication, as there does
not appear to have been a day-hand revolving in 24 hours.
The four wheels denoted by the numbers 28, 42, 63, and
87, were all fixed faft on the common arbor of feven
days, and confequently all revolved alike in this period
of aflumed time: their fellow-wheels, 67, 43, 32, and 22,
having each a tube of different bore and length, to carry the
four arms refpe¢tively, revolved confequently in different
times, agreeably to the periods of the four fatellites that
they were calculated to exhibit, and each pair of wheels were
fo many fraétions of the aflumed period of feven days, viz.
28 42 63
ae Peis ay,
67 43 32
already given under our hiltory of PLranerary Machines,
together with fuch other remarks on the original contrivances,
as fuperfede the neceflity of a more minute defcription in
this place. We may add, however, that Mr. Fergufon
added an annual wheel to Roemer’s conftruétion, for the fake
of indicating the days and months, and that he changed the
63 for be)

3

wheels a 3 which gave a period of 3413 17™ 325.3,

nd = the values and errors of which we have

which is more accurate than that given by the original
numbers by 1™ 348.3. B. Martin alfo added wheel-work
for giving Jupiter’s fatellites their motions in his orrery, but
thefe were calculated for periodic, not fynodic, revolutions,

11163

and the only numbers that have been publifhed are 5
from which the wheels of the fourth fatellite were derived.
Satellitian of the Rev. W. Pearfon.—We are not aware
that any further alteration was made in the original con-
{tru€tion of the fatellite-machine, as a fimple machine, till
the year 1798, when Mr. Pearfon (now the Rev. Dr. Pear-
fon,) not knowing of the exiltence of Roemer’s machine,
contrived one very fimilar in its powers and properties,
which is deferibed in Mr. Nicholfon’s Journal of that year ;
vol. ii. 4to. edit. p. 122, et feq. The principal difference,
between this and Roemer’s machine, confiits in the time
aflumed for the common arbor to revolve in, it being the
inventor’s intention to give motion to the fatellites by a
clock, that would at any inftant exhibit the exilting relative
fituations of the four fatellites at any ,bour and minute
of each fucceflive day, while the motions of the four little
reprefentative balls cent pace with thofe of the fatellites
themfelves, as viewed at any time with a telefcope. The
feétion of the box and wheel-work of this fimple ma-
3 chine,

SATELLITE-MACHINE.

chine, together with the various hands and arms, may be
feen in fig. 2. of the laft-mentioned plate, where all
the dimenfions correfpond with thofe of the machine
itfelf, and in which the aétion of all the wheels is eafily
intelligible. AB CD is here alfo an oblong box, made to
contain the wheel-work ; and the communication of motion
is from a fingle endlefs ferew, cut on an arbor that revolves
by the clock-work in 24 hours, or that may be adtuated by
a handle inferted thereon: this {crew acting at E, with a
wheel of 73 teeth, makes this wheel move forwards the {pace
of one tooth in each day, and the month-hand is carried by its
prolonged arbor through a quintuple fpiral in five revo-
lutions, viz. in 73 x 5 or 365 days, the months and day
{paces being fo divided, from the outer to the inner end of
the quintuple fpiral, as to contain an appropriate {pace for
each day in the year; but left any miftake fhould arife, or
doubt occur, as to which line of the fpiral the index mutt
be confidered as pointing at any given time, a qeck-hand is
f{uperadded, to fhew whether the day indicated 1s a Monday,
Tuefday, Wednefday, &c. ; the arbor carrying this hand re-
céives its motion from the wheel of 73, by means of a pinion
of 7, one tooth of which is a€tuated in each fucceflive day,
and therefore its arbor revolves in a week exaétly. From
the weekly arbor the motion is transferred to the daily arbor,
aid an Aour-hand is carried by it, by the interpofition of the
wheel 56, that drives the pinion of 8 on the common arbor,
on which are alfo made faft the wheels 18, 27, and 39; which
therefore all revolve together in the {pace of a natural day :
thefe wheels aétuate refpetively the larger wheels 134, 129,
g6, and 69, in the refpective periods of the fatellites, and their
tubes, moving one within another, bear the arms and
planetary balls as reprefented in the figure. The refpective
values and errors of thefe four pairs of fimple wheel-work,
if accurately calculated, will be found to be thofe contained
in the fubjoined little table; viz.

saa ee td |6eX8 owl one

134

Wheels. Periods. Errors in 24h, }
| a 39 of 24h 12 78h 27m gars | — o! 3o0!.7
69
27 ;
2. | —4 of ditto | 3 13 20 0 | + 0 369
96 |

} 18 ; |

3. | ——of ditto | Tie Be TO) WON |i) Obise' Zc.
| & | is

The diltances of the four fatellites from Jupiter are ufually
meafured in diameters of this planet, and in the inftrument
before us the length of each arm, or radius vector, is, of the
firit fatellite 2% diameters of Jupiter, of the fecond 44, of
the third 73, and of the fourth 123. When the machine is
detached from the clock, and turned a a handle, a fereen
of paper is ufed to receive the fhadows of the four little balls,
as well as of Jupiter, while a candle or lamp is placed at
about four feet diftance on the oppofite fide of the machine,
on a ftand that has an arm revolving by adjuitment round the
central ftem: this arm, which carries the candle or lamp, is
placed, by means of a {mall graduated ecliptic circle, in fuch
a fituation, that the fhadow of Jupiter may be to the right or
left of the mean place, accordingly as the immerfions or
emerfiens are vifible, that is, accordingly as Jupiter, the

Earth, and Sun, are refpeétively fituated before or after
oppofition. In fg. 3. the middle circle reprefents the fhadow
coincident with Jupiter, which is the appearance when
Jupiter and the Earth are either in conjunction or oppo-
fition; and the two double circles exhibit the relative
fituations of Jupiter and his fhadow, when the Earth and he
are about three figns from each other before and after oppo-
fition. In one of thefe fituations the fatellites come to the
fhadow before they come to the planet, and then the immer-
fions only of the firft fatellite are feen; but in the other
fituation, when they come to Jupiter firft, its emerfions only
are vifible: the other fatellites, by reafon of their greater
diftance, have, however, in this fituation, both their immer-
fions and emerfions fucceflively vifible in the fame revo-
lution, unlefs indeed the latitude of the fourth be confider-
able, in which cafe the {mall feétion of the fhadow, at a
great diftance from Jupiter, will not be entered into ; which
fhadow is conical, on account of the fuperior magnitude of
the fun over that of Jupiter. The {mall concentric circles
drawn in the light circles, are intended to reprefent the
feétions of the fatellites at their different diftances; the firit
having the largeft fe€tion, and the fourth fcarcely any ex-
ceeding a point. When the dark circle, reprefenting Jupiter,
is drawn on the f{creen, the candleflick muft be fo adjufted
that the Shadow of the planet will fall at the proper diftance
to the right or left of him, as the cafe may be, when the
fun’s place is compared with Jupiter’s geocentric longitude.
In the laft page of cach month in the Nautical Almanac, the
configurations of Jupiter’s fatellites are put down fo accu-
rately, that a comparifon of the appearance there given, with
that on the fereen, as produced by the machine, and alfo
with that feen through a good telefcope in the heavens, will
be a pleafing amufement to any one who has fuch a machine,
and will affift in the adjuftment of the places of the different
fatellites. The configuration in fig. 4. anfwers to that given
for ten o’clock at night on the rit of April 1815.

In one of the fatellitians, the inventor gave a motion to

Jupiter’s axis in 9 55™ 513, by the wheels = but fuch ad-
dition may be difpenfed with, as not neceflary for any ma-
terial illuftration.

Janvier’s Jovilabe—When we defcribed the OnrERY by
Antide Janvier of Paris, we. mentioned that his work, in-
titled «¢ Des Revolutions des Corps celeftes,” &c. publifhed
in 1812, had juft been received, and in it we find an account
of a jovilabe, or machine for reprefenting the motions of Ju-
piter and his fatellites, which he profeffes to have conftruéted,
as a portion of his moving /phere, in the year 1789, and which
he fays is defcribed by Berthoud, in his “* Hiitoire de la Me-
fure du Tems.’’? We have turned to Berthoud’s account, but
find that the motions of the fatellites produced in the {phere
require twenty wheels and pinions ra the motions of the
four fatellites only, whereas thofe recently publifhed amount
to only four fimple pairs; and, as the reader will fee, are
artfully copied from Dr. Pearfon’s fatellitian, which we have
jut defcribed, as invented in the year 1798. We will firft
defcribe the machine itfelf, a feétion of which is given in
Jig. 3. of Plate XII. and then fee how far this ingenious
Frenchman, who complains of the plagiarifm of his own
citizens, may be confidered as the inventor of the conftruc-
tion which he has finally adopted, In defcribing Janvier’s
machine, we propofe to retain the letters of reference, as well
as the entire figure numbered 3 in his plate yi. in order that
we may do ‘ules to the author’s arrangement ; but we do
not conceive it neceflary to give figures 1 and 2 of the fame
plate, as they would occupy too much fpace, and as they
relate

- SATELLITE-MACHINE.

relate only to the graduations and calliper, which may be
apprehended from our detail of the wheel-work, and the
other parts feen in our figure. TT conftitute the box that
contains the mechanifm, and R R two of the feet on which
it ftands ; a handle is inferted at g, on the arbor of the con-
trate wheel 4, which is the firft mover, aflumed to, revolve
in twenty-four hours of folar time; the driving-wheels
and pinions marked 1, 2, 3, 4, fixed on one common ar-
bor, and their correfponding driven wheels d, e, 6, a, with
each a feparate tube to carry the four planetary balls, are

39, aa; Es and
69 96 129

fore defcribed, as may be feen by a comparifon of the
fagures 2 and 5 in our plate ; but inftead of ufing the candle-
ftick, with an arm to carry the focket round an ecliptic
plate for adjuftment of the place of Jupiter’s fhadow at any
time, the author before us has added feveral wheels for
giying an annual motion to the ecliptic plate, and for giving
Jupiter’s periodic and fynodic periods, in order that the
place of the fhadow may have a felf-adjuftment ; which ad-
ditions we allow to be Janvier’s own invention, as applied
to his complex trains in the {phere, agreeably to Berthoud’s
defcription. Many of thefe wheels, however, lie fo behind
one another, that they are not attempted to be exhibited to
view in the figure, but we will endeavour to explain their
fituations and ufes, together with a table of the numbers
originally ufed, and of others fince propofed by the author
to Be fubltituted in fome future conitruétion, where great
accuracy may be preferred to fimplicity. The contrate
wheel f aGtuating the wheel 3, of 27 teeth, mutt itfelf ne-

y

e » exa@tly as in the fatellitian be-
4

ceffarily have a fimilar number, in order to make the common
arbor, that takes the hour-hand, revolve in a natural day,
though it is not explained fo in the original account ; but
it is faid that the pinion of $ leaves, marked 1, drives a
wheel, C, behind it, which is not fhewn, and which revolves
in feven days, that its arbor may take the week-hand ; this
muft therefore have fifty-fix teeth, as in the fatellitian:
again, a pinion on the arbor of this wheel C drives a wheel
D, alfo unfeen, while a fecond pinion on its arbor drives the
wheel E once round in a year; but as the numbers of teeth
of thofe wheels are not given, we cannot be certain whether
the year confifts of 365 or 3654 days. This wheel E,
which is feen concentric with the four tubed wheels, above
the fixed plate or bridge A B, has atube, that furrounds
the canon or tube of the faid bridge ; and thus moves, like
the minute-hand of a watch, free from the fri@tion of the
interior tubes. Again, the annual wheel E impels a wheel
F, not thewn, diametrically oppofite the former wheel D,
which therefore mutt be conceived to be placed to the left of
the faid wheel E, behind the arbor of the piece /¢; then
a pinion ¢, on the lower end of the arbor of the wheel F,
at, unfeen, drives the wheel G round once in Jupiter’s
fynodic period, which is ftated in Janvier’s work to be
398" 19" 12" 54°, though he has not given the data for
making the computation. Berthoud, however, informs
15% 132
me | § ’
61 6

enables us to infer that wheel E has 61 teeth, wheel F 158,
pinion ¢ 6, and wheel G 1325 but in the calliper alligned to
this train the numbers could not by any means be fo high,
and yet as the pinion 6 could not well be {maller, the
wheels would not admit of diminution otherwife than by
fubftitution of a fmaller number than 61 for wheel E,
which however is of the fame diameter as the wheel under
it of 134 teeth. It appears, therefore, pretty clearly, that

Vor. KXXI.

us, that this train is which information

the machine before us is only a projec, that ‘was never
realized, except in the inventor’s imagination; and one of
his expreffions, which we fhall prefently notice, convinces,
us that this is the cafe, though he has publifhed a defcrip-
tion of it as being actually conftruéted. Above wheel G,
and on its arbor, is faftened the pinion H, that a@tuates the
wheel I on a parallel arbor, at the-upper end of which is
pinion £ driving the indented ring M M, that refts on the
box T T, and is probably kept in its place by fixed rollers.
It is this ring, M M, indented on the inner edge, that car-
ries the ecliptic circle attached to it, and the circle of
months, fubdivided into day fpaces, all which revolve with
the velocity of Jupiter’s periodic motion; fo that a hand,
reaching from the centre and moving with the annual wheel,
fhews the angular diftance from Jupiter to the fun at any
time upen this ecliptic circle. In the circular plate ¢ 7,
carried by the arbor of Jupiter’s fynodic period, is a round
fteel pin, afcending to take hold of a flit made in a frame,
vv, that is moveable round the centre, in order to give the
faid frame a vibratory motion in each fynodic period, the
quantity of which motion is indicated by a pointer at the
remote end of the frame to the right; then a thread, x x,
{tretched acrofs the middle of this oblong frame, reprefents
the place of Jupiter’s fhadow, and conititutes the felf-ad-
juftment, of which we before took notice. Neither Janvier
nor Berthoud has informed us what the numbers of teeth
are in wheels H, I, K, and ring M M, which convert a fy-
nodical into a periodical revolution of Jupiter, but they
may be eafily obtained by our diretions given under Num-
BERS Planetary.

We come now to examine an affertion of Janvier, which
we have already alluded to, and which we will quote in his
own words ; thus, ‘* On voit que, dans la difpofition de ce
rouage, il n’y a qu’une feule roue avec fa motrice pour ex-
primer chacune des révolutions des fatellites. On y peut
employer les nombres fuivans, qui (a exception de 39
et 69) ne font que des multiples des nombres employés par
Roemer (Petri Horrebowii Op. tom. iii. p.116.)?

On this quotation we have to remark, fir{t, that the author
{peaks of having but one pair of wheels to each fatellite,
which wheels he had previoufly defcribed by figures and let-
ters of reference only, as wheels exifling in Tis machine ;
he then fays, one may (on y peut) employ the following num-
bers, which are thofe we have already given, and left the
adoption of them fhould be traced from the fatellitian, he
adds, that they are only multiples of Roemer’s numbers, and
refers for his authority to the works of Horrebow, which
are not very commonly met with, making however an ex-
ception of the numbers 39 and 69, as though they were
calculated and added by him/élf !

Tasce of the original Trains, as given by Berthoud, in his
Defcription of Janvier’s moving Sphere.

Sat. Trains. Periods produced.

\ . h d h 6 "
| 4 ar x 98 of 24 Te TEt zB cei gy)
[shal

11 “ie lag Ban
ie 6 ot Set Onder, S23 “zie Van
63. 67 P
| S° hat of ditto] 7 3 59 35 33
P re
| 4. alg pda ofditto] 16 18 5 4 1
4 78
: . ¢ Smee TABLE

2

SATELLITE-MACHINE.

Taste of Trains, calculated and recommended by Janvier
for an accurate Machine, where fimplicity is difregarded.

Trains. Periods produced.

19 182 28™ 36° 22! |

49
=~ of 24
51 : |

|
oa 2 EEA OD eh Goal
Bee at
§3

hee
wy X git ditto | 7 3 59 35 33

— xX os ditto 16° 18 Ps

9 23 faa

The periods that thefe trains are calculated to produce
are not fo accurate as thofe in the preceding table, but as
there are four wheels and pinions fewer, they are more
fimple. The train of the third fatellite is the fame in both,
and why that of the fourth is not alfo made the fame, it
bemg more accurate than the one in this table, does not ap-
pear, except that 4 is a number too fmall for a pinion,
and the double of it would require the 61 to be 122, which
perhaps might be confidered too large, as compared with
the reft of the wheels that are propofed for adoption.

Large Satellite-Machine, by the Rev. W. Pear fin. —When

- we defcribed the new orrery for equated motions in three
parts, by the Rev. W. Pearfon, under our article OrrERY,
we referred the reader for the defcription of the third ec
tion, which conftitutes an accurate and complete fatellite-
machine by itfelf, to our prefent title; which, therefore,
we now proceed to deferibe, after having detailed the par-
ticulars of thofe contrivances that preceded it. In this
machme the motions of the earth, of Jupiter, and of his
four fatellites, are all given with a degree of exaétitude that
is furpriting, and that leaves nothing further to be wifhed
for in the mechanical reprefentation of the Jovian fyltem, as
viewed from the earth in motion. <A lateral view of the
external afpe&t of this machine is exhibited in fig. 1. of
Plate XII. of Plenetary Machines, but without the feet
by which it is fupported, in order to fave room in the plate.
In this figure, the feverak parts, denoted by the letters
A, B, C, to | inclufive, are the fame as are given in
Plate V., and defcribed under the head Orrery, which
we will therefore jult enumerate liere, without repeating
what we have before more minutely explained, and then pro-
ceed to defcribe the parts, peculiar to the Jovian fyftem, that
have been fuperadded. A B is the circular top of an inlaid
mahogany table, two feet and fix inches in diameter, car-
rying a filvered plate that contains the large ecliptic, and
other divided circles, ufed with the orrery and planetarium,
together with a quadruple fpiral for the months, and day
fpaces, &c. which are of no ufe in the prefent initrument,
except fo far as the ecliptic is concerned. C D is the an-
nual bar, in the orrery, that carries the earth and moon,
but is here the radius vector of Jupiter, and has a flow mo-
tion performed on the fame roller, in the time of his tropical
period, as will be further explained prefently. At E, the
contrate wheel, 62, of parallelifm, is made falt by a thumb-
{crew to the fixed ftem, round which the bar, CD, re-
volves ; and the pinion K, receiving motion from this wheel,
gives it unaltered to the fimilar wheel 62, with its teeth
pointing upwards, at the remote end of the long horizontal
arbor, in order to make the motion retrograde. . This aft
wheel is made faft to a tube, that carries on its fuperior end

the {mall ecliptic ring LI, that is ferewed faft to the bearing
piece of brafs L, which is clamped to the tube in fuch a
way as to admit a wheel to be received by the upper end of
an inner tube; which tube, in the orrery, revolves once in
a folar day, and gives motion to the earth’s axis, but is here
ufed for another purpofe. The wheels 73 and 43, held by
the cocks F and G, and alfo the pinion 13, belong to the
moon’s train in the orrery, and are here fuperfiuous ; but
are fuffered to remain on the bar C D, to avoid trouble in

converting the orrery into a fatellite-machine. The diurnal
: 8 ; j ‘
train, 2@ x ae x ee. which conftitute an exaé& ratio be-
269 26° «94

tween a folar day and a folar year of 365% 5* 48™ 485, is,
however, retained, to give motion to the radius vector CD;
but as the large central wheel of 269 teeth is made ex-
centric, to produce the earth’s equation of the centre in the
orrery, a fimilar wheel as to the number of teeth and dimen-
fions, but made more excentric to fuit Jupiter’s grand equa-
tion, is here fubttituted, and converts his mean into the
true or equated motion ; there being 143 teeth in one femi-
circle, and only 126 in the other. M is a circular box,
that contains all the trains employed in producing the mo-
tions of the four fatellites, according to their refpeétive ve-
locities ; while the paper {creen N, attached to the remote
fide of the box, receives the fhadows of the four little balls,
and alfo of Jupiter, as they are projefted by a lamp O,
that is carried round the fun, S, in a folar year, by means
of a train which is not yet defcribed. This train, which

converts Jupiter’s tropical period into a folar year, is =*.
x a and aéts above the fixed wheel of parallelifm thus:

the wheel 111, after being flided down the fun’s ftem, which
enters its central hole, reits on three equidiftant pillars of
brafs, that are {crewed into the face of the bar C D, and is
made fait to them, in a horizontal pofition, by three fmall
{crews, which penetrate the rim. PQ is an arm of brafs,
clamped fa{t at P to the fun’s ftem, and having a piece of
tube inferted fait into its remote end at Q, through which
tube the common arbor of pinion 22 and wheel 94 pafles
without fhake, but fo as to admit of the arbor’s revolution,
when the whecl 111 a€tuates the pinion 22, during the re-
volving motion of the bar C D, to which wheel 111 is made
fait; then the wheel g4 aCtuates the laft pinion 40, together
with its focket, to which is clamped the arm, or annual
bar, that bears the lamp, in place of a {mall terreftrial
globe. But it has been faid that CD, Jupiter’s radius
vector, moves not according to mean but equated motion,
thereby experiencing alternate acceleraticns and retardatians
of angular velocity in each revolution; it was, therefore,
neceflary that fome contrivance fhould be introduced to
prevent the lamp, or earth’s reprefentative, from partici-
pating of thote irregularities of motion, which otherwife
would render the folar years unequal among themfelves.
This effect is obviated by making the wheel 111 an equated
wheel, with unequal teeth, of which 59 are in one femi-
circle, and only 52 in the other, to fuit the excentricity of
Jupiter’s orbit ; but the pofition is the reverfe of Jupiter’s
excentric wheel of 269 teeth, in order that when one wheel
retards, the other may accelerate in the fame proportion,
and wice verfa ; by which means the lamp moves with*uni-
form velocity, and might be made to have the earth’s equated
motion, if the pinion of 40 were large enough to admit of
having its teeth equated, i. e. rendered gradually unequal
through each half of the circle ; but as the earth’s equation

1s

le

SATELLITE-MACHINE.

is fmall, the fynodic period of Jupiter will not be fenfibly
affeGed by the uniformity of the lamp’s motion.

In fig. 2. we have given an enlarged feétion of the trains
contained in the box, as though the arbors were arranged
in a ftraight line, that we might the better exhibit all the
wheels to view; but fig. 3, which reprefents a portion of
the lid, or cover, will explain the calliper, and at the fame
time fhew the hands and faces that indicate hours, days, and
months. The letters abcd, in fg. 2, fhew the box of
nearly its full fize, into one fide of which the handle e en-
ters, and receives the fquared arbor of pinion 11, that is
afflumed to have a revolution in 24 folar hours. This
pinion drives the crown or contrate wheel 47, which at pre-
fent we fhall no otherwife notice than as it tranfmits the
fame motion to the fecond pinion of 11, that has a vertical
arbor bearing the hour-hand on its upper pivot. From this
vertical diurnal arbor an aunual motion, by the train 2° x
% . %

7 Y |

which period is accurate enough for the purpofe of indicat-
ing the months only; and the figure explains fufficiently
how two fixed ftems, inferted into the under face of the lid,
are fubitituted for revolving arbors for the wheels 50 and 69,
and their attached pinions, which move in pairs loofely
round the faid items, and come off with the lid. In the
next place, we mult conceive the arbor, bearing the week-
hand, to be brought round the centre of the box, fo near to
the diurnal arbor, that the pinion 11, on the latter, may
reach and aétuate the wheel 77 at the inferior end of the
former; which conneétion will make the weekly arbor to

77

revolve in reg To this weekly arbor are made
fait the four driving wheels, 57, 29, 29, and 83. Thefe,
however, do not act immediately with the four tubed wheels,
as in the former fimple machines, but have each a pair of
intermediate wheels made fa{t together, and revolving in fe-
parate pairs round one common fixed ftem fg, in fucha
way that the under wheel, in each detached pair, receives
the motion from its own wheel on the weekly arbor, and
the upper one communicates it in a modified way to its
tubed or laft moving wheel; and in this way the following
trains, calculated 19th April 1805, are employed to pro-
duce the refpettive fynodic periods, as given in the fub-
joined table; viz.

is given to the yearly hand in 3654 54 48™ 575,

or 7 days.

Sat. | Trains. Synodie Periods.
Sica aaa |
| 49 25 |
i —= x — of 7! 14 185 28™ 36°.4086
} 37 * 85 y 30'-4
2 oe rot ditt
29 x 87 itto | 3 13 17 54-4352
139 22 ,
4 39 x t0 of ditto 7 3 £59 35-8955
4 a 5, of dito | 16 8. Send

The periods here produced approach fo nearly to thofe
given in the beft tables, as the refult of a multiplicity of
obfervations, that the errors may be confidered as nothing.

We proceed now to explain how the annual bar, C D, is
converted into Jupiter’s radius veftor. We have already

feen that the annual train of the orrery is equal to an exact
folar year of 365% 55 48™ 485, without a remainder; and
we have alfo feen, under a former article, that the train

III a ee E :
—— x 94 when the motion is taken immediately from a
40 22

folar year, will produce Jupiter’s tropical revolution in
4330% 14" 39™ 5°, which is very nearly Jupiter’s true
period, according to the tables. When this train, there-
fore, or its equivalent, is connected immediately with the
laft pinion of the annual train, fo as to render the motion
flower, its lait pinion will be that on the arbor of which the
handle mutt be inferted, to a€tuate the bar CD, now mov-
ing with the flow motion of Jupiter’s tropical period above
determined ; and the motion will be tran{mitted from this
handle, fo placed on the new daily arbor, through the
medium of all the wheels and pinions now united into one
cd
= OF!) OR ae 269

train, viz.
2 22 18 Io

; but, as in the or-

rery, the large contrate wheel 269 is fixed by {crews to the
plane of the table, and therefore does not revolve, but
gives motion to the bar on which the train is carried, by
means of its refiltance to the acting teeth of the laft
pinion 10. It was, however, found convenient to fubfti-

tute for 2 its equivalent 47 to prevent the box from
2 II

being unneceffarily enlarged. The manner in which the
two trains were united, to aét in the machine, may be thus
explained: the large wheel of 111 teeth, feen under the
box in fg. 1, and alfo under the frame in fig. 2, is firtt
clamped faft to the fuperior end of the {mall tube, which,
in the orrery, reyolves in a folar day, by means of the
pinion 8, fixed at its lower end; then from this wheel, fup-
pofing the handle placed at the annual bar C D, as in the
orrery, motion will be communicated to the pinion 40, feen
alfo in contaét with it in both figures; but the arbor of
pinion 4o afcends into the box, and carries on its upper
end the crown wheel 47, which is cat and rounded into
teeth at the edge alfo, in order that it may impel two
pinions of 11 leaves each, one on an horizontal, and the
other on a vertical arbor, as reprefented in fig. 2. Remove
now the handle from the bar CD, where it was employed
to produce an annual motion, and infert it at e, on the
{quared end of the horizontal arbor of pinion 11, and af-
fume the time of its revolution to be 24 folar hours ; and
then the faid bar will perform its revolution in Jupiter’s
tropical period, agreeably to our calculation above ttated.
Under thefe new circumftances, the pinion 11 of the ver-
tical arbor, being conneéted with the fame wheel 47, will
alfo revolve in a natural day; and the wheel 77, which
ftands in fig. 2, at a diftance from it, but which in the box

is near enough to aé& with it, revolves in 7, or 7 days,

and carries the qweek-hand. Again: pinion 16, made faft
to the vertical daily arbor that carries the hour-hand, drives,
under the lid of the box, the wheel so round a ftud, fixed
in the under face of the lid, while ite attached pinion 7
drives a fecond wheel 69 round a fimilar ftud, together with
its pinion 7, which, in its turn, drives the latt w reel of the
train 83, in a years and the pivot of this laft wheel re-
ceives the annual hand, which indicates the month in every
year, while the day of the week is pointed out by the
weekly hand in its own proper circle; the lower end of the
laft wheel’s arbor refts in a pivot-hole, made on a potance
in the box.

3R 3 Se

SATELLITE-MACHINE.

So far we have explained the offices of the trains that pro-
duce the motions of the lamp, or earth, of Jupiter himfelf,
and of the refpective indices for fhewing time. We now
come to explain how the trains are arranged that produce the
relative motions of the fatellites. We eae faid that wheel
77 revolves in 7 days exaétly, and that its arbor carries the
week-hand. This arbor takes the four firft wheels of each
of the four trains, 57, 29, 29, and 83, which are all made
faft to it, at fuch diftances above one another as are feen in
the figure. Thefe four wheels impel each its correfponding
one, that move feparately round a long iteel cylindrical pin,
that fcrews into the bottom of the box, and {tands truly
perpendicular. To thefe loofe wheels, viz. 49, 61, 139,
and 75, are pinned faft four others refpectively, viz. 85,
$7, 103, and 37; which, in their turns, impel refpeCtively
the tubed wheels, 25, 21, 22, and 98, that revolve in the
proper periods of the fatellites, which are carried by them.
Thefe four tubes are divided acrofs in the drawing, to fhew
how the innermoft, or that of the firft fatellite, furrounds
the long iteel arbor, on which it refts and revolves, while
the reft turn round on each other. The bent arms, that
carry the little balls, are clamped by each a {crew on its
own tube; and when they are once properly adjufted to
their mean places, they will require no more re¢tification
for ages back, or to come. Jupiter is reprefented by a
little ball of the proper fize, compared with the length of
the arms; and when the lamp is not ufed, a conical piece
of metal, notched at the under fide for the balls to pafs, is
{crewed on the upper end of the arbor, inftead of Jupiter
himfelf, and reprefents his fhadow. The paper fereen, N,
fits on the fide of the box, and receives the fhadows of Ju-
piter and of his fatellites, when the lamp is ufed; while the
annual motion of the lamp, O, changes the fituation of the
fhadow to the right and left of Jupiter alternately, during
the period of his fynodic revolution, exaétly as is the cafe in
nature, except as to quantity. here is alfo a lamp to be
occafionally ufed for the fun, when the heliocentric places
of the fatellites are to be viewed.

In the drawing, the earth’s diltance is given in proportion
to Jupiter’s from the fun, placed at the centre of the table ;
and if the diftances of the fatellites and fereen could have
been alfo in their due proportion, the variation of the fha-
dow’s place on the {creen would have been correét. But as
thefe diltances in the machine are neceflarily too great, the
earth’s lamp mult be brought near to the fun, by {crewing
it into a hole near the inner end of the annual bar ; in which
fituation the projection of the fhadow will be proper, as feen
above, and the alternate motion of it will then be what
it is in nature, even as to quantity. The box fcrews upon
a fixed arbor above the wheel 111, by four {mall fcrews,
two of which are feen; and when detached, it may be
mounted on afmall ftand with three feet, fo as to form aneat
portable inftrument, to be ufed, like the fatellitian, with a
detached lamp, as defcribed in Nicholfon’s Journal. ‘The
ecliptic, II, is kept parallel to the large one, by means of
the wheel of parallelifm 62, to the tube of which it is
clamped; and by the help of it, the geocentric place of
Jupiter may be read at any time by athread {tretched from
the earth to the centre of the box; while the heliocentric
place is indicated by the orrery’s index C; likewife the dif-
tance of any particular fatellite from conjunétion may be feen
under its arm, on the circle of figns and degrees on the cir-
cumference of the lid; as alfo the earth’s angular diltance
from the fun, as feen from Jupiter. The pe phenomena
that will not be explained by this machine, are thofe which
depend oy the excentricity and inclination of the orbits, par-
ticularly that of the fourth fatellite, namely, the variation

5

of its apparent greateit elongations, and its avoiding an
eclipfe, which it will do in this year, (1815) after April,
and the next, and alfo in every fixth and feventh years {ub-
fequently, for fome years to come. When the machine
before us is duly reétified, a fteady and regular turning
of the handle will prefent, in the moft pleafing manner,
on the fcreen, when the lamp is burning, all the follow-
ing variety of appearances, illuftrative of the Jovian fy{ftem,
VIZ.

1. The fhadows will move in nearly a ftraight line ;

2. Some in adireét and others in a retrograde direétion :

3. The mott diitant will frequently appear the neareft to
Jupiter. .

4. Near Jupiter they will move the quickeft, and floweft
near their greateft elongation, where they become ftationary
for a fhort time.

5- Their greateft elongations will be a little before qua-
drature, when weft ; and after, when eaft of Jupiter.

6. Hence it will appear, that the fuperior portion of each
orbit is greater than the inferior.

7. Whether to the eatt or weft of Jupiter, their motions
will be direét in the fuperior, and retrograde in the inferior
parts of their orbits.

8. When pafling between Jupiter and the earth (lamp),
they will tranfit him.

9g. When paffing the fame line in their fuperior femicircle,
they will fuffer an occultation.

10. When paffing through the fhadow, they will be
eclipfed,

11. The mean or apparent times, accordingly as the in-
ftrument may be rectified, of each of thefe» phenomena will
be pointed out by the hour-hand, the name of the day by
the week-hand, and the day of the month by the month-
hand, in each year. .

12. The folar fhadow will appear to alter its fituation to
the right and left of Jupiter, as he approaches to, or re-
cedes from, conjunétion or oppolition.

13. The reafon will be evident, why an immerfion or in-
grefs into Jupiter’s fhadow, and a fubfequent emerfion or
egrefs out of it, can never both happen with the firtt fatel-
lite, very feldom with the fecond, and never with the third,
if Jupiter is within 46° of oppofition to, or conjunétion
with, the fun; nor with the fourth, if that diftance is lefs
than 24°.

14. It will be likewife evident why an immerfion only is
vifible of the firlt and fecond {fatellites from a conjun&tion to
an oppofition, why an occultation and eclipfe may be co-
incident when at oppofition, and why an immerfion only is
feen from an oppoiition to a conjunétion.

15. If a lamp be placed in each focket, of different
heights, there will be two rows of fhadows on the fereen
above one another; one of which will reprefent the helio-
centric, and the other the geocentric places of the fatellites.

16. Hence it will appear, that an eclipfe feen from the
earth is an occultation feen from the fun.

17. That an eclipfe is never vifible at the fun. ;

18. And that the fhadow of a fatellite, as feen from the
earth, falls on Jupiter fometimes before, fometimes after;
and fometimes at, its tranfit, according to the relative fitua+
tions of Jupiter, the fun,’ and earth. ;

19. If the fun’s lamp only be fuffered to remain, and th
little balls themfelves be viewed in an oblique direction, the
reafon will be apparent why the fatellites are feen lunated
from Jupiter :

20. And alfo Jupiter lunated, when feen from them ;

21. But neither of them lunated, when feen from the
earth or fun,

22. It

f

“=—__ ~~

SATELLITE-MACHINE.

22. It will alfo be evident why the fun is frequently
eclipfed to the inhabitants of Jupiter by the fhadows of his
fatellites.

23. And, laftly, why the fatellites, as feen from the
earth, do not eclipfe one another. ,

Thefe, and perhaps other phenomena not fpecified here,

_ will be illuftrated by the machine in fo diftinét a manner, as
-to-convey to a fpeétator, who may compare the apparent
-motions of the fhadows to the real motions of the little balls,

a clear conception of the relation that the apparent motions
of Jupiter’s {atellites, as viewed from the earth with a tele-
fcope, have to their true circular motions, as viewed by the
inhabitants of Jupiter. But though a clear conception may
thus be formed by a {pe¢tator of the true and apparent
motions of the fatellites, as they regard Jupiter himfelf ;
yet he muft be informed, that the real track in which they
move round the fun along with Jupiter, the progreffive
centre of their detached fyitem, ‘is neither circular nor el-
liptical, but in a line which crofles Jupiter’s track in a
finuofe manner, more. or lefs frequently, as their periods
are fhorter or longer. As the velocity of the firit and fe-

cond fatellites exceeds the velocity of Jupiter, they are not
only apparently, but really, retrograde in fome part of
every revolution; on which account, their tracks form
loops, which are alternately concave, except at their fta-
tionary points, which projeGt and divide the concave {paces.
Thefe tracks will eafily be comprehended, if, while the fa-
tellites are in motion, Jupiter himfelf be alfo conceived to
have a dire&t motion flower than the two firft, but quicker
than the-two lait.

As we think it not improbable that this accurate and
comprehenfive machine may be deemed a proper model for
the initrument-makers to copy, we fhall conclude our ac-
count by fubjoining a table of dimenfions of the wheel-work,
from which the calliper may be determined, and from which
the workman may derive all the further information he can
want, to enable him to conitrué a fimilar machine, fo far as
relates to the contents of the box ; and the reft of the di-
menfions may be had under our article OrRERY, where
other arrangements of numbers may be feen to anfwer the
fame purpoie in a fimpler manner, but not with the fame
degree of accuracy.

i anos, cased so aleaAritiaa Tiles. ke a

|

~ Diameter | Teeth
Wheds. Higa Richiee per Inch.
{rpc Sl aeator ep! l| ere
fe orniyh emsrar Mail: axe
Jupiter Oey. paral bea ee 12
eevee Soh. Whe. Sr2
ree tas is |, «12
| |
eM Pe aS 11.2
. me ot 49 | 1.46 | 11.2
Firft Satellite 85 | 2.38 mag ae
Zh Ne sOsae 9 |b 11.0
; is) 1.05 9-5
. 61 2a 9.5
Second fatellite 87 a: 14
a. Ser. Obake METI IG!

Wheels. Diameter | Teeth
in Inches. per Iuch.
{ 29 °.59 18.3
Third Satellite } 139 2.49 18.3
103 2.53 14.2
ae 0.57 14.2
’ 83 1.63 16.8
Fourth Satellite 75 1.46 16.8
37 0.87 14.3
98 22 14.3
( 16 0.39 15
| 50 I.0f 15
Annual train 4 7 0.2 15
| 69 1.51 15
| 4 O15 15

In this table, allowance is made for the length of the teeth
in each wheel, beyond the proportional diameters.

Should any inftrument-maker with to conftruét this fatel-
lite-machine without any conneétion with the orrery, and
confequently with fewer wheels than are contained in the
preceding table, the contriver of it has fuggefted the fubfti-
tution of the following train, inftead of a combination of

356
4l 16

, ; : . 60 I
the annual with Jupiter’s train, viz. ale 9

of 7", where the machine is large; but where it is f{mall,

= x a x - of 74, the value of which is 43304 14"
4
38™ 3°. He propoles to have a fingle fcrew on the vertical

arbor of 7%, to impel the wheel of 60 on a horizontal arbor ;
then its pinion 41 willimpel the pinion 19 on one end of
the long horizontal arbor, while the other pinion 16 takes
into the fixed central wheel 356, (or the 8 into 178,) at
the inner end of the faid long arbor ; but in all other refpeéts,
the fame trains and mechanifm may be retained that have
been explained, and the rejeétion of four wheels and {ig
which form a part of the orrery, will thus fimplify the
trains, and the communication of motion will be from the
arbor of 7%, inltead of being taken immediately from the

diurnal arbor. Should the large wheel of 356 teeth be, -
made 12 inches in diameter, the hole, into which the arbor
of the cutting-machine mutt be inferted, may be made 0.57
of an inch out of the centre, and then the teeth will be cut
with regular variations in their fize, fo as to produce Ju-
piter’s equation of the centre; and there will be 189 teeth
in one femicircle, counted from IX figns of anomaly for-
wards, and only 167 in the other, counted from III;
while, notwithftanding, the femicircles on each fide of the
apfide will have equal numbers of teeth, as is now the cafe
with the large wheel 269.

On the Reéification.—When the fatellite-machine is to be
ufed for any given time, it will be neceflary to put it into a
ftate of rectification, or adjultment, for that time. Pre-
vioufly, to doing this, care muft be taken that the large
wheel be clamped down by the ferew under the table,
which takes hold of the central {tem beneath, in fuch fitua-
tion that the /mallef teeth are in contaét with its pinion,
when the index points to Jupiter’s aphelion; otherwife the
grand equation, produced in Jupiter’s motion by this wheel,
correfponding to the principal argument A in the tables,
will not be properly applied, and confequently will do more
harm than good. After the fituation of thia wheel-is exa-
mined, raife the pinion frorm the large wheel by the thumb-
{crew over it, and turn Jupiter’s radius vector, now at

liberty,

SANE

liberty, till the index points to its heliocentric place in the
large ecliptic circle, and then lower the pinion again into
action. In this fituation Jupiter will be reétified. In the
next place, raife the pinion 40, with its tube and attached
annual bar, from its place of aétion ; and having examined
that the /arge teeth of wheel 111 point towards the fame
diftant object, when Jt is made faft, that the /mall teeth of
the large wheel do, turn the annual bar and earth, or lamp,
till it points to that degree of the large ecliptic circle, which
is jult oppofite the fun’s place for the given day, and then
lower the pinion again into ation with the wheel g4, and
the earth’s place will be adjufted for mean motion ; when
the lamp may be lighted, and {crewed into the hole of the
annual bar near the fun, in order that the geocentric places
of the fhadows may be properly reétified ; after which, the
little earth may be fcrewed or the remote end of the faid
annual bar, where the eye of the obferver muft always be
fuppofed to be ftationed, to view the appearances that will
take place when the machine is ufed. The brafs ball, or
fecond lamp, may be {crewed on the central {tem, to repre-
fent the fun, according to circumitances. The next adjuft-
ment is of the {mall ecliptic plate II, under the box, which
muft be clamped to the top of the tube of parallelifm, in
fuch a fituation, that a thread {tretched from the fun to
Jupiter will fhew Jupiter’s heliocentric place, as indicated
on the large ecliptic; in which pofition the thread, again
ftretched from the earth to Jupiter, will alfo thew his geo-
centric place. When the {mall ecliptic plate is thus
clamped, it will turn with the velocity of Jupiter in his
tropical revolution, but in a retrograde dire€tion ; and will,
therefore, preferve its parallelifm to its original pofition,
during its whole revolution, along with Jupiter, round the
fun. The hands for the month, day, and hour, muft next
be put to the time of an eclipfe of the firft fatellite next
preceding the given day, and the arm of this fatellite
clamped, fo that the little ball may be hid in the notch of
the conical fhadow; then turn forwards the handle to the
time of an eclipfe of the fecond fatellite, and do the fame
with its ball; and alfo with thofe of the third and fourth
fatellites, as they may occur, when they will be reétified ;
and the handle being turned back a little beyond the time
given, and then forwards to the exa& time, to avoid the
effe& of a little unavoidable fhake in the teeth, the con-
figurations on the fcreen will be truly reprefented, and a
continued fucceffion of turns will produce all the changes of
phenomena which we have above defcribed. Should a
Nautical Almanac not be at hand for fhewing the exa&
times of emerfions or immerfions, the tables which we have
given may be confulted either for the eclip/es or configurations,
as the reétification or nature of the problem to be illuftrated
may require.

SATER, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the pro-
vince of Dalecarlia, near which are fome rich copper mines ;
45 miles S.W. of Geffle.

SATERAM, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore; 15
miles S. of Seringapatam.

SATGONG, or Saracona, a village of Bengal, on
the river Hoogly, formerly a confiderable city with great
trade; 4 miles N.W. of Hoogly.

SATI, in Hindoo Mythology. See Sutvee.

SATILE’, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Bambara ;
160 miles W.N.W. of Sego.

SATILLA, Great and Littl, two rivers of America,
in the ftate of Georgia, which fall into the ocean in Camden
county, between the Alatamcha and St. Mary’s river, N.
Jat. 31° 5’. W. long. 81° 36/. .

SATILLIEU, a town of France, in the department of

yA T

the Ardeche, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of
Tournon ; 12 miles N.N.W. of Tournon. The place con-
tains 2024, and the canton 8554 inhabitants, on a territory
of 185 kiliometres, in 10 communes.

SATILPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat ;
45 miles N.W. of Radunpour.

SATIO, in Ancient Geography, « town of Macedonia,
on the banks of the lake Lychnidus, according to Polybius.

SATIRE, in Literature, a term which fignifies all man-
ner of difcourfe, in which any perfon is reprehended; but
more particularly a poem, in which men’s follies and vices
are wittily expoied, in order to their reformation.

Satire, Proper, is diftinguifhed by the generality of the
reflections from a lampoon, which is aimed at a particular
perfon ; but they are frequently confounded.

The origin of the word has been the occafion of con-
fiderable difpute among the critics. The common opinion,
fupported by Scaliger, Heinfius, and Voflius, deduces it
from the Greek Sazvga, Satyrs, a fort of fylvan deities, by
the Romans called Fauni, to whofe petulancy and wanton-
nefs this fort of compofition is fuppofed to bear fome re-
femblance. On which ground fatire is confidered as a poem
of a wanton and licentious nature, which, like the Satyrs,
turns things upfide down to find occafion for cenfure and
ridicule.

Cafaubon, on the contrary, followed by Spanheim and
Dacier, derives the Roman fatyr from the Latin /atur,
ufed for plenum, full, a thing to which nothing is wanting ;
whence came /atura, written alfo /atira, which, being an
adjective, refers to a fubftantive underitood, viz. Janz;
Jatura lanx being the name of a bafon filled with all manner
of fruits, which the Romans offered yearly to Ceres and
Bacchus as their firft-fruits.

The word /atura was afterwards applied to other mix-
tures, and at length transferred to works of genius; thus
leges fature denoted laws confilting of many heads or titles.
Upon the whole, it is inferred, that the fatirical pieces of
the poets were fo called, as being various and mifcellaneous
compofitions: on this principle it is urged, that the word
fhould be written in Latin with an wz or i, and in Englith
only with ani; whereas thofe who write it with a y, do it
on the fuppofition that the fylvan Satyri gave name to this
compolition, which Cafaubon endeavours to difprove, by
fhewing, that from /atyrus muft be formed /atyrica, and not
Jatyra, and by explaining the great difference between the
Greek /atyric poems and the Roman fatire.

However, fatirical poetry, according to Scaliger, may
be naturally enough deduced from the wantonnels of the
fatyrs ; and this opinion is confirmed by confidering that
Larveisns is rendered in ancient glofles by /udio, and fatirical
by ludicrous, /portive, &c. Thus Seneca’s fatire is called
ludus, and Horace and Perfius ufe /udere for feribere fatyras.

Satire bears a near affinity to raillery, ridicule, lampoon,
libel, &c. and ftands oppofed to panegyric. The reafon
why fatires generally pleafe, and panegyrics tire the readers,
feems to be, becaufe the former are commonly true, and the
latter falfe,

Critics have not agreed concerning the origin of fatire.
It feems at firtt, fays Dr. Blair, to have been a relic of the
ancient comedy, written partly in profe, partly in verfe, and
abounding with feurrility. Ennius and Lucilius correéted
its groflnefs ; and at lait Horace ppt it into that form,
which now gives the denomination to fatirical pen As
the manners and charaéters which occur in ordinary life are
the fubjeéts of fatires, as well as epiltles, they require to be
treated with fomewhat of the eafe and freedom of converfa-
tion, or in a more familiar ftyle than folemn philofophical

poetry 5

Oe

SATIRE.

‘poetry ; hence it is commonly the ‘“ Mufa pedeftris’’ which
reigns in fuch compolitions,

The end which fatirical writing profefles to have in view
is reformation of manners; and in accomplifhing this end, it
affumes the liberty of boldly cenfuring vice, and vicious
charaéters. Accordingly it has been purfued in three
different modes, by the three great ancient fatirifts, Horace,
Juvenal, and Perfius. Horace’s ftyle has not much ele-
vation. He calls his two books of Satires, indifferently
either fermones or fatyre, two words which, at firft fight,
prefent very different ideas. He feems not to have intended
rifing much higher than profe put into numbers. His
manner is eafy and graceful. They are rather the follies and
weaknefles of mankind, than their enormous vices, which he
choofes for the object of his fatire. He reproves with a
fmilmg afpe&t; and while, fays Dr. Blair, he moralizes
like a found philofopher, he difcovers, at the fame time, the
politenefs of a courtier. Juvenal is much more ferious and
declamatory. Hehas more ftrength and fire, and more ele-
vation of ftyle, than Horace ; but is greatly inferior to him
in gracefulnefs and eafe. His fatire is more zealous, more
tharp and pointed, as being generally direGted again{t more
flagitious characters. As Scaliger fays of him, ‘“ardet,
infbat, jugulat ;”? whereas Horace’s charaéter is ‘admiilus
circum precordia ludit.”” Thus alfo Dryden, in his
“Origin and Progrefs of Satire,” diftinguifhes between
Juvenal and Horace. Vice, he fays, is the quarry of the
former ; folly of the latter. Perfius has a greater refem-
blance of the force and fire of Juvenal, than of the polite-
nefsof Horace. He is diftinguifhed for fentiments of noble
and fublime morality. He is a nervous and lively writer ;
but withal, often harfh and obfcure. ;

Among the modern fatirifts we may reckon Regnier and
Boileau in French ; and Dryden, Oldham, Rochetter, Buck-
ingham, Wycherley, Pope, Young, &c. in Englith.

A fatire ought to be lively, pleafant, moral, and full of
variety ; in thefe refpects Juvenal and Horace excelled,
though their fatires ought not te be read without caution.
Among the qualifications requifite in a fatirift, one of the
moft eflential is good-nature, all the fentiments which are
beautiful in this way of writing muft proceed from that
quality in the author. Good-nature produces that difdain
of all bafenefs, vice, and folly, which prompts the poet to
exprefs himfelf with {martnefs againft the errors of men, but
without any bitternefs towards their perfons. It is this
quality which keeps the mind in equanimity, and never lets
an offence unfeafonably throw a man out of his charaéter.

In all the writings of Horace and Juvenal, there is not
one ill-natured expreflion; not one fentence of feverity,
which does not apparently proceed from the contrary difpo-
fition. Tatler, N° 242.

Satire may be divided, with regard to the meafure and
kind of verfe, as well as the manner of the poem, and the
charaéter, into narrative, dramatic, mixed, &c.

Narrative, isa fimple narration or recital of abufes in the
poet’s own perfon. Buch is the firlt of Juvenal.

Dramatic, is that in which feveral perfons difcourfe to-
gether, whether they be namelefa, as in the firft of Perfius,
or have names, as =f Catius and Damafippus.

Mist, isa compound of both the former ; as that fine one
of Horace, /bam forte via facra.

Grave, and animated, which inveigh with warmth ayd
earneltnefs again{L corruption, and vice in every fhape; as
thofe of Juvenal and Perfius.

Sportive, and lighter, which feem to pli
follies, but in playing omit no opportunity y

with men’s
making them

feel the lafh. Such are thofe of Horace, which are hence
faid to be fermoni propiora. ;

The grave fort brandifhes a naked {word; the /portive
prefents a thyrfus, like that of the ancient Satyrs, fur-
rounded with vine leaves, with which it ftabs unawares.
The heat of the former fometimes degenerates into fury and
indignation ; and the calmnefs of the latter fometimes finks
into mere raillery ; but between the two extremes are many
intermediaté fpecies and degrees. The former, efpecially
when dictated by paffion, 1s much the eafieft ; nothing is
more difficult than to make people of tafte laugh, even at the
expence of others. “The attainment of this mutt be the fruit
of genius and talents rather than of rules; perhaps it may
be unneceflary to explain either, fince vanity, felf-love, and
even malice, are maiters, more than {ufficient for a poet who
wants not wit and judgment. Thus Juvenal, /f natura negat,
fait indignatio verfum ; and Boileau, La colere fuffit et vaut un
Apollon.

In perufing the writings of the two leaders of the two
forts of fatire laft-mentioned, it may not be unneceflary to
confider, that they hved in very different times; Horace
was intimate with a prince of the greatelt goodnefs and
humanity, and his court was formed after his example ; and,
therefore, the faults which the poet notices, were little in-
confiftencies in behaviour, falfe pretences to politenefs, or
impertinent affectations of what men were not fit for; vices
of a coarfer fort could not come under his confideration, or
enter the palace of Auguftus.

Juvenal, on the other hand, lived under Domitian, in
whofe reign every thing great and noble was banifhed from
the habitations of men in power; therefore he attacks vice
as it pafles by in triumph, not as it breaks into converfation.
The fall of empire, contempt of glory, and a general dege-
neracy of manners, are before his eyes in all his writings.
In the days of Auguitus, to have talked like Juvenal had
been madnefs, or in thofe of Domitian like Horace. Mo-
rality and virtue are every where recommended in Horace,
as became a man in a polite court, from the beauty, pro-
priety, and convenience of purfuing them; vice and cor-
ruption are attacked by Juvenal in a ityle which denotes
that he fears he fhall not be heard, unlefs he calls to them in
their own language, with a barefaced mention of the vil-
lanies and obfcenities of his contemporaries. ‘Tatler, N° 242.

The Italians divide fatire into /erious, as that in common
ufe ; and joco/?, giocofa, which they alfo call bernefca, and we
burlefque.

Their chief fatirifts in the ferious way are Dante (whom
they particularly call principe fitirico), Ariotto, Aretine,
Ercole Bentiyoglio, Luigi Alamanni, Jacobo Soldani, Lo-
renzo Azzolino, Salvator Rofa, Lun. Adimari, and Bene-
detto Menzini. Thofe who have excelled in the jocofe kind
are, Francefeo Berni (the inventor of it), Mauro, Fircn-
zuola, Cafa, Coppetta Varchi Lafea, Caporali, &c.

Satire is divided into general, which is levelled at common
abufes, in which numbers are equally interetled ; and perfonal,
which points out and expofes particular characters, more
properly called /ampoon. "Chis laft, as it afleéts men’s re-
putation, on which their intereft greatly depends, is fcarcely
diftinguifhable from defamation and feandal.

To this laft clafs belong mott of thofe which bear the title
of anti; as the Anti-Baillet of Menage, with which M.
Baillet was fo flung, that he compofed a treatife exprefa on
perfonal fatires, which bear the title anti; to fhew the im-
morality and unlawfulnefs of them, and their contrariety to
the precepts of the Gofpel.

It io farther objected to this kind of fatire, that a public

detection,

SATIRE.

detection, far from producing the effe& it is defigned for,
reformation, is apt to drive men to defperation, and harden
them in their courfe. The excellent author of the ‘ Trea-
tife of the Government of the Tongue,” {peaking of un-
charitable truths, fays, a difeovery of this kind ferves not
to reclaim, but only to enrage the offender, and precipitate
him into farther degrees of ill. Modetty, and fear of
fhame, is one of thofe natural reftraints which the wifdom of
heaven has put on mankind ; and he who once ftumbles,
may yet, by a check of that bridle, recover himfelf again.
But when, by a public deteétion, he is fallen under that
infamy he feared, he will be then apt to difcard all caution,
and to think he owes himfelf the utmoit pleafures of vice at
the price of his reputation. Nay, perhaps, he advances
farther, and fets up for a reverfed fort of fame, by being
eminently wicked ; thus he, who before was but a clan-
deftine difciple, becomes a doctor of impiety. Doubtlefs
it was this fort of reafoning that induced our wife legif-
lators to repeal the law which put the brand of infamy in the
face of felons. In efleét, where crimes are enormous, the
delinquent deferves little pity, yet the reporter may deferve
lefs. Vide Tatler, N° 74—76.

Satire, Greek. Cafaubon makes a diltin&tion between
the fatirical poetry of the Greeks, and the fatire of the
Romans, which he maintains was peculiar to themfelves ; in
which alfo he feems to be juftified by Quintilian. Inft. Or.
lib. x. cap. 1.

For a like reafon Horace, Sat. i. lib. 2. v. 62. calls
fatire, Grecis intafum carmen, afort of poetry unknown to
the Greeks. Spanheim, in his fine preface to the Cefars of
the emperor Julian, has fhewn five or fix effential differences
between thofe two poems. The Greeks chiefly repre-
hended vice, &c. in their dramas, though they had alfo a
fort of narrative poems called /i/i, like the Roman and our
fatires. Thefe filli were cutting or farcaftic poems, as may
be eafily feen by the fragments of Timon’s filli, with this
difference, that the Greek filli were parodies from one end
tothe other, which cannot be faid of the Roman fatire ; or,
if we find fometimes a parody in them, it is what the poet
did not defign, and confequently the parody does not make
the eflence of fatire, as it does that of the filli.

Scaliger, notwithftanding all this, followed by fome of
the lateft and bet critics, f{cruples not to derive the fatirical
poetry of the Latins from that of the Greeks. According
to thefe authors, fatire, in its origin, was a fort of interlude
in tragedy, in which goat-footed fatyrs were introduced
to alleviate the diltrefs, and with their jeers and humour
diverfify the folemnity of the tragic fcene; much like the
mimes in comedy, and the fefcennines in the Atellan {ports.

At firft, it was only in the tragedies exhibited in the
feafts of Bacchus, that fatyrs, the fuppofed companions
and priefts of that god, were introduced, but afterwards
they made a part in the folemnities of the other deities. So
that fatire, in its firft inftitution, was wholly dramatic.
Vide Scalig. Poet. lib. i. cap. 11 and 12.

Satire, Roman. Dacier, after Cafaubon, traces the
inftitution of the Roman fatire very minutely, and diftin-
guifhes three {pecies or {tates of it; the firlt dramatic, the
fecond narrative, the third that which was called the Varro-
nian, or Menippean fatire.

The ancient Romans had been without any f{cenical en-
tertainments for almoft four hundred years, till chance and
merriment, in one of their feftivals, gave rife to the Saturnine
and Fefcennine verfes, which, for fome years, fupplied the
place of theatrical performances. Thefe verfes were rude,
and without any meafure, being extemporary, and the pro-

duétions of a fayage people, who had no other inftru€tors
than the fumes of wine. Accordingly they were ftuffed
with grofs railleries, and accompanied with various gefticu-
lations and dances. An idea of them may be formed by
conceiving a knot of country fellows dancing in an hobbling
manner, tofling about their home-fpun jokes, and expofing
each other’s failings. ‘Thus Horace, Epift. I. lib. ii.

«¢ Fefcennina per hunc inventa licentia morem
Verfibus alternis opprobria ruitica fudit.”?

The ancient Roman fatires, therefore, were a fort of in-
nocent farces, where the {petators and ators were indif-
ferently rallied. And thus they continued till the time of
Livius Andronicus, who firlt attempted to write plays in
imitation of the Greeks. This new entertainment, appear-
ing more noble and perfect, drew crowds of {fpe€tators, which
occafioned the fatires to be negleéted for fome time, but they
were afterwards refumed, and tacked to the ends of comedies,
much like the modern farces. They were annexed more
peculiarly to the Atellan pieces, and, on this occafion, they
changed their name fatires for that of exodia, which they
ever after retained.

After Livius Andronicus, Ennius, having obferved the
eagernefs of the Romans for fatire, imagined that poems
not accommodated to the theatre, but retaining the gall,
raillery, and pleafantry, of the theatrical fatire, would not
fail of fuccefs. Accordingly, he wrote difcourfes under
the title of fatires, in which he took the liberty of mixing
feveral forts of verfe together, as hexameters with iambic
trimeters, and trochaic tetrameters. In thefe pieces were
found the fame variety, raillery, allufions, fables, and even
dialogue, in a word, every thing that conftituted the cha-
racter and beauty of the firft fatires, except the dancing and
mufic. Pacuvius fucceeded, who alfo wrote fatires in imi-
tation of his uncle, or, grandfather Ennius. When Pa-
cuvius was in, his prime, Lucilius was born, who alfo com-
poted fatires, fomewhat of a new turn, endeavouring to
imitate that character of the ancient Greek comedy, of
which the Romans had but an imperfeét image in their own
fatires. ‘This feems to be what Horace meant, when he
faid, Satir. I. lib. ii.

« ——_____ Quid? cum eft Lucilius aufus
Primus in hunc operis componere carmina morem.”?

He could not mean, that the Romans had no fatires be-
fore Lucilius, fince that poet was preceded by Ennius and
Pacuvius, whom he imitated. Horace’s defign was only to
hint, that Lucilius’s manner and turn were new; that he
had embellifhed this poem, infomuch that he might be looked
upon as its firft author. But, in fact, Lucilius only added
to it a little more politenefs and falt, without any other al-
teration. And though, like Ennius, he did not mix toge-,
ther feveral forts of verfe in the fame piece, yet he compofed
different poems, fome of which were entirely hexameter,
others iambic, and others trochaic, as appears from, his
fragments.

The third kind of fatire was the Varronian or peg
fo called from its author Varro, the mott learned of the’
Romans, and becaufe in this he imitated the manner of Me-'
nippus the Gadarenian, a Cynic philofopher.

This fatire was not only a mifcellany of different forts of”
verfe, but was alfo interlarded with profe, and mixed u
Greek and Latin. Seneca’s poem on the death of Claudius, ’
Petronius’s Satyricon, Lucian’s Dialogues, the Golden Afs
of Apuleius, and the Ciefars of the emperor Julian, are fo
many fatires in the Varrouian tatte. ‘T’o the fame head po
aha

ee ee

a AT

alfo be referred the Catholicon of Spain, the Morie En-
comium of Erafmus, the Don Quixote of Cervantes, the
Advertifements from Parnaflus of Boccalini, the Tale of a
Tub by Dr. S. &c. V. Dacier Difcours fur la Satire, in
Mem. de Liter. de l’Acad. R. des Infcr. tom. iii. p. 246,
feq. And in the preface to his verfion of Horace’s Satires.
V. Rapin Reflex. fur la Poet. en Partic. § 28. CEuv. Di-
verf, tom. ii. p. 205, feq.

SATIRIC Fountarm. See Fountain.

SATIRICAL, fomething relating to, or that partakes
of, the nature of {fatire.

We have fatirical poets; fatirical preachers, as South;
fatirical hiftorians, as Burnet and Mezeray ; fatirical philo-
fophers, as Apuleius and Montaigne. In the Heathen theo-
logy, we find a fatirical god, viz. Momus: Homer, in his
Therfites, gives the charaéter of a fatirical courtier. The
Dutch have been often charged with fatirical prints and
medals, which have fometimes coft them dear. Satirical
poetry had its origin at Athens, though its perfection be
owing to the Romans. According to father Mourgues,
and Bianchini, it was at firft a fort of tragedy acted at the
feaft of Bacchus, wherein fatires were introduced converfing
with heroes. Burette rather takes it for a fort of paftoral
farce tacked to the ends of tragedies. One of the chief
ornaments of it was a wild, grotefque fort of dance per-
formed by fatyrs, and called ficinnis. See Dancine.

The fatirical fhows of the Greeks were abfolute mafque-
rades; the a€tors herein were difguifed varioufly, fome in
the habits of Satyrs, Sileni, Centaurs, Mznades, and other
of Bacchus’s crew: while others perfonated giants, cyclopes,
montters, and even beafts ; the whole making a medley more
romantic and extravagant than any thing on the modern
ftage, unlefs perhaps pa of our late grotefque pantomime
entertainments. The only piece of the kind now extant is
the KTKAO¥ of Euripides.

SATIRIST, a writer of /atire ; which fee.

SATIRORUM Promonrorium, the point of Camboja,
in Ancient Geography, an Indian promontory in the country
of the Sines, according to Ptolemy : it bounded the “ Sinus
Magnus” on the eaftern fide.

SATIROVA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Perm; 24 miles N. of Solikamfk.

SATISANAGARA, a town of Hindooftan, in Mara-
war; 7 miles W. of Tripatore.

SATISDATO, or Sripexatio, in the Roman Law,
anfwers to our bail above, and was mutually given by each
litigant party to the other; by the plaintiff, that he would
profecute his fuit, and pay the colts if he loft his caufe, in
ike manner as our law {till requires nominal pledges of profe-
cution from the plaintiff; and by the defendant, that he
would continue in court and abide the fentence of the judge,
much like our f{pecial bail, with this difference, that a de
juflores were there abfolutely bound, judicatum folvere, to
fee cofts and condemnation paid at all events ; as our {pecial
bail may be difcharged by furrendering the defendant into
cuftedy, within the time ordered by law; for which pur-
~ they are at all times intitled to a warrant to appreheud

SATISFACIENDUM, Cartas ap. See Cartas.

SATISFACTION, in Law, is ufed for the giving of
mecompence for an injury done; or the payment of money
due on bond, judgment, &c. In which laft it muft be en-
‘tered on record.

Satisraction, in Theology, is defined to be, that which
being done or fuffered either by an offending creature him-
felf, or by another perfon for him, fhall fecure the honour
of the divine government, in beftowing upon the offender

Vor. XXXI1.

SAT

pardon and happinefs. This fenfe of the word fatisfa&ion
is agreeable to the ufe of the word in the Roman law, where
it fignifies to content a perfon aggrieved, and is put for
fome valuable confideration, fubitituted inftead of what is
a proper payment, and confiftent with a remiffion of that
debt or offence, for which fuch fuppofed fatisfaGion is
made. In this fenfe Chrift is faid by many divines to have
made fatisfaction for the fins of the penitent and fincerely
obedient.

Thus the learned Dr. Clarke (Serm. 137. Works, vol. ii.
p- 135, fol.) explains fatisfa@tion. The death of Chrift, he
fays, was truly and properly an expiatory facrifice, and in
the fulleft fenfe a perfe& and fufficient fatisfaGtion for the
fins of the whole world :—fatisfaGion, not as an equivalent,
without which God would not and with which he could not
but pardon fin; for the fcripture no where {peaks of fatis-
faGtion in that fenfe, as {ome have erroneoufly conceived ; but
as an atonement which the wifdom and goodnefs of God
were pleafed freely to appoint and freely to accept, as fu-
preme governor of the univerfe.

Mr. Emlyn (fee his «* Traéts””) argues, that the term fa-
tisfaGtion in a legal fenfe is wholly unicriptural. Divine juf-
tice, fays this writer, does not require an equivalent fatisfac-
tion in order to pardon fin ; neither do the threatenings of
the law require it, nor the ends of divine government, i. e.
the honour of God and a regard to his laws, which are pro-
vided for without it, by limiting the condition of free par-
don and falvation, fo that none can partake of it but thofe
who repent and forfake their wickednefs, and fincerely fub-
mit to his laws, while the reft are doomed to perifh. More-
over it is alleged, that Chrift did not make fuch fatisfac-
tion; for he did not fuffer proper punifhment, and what he
fuffered was not a full equivalent to {tri@ juftice: and fup-
pofing an equivalent punifhment to be requifite, it would
not thence follow that it muit be infinite, becaufe fin, though
exceeding evil, is not infinite, and infinite fatisfaction cannot
be made by infinite punifhment.

Grotius, Stillingfleet, and other learned men, fays Ben
Mordecai ( Letter V.) have defended the two following pro-
pofitions, as the fundamental doétrines of Chriitianity ; both
which are contrary to the Old Teftament, and abfolutely
falfe. Firit, they affert ; “that there is a neceflity of God’s
vindicating his honour to the world, upon the breach of his
laws; if not by the fuflering of the offenders themfelves,
yet by the fuffering of the Son of God, as a facrifice for
the expiation of fin; by undergoing the punifhment of our
iniquities :’? which appears to me (fays Mordecai) to be the
fame thing as to aflert, that God is not able to forgive fins
Suptxy, freely.

Secondly, that a perfon, notwithftanding his innocency,
may oblige himfelf, by an act of his own will, to undergo
that punifhment, which otherwi/e he did not deferve ; which
punifhment in that cafe will be juft, and agreeable to reafon.
Shall we dare to aflert, fays the author, that a juft and a
good God aétually a the innocent ; and yet is not able
without, not only the confent, but the yim ait. of an-
other perfon, to forgive the penitent? Can orgiving a peni-
tent be lefs agreeable to reétitude, than pumfhing the snno-
cent? Yet we are confidently told, with great zeal for the
honour of God, by thefe moft learned and ref{peétable di-
vines, that God has no fuch power; except the fon of
God fhall fuffer as a facrifice for the expiation of fin, by
undergoing the punifhment of our iniquities. For there 1s
a neceffity of God’s vindicating his honour to the world,
upon the breach of hiv laws. Dr, Clarke ufes the word
Suffered avd nor punifbed: he tells us, * when the honour of
God’s laws had been diminifhed by fin, it was reafonable

358 and

SATISFACTION.

and neceflary (notwithftanding God’s power and abfolute
right of forgiving ; yet in refpeé&t of his wifdom in govern-
ing the world, it was reafonable and neceflary) there fhould
be a vindication of the authority of his laws; and therefore,
in that fenfe of neceflity, it was necefarys either that the
fianer fhould perifh, or fome other fatisfattion fhould be
made in his ftead ;?? which amounts to an affertion, that
punifhment of fin is a/ways neceflary in the government of
the world. But this is not frue; for it may, for aught we
know, be more agreeable in many inftances to the wifdom
of God in his governing the world to forgive, than to
punifb ; and in all fuch inftances punifhment will not be
neceflary. But this neceflity is found neither in the nature
of things, nor in fcripture ; and therefore there can be no
{uch thing.

Dr. Richie (Peculiar Doétrines of Revelation) confiders
the oblation of burnt-offerings under the patriarchal dif-
penfation of religion as inftituted with a penal view, and
that thefe burnt-offerings were the muléts or fines which
were exacted from and levied upon penitent finners, for the
particular fins which they had committed, and on account of
the culpable part of their moral chara¢ter or behaviour.
This alfo is the idea of piacular facrifices, which is exhibited
in the Levitical law and other places of the Old Teftament.
They made atonement for penitent finners in the fenfe of
conftituting an union or relation between them and the
Deity, and likewife in the fenfe of reftoring this union or
relation after it was diffolved and interrupted. And they
likewife preferved and fupported an union of relation be-
tween the Deity and them, after it was made or reftored.
Moreover, the fame effeéts are afcribed to the death of
Chrift, which are attributed to piacular facrifices in the
writings of the Old Teftament. Atonement is an effect
afcribed to piacular facrifices in the Old Teftament, and
atonement being afligned as the effect of the death of Chrift
in the New Telfamest, atonement muft be made by this fa-
crifice in the fame fenfe in which it was made by the legal
facrifices. Confequently, this facrifice is the means by
which an union or relation is con/lituted, reflored, and preferved
between the Deity and fuch penitent finners as believe in
Jefus Chrift. The author afterwards proceeds to examine
feveral notions about the nature of the efficacy of the death
of Chrift, in producing thofe effeéts that are afcribed to it.
The firft fcheme of redemption which he examines is that
which proceeds upon the fuppofition of a transfer of fin and
punifhment from the finner to Chrift, and of a transfer of
righteoufnefs from Chrift to the finner. Chrift, as the
finner’s fubftitute, is fuppofed to have the fin of the finner
transferred or imputed to him, and to fuffer the punifhment
of that fin in his ftead: and, on account of this vicarious
punifhment, the finner is fuppofed to be pardoned, or dif-
charged from all punifhment. And, on the other hand, the
perfeét obedience or righteoufnefs of Chrift is fuppofed to
be transferred to the finner, and imputed to him for his
righteoufnefs, as if it had been performed by him, and was his
own righteoufnefs: and, on account of this perfect righteouf-
nefs, thus transferred and imputed, the finner is accepted and
treated by God as if he was without fin, and a perfeétly
righteous perfon. Dr. Richie remarks, that no part of this
ubhe has any fufficient fupport from the holy fcriptures.
As io the imputation of the fins of believers to Chrift, this,
in his opinion, is no where exprefsly affirmed in {cripture.
He exainines the two paflages that are alleged in fupport of
this doétrine. The firft is 2 Cor, v. 21. ‘* God hath made
him to be fin for us, who knew no fin,’”? &c. In thefe
words, the apoltle only affirms, that «* God made Chrift fin
for us,”? but he doth not fay that he imputed our fins to

him, nor can it be fo underftood ; becaufe fin is a perfonat
thing, and Chrift could not be made a finner. The true
fenfe, as he conceives, is, that ** God made Chrift a fin-
offering for us,” and a fin-offering doth not imply the im-
putation of the fin of the offender to the facrifice. The
{econd paflage is, Ifaiah, liii. 6. «* The Lord hath laid on
him (the Meffiah) the iniquity of us all.” Thefe words are
to be underftood in the facrificial fenfe; and if the tranfla-
tion be admitted, the meaning is, that * God laid on Chrift
the iniquity of us all,’’ in the fame fenfe in which the Jewifh
high-prieft «* put all the iniquities of the children of Ifrael
upon the head of the {cape-goat,”’ Lev. xvi. 21; not in the
fenfe of imputing them to the fcape-goat, but only in a
figurative fenfe, in order to fignify that they were ‘ borne,”
or “ carried away,” by it, ‘‘into a land not inhabited,’”
v. 22. i.e. he laid our fins on Chrift, that he might take, or
carry them away, by obtaining the pardon of them by t
facrifice of himfelf; or, in other words, laid our fins upon
him, in the fenfe of appointing his death to be the means by
which atonement was made for them, and the remiflion of
them obtained, which fenfe of the words does not imply that
our fins were imputed to Chrift. But becaufe the Hebrew
verb, 9357, has the fignification of /aid on in no other
place, but commonly fignifies to meet, or to rufb in upon, it
ought to have been fo rendered in this paflage : «« The Lord
hath made the iniquity of us all to meet him, or to rufh in
upon him ;’? and the manner in which the Lord did this is
clearly explained in the context, v. 10, by ‘ making his
foul an offering for fin.”” As to the transfer of punifhment
of our fins to Chrift, and his fuffering that punifhment in our
ftead, there is nothing in fcripture, fays our author, that
gives any real fupport or countenance to this way of think-
ing. Vicarious punithment is not effential to the idea or
nature of piacular facrifice, for no piacular facrifice made
atonement for fin in the fenfe of fuffering the punifhment of
it in the offender’s ftead. Chrift bore our fins, in the facri-
ficial fenfe, viz. not by fuffering punifhment in our ftead,
but by making atonement for them by the facrifice of him-
felf, and thereby bearing, or carrying and taking away, the
punifhment of them. Moreover, the paflages of fcripture,
which are fuppofed to prove that the perfect obedience or
righteoufnefs of Chrilt is imputed to thofe who believe in
him for their righteoufnefs, do not amount, in our author’s
judgment, to any proof of this point. He adds, that this
{cheme of redemption is, in all its parts, a contradi€tion to
reafon and common fenfe, as implying that things are done
which are felf-contradi€tory, and naturally impoflible to be
done by any power whatfoever. It fuppofes the poffibility
of transferring the actions of one perfon to another; it
proceeds upon the fuppofition of a transfer of punifhment
from the guilty to the innocent, whereas punifhment, like
guilt, is a perfonal thing; it does not furnifh us with the
idea of a piacular facrifice’} and it is abfolutely inconfiftent
with the reétitude of the divine government.

Another {cheme of redemption fuppofes, that the blood
or facrifice which Chrift offered, was the perfect obedience
or goodnefs of his life ;—that the facrifice of Chrift, con-
fidered as a moral means, has a natural and ftrong tendency
to render men who are corrupt and wicked, penitent and
obedient ; andthat becaufe the blood or facrifice of Chrilt
has this tendency, it is a reafon for granting to the penitent
the pardon of their fins and eternal life. But this fcheme,
as our author apprehends, doth not confift with the idea of
facrifice of any Read, eucharittical or piacular,

The author then goes on to fhew, that the death of Chrift
is exbibited in the New Teftament, as a true and proper fin-
offering or piacular facrifice ; and that in the cafe of all pe-

nitent

a A 'E

nitent finners, who believe in Chrift, his death is a natural
and fit mean for anfwering the end and defign of a piacular
facrifice ; particularly in the produGtion of all thofe effects
which are afcribed to it in the writings of the New Tetta-
ment. Piacular facrifices were mul€s, demanded from peni-
tent finners by the Deity, for fins committed and faultinefs of
moral charaéter. They were, therefore, penal to the offerers
of them: aad by the pain which the lofs they fuftained
by the oblation of them gave them, thefe facrifices pro-
duced all their effe€&ts. For, by thus affe€ting the mind of
the offerers, they ferved to make and keep up a proper dif-
ference between the treatment of penitent finners and that
of other moral charaCters, even then when they were dif-
charged from the punifhment of the impenitent, and had
reward, fuitable to the meafures of their obedience, conferred
on them: and, for this reafon, piacular facrifices became,
by the appointment of the Deity, the means of conftituting,
reftoring, and preferving a federal union or relation between
him and penitent finners, in a perfe& confiftency with the
reétitude of his own moral government.

Our author next confiders, whether the death of Chrift
be a natural and proper mean for exciting and preferving
pain in the minds of thofe penitent finners who believe in
_ him; and, particularly, in his death, as the piacular facrifice

which was offered for their fins. And this, fays our author,
can f{earcely be called in queftion by any perfon who confiders
the high dignity of Chrift’s perfon, the innocency and
tranfcendent piety and virtue of his life, how much he has me-
rited of mankind by what he hath done and fuffered for their
falyation and happinefs, and the way and manner in which
human minds are naturally touched and affefted, when they
refle& upon the great fufferings of perfons of eminency,
worth, andinnocency ; efpecially, if thefe perfons have been
their own particular friends and benefa€tors, and have volun-
tarily fubmitted to the great fufferings which have. befallen
them for their good and benefit.

A late ingenious writer (Dr. Pye Smith) ftrenuoufly and
argumentatively maintains, that the facrifice of Chrift is a
full and perfe& fatisfaGtion to the honour and juftice of the
divine government in pardoning and faving finners. No
injury, fays this writer, is done to the illuitrious fufferer
by his ftupendous aét of benevolence and generofity to
guilty man,—infinite good accrues to the general interefts
of the univerfe,—there is fuch an intercommunity of relation
between the Saviour and his redeemed, as forms a juft reafon
for regarding them as one, in a federal and legal fenfe,—and
the fa¢t of this union, when reduced to praétical and perfonal
application, fecures the exiftence of genuine holinefs and
every virtue.

Where fuch conditions as thefe exift, though in a degree
very low and imperfeét, the idea of imputation and fub-
ftitution, as to moral and political merit or demerit, is
agreeable to the common underflanding, feelings, and praétice
7 mankind.

For the difcharge of the momentous office which our
Saviour undertook, he pofleffes, fays Dr. Smith, a perfeé
fitnefs, on account of the union of the human and the divine
nature in his myfterious perfon.

Being to aé&t on the behalf of men, he is a real and proper
man.—If alfo he performs the work which belongs to God
alone, he muft have the nature of God.—But though only
the pure and perfect human nature of the Mefliah could
fuffer, it is obvious that all the aéts and fufferings of that
human nature, by reafon of its union with the divine, come
under a relative confideration very different from that which
Gimilar a€ts and fufferings could have in any mere man. The

SA T

value of the expiatory facrifice of Chrift is not to be efti-
mated from the divine appointment alone ; nor merely from
the kind or intenfity of fufferings which our bleffed Saviour
endured ; but from his true and effential Deity. For various
reafons which our auther has adduced, he thinks himfelf
warranted in attributing to the holy facrifice of Chrift, a
value properly infinite, on account of the divine nature of
him who offered it, and accordingly he conceives that there
is'a clofe and important connection between the two lead-
ing doétrines of the Chriftian fyltem, the Deity and the
atonement of Chrift. They yield mutual illuitration and
fupport ; and neither can be confiftently held without the
other.

The term /atisfa@ion has been, as our author imagines, too
often mifconceived ; and to this mifconception he attributes
the grofs prejudices that have been entertained againft this
doGtrine. The fenfe in which he ufes the term, upon the
authority of thofe who in his opinion may be claffed among
the moft accurate divines, viz. Stapfer, Stein, Wyttenbach,
Canzius, &c. is as follows. By fatisfaGtion, in a theo-
logical fenfe, we mean, ‘ fuch aé& or aés as fhall accomplifh
all the moral purpofes, which to the infinite wifdom of God
appear fit and neceffary under a fy{tem of reétoral holinefs,
and which mutt otherwife have been accomplifhed, by the
exercife of retributive juftice upon tranfgreflors in their own
perfons.””

Dr. Thomas Burnet (on “ Redemption’’) ftates the doc-
trine of the fatisfaction in a manner fomewhat peculiar. He
fays, that the death of Chrift has not itfelf fatisfied divine
juitice, but only put us into the capacity of doing it,
by confefling our fins, and applying to God for pardon,
with an humble dependence upon Chrift’s death ; which, he
thinks, fo neceflary a condition of falvation, that no man
can obtain it withont fubmitting to it ; he thinks this to be
the language of an attendance upon the Lord’s fupper, upon
which he lays a very great ftrefs, fo as to think, that no man
has a covenant claim to the mercy of God in Chrift, if he
does not by engaging in this ordinance declare his truft in
Chrift’s facrifice, and to atone the divine difpleafure. See
ATONEMENT, ExpraTion, PRopiTraTIoN, and SACRIFICE.

SATISFACTION, in a Popifh fenfe. See PENANCE, and
Poperry.

SATKA, ia Gesgraphy, atown of Bohemia, in the circle
of Konigingratz ; 18 miles S.W. of Biezow.

SATNIOES, or Sapurniogs, in Ancient Geography, a
river of Afia Minor, which watered the town of Pedafus,
according to Homer and Strabo.

SATOGA, or MontreAL, in Geography, a river of
Canada, which runs into the St. Lawrence, 10 miles above
Montreal.

SATRA, in Ancient Geography, called alfo Eleutherna,
a town of the ifland of Crete.

SATRACUS, a mountain and river of the ifland of
Cyprus.

SATRAPA, or Satrapes, in Antiquity, a governor of
a province among the ancient Perfians.

King Darius ufually walked attended by his principal
lords and fatrapx. (Q. Curtius.) The kingdom of Perfia
was divided into fatrapes, or jurifdiétions of fatrapa.

The word is onetnally Perfian, fignifying {tri€tly, admiral,
or commander of a naval army ; but it was afterwards ap-
plied indifferently to all governors of provinces. In which
fenfe it was alfo borrowed by the Grecks, who ufed the word
careamns in the fame fignification.

We alfo meet with the word in fome ancient Englifh
charters of king Ethelred, where the lords, who fign

352 next

SA AMT

next after the dukes, take the title of fatrapes of the king.
Du-Cange takes the word here to fignify minifters of the
king.

SATRIANO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the
province of Batilicata, the fee of a bifhop; 7 miles S.W.
of Acerenza.—Alfo, a town of Naples, in Calabria Ultra,
the feat of the provincial tribunal; 8 miles S. of Squil-
lace.

SATRICUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy,
in Latium, in the vicinity of the town of Corioli.

SATRUM, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the
Carnatic ; 12 miles S. of Tritchinopoly.

SATSHIRE, a town of Imiretta; 60 miles E. of
Cotatis.

SATTALIE, or Satetier, in Commerce, a money of
account at Bencoolen in the Eait Indies; 32 fattalies mak-
ing 4 foocoos, or a dollar of 5s.

SATTARAH, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in the country of Vifiapour, formerly the capital of the
Mahratta ftate, near the fource of the Kiftnah. It was
taken from the king of Vifiapour by Sevadjee, founder of
the Mahratta ftate, fortified, and made the capital of his
dominions. Here, it is faid, the reprefentative of the rauj,
or chief of the Mahrattas, is kept in the fort, and treated
with all poffible refpeét, and upon extraordinary occafions, he
appears at Poonah: on his death, his place is fupplied by
the handfome fon of fome poorman. The Peifhwah is prime
minifter of the Mahratta ftate. The rajah of Nagpour is
commander-in-chief of the armies; 77 miles W. of Vifiapour.
N. lat. 15° 45'. EE. long. 74° 8!

SATTELBERG, a mountain of Silefia, in the prin-
cipality of Schweidnitz ; 4 miles N.E. of Landfhut.

SATTIMUNGULUM, a town and fortrefs of Hin-
dooftan, ceded in 1799 to Great Britain; 33 miles N. of
Coimbetore. N. lat. 11°40!. E. long. 77° 12!.

SATTIN, or Sarin, a kind of filken ftuff, very {mooth
and fhining, the warp of which is very fine, and ftands out ;
the woof coarfer, and hidden underneath ; on which depends
that glofs aud beauty which give it its price.

The word comes from the French, /atin ; which Menage
derives farther from the Latin /éta, a briflls or hair ; others
from the Hebrew /adin, or from the old French /ade and
Sadinet, handfome, genteel.

There are fome fattins quite plain, others wrought, fome
flowered with gold or filk, others ftriped, &c. All the
varieties in the fabric of fattins are made by ufing new
warps, or woofs, The fineft fattins are generally hid to
be hole of Florence and Genoa, yet the French will not
allow thofe of Lyons to be at all inferior tothem. The
fattins of Bruges have their warp of filk, and their woof of
thread.

Indian fattins, or fattins of China, are filken ftuffs, mach
like thofe manufa&tured in Europe. Of thefe, fome are
plain, either white, or of other colours; others worked,
either with gold or filk, flowered, damafked, ftriped, &c.
They are moftly valued becaufe of their cleaning and bleach-
ing eafily, without lofing any thing of their luftre. In
other refpeéts they are inferior to choke of Europe.

F. le Comte obferves, that the Chinefe prepare their fattins
in oil, to give them the greater lultre; but this makes the
duft liable to hang to them.

Sattin Flower, and White fattin, in Botany. See Lv-
NARIA.

Sattin Spar, in Mineralogy, fibrous carbonate of lime :
it has a pearly luftre, and is generally of a pure white
colour: the fibres are minute and frequently waved. It

SAF

has been ufed for beads and necklaces, and other orna-
ments. It is procured from the county of Cumberland.
See Lime.

SATTINAFF, in Geography, a clufter of iflets and
rocks in the Eaft Indian fea. S. lat..5° 24'. E. long.
118° 38!.

SATTINAGRAM, atown of Hindooftan, in the circar
of Guntoor; 13 miles N. of Guntoor.

SATTINET, or Sarrinanpe, a very flight, thin fort
of fattin, chiefly ufed by the ladies for fummer night-gowns,
ee and ordinarily ftriped. The word is a diminutive of

attin.

SATTIPALAM, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Golconda; 27 miles W.S.W. of Combamet.

SATTNA, a town of Sweden, in Sudermanland; 7
miles N.W. of Sundf{wall.

SATTRA, atown of Sweden, in Sudermanland; 24
miles N.W. of Nykoping.

SATULA, in Ancient Geography, a town in the interior
of Arabia Felix. Ptolemy.

SATURANTIA is fometimes ufed in the fame fenfe as
abforbents..

SATURATION, in Chemifiry, is the impregnation of
an acid with an alkali, or vice ver/a, till either will receive
no more, and the mixture becomes neutral. The term is
more generally applied to any menftruum that is capable of
diffolving any fubftance, or of abforbing and uniting with
any fluid; thus the air is faid to be faturated with water,
when it can diffolve and retain no more, &c. and the limit
of its capacity of folution is called the point of faturation.
This is different in different fubftances that tend to unite
witheach other. See AFFINITY.

SATURDAY, in Chronology, the feventh or laft day of
the week, fo called, as fome have fuppofed, from the idol
Seater, worfhipped on this day by the ancient Saxons, and
thought to be the fame as the Saturn of the Latins. Satur-
day an{wers to the Jewifh fabbath.

SATURDAY-Stop, a {pace of time, in which, of old, it was
not lawful to take falmons in the North, viz. from even-fong
on Saturday, till fun-rifing on Monday,

SATUREIA, in Botany, an old name, which feems
moit probably to be derived from /aturo, to cram or fatisfy,
in allufion to the ufe of the plant in feafoning food ; whence
alfo comes its Englifh name Savory. Linnzus rather follows
the opinion of thofe who deduce the above name from Satyrus,
afatyr ; becaufe of a fuppofed ttimulating property.—Linn.
Gen. 288. Schreb. 385. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 41. Mart.
Mill. Dié&t. v. 4. Aut. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 373. Sm. Prodr.
Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 1. 396. Jufl. 112. Lamarck Tlluftr.
t. 504.—Clafs and order, Didynamia Gymnofpermia. Nat.
Ord. Verticillate, Linn. Latiate, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular, ftri-
ated, erect, permanent ; its orifice with five ftraight, nearly
equal, teeth. Cor. of one petal, ringent ; tube cylindrical,
fhorter than the calyx ; mouth fimple; upper lip erect, obtufe,
fharply emarginate; lower lip the length of the upper,
{fpreading, in three deep obtufe fegments of equal length,
the middle one rather the largeft. Stam. Filaments four,
fetaceous, diftant, hardly fo long as the upper lip, the two
lower ones rather the fhortelt ; anthers converging in pairs.
Pift. Germen four-cleft ; ftyle briitle-fhaped, the length of
the corolla ; ftigmastwo, tapering. Peric. none, the clofed
calyx containing the feeds in its lower part. Seeds four,
roundifh.

Eff. Ch.

Segments of the corolla nearly equal. Sta-
mens diftant.

Calyx almoft equally five-cleft.
1.8,

SATUREIA.

1. S. juliana. Linear-leaved Savory. Linn. Sp. Pl. 793.
Willd. n. 1. Ait.n.1. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. t. 540, un-
publifhed. (S. Sancti Juliani; Ger. Em. 576.)—Whorls
level-topped. Leaves linear-lanceolate.—Native of Italy, as
well as ef Greece, and the ifles of Crete and Zante. Gerarde
appears to have had itinhis garden. Mr. Aiton marks it as
kept in the frame, and flowering from May to September.
The root and fem are perennial, woody ; the latter very
bufhy, from four to fix inches high. Leaves crowded,
narrow, acute, of a hoary green, with a pungent aromatic
flavour. Flewers {mall, whitifh or flefh-coloured, variegated
with crimfon or purple.

2. S. nervofa. Rib-leaved Savory. Desfont. Atlant.
vy. 2.9. Willd. n. 2.—Whorls denfe. Calyx villous.
Leaves ovate, acute, {mooth, veiny beneath.—Found by
M. Desfontaines in the fifflures of rocks on mount Atlas.
Dr. Sibthorp received it from an apothecary in Zante, by
the name of “Hfz=cv, or Hyflop. The ffems are taller, and
much more flender, than in the foregoing, clothed with fine
fhort down. Leaves in diftant pairs, fomewhat rigid.
Flowers {mall, rofe-coloured, the mouth of the calyx clofed
with hairs. Desfont. We thould fufpe& this plant might
rather belong to the genus Thymus.

3. S. Thymbra. Whorl-flowered Savory. Linn. Sp. Pl.

Willd. n. 3. Ait.n. 2. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. t. 541,
unpublifhed. (S. cretica; Ger. Em. 576. Thymbra legi-
tima; Cluf. Hift. v. 1.358. Thymum creticum Ponz ver-
ticillatum; Barrel. Ic. t. 898.)—Whorls denfe, rounded,
hifpid. Leaves ovate-oblong, pointed, dotted, hifpid, with-
out veins.—Obferved by Dr. Sibthorp to be very abundant
on all the dry hills of the Archipelago and fouthern part of
Greece. It flowers with usin fummer, having been culti-
vated from the time of Parkinfon; but requires fhelter in
winter. The flem is fhrubby, bufhy, fquare, and rough.
Leaves aromatic. Flowers many in each whorl, pale purple,
with prominent ftamens. There can be little doubt of this
being, as all authors have thought, the true Ou8)2 of Diof-
corides; and it retains the fame appellation, more or lefs
corrupted, in modern Greek.

4. S.greca. Grecian Savory. Linn. Sp. Pl. 794.
Willd.n.4. Ait.n.3. Sm. Fl. Grac. Sibth. t. 542, un-
publifhed. (Clinopodium creticum; Alpin. Exot. 265.
t. 264.)—Stalks axillary, with from three to fix flowers.
Braéteas fhorter than the calyx. Leaves ovate, hifpid, veiny
beneath.—Native of the Archipelago, Peloponnefus, and
the ifle of Crete. Miller cultivated this {pecies. Mr. Aiton
marks it as a perennial herb, kept in the frame, and flower-
ing in June and July. Wehave not met with any living
fpecimen. The habit of the plant israther flender. Leaves
with fhining dots on the upper fide, caufed by clofe prefled
hairs. lowers pale purple, with three dark {pots on the
lip.

ve. S. filiformis. » Slender Downy Savory. Desfont.
Atlant. v. 2.8. t.121.f. 1. Willd. n. 5.—Stalks axillary,
with from one to three flowers. Leaves ovato-lanceolate,
villous. Stem fhrubby.—Found in the fiflures of rocks on
mount Atlas. Stems afpanhigh, flender, villous. Leaves
and flowers {mall. Corolla rofe-coloured, minute, villous.
Desfontaines.

. S. montana. Winter Savory. Linn. Sp. Pl. 794.
Willd. n. 6. Ait. n.4. Sm. Fl. Grac. Sibth. t. 543,
unpublifhed. (S. perennis; Riv. Monop. Irr. t. 44. f. 2.
S. hortenfis; Ger. Em. 575. f.2; the cuts being tranf-
pofed.)—Stalks axillary, cymofe, flightly turned one way.
Calyx-teeth tapering, pointed. Leaves lincar-lanceolate,
entire, with fharp points. Stem fhrubby.—Native of dry
Open fituations in the fouth of Europe. Commonly culti-

vated in kitchen gardens, where it is hardy and fhrubby,
lafting many years without any care or fhelter, and flowering
in June and July. The ufe of this fpecies for feafoning
broth, or foups, is well known. The Stem is bufhy, fearcely
a foot high. Leaves evergreen, dilated upward. Flowers
white, with a lilac tinge, and violet fpots.

7. S. rupeftris. Rock Savory. Wulf. in Jacq. Coll. v. 1.
130. Jacq. Ic. Rar. t.494. Willd. n.7. Ait. nm. 5.
(S. thymifolia ; Scop. Carn. v. 1. 428. t. 29.) —Stalks ax-
illary, cymofe, turned one way. Calyx-teeth fhort and
blunt. Leaves ovato-lanceolate, toothed and notched.—
Native of rocks in Carniola. A fhrubby, bufhy, fragrant
{pecies, remarkable for its notched /eaves, which are
dotted beneath. Flowers copious, whitih, dotted with
crimfoa.

8. S. hortenfis. Summer Savory. Linn. Sp. Pl. 795.
Willd. n. 8. Ait. n. 6. (Satureia; Dod. Pempt. 289.
Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 44. f.1. §. hortenfis xftiva; Ger.
Em. 575. f. 2; the cuts being tranfpofed. S. altera;
Camer. Epit. 487.)—Stalks axillary, fomewhat cymofe.
Leaves lanceolate, entire. Stem herbaceous, with op-
pofite crofling branches.—Native of the fouth of Europe.
A hardy annual in our gardens, where it has long been cul-
tivated, though this {pecies is not in fuch popular kitchen
ufe here as in Germany. Its {cent is fweeter than that of
Winter Savory; more like Bafil. The root is {mall and
fibrous. Stem bufhy. Leaves fmooth, rather fucculent.
Flowers whitith.

9. S. capitata. Fringed Savory. Linn. Sp. Pl. 795.
Willd. n.g. Ait.n.7. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. t. 544, un-
publithed. (Thymum legitimum; Cluf. Hitt. v. 1. 357.
Th. creticum; Ger. Em. 574. Th. creticum incanum ca-
pitatum ;. Barrel. Ic. t.897.)—Flowers fpiked. Leaves
keeled, dotted, fringed.—Native of dry open fituations in
Greece, Paleftine, the iflands of the Archipelago, and fome
parts of Spain. Gerarde cultivated this handfome {pecies, and
it is marked by Mr. Aiton as a hardy fhrub, flowering from
June to Oétober, but we have rarely feen a garden {pecimen.
The flem is bufhy. Leaves fmall, crowned. Flowers light
purple, in copious, denfe, terminal Spikes, with reddifh im-
bricated Jbraéeas. This is doubtlefs the real @vyos of
Diofcorides, and is called @vuio, or Suuepty at prefent in
Greece.

10. S. fpinofa. Thorny Savory. Linn. Sp. Pl. 795.
Willd. n. 10. Sm. Fl. Gree. Sibth. t. 545, unpublifhed.
(Gaidarothimo di Candia; Pon. Bald. 106.)—Branches
fpinous. Leaves ovate, downy.—Native of Crete. The
Jlem is thrubby, the branches ending in fharp thorns. Leaves
oppolite, downy or woolly. Flowers axillary, pale purple,
or whitifh, dotted with a deeper colour.

11. S. viminea. Twiggy Savory, or Pennyroyal tree.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 795. willy nit. Ait. n. 8. (Sideritis
viminea ; Brown Jam. 258.)—Flowers axillary, three toge-
ther, nearly feffile. Braéteas linear. Leaves oblong, entire ;
{mooth above; tapering at the bafe. Stem fhrubby, weak.—
Native of the cooler mountains of Jamaica; kept with us
in the ftove. It fupports itfelf on the neighbouring buthes,
if not tiedup. Every part of the plant has the fmell of
pennyroyal. Swartz mentions a more rigid and humble va-
wiety with {maller, more oblong, /eaves.

ATUREIA, in Gardening, contains plants of the low
under-fhrubby and herbaceous perennial and annual kinds, of
which the {pecies cultivated are ; the winter favory (S.mon-
tana) ; the fummer favory (S. hortenfis) ; the linear-leaved
favory (8. juliana) ; the whorled favory (S.thymbra) ; and
the ciliated favory (S. capitata).

In the fourth fort the leaves are fomewhat like thofe of

9 the

Se as

the common favory, having a ftrong aromatic fcent when
bruifed. In this alfo the whorls are four or five, whereas in
the preceding there are nineteen or twenty.

Method of Culture—The firft fort may be raifed from
feeds or by planting flips. The feeds fhould be fown in the
early fprine: as the end of March or beginning of April,
on a bed of light rich earth, raking it in lightly ; when the
plants appear they fhould be occafionally watered, and kept
properly thinned.

Some of thefe plants, when a few inches high, are often
taken up, and planted out in nurfery rows fix inches apart
in moift weather, to remain to the autumn or {pring, and then
planted out with balls of earth about their roots, in rows a
foot afunder, to remain. But the better method is by plant-
ing flips or cuttings at the above period, which readily take
root, and form good plants, which in the autumn may be
planted out with balls to their roots, in beds or rows a foot
apart.

Pithe fecond fort is raifed from feeds, which fhould be fown
thinly in the beginning of April upon a bed of light
earth, where the plants are to remain. Some, however,
tranfplant them in the fame manner as the above.

The plants fhould afterwards be kept clean from weeds,
and be managed in the fame manner as has been direéted for
marjoram.

The other tender forts may be increafed by flips or cuttings
ef the moit ftrong fide-fhoots, planting them eut in pots, (or
ina thady border protected by mats,) the pots being plunged
in a moderate hot-bed: they foon begin to grow, and fhould
have free air and water: when well rooted in the autumn,
they fhould be removed into feparate {mall pots, filled with
frefh undunged mould, and be placed in the fhade till well
rooted, and afterwards in a fheltered fituation till the autumn,
when they fhould be taken under a garden frame, having
free air when the feafon is fine, but be well protected from
frott.

As thefe plants feldom continue more than a few years,
fome fhould be frequently raifed as a fupply againit they de-
cline. The two firft or hardy forts are ufeful pot-herbs,
and the other kinds afford variety among colleétions of green-
houfe plants.

SATURN, in Afronomy, one of the primary planets ;
being that which is fartheft from the earth, and the fun, and
wet: motion is the floweft, if we except the Georgium
Sidus, as it is now called, lately difcovered by Dr. Herfchel.
It is thus characterized, . Its mean diameter is 79042
miles: it revolves round its axis in 10° 16', and round the
fun, at the diftance of g00,000,000 miles, in 107464 19" 16!
15"'.5 tropical revolutions, and 107594 1" 51! 11.2 fidereal
revolutions.

Saturn fhines but with a feeble light, by reafon of its
diftance.

For the apparent diameter, relative diftance, and excen-
tricity of the orbit of Saturn, fee Diameter, Distance,
Excentricity, PLanet, and Solar System.

For the real diameter of Saturn, its content, period, dif-
tance from the fun, inclination of its orbit, quantity of mat-
ter, denfity, &c. fee PLANers, and Solar SystEM.

It has been doubted whether or not Saturn, like the other
planets, revolves on his axis. If we argue from analogy,
it is moft probable that this is the cafe with refpe& to this
planet as well as the others, and Dr. Herfchel has confirmed
the argument of analogy by actual obfervation. He has
difcovered a variety of belts and {pots on the furface of Sa-
turn. Huygens has obferved five belts nearly parallel to
the equator, and Dr. Herfchel has obferved feveral which
are in general parallel with the ring. In November 1793 he

12

SAT

perceived fouth of the fhadow of the ring upon Saturn, 2
bright, uniform, and broad belt, and clots to ita broad,
fakes belt, divided by two narrow, white ftreaks, fo as to
make it five belts, three dark and two bright, the colour of
the dark belt being yellowifh. The belts generally cover a
larger zone of the difc of Saturn than the belts of Jupiter
occupy onhis furface. (Phil. Tranf. for 1794, vol. Ixxxiv.
pt. i.) From the changes which he has obferved in the
belts of this planet, he infers that it has an atmofphere of
confiderable denfity, in which thefe changes take place.
That Saturn has an atmofphere he has alfo afcertained by the
appearances of his fatellites, which at the time of their oc-
cultations hang to the dife a long while before they vanifh ;
a circumftance that cannot be accounted for without a confi-
derable refraction. The appearance of the belts of Saturn,
following in their arrangement the direction of the ring, has
led Dr. Herfchel to conclude, that this planet turns upon an
axis which is perpendicular to the plane of the ring. The
fame fpot has alfo been fuccefflively obferved in three dif-
ferent fituations. Befides, the body of Saturn has been
found, by repeated obfervations, to be flattened at the
poles. The mean meafure of the equatorial diameter has
been found to be 22".81; and that of the polar diameter
20".61, whence it is inferred, that the equatorial diameter
is to the polar nearly as 11 to ro. Phil. Tranf. vol. lxxx,
pt. i. for 1790, p. 13, &c.

From fubfequent obfervations Dr. Herfchel found, that
the proportion of the equatorial to the polar diameter of Sa-
turn, isas 35.41 to 32; and he changed his opinion with re-
gard toits form. In April 1805 he was itruck with a fin-
gular appearance exhibited by this planet. The flattening
of the polar regions did not commence till at a high latitude,
and there it was more fudden than it is towards the poles of
Jupiter ; and therefore its figure is different from that of an
accurate {pheroid. It is fomewhat like a {quare, or rather
parallelogram, with the four corners rounded off deeply,
but not fo much as to bring it to a fpheroid. The curvature
is lefs on the equator and on the poles than at the latitude of
about 45°. ‘The equatorial diameter however is confi-
derably greater than the polar. ‘The caufe that produces
this modification of the flattening he fuppofes to be the at-
traction of thering. It refembles a parallelogram, one fide
of which is the equatorial, the other the polar diameter,
with the four corners rounded off, fo as to leave both the
equatorial and polar regions flatter than they would be in a
regular f{pheroidical figure. The proportional dimenfions of
Saturn’s difc are as follow:

The diameter of the greateft curvature - 36
The equatorial diameter - - = 35
The polar diameter - - - « 32
Latitude of the longeft diameter - - 43° 20!

Phil. Tranf. for 1805, vol. xcv. pt. il.

It is well known, that the flattening at the poles of the
Earth, Jupiter, Mars, and Saturn, arifes from the centri-
fugal force of their equatorial parts. On account of the
great diameter of Jupiter, and the rapidity of its daily mo-
tion, his equatorial parts move with immenfe velocity ; and,
therefore, in confequence of their great centrifugal force,
this planet is more flattened at his poles than either the Earth
or Mars. It is remarkable, however, that Saturn fhould
be more flattened at his poles than Jupiter, though the velo-
city of the equatorial parts of the former is much lefs than
that of the latter. When we confider, however, that the
ring of Saturn lies in the plane of its equator, and that it
is equally, if not more denfe than the planet, we fhall find
no difficulty in accounting for the great accumulation of
matter at the equator of Saturn. The ring a&ts more

powerfully

eo

SATURN.

powerfully upon the equatorial regions of Saturn than upon
any part of his difc ; and by diminifhing the gravity of
thefe parts, it aids the centrifugal force in flattening the
poles of the planet. Had Saturn, indeed, never revolved
upon its axis, the action of the ring would, of itfelf,
have been fufficient to give him the form of an oblate
{pheroid.

The diftance of Saturn from the fun being 93 times-greater
than that of the earth from the fame, it 1s found, that the
apparent diameter of the fun feen from him will not much
exceed three minutes anda half. The fun’s difc, therefore,
to an inhabitant of Saturn, will appear go times lefs than it
does fo us, and both its light and heat will be diminifhed in
the fame proportion. See PLANETS.

Hence fome have concluded that Saturn, as well as Jupiter,
whofe light and heat are only about =,th part of ours, are
entirely unfit for rational inhabitants. But that their light
is not fo weak as we imagine, is evident from their brightnefs
in the night-time. Befides, allowing with Dr. Smith (Op-
tics, art. 95), the fun’s light to be 90,000 times as ftrong
with refpe& to us as the light of the moon when full, the
fun will afford 100c times as much light to Saturn as the full
moon does to us, and 3000 timesas much to Jupiter. So that
thefe two planets, even without any moons, would be much
more enlightened than we at firft imagine ; and by having fo
many, they may be very comfortable places of refidence.
On a comparifon of the fun’s light with that of the moon
at full, different refults have been obtained. To thofe that
occur under the article Licut, we fhall here add, that by
comparing the light of the moon with that of a wax-taper,
whofe illuminating power was determined by the photometer
(which fee), profeflor Leflie found that the illuminating
power of the fun is 150,000 times greater than that of the
moon. The heat of Saturn and Jupiter, fo far as it depends
on the force of the fun’s rays, is certainly much lefs than
ours; to which no doubt the bodies of their inhabitants are
as well adapted as ours are to the feafons we enjoy. And if
we confider that Jupiter never has any winter, even at his
poles, which probably is alfo the cafe with Saturn, the cold
cannot be fo intenfe on thefe two planets as is generally ima-

. To this we may add, that there may be fomething
in the nature of their mould warmer than in that of our
earth ; and we find that all our heat does not depend on the
rays of the fun; for if it did, we fhould always have the
fame months equally hot or cold at their annual return, which
is very far from being the cafe. To fuch eyes as ours, un-
affifted by inftruments, Jupiter is the only planet that can be
feen from Saturn; and Saturn the only planet that can be
feen from Jupiter.

The phafes of Saturn are very various and extraordinary,
and long perplexed the aftronomers, who could not divine
the meaning of fuch irregularity: thus Hevelius obferved
him to be fometimes mono/pherical, fometimes trifpherical,

ico-anfated, ell vA tome and /pherico-cufpidated. But

uygens plainly fhews, that all thefe mon{trous appearances
are owing to the imperfeétions of the telefcopes that author
had fed. Huygens, upon obferving him very attentively
with much better glafles, reduced alf their phafes to three
principal ones; viz. round, brachiated, and anfated.

One thing Saturn has peculiar to himfelf ; viz. his ring :
for the phenomena, &c. of which, fee Risa.

The inequalities in the furface of the ring, ftated under
that article from the obfervations of Dr. Herfchel, are con-
fidered by La Place as abfolutely neceflary for maintaining
the ring in equilibrium round Saturn; and he has fhewn, that
if the ring were a regular body, fimilar in all its parts, its
equilibrium would be difturbed by the flighteft force, fuch
as the attraction of a comet ora fatellite ; and that it would

finally be precipitated upon the furface of the planet.
Hence this celebrated philofopher has concluded, that the
different rings with which Saturn is encircled are irregular
folids, of unequal breadth in different parts of their circum-
ference, fo that the centres of gravity do not coincide with
their centres of figure: and that thefe centres of gravity
may be confidered as fo many fatellites circulating round
Saturn, at diftances depending on the inequality of the
parts of each ring, and with periods of rotation equal to
thofe of their refpective rings. Hence the ring will turn
round its centre of gravity in the fame time that it revolves
round Saturn. It is obvious that the aGtion of the fun, and
the fatellites of Saturn upon thefe rings, ought to produce
motions of preceffion analogous to thofe of the Earth’s
equator ; and that as thefe motions ought to be different
for each ring, they ought finally to move in different planes.
This refult, however, is contrary to obfervation ; and, ac-
cordingly, La Place has difcovered, that the aGtion of the
equator 1s the caufe which retains all the rings in one plane.
It was from this phenomenon, of which the caufe is now ap-
parent, that he afcertained the rotation of the planet, be-
fore Dr. Herfchel had determined it by dire&t obfervation.
See Mecanique Celefte, tom. ii. p. 165. 373. and Mem.
Acad. Par. 1787.

It is neceflary merely to mention fome unfounded hypo-
thefes that have been propofed on the formation of the ring.
Maupertuis has maintained, that this luminous girdle was the
tail of acomet, which the attraG@ion of Saturn had com-
pelled te circulate around him. Mairan aflerted, that the
diameter of the planet was originally equal to the diameter
ef its outer ring; and, that by fome unknown caufe, the
exterior fhell of Saturn was broken to pieces, which were
attracted by his body: but the equatorial parts of the ex-
terior fhell remained entire, and thus formed a ring about the
planet. Buffon imagines that the ring is a part of the equa-
tor which has been detached by the excefs of centrifugal force.

Abandoning thefe hypothefes, we fhall content ourfelves
with obferving, that the formation of the ring was probably
contemporary with that of the planet, and intended to an-
{wer fome important purpofe, which aftronomers have not
yet had the fagacity to difcover. We fhall here fubjoin
from Dr. Brewfter’s edition of Fergufon’s Aftronomy, the
following table.

Tasze for auieg the apparent Figure of the Ring, and the
Orbits of the four firft Satellites of Saturn.

Argument. Long. of Saturn + 13° 43/30".

Signs. | Signs. Signs.
Deg O. VI. I. VII. Il. Vi.
|} —+ —+

| 0.260 0.451

0.284 0.464

| 0-306 0.476

0.328 0.486

0.348 Oo.

0.368 mee

0.387 0.509

| +405 0.514.

0.421 0.518

0.437 0.520

0.451 0.521

X. IV IX. I

+ — +—

Signs Signs

SATURN.

In order to find the figure of Saturn’s ring, add 13° 43!
30! to the geocentric longitude of Saturn, and with this as
an argument, enter the table with the figns at the head or
foot, and the degrees at the fide; and the correfponding
numbers in the table will exprefs the fmaller axis of the ring,
the greater axis being 1000. This refult, however, requires
a correétion, which depends upon the latitude of Saturn.
Reduce his latitude, therefore, to feconds, and the fourth
part of his latitude, thus reduced, being applied to the pre-
ceding refult with the fign — if his latitude be north, but
with the fign + if his latitude be fouth, will give the true
apparent fize of the lefler axis of the ring.

Let it be required, for example, to find the form of Sa-
turn’s ring on the 25th of December 1809, when the geo-
centric longitude of Saturn was 8° 9° 28!, and his geocentric
latitude 1° 37!, or g7! north.

To the geocentric longitude of Saturn, 8s

9° 28! ol
Add the conftant quantity, 2

13° 43! 30"

Argument - 8° 23°11! 30!
Which correfponds in the table with + 0.517
Apply one-fourth of the latitude, or %? — 0.024.
The {maller axis of the ring, - + 0.541

Hence the fmaller axis of Saturn’s ring is to its greater axis,
at the given time, as 541 is to 1000, fo that the ring would be
very open on the 25th December, and might be eafily feen

withatelefcope. When the fign + is before the refult, it
indicates, that the moft diftant half of the ring is farther
north than the centre of Saturn, and, confequently, that we
fee the upper or northern furface of the ring. The oppofite
fign — indicates, that the moft diftant half of the ring is
more fouth than the centre of Saturn, and the fouthern fide
of the ring is then vifible. The refult which is thus obtained,
marks alfo the figure of the erbit of the four firft fatellites
of Jupiter.

Saturn performs his courfe round the fun attended with
feven fatellites, or fecondary planets: the periods, diftances,
&c. of which, fee under SATELLITES.

There is not perhaps, fays Dr. Herfchel, (Phil. Tranf. for
1805, vol. xcv. pt. ii. p. 272.) another object in the heavens
that prefents us with fuch a variety of extraordinary pheno-
mena as the planet Saturn: a magnificent globe, encompafled
by a ftupendous double ring ; attended by feven fatellites; or-
namented with equatorial belts, comprefled at the poles;
turning upon its axis; mutually eclipfing its ring and fatel-
lites, and eclipfed by them: the moft diftant ai the rings
alfo turning upor its axis, and the fame taking place with
the fartheft of the fatellites ; all the parts of the fyftem of
Saturn occafionally refleGting light to each other ; the rings
and moons illuminating the nights of the Saturnian: ie
globe and fatellites enlightening the dark parts of the rings ;
and the planet and rings throwing back the fun’s beams upon
the moons, when they are deprived of them at the time of
their conjunGtions. :

TAsie

—e—

SATURN.

Tazsie I. Epochs of the mean Longitude of Saturn, with the Arguments of the Equations.

Vor. XXXII.

Mean Long.

2
Za
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
6
6
6
7
7
8

mA

ee"

Nn Oe
WO Pn go

Wh bw
SS 3%
NCO nw

. . . ~
Whew np

|

|

Aphelion.
Sop Dai aMvg Sa
Fe 20a ay

7 27-52 14
8 21 43 44

8 23 33 51

8 25 23 56

8 28 48 46
8 28 49 52
8 28 50 58
8 28 52 4
8 28 53 10

8 28 54 16

pnw Sine ike «ie 0]

Peon wom

Arg.-| Arg. | Arg.

Il.

III.

9949
6367

IV.

9793
2549

Arg.
V.

220
974

9794 | 9549 | 779

6212

2625
9043
5610
8893
2177

3162
3320
349°
3654
3818

2395

5232
8079
1217
7787
4356

6326
6655
6983
7312
7640

7969
8297
8625

8954
9282

533
286

075 |
093
| @ fe)
128

145

8 | 165

232
299
366
432
499
566
633
699
766

SATURN.

Taste It. Mean Motion of Saturn for Julian Years, with the Arguments of the Equations.

Mot. in Long. | Mot. Aphelion.| Mot. Node. Arg. | Arg.

jC EP Le

I

Ss.

D. M:° 5: Sx Da hese rem |

I © 12 13 36.8 Oo oO 36 © © 0 32 | e504 | 0164 | 0328
2 © 24 27 13.6 oh a 7212 © Oo TI 3 =} 1007 | 0328 | 0657
3 I 6 40 50.4 @ a srr16 © o I 35 | E511 | 0493 | 0985
B. 4 t 18 56 27.9 GH a 442 o oO 2-6} 2014 | 0657 | 13f4
- 5 2X 16 4.7 o aly 36 oO 2 38 | 2518 | o82z1 | 1642
6 2 ¥3 23 41-5 o& Q 6 36 ©. 90 3 9 | 3021 | 0985 | 1971 |
7 | 225 37183 | 0 @ 742 | © 0 3 41 | 3525 | 1149)| 2209
B. 3 3° 7. 52 (55-9 o o 8 49 © © 4 12 | 4028 | 1313 | 2628 |
9 | 320 6325 | 0 © 955 | © © 4 44 | 4532 | 1478 | 2956
To 4 220 9.3 Orr va © 0°5 16 | 5035 | 1642 | 3285
4 14 33 46.2 | o o12 | OF Gg 5539 | 1806 | 3613
4 26 49 23.6 OH Oo 13715 o o 6 6043 | 1970 |. 3942
FG 93 G4 © O14 19 o ia 6 6546 | 2134 | 4270
5 2%, 16 37.2 OH iO-LE 25 Onions 7050 | 2298 | 4508
6.73.30 19-0 | 0) OF10 Sai Ome 7553 | 2463 2
6 15 45 51-4 oO! 0 17 37 oa a 8057 | 2627 | 5255
6 27 59 28.2 o o 18 43 o ao 8 8560 | 279% | 5584
710.13 5.1 © 0 19 49 °o 0 9 9064 | 2955 | 5912
7 22 26 41.9 © © 20 55 © 0 9 9567 | 31:9.} 6241
8 4 42 19.3 GO Ome 2.<a1 0 O10 0071 | 3283° |*6569
4 9 24 38.6 o 044 3 o o 21 2 f ore | 6567
© 14 6 57.8 of 68 4 ©; O 31 33 | 0213 | 9850
8 18 49 17-1 oO 128 6 © 042 4 | 0284 | 3134
4 23 31 36.4 | © 150 7 | O 0 52 35 | 0355 | 6417
917 3 12.8 Oo 3 40 14 © I 45 Io | 0709 2835
© 5 30 21 Oo 2 37 45 1064 | 9252
© 72028 | oO 3 30°20 } 1418 | 5670
: 500 © 9 10 35 O 422-55 *| F773.) 2087
2) (sore) O II 0 42 Oo § 15.30 | 2128 | 8505
= 700 © 12 50 49 o 6 8 5 | 2482 | 4922
| ——__—— oe ee
raat 800 © 14 40 56 ° o 40 | 2837 | 1340
° ° 5
° co)
I )
I °

4184 | 6700
1 45 49 TIZi 49,10 | 7732 | GS75
58 I 22 35 © | 1276] 5049

vv
—)
w
i)
>
w
©
~
“
Ss
w
°o

w
»
°
n

ee ee

SATURN.

Tapce III. Mean Motion of Saturn for Months, with the Arguments of the Equations.

Mot. Long. Aphel. | Node.

Ss. | SEC

November
December

Vasie IV. Mean Motion of Saturn for Hours and Minutes.

rd ba

SATURN.

Tasre V. Mean Motion of Saturn for Days, with the Arguments of the Equations.

Days of the Motion in Longitude. A = Node zi |
Month P irate sea BG ne III.| Arg. IV. | Arg. V. | Arg. VI.
D. M. Sane ee Lon SEC. |

I ° 2 0.6 5 el ° I eee ° I ° °
2 Ol” A) ie ° ° 3 | I 2 ° °
3 | oO "6 1.8 | I fo) 4 i I 3 ° I
4 ° 8 2-4 I fo) | 6 | 2 4 ees ° I
5 | ©}} Sto? 30 I ° 7 2 5 ° 1
6 Oy 12 —'s:6 I 1 8 3 | 5 ) I

Seria is a nee. tae weer eeeee | eee ee
7 OPP rae 4.2 I I 10 | 3 6 ro) I
8 o 16 4.8 | 2 I II | 4 7 ° 2
9 a 18-523 ' 2 I 12 | 4 8 ° 2

| |
ro ° } 9 ° | ry
II ° fe) I 2
12 } ° II | 2

|
13 ° | 2
14 | ° 2
5 2 | 3
16 | ° 3
17 | ° 3
18 ° 3
19 | 0 4 3
20 ) 4 4
21 ° 4 4
Za I fo) 4 4
ae A 4 4
2 ° 4 4
25 | 5 5
26 | ° fF 5
27 ° 5 5
28 ° 5 5
29 oO 5 5
30 1 6 5
31 I 6 6

In the Months January and February in a Biffextile Year, fubtra& 1 from the given Day of the Month.

SATURN.

Taste VI. The great Inequality of the Motion of Saturn, with the Corre¢tions of the Arguments which regulate
the other Inequalities.

Dif. Change for

Equation. :
Years. ; halt Period. Arg. IV. | Arg. V.| Arg. VI.
M. S SEC
1550 +3 3.8 —1
1360 —o 18.0 at +o
1570 Sesoi 200.0 ae
1580 — 6 59.2 198-0 :
1590 IO 17.2
1600 Tie gn 7 ore 2
t ’ 199-9
1610 —16 43.0 186.2 3
1620 IQ 49.2 180.5 4
1630 22 49.7 939 4:
1640 —25 43.6 166.5 5
1650 28 30.1 pp 5
1660 | gE: BGk Hea > 6
; 5 ' 149.6 >
Bice OS PSps2
1680 35 58.2 me 6
1690 38. «8.x 119.0 7
Bie Tee Ade 107-6 :
1710 41 54.7 8
1720 AZ «320-5 95 8
<< | 83-5
1739 44. 54-0 | 70.9 8
1740 45 4.9 57-9 8
1750 47 2:8 a6 8
1760 —47 47-4 Ble 9
177° 48 18.5 17-5 9
1780 48 36.0 9
= 39
1790 —48 39.9 9-9 +9
1800 48 30.0 a 9
1810 48 6.6 ; j 9
1820 —47 29.6 a3 8
1850 46 39-4 63.4 8
1840 45 36.0 8
76.1
1850 —44 19.9 88.6 8
1860 ae te 100.4 8
1870 41 10.9 <ta.d 7
1880 —39 18.8 122.9 7 |
1890 37 15-9 133-5 7
1900 35 eh 6
143-0 —————
1910 —32 39-4 3 ")
1920 GO <u 702 10 6 5
193° 27 26.6 ye 4
94° —24 38.4 174.9 4
1950 21 43-5 181.0 3
1960 18 42.5 3
186.1
1970 —15 36.4 2
1980 12 26.0 ao 2
199° Q 12.3 506.3 2
2000 § 502 197-8 si
2010 — 2 38.4 198.3 +0
2020 + Oo 399 ‘ —1

SATURN.

Taste VII. Equation of Saturn’s Orbit for 1750, with the Secular Variation.

Argument I. Long. } cor. by Tab. VI. — Aphelion, or mean Anomaly.

Sig. O. Sig. I. Sig. II.

Equation. Diff. Equation. “Diff, | Sec. Var. Equation.

S———SS| | —————_ - ————- —_—

Diff. Sec. Var.

*saaiSacq

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39.| 3 2 5:0 §|22 $50 ; 88,61 6
we: * j
| Sig. XI Sig. X. S

SATURN.

Taste VII. Equation of Saturn’s Orbit for 1750, with the Secular Variation.

Argument I.

Sig. III.
2 | Equation. | Diff. |Sec. Var.
eae +
cis eee Oa oa
De Bier 78! MEWS <6- |) BSECS
|
——
o} 6 25 44.7 | , | 109-44
1| 626 9.4 | 3 a 109.69
2) 626) 27.3 z 109.91
= eee
3 26 38.0 _, | 110.10
4 | : 4° 417 ay 110.24
5 BoEse a | WN 2H)
| O 10.4
SARL nc | Hee
8) 6 25 45-7 | 47 | 110.53
— j © 31-9
Fodae at sh7"| 232 | Grose
BE | a 46.2 Og
11} 6 23 48.5 | 110.37
© 53-5
12 | 6 22 55.0 r 06 | 11025
13 his 54-4 ls 79 110.10
14 20 46.5 | | 109.91
Eds2 -
15 |. °6 19 31-3 | 109.68
16 ° 18 89 | : ae 109.42
17 16 39-4 | 109.12
1 36.8
bee go) a7 | 2?
9 Te 51-2 ar
20 | 6 11 27.3 108:01
1 58.5 |—————
|
Bhs eat |: 32 | oe
2 7 23 | 2 12.8 | 107-09
23] 6 5§ 10.3 106.57
| 2 20.0 |—————
Be be 283 | a ara | 10621
BL 6 57 ako | 7 343 | tose
2 57 49 | 104.79
ee 2 41-4
Ba | 655 25 | 2 sa | tots
29) 6 49 23.7 | 7 35% 102.69
30} 6 46 21.1. | 101.g1
mgs
Sig. VIII. i.

Sig. IV.
| Equation. Diff. (See Var
= oh
D. M. ‘Ss M. S | SEC.
6 21. :
rag 17 | 3% | ort
43 13 16:4
5 39 55-3 Wehr)
; 3. 23.2 z
Dwi ae 99:3
e 3 3011
5.33 «2.0 3 36.9 98-44
by Syeda. 97-4:
| 3 43-6
5 5 3 56.9 95-45
5 17 54-3 94-38
Ae SPS)
SO, 5S levers | 495°E8
5 9 40.6 4 16:2 92-3
Die we “Aad, ; 2b)
— Ava
Sabald [eso | 2
4 51 27.2 4 35-3 87.21
; | 4 41-4 :
442 283 [4475 | 455
4-37 348 | 7935 | 83.16
1s 4 :594- 5
chee eas 1.74
4 27 30.2 | P os 80.30
4 22 19-3 | 78.81
“ (eet Oak
417 2 4 VMs.
fervent eng | 1574
4 6 13.3 74:16
nae me oHa7 P
355 m7 (15379 | Joga
O15 5 | 16
549 THO || 925
A elt 5 48.0 :
3 43 30) 7-55
5 52-9
Baan teas | 28
3 31 41. 6 2.3 4-0)
3 25 38.8 62.28

Long. cor. by Tab. VI. — Aphelion, or mean Anomaly.

Sig. V.
Equation. Diff.
Dr Ma \S, M. S.
3 25 38.8 | Gu
3) 19! 32.1 6 as
3) 13; 20.8 :
- 6 15-4
3) 7 5-4. GihOKG
BY Ob#5 8 halite
2 54 22.3 ae)
6 27.4
2! 47° 54-9 6
2 40 23.8 6 a.
2p 34549.
6 38.2
2' 28! 10.9
2-21 20.4 ne
2°14. 44.8
6 47.6
ZF 1 as2 6
20 166.7 6 ie
SE eee)
a * 6 55.8
47 7+ 6 68
I 40° 19.5 4 Mee
I 33.19.0 “5
G25
1 26 16.5
I 19 12.0 7 ae
12 5.7 na
; 4 Uae)
tf 40°
057 48.4 | 7, 34
O85 9 537*7 sare:
7 11.8
00435. 25°9
© 36 13.1 7 af
0 28 5.4 | 7 13:7
7 14-2
© 21 45.2 g
© 1430.4 4 es.
O' 715-3 7 15.3
o 0 00.0
. a5
Sig. VI

Sec. Var.

*saaasaqy

NNN Nob bh hb uD
vw aan mo 0

nh

iS)
~

Hoh
© 0

1s

et om
wt Qm

Shea |xaatame | sae

SATURN.

Taste VIII. Equation II. of Saturn, always additive.

Argument II.

| Equation IT. | Diff. Equation II.
ee Arg. Il, | ————
M.

3400
3500
3600

3700
3800

3990

4000
4100
4200
4390
4400
4500

4600

4700
4800

4900
5000
5100

5200

5300
5400

SATURN.

Taste [X. Equation III. of Saturn, always additive.

Argument III.

Equation III. | Diff. Diff.
Arg. III.
SEC. SEC.
° 8
ro | 8 ae is
200 7
26.2 15.0
300 . 7 30.0 a 9: ae
eer a7 | 63 2 122
500 6 37-4 A 7: ao
.2 ;
5 26.1 3: 9.2
25.8 5 7-6
25-4 6.0
* 24.9 28 4-4
z 24.2 Se 2.8
23.7 1.0
= 3 22.8 0.5
Ce 3 21.9 2.2
1400 2 .
21.0 3.
1500 | 2 35-4 | Io, ‘6
1600 2 15.5 189 ae
1700 1 56.6
17.6 8.7
ool [ety S22 | | 8 toa
sho 757.6 15.0 11.7
13.7 13.2
see Oo 53-9 12.2 1465
2200 O 41-7 ;
2300 O 31.0 aa 15°9
9.2 17.2
see) pene. 2 | | ope 18.4
2600 o 8.2 60 Re
4:4 20.
eh p.,35 2.8 21.6
2800 o «+1.0 “7s 2065
2900 o 0.0
3000 o 0.6 Ke 23-4
2.2 24.1
3100 o 28 :
3200 o «(6.6 3-8 ne
3300 Oo 12.1 eA
3400 Oo 19.1 »

Vor. XXXI ,U

SATURN.

Taste X. Equation IV. of Saturn, always additive.

Argument IV.

Equation IV. iff. Equation IV. Diff. Equation IV.| Diff.

Arg. IV. a Arg. IV. |———— Arg. IV. |—-———
ee : . Ms ae

3400 . 6700 20 30.2
Soe ° : 6800
3600 ‘

oMOUO wO]NINA AN

SATURN.

Taste XI. Equation V. of Saturn, always additive.

Argument V.

Equation V. iff. iff. Equation V.
Arg. V. | a Vic Arg. V.

3U 2

Taste XII. Equation VI. of Saturn,
always additive.

Argument VI.

400
410
420

430
440
450

460

470°
486

SATURN.

Tasie XIII. Equation VII. of Saturn,
always additive.

Equat.
VEL.

a teal Be ca clr (tesa Sere
Ow DA! oN

a
Own

SATURN.

TasLe XIV. Radius Veétor of Saturn’s Orbit for 1750, with the Secular Variation.

Sig. O. Sig. I.

Secular Secular
Variation. Variation.

Rad. Ve&. | Diff. Rad. Vea.

10.05 389 9-98904
10.05 382 = : 9-98473
10.05 360 9.98028
10.05 323 9-9757°
10.05272 9-97 099
10.05206 9.96615
10.05126 9-96119
10.05031 9:95610
10.04921 9.95089

10.04797 994555
10.04658 9 94008
10.04505 9:93450
10.04337 9-92880
1O:04155 9.92298
¥0:08959 991704
10.03748 9:91099
10.03523 9-90482
10.03283

10.03030

10.02762

10.02481
10.02185

10.01875

10.015 52

10.01215

10. 00863

10.00498

10.00120

999727 9-82246
999322 9-81495
9.98904 9-807 35

Sig. XI. _ | Sig. X. |

Rad. Vea.

9-80735
9-79966
9-79189

9.78403
9-77608
9.76805

9-75995
9:75177
9-74351
9-73518
9-72678
9-71831
9-70978
9-70118
9.69252
968380

9.67502
9-66619

9-65738
9-64839
9-63940

9.63036
9-62130
9.61220
9-60306
959388
9+58468

9:57544
9.56618
955689
954758

Sig. IX. |

SATURN.

Taste XV. Radius Veétor of Jupiter’s Orbit for 1750, with the Secular Variation.

Argument I. The mean Anomaly.

Sig. III. Sig. IV. Sig. V.
Secular Secular Secular
Deg. Variation. | Variation. Variation. | Deg.
Rad. Ve&. | Diff. |————--+] Rad. Ve&t. | Diff. --—————] Rad. Ve&. | Diff. |_————_
= + te
eet | ot 0.00 | 0.00 ; 0.00
] | CS ee]
° 9:54758 | 028.6 Q-27222 105.2 9:06107 212.4 30
I 9-53822 936 024.2 9-26371 sp 109.6 9.05602 a 215.0 29
2 9-5 2884 93 019.8 9-25527 44 113.7 g-O5112 49 217.5 28
— z 938 --—— 5 836 + ear r - 476 |-——_——
3 9-5194 O15.2 9-24691 118.0 9-0463 220.0 27
4 9-5 1006 te 010.8 9-23863 122.1 904176 a 222.2 26
5 950066 94 006.3 9-23043 a 126.2 9:03733 443 224.7 25
———— -|———— 811 - 428 |———_——
6 9-49125 oo1.8 9.22232 130.3 9.03305 226.9 24
941 Sor 411
7 9.48184 002.7 Q-21431 134-4 9.02894 229.0 23
8 | 9-47244 Ed 007.2 g-20638 793 138.8 9:02499 395 231.0 22
7 949 -FRe 33) ae 378) |
9 9.46304 o11.8 9.19855 142.2 g 02121 233.0 21

10 4536 939 016.3 -19082 773 146.2 .01758 363 2 20
II pane 939 020.8 4 183 19 763 wes eed 346 iy! 19
———| 936 —{—_ «752 | —}, 328 |—___—--
12 9-43490 025.3 9-17567 : 153-8 9.01084
13 9-42555 935 029.8 9-16826 74 157-6 9-00773
14 g-41622 933 034-3 9.16095 73% 161.3 9-00478

oe. 938 720
15 9-40691 928 038.9 9-15375 708 164.9 g-.00201
16 9+39763 043-5 9-14667 696 168.5 8.99941

17 9.38838 975 047-9 9-13971 172.1 8.99698
18 S379 lcord (peat 9-13287 | 62 | 175-6 8.99474
19 9-39999 915 056.9 g-12615 | 659 179.0 8.99267
20 9.36084 061.4 9.11956 182.4 8.99077

23.\| i9g5%74 oe tt 066.0 9.11310 6 185.7 8.98906
22 | 934269 ~ 9°5 070.3 9.10677 33 189.0 8.98752
23 9-33368 | 074-7 9:10057 |" 192.1 8.98616

24 | 9-32472 890 079-2 909450 593 195+2 8.98499
25 9-31582 88 083.6 9.08857 = 198.3 8.98399
26 9-30697 5 088.0 9.08278 579 201.2 8.98317

a 879 565
27 9.29818 092-4 9:07713 204.1 8.98253

28 | 9.28946 865 096.7 9:07163 ee 207.0 8.98208

29 g-28081 g 101.0 9.06628 a 209.7 8.98181
30 9-27222 59 105.2 9.06107 5 212-4 8.98172
ese eee ee irae
, 0.00 . 0.00 .
| Sig. VIII. oo | Sig. VII. i Sig. VI.

x SATURN.
Taste XVI. Equations of the Radius Ve&tor, always additive.

Equation IT. Equation ITT. Equation III.
—_———__——__|Arg. IT. Arg. III. Arg. I1{.| ————_____
0.0 Diff. i

1629 10000 : 5coo
1626 ggeo 5100
1618 g80o 5200
1605 9700 5300
1586 9600 5400

1562 g500 5509
1534 g400 5600
1501 9300 57090
1464 g200 5800
1423 gtoo 5900

1378 gooo 1000 6000
1329 8900 1100 6100
1278 8800 1200 6200
1225 8700 1300 6300
1169 8600 1400 6400

III2 8500 1500 6500
1053 8400 1600 6600
8300 1700 | 6700
8200 1800 6800
8100 1900 6900

8000 2000 7000
7900 2100 7100
7800 2200 7200
7700 2300 7300
7600 2400 7400

7500 2500 7500
7400 2600 7600
7300 2700 7700
7200 2800 7800
7100 2900 7900

7000 3000 8000
6900 3100 8100
6800 3200 8200
6700 3300 8300
6600 3400 8400

6500 3500 8500
8600
8700
8800
8g00

6000 4000 gooo
5900 4100 g100
5800 4200 g200
5790 4390 9300
5600 4400 9400

5500 4509 9500
5400 4600 9600
5300 4700 970°
5200 4800 g800
5100 4900 ggoo
5000 5000 | 10000

SATURN.

Taste XVII. Equations of the Radius Veéor, always additive.

>» Equation IV. Arg. Equation IV. ; i : i Equation IV.
i = Vet i. 1 (ina an co

|
|

0659
| 0739
| 0822

0907
0995
1085

1176

SATURN.

Taste XVIII. Hieliocentric Latitude for 1750, with the Secular Variation.

Argument VIII. Longitude of Saturna — that of the Node.

Latitude. : Latitude.

Sig. II. M.

Sig. VIII. S.

ie!

43
50
54
55

Sig. IX. S.

ono 0.6, 00,0 a0 U0 GDYOs ad 6. 'O G0 ee ao, 0

Sig. ILL. N.

For any time before 1750, the Secular Variation changes the Sign.

Vor. XXXI 3%

SATURN.

TasLe XIX. Reduétion to the Ecliptic, and the Logarithm ef the Cofine of the Heliocentric Latitude.

Deg.

Argument VIII. Longitude of Saturn — that of the Node.
Redud. Redud. | Redu&.
to | : to | to
Eclipt. | Eclipt. | Eclipt. |
Sig O. | Log. cofin. | Sig. 1. | Log. cofin. | Sig. II. | Log. cofin.
= L Lat. helioc. Es Lat. helioc. Lat. helioc.
Sig. VI. . Sig. VII Sig. VIII.
i he wal , = } 5 =
SEC SEC SEC.
0.0 0.000000 84.9 | 9-999897 84.9 9-999690
3-4 0.000000 86.6 | 9-999891 83.2 9-999683
6.8 | 9-999999 88.1 | 9-999884 81.3 9-999678
10-2 | 9.999999 | 89.6 | 9.999877 79-3 | 94999672
13.6 9-999995 90-9 9-999871 77-3 9-999066
17-0 9-999997 92.1 9-999864 75-1 9-999661
20-3 9-999996 93-2 9:999857 72-9 9-999955
23-7 9-999994 94-3 9:999851 79°5 9.999650
27.0 9-999992 95-2 9-999343 68.1 9-999645
30-3 9-999990 95-9 9.999836 65.6 9-999640
33°5 9-999988 96.6 9-999829 63-0 9-999635
36-7 9:999985 97-1 9-999822 60.4 9-999631
39-9 9-999982 97°5 9-999815 57-6 9:999626
43-0 9-999979 97:8 9-999808 54.8 9-999622
46.0 9-999976 98.0 9-992801 52.0 9.999618
49-0 9-999972 98.1 | 9-999794 49:0 9-999615
52.0 9-999969 98.0 9-999786 46.0 9-999611
54.8 9-999995 97-8 9-999779 43-0 9.999608
57-6 9-999961 97-5 9:999772 39-9 9:999605
60.4 9-999956 97:1 9-999765 36.7 9:999602
63-0 9-999952 96.6 9-999758 3355 9-999599
65.6 9-999947 95-9 9-999751 30-3 9:999597
68.1 9-999942 95-2 9.999743 27.0 9-999595
70-5 9-999937 94:3 9:999737 23-7 9:999593
729 9:999932 93:2 9:999730 20.3 9-9-9591
75-1 9-999 26 g2.1 9-999723 17-0 9-999590
77:3 9.999921 90-9 9:9997 16 13-6 9-999589
79-3 9-999914 89.6 9-9997 10 10.2 9-999588
81.3 9-999909 88.1 9-999703 6.8 9-999587
83.2 9-999903 86.6 9-999697 3-4 9-999587
84.9 9:999897 84.9 9-999690 0.0 9-999587
Sig. XI. + Sig. X. + Sig. IX. +
Sig. V. + Sig. IV. + Sig. III. +

On

SATURN.

On the Tables ef Saturn.

The tables of Saturn are in all refpeéts fimilar to thofe of
Jupiter. The theory of the equations was given by M. de
la Place in the Memoirs for 1785, 1786; and were com-
puted by M. de Lambre. Table I. contains the epochs of
the mean longitude, of the aphelion and node, reckoned
from the mean equinox ; together with the arguments of the
equations, expreffed by dividing the circle into 10000 equal
parts for Arguments II, III, IV, and into 1000 equal parts
for Arguments V, VI. Table II. contains the mean
motions of the fame for years. Table IIT. contains the
mean motions for months; that is, for the beginning of
each month reckoned from the beginning of the year.
Table IV. contains the mean motion for days. Table V.
contains the mean motion for hours and minutes. Table VI.
contains the great equation for Saturn for every 10 years.
Table VII. contains the equation of the orbit of Saturn for
the year 1750, with the fecular variation. Table VIII.
contains the equation of the orbit correfponding to Argu-
ment II. Table IX. contains the equation anfwering to
Argument III. Table X. contains the equation anfwering

The great equation of Saturn we have already ftated to be

to Argument IV. Table XI. contains the equation anfwer-
ing to Argument V. Table XII. contains the equation
aniwering to Argument VI. Table XIII. contains the
equation anfwering to Argument VII, which Arr
Arg. V + Arg. VI — 306. Table XIV. contains the
radius vector of the orbit of Saturn for the year 1750, with
the fecular variation; the mean diftance of the earth from
the fun being unity. Table XV. contains the equation of
the radius vector anfwering to Argument II. Table XVI.
contains the equation anfwering to Argument III.
Table XVII. contains the equation anfwering to Argu-
ment IV. Table XVIII. contains the heliocentric latitude
for the year 1750, with the fecular variation. Table XIX.
contains the reduction to the ecliptic, with the log. cofine
of the heliocentric latitude.

All the above-mentioned equations, the equation of the
orbit excepted, arife from the attraction of Jupiter, and
depend upon the relative fituations of Jupiter and Saturn.
The arguments of the equations in the firft four tables, are
in every refpe& fimilar to thofe in the firit four tables of
Jupiter. See JuriTer.

= (48! 44! — ax ot) x fine (578 27: 5° 34! 8!" ocparsy 58".88)

And the fame notation remaining, the other equations are

+ 20” x fin. (H — 4 + 69° 38' 40") — 31.5 x fin. 2 (H — hb) + 6.6 x fin. 3 (H — A)

x fin.
x fin. (2H — 4h + 55 52
x fin. (3° — ‘H 3-88 20
x fin. (2H — 34 + 21 50
x cof. H.

= 6! 59"-3
— 10 51.0
fe 49-6
_ 21.8
+ 11.0

Now the fum of the maxima of thefe fix equations, is
19' 57-3; and in the tables computed from thefe equations,
each equation is increafed by its maximum, in order to render
all the equations additive, this quantity therefore mutft
always be fubtraéted from the fum of the equations taken
from the tables.

To find the heliocentric Latitude and Longitude of Saturn.

From Table I. take out the epochs of the mean longi-
tude, the aphelion and node, with the Arguments II, III,
IV, V, VI; and place them in an horizontal line. But if
the given year be not found in that table, take the neareft year

receding the given year, as an epoch, and take out as before.

nder which, from Table II, place the mean motion in
longitude, of the aphelion and node, with the arguments,
anfwering to the number of years elapfed fince the epoch,
to the given year.

Under thefe, write down (Table III.) the mean motions
of the fame, for the given month.

Under thefe, write down (Table IV.) the mean motions
of the fame, for the given day of the month.

Under thefe, write down (Table V.) the mean motions
of the fame, for hours and minutes.

Under thefe, write down the great inequality (Table V1.)
in the firft column, with the corref{ponding arguments.

Add together the numbers in the feveral columns,
rejeGiing 12 8S, or any multiple thereof, if they occur;
and in the arguments, rejeéting 1ooco in the Argu-
ments IJ, Ill, 1V, and 1000 in the Arguments V,
V1, Vil, or any multiples thereof; and you get the
mean longitude corrected for the great equation, the aphe-

( H — 2h — 15° of 57" 4+ @ x 14.215)
19 + a X 42.88)
19)

35)

lion, and the node, and the arguments corrected for the
great equation.

From the longitude of Saturn correéted for the great
equation, as already found, fubtra& the longitude of the
aphelion, and you have Argument [. or mean anomaly.

With Argument I. take out the equation of Saturn’s
orbit in Table VII, together with the fecular variation,
with their proper figns, except the time be before 1750, in
which cafe, the fecular variation is to be taken out with a
contrary fign, making proportion for the minutes and feconds
of the argument, and you firlt get the equation ; and doin
the fame for the fecular variation, you get alfo the fecular
variation ; then fay, roo : the number of years from 1750
to the given time :: fecular variation above found ; the fe-
cular variation required. Before ¥750, the fecular variation
mutt be taken with a fign contrary to that found in the table.
With Argument II. take out the equation in Table VIII,
making proportion in this, and in the following equations,
for the intermediate numbers of the arguments. With Ar-
gument III. take out the equation in Table 1X. With
Argument IV. take out the equation in Table X. With
Argument V. take out the equation in Table XI. With
Argument VI. take out the equation in Table XII. With
Argument VII. take out the equation in Table XIII.
Take the fum of all thefe equations (regard being had to the
figns of the firft equation and the fecular variation, the figns
of the others being all porns? and from it fubtraé 19!
57!.3, and you have the value of thefe feven equations; and
this applied, with its proper fign, to the longitude already
found, as corrected by the great equation, gives the longitude
of Saturn in his orbit.

3X2

From

SE: Wo i

From the longitude thus found, fubtra& the longitude of
the node, and you get Argument VIII.

With Argument VIII. enter Table XIX. and take out
the reduétion to the ecliptic, with its proper fign, making
proportion for the minutes and feconds of the arguments ;
and this applied to the longitude of Saturn in his orbit, gives
his true heliocentric longitude on the ecliptic, reckoned from
the mean equinox.

S Arce

— With Argument VIII. enter Table XVIII. and take out
the latitude with its fecular variation, making proportion for
the minutes and feconds of the argument, and apply the fe-
cular variation, according to its fign, to the latitude, and you
have the true heliocentric latitude of Saturn.

With the mean anomaly of Saturn, enter Table XIV. and
take out the radius veétor, and correét it by the following
tables, and you have the true diftance of Saturn from the fun.

Example. To find the true heliocentric Latitude and Longitude of Saturn, on Auguft 21, 1787, at 118 51', mean
‘Time at Greenwich.

Longitude. Aphelion.

Epoch for 1787

Augutt - - aye 95 | 191
2iee! 7 . 29 9 19
1 aa -
ae at ike
IX 1 5X 28.1 | 8 28 50 35 3 21 50 10 2629 | 3430
Great Equation - — 48 39.0 | IT I 2 49.1 | 10 25 36 25.4 | + 32} + 55 14109

Arguments, _

Doh LIBS: bok Mis
2308 | 3326 | 6655

- -_
2 49-1 | 2 2) 19) ear 7 3 4615.4 | 2661 | 3485
Small Equation - -7 | Mean Anom. Arg. VIII. |———
Arg. I.
Long. in Orbit - 25 36 26.4
Reduétion = - - I 30.6 | fee a
Arg. I - - —5 30 34.8 ——
Long. on Ecl. Cont & - ae Pins VII. 887
—5 50 32.1 A
——————-} Lat. - - 1 23 19 S.
Sec. Var. - - + 34-2 Sec. Var. = 3-3
Arg. II. - - Prot <) Fe
Aroe Las 26.5 True Lat. - 1 23 18.7
Arg. IV. - 19 30.6 —____—
ArgeiV. 202 - ir aighe
Arg. VI. «- - 41.2
Arg. VII. - - 18.8

© 24 QI
—§ 26 22.7

Saturn, in Chemiffry, fignifies lead; in regard that
metal is fuppofed to lie immediately under the influence of
this planet. See Leap.

Saturn, in Heraldry, denotes the black colour in the
coats of arms of fovereign princes ; anfwering to diamond
in the coats of noblemen, and fable in thofe of gentlemen.

Saturn, in Mythology, one of the terreftrial gods; the
fon of Uranus and Vella, or Celum and Terra. He is
reprefented under the figure of a decrepid old man in fetters,
with a long beard, af hoary head ; bearing in his right
hand a pruning hook or {cythe, and in his left a child, which
he is about todevour. According to the Roman fable, Sa-
tunr, being dethroned by Jupiter, took refuge in Italy, called
from him Saturnia, where he introduced feveral parts of agri-
culture, particularly the art of pruning and managing their
vines, and civilized the people, uniting them to one another
in chains of brafs, i. ¢. by brafé money, which he invented.

The age in which Saturn lived was called the golden age,

1

becaufe it was pretended by the poets, that the earth brough*
forth its fruits without the labour of tillage, that all things
were common, and that univerfal harmony prevailed. Vir-
gil has given a beautiful defcription of this age in his eighth
JEneid, andin the firft book of his Georgics.

The name Saturn is derived by fome a /atu, from fowing ;
becaufe he is {aid to have firft taught the art of fowing, and
tilling the ground, in Italy, and was therefore elteemed the
god of hufbandry, and called by the Romans Stercutius, be-
caufe he firft manured the earth with dung ; and on this ac-
count he is painted with a fickle. By others his name is de-
rived a faturando, from that fulnefs which is the effe& of his
bounty ; as his wife was called Ops, becaufe fhe helps the
hungry. Others afcribe the name to his being fati with
the years that he devours ; Saturn and Time being the fame.
Thus Cicero, de Nat. Deorum, quod ip/e /aturetur annis
quos ipfe devorat. Others again denve the name from /ator
vv, becaufe he isthe former of the mind. hat

SAT

. A diftinguifhing chara&ter of Saturn among the ancients
was that of prefiding over time; with which the name
Xo, given him by the Greeks, more particularly agrees.
On this account Saturn is reprefented as devouring his chil-
dren, and cafting them up again; as bound in fetters, and
furnifhed with wings, to denote both the flownefs and {wift-
nefs of time; and as furnifhed with a fcythe.

Rome, and feveral other cities of Italy, dedicated tem-
ples to Saturn, and paid him religious worfhip. But it was
chiefly among the Carthaginians that he was particularly
honoured. Our ancient Gauls and the neighbouring nations
were alfo diftinguifhed votaries of Saturn. Nobody doubts
but human facrifices were offered to him, as well as to Mo-
loch, efpecially in the Gauls and at Carthage ; and this bar-
barous cuftem continued in that city till the Romans made
themfelves mafters of it. It was alfo practifed in Italy,
though it did not fubfift there long. Dionyfius of Halicar-
naflus, who was better verfed in the antiquities of Italy than
any other author, tells us that Hercules, upon his return
from Spain into Italy, abolifhed it entirely ; and having
ere&ted an altar to that god upon the Saturnine Mount,
offered to him thofe forts of victims which the Greeks call
Tuuaia x»x, which, according to the fcholiaft on Thucy-
dides, were of pafte, figured like animals; or, if we may
believe Dionyfius Halicarnaffeus, in the fimilitude of men.

The fame author makes mention of the places and cities
where Saturn was worfhipped. Tatius, A. Sempronius,
M. Minutius, and Atracinus, dedicated temples to him, and
appointed feftivals and facrifices to his honour, as we learn
from the fame Dionyfius Halicarnafleus. Macrobius informs
us that Tullus Holtilius likewife confecrated a temple to
him, and that under that prince were the Saturnalia founded.
This god had likewife a temple upon the brow of the Capi-
tol, which Valerius Poplicola made the public treafury, be-
caufe in Saturn’s time, that is, in the golden age, no thefts
were committed. Lajltly, Suetonius makes mention of a
temple which Munatius Plancus had built in honour of him.

The ancients obferve that the cuftom was to facrifice to
this god withthe head uncovered, while it was veiled during
the other facrifices made to the celeltial gods. The ftatues
of Saturn commonly wore chains, to reprefent thofe with
which he had been bound by his fon, which were taken
off on his feftival day, to teach us that liberty and hap-
pinefs had flourifhed in his reign, as we learn from Lucian.

According to Bochart, in his Phaleg. lib. i. cap. 1. Sa-
turn and Noah were the fame. See Tirans.

SATURNALIA, in Antiquity, feaits celebrated among
the Romans, in honour of the god Saturn.

The faturnalia, called in the Greek language Kpoux, were
inflituted either by Tullus, king of the Romans, or, ac-
cording to Livy, by Sempronius and Minutius, the confuls.
Till the time of Tubus Czfar they were finifhed in one day,
viz. the 19th of December; but then they began to be
celebrated in three days, and afterwards in four or five, by
order of Caligula; and fome fay, that they have lafted
feven days, and when thefe days were added to the featt,
the firft day of celebrating it was the 17th of December.

During this folemnity, the flaves were reputed matters ;

were allowed to fay any thing ; and, in fine, they were
» ferved at table by the mafters themfelves. Every thing ran
into debauchery and diflolutenefs, and nothing was heard or
feen in the city of Rome, but the din, riot, and diforder of
a people wholly abandoned to A vd and pleafure.

M. Dacier obferves, that Saturnalia were not only
celebrated in honour of Saturn, but alfo to keep up the re-
membrance of the golden age, when all the world was on a

On occafion of this feat, prefente were fent from friends

SAT

to one another; no war was to be proclaimed, and no of-
fender executed; the fchools obferved holiday; and the
fenate did not fit.

The Saturnalia were not only obferved at Rome, but
alfo in Greece ; and were, in reality, much older than Rome
itfelf Some afcribe their inftitution to the Pelafgi, who
were caft upon the ifland of Delos; others to Hercules;
and others to Janus. Goropius Becanus makes Noah the
author of them. (Orig. lib. iv.) Voflius goes itill higher,
and will have it, that the Saturn, in honour of whom this
feaft was initituted, was Adam.

SATURNESS, in Geography, a cape on the fouth coaft
of Scotland, in the county of Kircudbright. N. lat. 54°
57'- W. long. 3° 38'.

SATURNI Cotumna, in Ancient Geography, a name
anciently given to mountains of Africa and Spain, called
alfo the ‘* columns of Briareus and of Hercules.”’

Saturni £xtradum. - See Extra of Leap.

Saturni, Saccharum. See SaccuaruM and Leap.

SATURNIA, in Ancient Geography, an ancient town
of Italy, on the {cite of which Rome 1s {aid to have been
founded.—Alfo, a town of Italy, in Etruria, S.E. of
Ruflelle.—Alfo, one of the firft names given to Italy.
Thus Virgil:

«© Salve, magne parens frugum, Saturnia Tellus,
Majus virnm.”

Georg. 1, ii. v. 175.
And,

«« Szpius et nomen pofuit Saturnia Tellus.”

fEneid.

Varro relates, that there had been on the Tarpeian mount
a city named Saturnia, and that veftiges of it remained in
his time.

Saturnia, in Geography, a town of Etruria; 20 miles
N.E. of Orbitello.

SATURNIAN, Sarurnivs, in Ancient Poetry, a kind
of iambic verfe ufed in fatirical writings: it confifted of
fix feet and a fyllable over, and thence called ¢rimeter hyper-
catale@us.

SATURNILLIANS. See Saturninrans.

SATURNIN, Srt., in Geography. See Sr. Saturnin.

SATURNINE, or SarurniAn, a term applied to per-
fons of dark, fullen, melancholic complexions; as being
fuppofed under the predominancy of Saturn, or at whofe
births Saturn was the afcendant.

SATURNINE Ointment. See UNGUENT.

SATURNINE Tin@ure, Tin@ura Saturnina.
TURE.

SatuRNINE Water. See Water of Lean.

SATURNINIANS, or SarurNILLIANs, a fect of an-
cient Gnoftics; thus called from their chief Saturnillus, or
Saturninus, a difciple of Menander, the famous Gnottic.
See MEeNANDRIANS.

Saturnillus taught the fame errors with his matter, in
Syria, about the clofe of the fecond century; and drew
nbs him many difciples, by the pompous appearance of an
extraordinary virtue. He held the doétrine of two prin-
ciples, from whence proceeded all things: the one a wife
and benevolent deity; and the other, matter, a principle
eflentially evil, and which he fuppofed under the fuperin-
tendance of a certain intelligence of a malignant nature.
The world and its firlt inhabitants were, according to the
fyftem of this raving philofopher, created by feven angels,
which prefided over the feven planets. This work was
carried on without the knowledge of the benevolent deity,
and in oppofition to the will of the material principle. ‘The
former, owner, bebeld it with approbation, and honoured

it

See Tinc-

SAT

it with feveral marks of his beneficence. He endowed with
rational fouls the beings who inhabited this new fyftem, to
whom their creators had imparted nothing more than the
mere animal life ; and having divided the world into feven
parts, he diftributed them among the feven angelic archi-
tects, one of whom was the god of the Jews ; and referved
to himfelf the fupreme empire over all. To thefe creatures,
whom the benevolent principle had endowed with reafonable
fouls, and with difpofitions that led to goodnefs and virtue,
the evil being, to maintain his empire, added another kind,
whom he formed of a wicked and malignant chara¢ter ; and
hence the difference we fee among men. When the creators
of the world fell from their allegiance to the fupreme deity,
God fent from heaven, into our globe, a reftorer of order,
whofe name was Chrift. This divine conqueror came
clothed with a corporeal appearance, but not with a real
body: he came to deftroy the empire of the material prin-
ciple, and to point out to virtuous fouls the way by which
they muft return to God. This way is befet with diffi-
culties and fufferings; fince thofe fouls, who propofe re-
turning to the fupreme being, after the diffolution of this
mortal body, muft ab{tain from wine, flefh, wedlock, and,
in fhort, from every thing that tends to fenfual gratifica-
tion, or even bodily refrefhment. Mofheim’s Eccl. Hitt.
vol. i. p. 176, Eng. ed. 8vo. 1758.

SATURNINUS, Pustivus Sempronius, in Biography,
a Roman general, who, having gained feveral victories over
the barbarians, affumed the title of emperor A.D. 263.
This was inuch againft his will. On his elevation, he ex-
claimed, ‘* You have loft a good commander, and have made
a wretched emperor.” He was aman of great bravery, but
was murdered by his foldiers in the year 267. There was,
in Roman hiftory, another ef this name, very highly
efteemed by Aurelian, and regarded as the beft of his
generals. ‘The people of Alexandria proclaimed him em-
peror in 280, but he refufed the title. The troops, how-
ever, compelled him to accept it. He flew himfelf, not
long after, at Apamea, where he was when the place was
befieged by Probus. Saturninus was a man of great merit
and experience: he had been driven into rebellion by the
abfence of his fovereign, the levity of the Alexandrian
people, the preffing inftances of his friends, and his own
fears, (though he knew not what fear w2s, when in the
prefence of an enemy) ; but from the moment of his eleva-
tion, he never entertained a hope of empire, or even of life.
«« Alas,’’ he faid, « the republic has loft an ufeful fervant,
and the rafhnefs of an hour has deftroyed the fervices of
many years. You know not the mifery of fovereign power :
a fword is fufpended perpetually over our head. We dread
our very guards; we diftruft our companions. The choice
of aétion or repofe is no longer in our difpofition ; nor is
there any age, or chara¢ter, or conduét, that can protect
us from the cenfure of envy. In thus exalting me to the
throne, you have doomed me to a life of cares, and to an
untimely fate.”

SATURNIUS Mons, in Ancient Geography, one of the
mountains on which Rome was built, fince called the Capi-
toline mount.

SATWA, or Satwi, in Mythology, a name of the
Hindoo goddefs Parvati; which fee.

SATWIKI, a name of the Hindoo goddefs Parvati ;
which fee.

SATYA, a name of one of the wives of the Hindoo
deity Krifbna ; which fee.

SATYAVAMA,, is a fabled incarnation of the goddefs
Lakfbmi, coufort of Vifbnu. Sce thofe articles.

SATYAVRATA, one of the feven perfons bearing
the common denomination of Menu; which fee.

SAT

SATYR, Satyrus, SaJvgo:, in the Heathen Theology, 2
fabulous kind of femigod; who, with the Fauns and Syl-
‘a prefided over groves and forefts, under the direétion
of Pan.

The word is ufually derived from fathe, ca$n, which, in
the ancient Greek, fignifies the virile member ; thefe deities
being fuppofed much addiéted to lafcivioufnefs, and hence
called /a/civi Satyri.

Bochart (Chan. 1. i. c. 12.) deduces Satyr from the
Hebrew word Sair, which fignifies a devil under the fhape
of a goat; and hence, as he fays, they are reprefented as a
fort of goats, dancing and frifking in a lafcivious manner.

The Satyrs were painted half men and half goats: the
upper part was human, excepting horns on the head; and
the lower brutal, with the tail and legs of a goat ; the whole
covered with hair. See ORANG-OUTANG, "

The poets ufually confound the Satyrs, Sylvans, Sileni,
Fauns, and Panes.

Nonnus, in his Dionyfiaca, makes the Satyrs the off-
{pring of Mercury and a Doric nymph, called Ypthima, and
gives us the names of feveral; viz. Peminius, Thyafus,

_Hypfichorus, Oriftas, Apeus, Phlegreus, Lycon, &c.

Memnon, in his book againft the tyrants of Heraclea, ~
derives the “Satyrs from Bacchus, and a Naiad, called
Nicza.

The introduétion of Satyrs into the poetical world was
probably owing to large monkies, feen in the woods, pretty
much refembling men; or perhaps to the appearance of
barbarians, refembling monkies at a diftance. This is the
opinion of Pliny (Hitt. 1. 9. c. 54.), who takes the Satyrs
for a kind of monkies, and who fays, that in a mountain of
the Indies are to be found four-footed Satyrs, who might
be taken at a diftance for men. Thefe monkies had x
quently terrified the fhepherds, and fometimes purfued the
fhepherdefles; and this circumftance probably gave rife
to fo many fables about their amorous difpofition. To this
we may add, that fhepherds covered with at-fkins, and
fome prieits of Bacchus, frequently counterfeited Satyrs, to
feduce the innocent fhepherdeffes; and thus we have the
true explication of the fable. Hence the opinion fpread,
that the woods were full of thefe mifchievous divinities.
The fhepherdefles trembled for their honour, and the fhep-
herds for their flecks; for which reafon they fought to ap-
peafe them by facrifices, and by the offerings of the firftlin
of their flocks. Some fongs were compofed, which the
fhepherds fung in the forefts, where they endeavoured, by
invoking them, to recommend themfelves to their favour.
The poets, laying hold of the amufing fubjeét, invented a
thoufand tales. The painters alfo contributed to propagate
thofe fables, by painting Pan and the Satyrs like men.
Such, fays Banier, are the origin of thefe rural divinities,
and fuch was the origin of their werfhip, and of the faeri-
fices that were offered to them.

Satyrs made part of the dramatis perfone in the ancient
Greek tragedies, which gave rife to a new fpecies of poetry,
called Sfutirical. See SATIRE.

SATYRI, in Ancient Geography, a pase Pn in
the interior of Africa, according to Pomponius Mela.

Satyr Monumentum, a place of Afia, upon a promon-
tory of the Cimmerian Bofphorus; go ftadia from Par-
thenium. Strabo.

SATYRIASIS, in Medicine, fometimes written /aty-
ria/mus, a difeafe peculiareto men, and analogous to the
nymphomania of women, and charaéterized by an uncontrol-
lable defire for venereal intercourfe. Eft morbus viris
proprius,’”? to borrow the definition of Sauvages, ‘ cujus
precipuum fymptoma elt effrenis impudenfque veneris
cupiditas, cum libidinofa penis tentigine.’’ Tt differs,

therefore,

BAT

therefore, from priapifm, in which the tentigo penis is not
accompanied by the libidinous difpofition. If this affeétion
really occurs, it muft be an extrémely rare difeafe, as we

.

never faw any malady of this defcription, neither do we -

know of any well authenticated inftance of it feen by others
among our contemporaries. Dr. Cheyne, indeed, mentions
three cafes in his own practice, faid to have occurred in
hypochondriacal men ; but from his own defcription, thefe
were merely cafes of chordee or priapif{m, from fome local
irritation; for “nec libidinis tamen zftro ciebantur, in-
tenfiffimo dolore omnem lafcive cupidinis fenfum exclu-
dente,” &c. Sauvages alfo mentions an inftance, which
occurred in an old monk, and which was probably of the
fame kind: “hoc morbo diutiffimeé laboravit, curvato cor-
pore incedens et triftis.”” But the acute form of the faty-
riafis, defcribed by Aretzus and the other old writers, as
carrying the patient off within a week, has not been ob-
ferved, as far as we know, by any modern practitioner.
Sauvages has mentioned four fpecies of fatyriafis: 1. The
acute form juft noticed, which he defcribes after Aretzus ;
2. The chronic form, noticed by Cheyne, which is chordee
or priapifm; 3. The common chordee of gonorrhea, /aty-
riafis venerea ; and, 4. Satyriafis hydrophobica, as occurring
among the fymptoms of hydrophobia, for which his only
authority is an obfcure writer, quoted by the credulous
Bonetus. See Sauvages, Nofol. Method. clafs viii. gen. 13.

SATYRIUM, in Ancient Geography, a canton of Italy,
in Meflapia, in the vicinity of the town of Tarentum.

Saryrium, in Botany, a name adopted from Diof-
corides, whofe cz/veov is prefumed to be fomething of the
Orchis kind, and appears to have been fo called in allufion
to its aphrodifiacal qualities. Linnzus retained this name
for a genus of his own, differing from Orchis folely in the
fhort, round, pouch-like form of its fpur; but Swartz and
following writers have reftri€ted it to a better defined genus,
diftinguifhed by a double fpur to the neétary, in which fenfe
we now confider it.—Swartz in Stockh. Tranf. for 1800,
214. t. 3. f. C. Schrad. New Journ. v. 1. 31. t. 1. fC.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 54. Brown in Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5.
196.—Clafs and order, Gynandria Monandria. Nat. Ord.
Orchidee, Linn. Jull.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth fuperior, of three linear-oblong
leaves, connected at the bafe, reverfed, deflexed. Cor.
Petals two, linear-lanceolate, rather {maller than the leaves
of the calyx, and combined therewith below, deflexed.
Neétary a large, concave lip, turned upwards, and fhelter-
ing the organs of impregnation, undivided, its bafe elon-
= behind into a double, tubular, deflexed, netariferous
pur, of various length in the different {pecies. Stam. Fila-
ment none; anther globular, of two cells opening upwards,
attached near the dilated {ummit of the column, nearly ter-
minal. Pifi. Germen inferior, oblong, ftraight, angular ;
ftyle an ere& column, elongated, gibbous in the upper part,
bearing the anther, saccilad aoe i the vaulted ereé lip of
the a ftigma above the anther, two-lipped, concave.
Peric. Capfule oblong, triangular, of one cell and three
valves. Seeds numerous, mioute, roundifh, each with a
chaffy tunic.

Eff. Ch. Calyx deflexed, reverfed. Petals combined at
the bafe with the calyx, deflexed. Lip turned upwards,
concave, with a double pofterior fpur. Anther reverfed,
Stigma with two lips.

All the fpecies of this very diftinét genus, as far as yet
difcovered, are natives of the Cape of Good Hope only.
Two of them have been introduced at Kew.

J. S. cucullatum. Hooded Satyrion.
Ait. n. 1. (5. bicorne; Thunb. Prodr. 6.
cornis; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1330. Andrs Repol. t. 315.

Willd. n. 1.
Orchis bi-
O.

SAT

lutea, caule geniculato; Buxb. Cent. 3, 6. t. 8.) —Radical
leaves two, roundifh-heart-fhaped, concave; thofe of the
ftem remote, tubular, abrupt. Flowers drooping. —This
bloomed at Kew in September 1788, when the late Mr.
Dryander obferved that the flowers had an extremely fine
clove-like fmell. The /fem is a foot high. Radical /eaves
horizontal, or deprefled. Flowers numerous, green, in a
denfe {pike, with lanceolate deflexed Jraéeas, which are
longer than the flowers, except the flender pendulous
Spurs.

» 2. S. membranaceum. Thin-leaved Satyrion. Swartz.
n. 2. Willd. n. 2. — Radical leaves two, heart-fhaped-
ovate ; thofe of the item fheathing, crowded, membranous,
abrupt. Flowers drooping. Calyx and petals finely fer-
rated.—Gathered by Thunberg at the Cape. He took it
for a variety of the former.

3. S. cortifolium. Leathery-leaved Satyrion. Swartz.
n. 3. Willd. n. 3. (Orchis lutea, caule purpureo, mae
culato; Buxb. Cent. 3. 7. t. 10.)—Leaves ovate, pointed,
coriaceous, fheathing, fomewhat reflexed ; their edges mem-
branous, crenate. Flowers and their hood drooping.—
Taller, and larger in allits parts, than either of the former.
Stem purple. Bafe of the /aves {potted. Flowers large,
yellow, in a denfe fpike.

4. S. carneum. Great-flowered Satyrion. Ajit. n. 2.
(Orchis carnea; Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 1. v. 3. 294.)—
Radical leaves two, roundifh-heart-fhaped ; thofe of the ftem
fheathing, crowded, Spike compact. Calyx-leaves keeled
externally.—Sent by Mr. Maflon in 1787, from the Cape,
to Kew garden, where it flowered in the latter part of fum-
mer, and where we have feen it for feveral fucceffive years.
In fize it vies with the laft. The flowers are pale rofe-
coloured. P

5. S. eredum. Upright-flowered Satyrion. Swartz.
n. 4. Willd. n. 4.— Radical leaves ovate; thofe of the
ftem crowded, fheathing, membranous, keeled. Hood of
the flowers erect; {purs nearly ftraight.—Gathered at the
Cape by Thunberg, who took it for a variety of S. cucul-
latum.

6. S. parviflorum. Small-flowered Satyrion. Swartz.
n. 5. Willd. n. 5. (Orchis bicornis; Jacq. Hort.
Schonbr, v. 2. 26. t. 179?) —‘ Radical leaves ovato-
lanceolate ; thofe of the {tem oper at the edge. Flowers
roundifh, drooping.”’—Jacquin’s figure has broad leaves ;
and {mall greenifh flowers, whofe petals and lip are tinged
with red. Willdenow erroneoufly fuppofes this the Orchis
bicornis of the firft edition of Hort. Kew. Seen. 1.

7. S. foliofum. Leafy Satyrion. Swartz. n. 6. Willd.
n. 6, excluding the fynonym.—* Leaves ovate, acute, con-
cave, crowded ; fheathing at the bafe. Flowers and bracteas
ere&t.”? Swartz.

8. S. pumilum. Dwarf Satyrion. ‘Thunb. Prodr. 6,
Swartz. n. 7. Willd. n. 7.— ‘Leaves ovate, acute, con-
cave. Spike of about four flowers. Braéteas ereét, longer
than the flowers. Spurs fhort.’’

9. S. flriatum. Striated Satyrion. Thunb. Prodr. 6.
Swartz. n. 8. Willd. n, 8. — Leaves ovate, pointed,
fheathing. Spike ovate. Bracteas rhomboid, erect. Spurs
very fhort, obtufe.”

10. S. bicallofum. Knobbed Satyrion. Thunb. Prodr. 6.
Swartz. n. g. Willd. n. oop Leaves ovate, ribbed,
{preading. Braéteas lanceolate, erect, longer than the
flowers. Spurs very fhort and obtufe.’—Willd. Found
by Thunberg at the Cape. The dradteas have long flender
points.

11. S. bradeatum. Bratteated Satyrion. Swartz. n. 10.
Willd. n. 10. (Ophrys braéteata; Linn, Suppl. 403-)—
Leaves ovate, three-ribbed. Braéteas ovate, reflexed.

10 Spurs

SAV

Spurs very fhort and blunt. Found by Sparrmann at the
Cape. The root confifts of tworound knobs. Stem a {pan
high. Stem-leaves feveral, ovate-oblong. Spike of numerous
fowers, with large, broad, fpreading, coloured braGeas.

The hiftory of the {pecies of this genus is but imperfeétly
made out, and probably feveral remain as yet undefcribed.
Mr. Brown, in a fhort and hafty examination of the Table
Mountain at the Cape, met with a Satyrium which appears
to be new, though fomewhat akin to the laft ; and this ac-
curate obferver {aw enough, in other departments of botany,
to convince him that the vegetable riches of even that cele-
brated {pot are not yet exhaufted, though fo many lovers of
plants have been there.

Satyrivum, in Gardening, contains plants of the bulbous-
rooted, hardy, flowering, perennial kind, of which the
fpecies cultivated are the lizard fatyrion, or lizard-flower,
(S. hircinum); the frog fatyrion (S. viride); and the white
fatyrion (S. albidum).

The firft fort is often called goat orchis, and it has been
occafionally met with in the neighbourhood about Deptford ;
but the greedinefs of the ealiecas has frequently endan-
dir its total deftru€tion, and in fome feafons none can be

ound in flower. The circumftance of its varying in fize,
and the breadth of the leaves, has alfo given occafion to old
authors to make two fpecies of it. The flowers are fome-
times quite white. It was found at the Cape of Good
Hope, on the top of the Table mountain ; whence its trivial
name. Itis large and panicled, as found at the Cape; and
this is a fathom in height, with large orange-colonred flowers.
In the fort found there, alfo, the lip is muricate, with white
and purple prickles.

Method of Culture—Thefe plants are not raifed without
fome difficulty. The beft mode of increafing them is by
taking up the roots, with a good ball about them, from
their natural fituations, and planting them in a foil as fimilar
as poflible, where they are to grow; letting the ground
around them afterwards remain wholly undifturbed. They
fometimes alfo fucceed by feed, and offsets from the roots,
planted out after the ftems decay. The roots are hardy
and lafting.

They afford variety in borders among other fimilar plants,
when properly introduced.

Satxrium, in the Materia Dietetica and Medica.
SALEp.

SATYRORUM Insutm, in Ancient Geography, the
name of three iflands in the Indian ocean, according to Pto-
lemy, who places them before the Magnus Sinus or Grand
gulf, but on the other fide of the equino€tial line.

SavyroruM Promontorium, a promontory on the weltern
fide of China, at the entrance of the Great gulf, and under
the equinoétial line—Alfo, a promontory of Ethiopia, on
the coaft of the Arabic gulf. Ptolemy.

SATZIG, in Geography, a town of Pomerania; 16 miles
E. of Stargard. N. lat. 53°27'. E. long. 15° 26/.

SAU Atvney, a mountain of Carinthia; 5 miles N.E.
of Ebernttein.

SAVA, or Sapa, in Ancient Geography, a town in the
interior of Arabia Felix. Prtol.

SAVA, in Geography, a diftrict and town of Perfia, in the
province of Irak. This diftri&, of which the ruined town of
Sava, the ancient Tubus, is the capital, extends from within
26 miles of Koom to the village of Sugzaabad, in the plain
of Cafween or Cafbin, a diftanee of 78 miles. The greater
part of it is laid out in pafture lands, and was celebrated,
during the wars of the fucceflors of Alexander, for an ex-
cellent breed of horfes. It is now in the pofleffion of the
rival tribes of Kahlig and Afshar, who never fail to avail
themfelves of any interregnum in the government, to carry

See

SAV

. fire and defolation into the eftates of edch other. -Theine

habitants carry on a confiderable trade in cotton and rice;
and the adjacent gardens produce in great abundance pome-
granates and almonds, and other excellent fruits ; 69 miles
S. of Cafbin. N. lat. 34° 54/. E. long. 49° 10!.

Sava, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon; 50
miles N.N.E. of Meaco.

SAVACT, atown of Turkeftan; 25 miles S.S.W. of |
Cogend. bay oy

SAUAD, a town of Arabia, in the province of Yemeng
10 miles N. of Damar.

SAUADI, a town of Egypt, on the right bank of the
Nile; 15 miles N. of Enfené. .

Savant Kedami, a town of Egypt, on the right bank
of the Nile; 10 miles N. of Abu-Girgé. A

SAVAGE, Ricnarp, in Biography, a mifcellaneous
writer, was the ifflue of an adulterous conne@ion between
Anne, countefs of Macclesfield, and Richard Savage, the
earl of Rivers. He was born in the month of January
1697, and his mother being foon after feparated from her
hufband by aét of parliament, lord Rivers took upon him-
felf the care of him as his illegitimate child. But his
mother, whofe unnatural conduc has tranfmitted her name
to pofterity with infamy, feems, from the moment of his
birth, to have regarded him as an object of abhorrence, and
to her more than brutal condu& is to be attributed that
feries of misfortunes which attended her fon almoft from the
cradle to the grave. She immediately configned him to the
care of a poor woman, whom fhe directed to educate as her
own, and to keep him entirely ignorant of his real parentage.
He from this time had the name of his nurfe, and would
have been entirely neglected as to his education, had not the
mother of lady Macclesfield paid him fome attention, and
caufed him to be fent to the grammar-{chool at St. Alban’s.
While in this fituation lord Rivers was taken dangeroufly _
ill, and feeling fome compunétions of confcience, he wifhed
to make provifions for his natural children, of whom he had
feveral, and fending for lady Macclestield to make enquiry
after Richard, fhe affured him he was dead: accordingly
the legacy of 6o0o/. intended for him went to another. In
effeét alfo fhe deprived him of another legacy which his god-
mother had left him, by concealing from him his birth, and
thereby rendering it impoflible for him to profecute his claim.
She endeavoured to fend him to the plantations in North
America, but this plan failed, and he was bound apprentice
to a fhoe-maker. Shortly after, his fuppofed mother died,
and in fearching her boxes he found fome letters, which dif-
covered to the youth the fecret of his birth, of which it
appears he had hitherto no fufpicion whatever. The dif-
covery naturally excited in him a difguit to his humble em-
ployment, and it was now his objeét to roufe, if poflible,
the tendernefs of his mother, who had married as a fecond
hufband colonel Brett. Every effort of this kind, however,
was repulfed with the mott unfeeling harfhnefs ; and the de-
ferted and forlorn youth, unable to gain admittance into
her houfe, was accultomed to walk before the door in dark
evenings, in the hope that he might gain a view of her as
fhe crofled her apartment with a candle. Having once
found the door open he walked up ftairs, hoping thereby to
procure an interview; but this deteftable mother no fooner
perceived him, than fhe called the fervants to turn him eut
of the houfe, pretending that he had a defign of murdering
her. Being now deititute of regular fupport, and feeling
a propenfity to literary purfuits, the refolved to become an
author. In the Bangorian controverfy he attacked bifhop
Hoadley: after which he turned to the ftage, and wrote
two pieces taken from Spanifh comedies, which were no
otherwife fuccefsful than in giving him an a m1

teele

SAVAGE.

Steele and Wilks, both of whom befriended him ; but hav-
ing offended the former, by ridiculing him behind his back,
he loft his proteGion. Mrs. Oldfield, the aétrefs, difplayed
her generolity to him, by fome liberal donations ; though,
owing to her diflike of his manners and converfation, fhe
would never admit him into her houfe. Thefe temporary
fupplies afforded him but precarious fupport, and he at-
tempted to improve his circumftances by writing a tragedy:
but during the compofition of it he was fo entirely deftitute
of a home, that he ufed to itudy his fpeeches in the itreets
and fields, and write them with pen and ink, borrowed in any
fhop to which he was near, upon fcraps of paper which he
cafually picked up in the ftreets. Thus was produced his
tragedy entitled “ Sir Thomas Overbury,”’ which being
correéted by Cibber and Aaron Hill, was brought out at
Drury-lane in the year 1723. It had not much {fuccefs,
but introduced the author to fome of the wits of the day,
and put into his pocket about zco/, Savage himfelf, in
this play, took the part of Overbury on the itage, but his
manner proved him totally unqualified for the theatre. He
next publifhed a volume of mifcellaneous poems, to which he
prefixed an account of the treatment which he had ex-
perienced from his mother. His cafe was now generally
known, and he was rifing into fome degree of reputation :
but as fait as his friends, by their kind exertions, raifed him
from one difficulty, he funk into another; and when he
found himfelf much involved,’ ke would ramble through the
ftreets like a vagabond, without a fhirt to his back. It was
in one of thefe fituations that an incident happened which
plunged him into the deepetft diftrefs. Rambling late in the
flreets, with two companions, in November 1727, they en-
tered a houfe of entertainment, and in a quarrel with a com-
pany juft leaving the room as they entered it, he unfor-
tunately killed a man, for which he was tried, convicted, and
condemned to be hanged. His friends earneftly fupplicated
for mercy, but his mother ufed every effort to prevent his
receiving the royal clemency. At length the countefs of
Hertford laid the whole cafe before the queen, and Savage
obtained a pardon.

Savage had now loft all tendernefs for his mother, which,
it is faid, the whole feries of her cruelty had not before been
able wholly to reprefs ; and confidering her as an implacable
enemy, which nothing but his blood would fatisfy, threatened
to harafs her with fatires, and to publifh a full account of
all her ufage of him, unlefs the confented to allow him a
ange This expedient proved fuccefsful, and her nephew,
ord Tyrconnel, i order to filence him, took Savage inte
his family, treated him as 2 companion, and gave him 200/.
a-year. This was the moft profperous part of Savage’s
life. He was courted by all who endeavoured to be thought
men of genius, and carefled by all'‘who valued ehicatelees
upon a refined tafte. In this period of his life he publifhed
« The Temple of Health and Mirth,” on the recovery of
lady Tyrconnel from a fevere fit of illnefs; and “ The
Wanderer,” a moral poem, which he dedicated to lord Tvr-
compel, in {trains of the higheft panegyric: but thefe praifes
he in a fhort time found himfelf inclined to retraét, being
difcdrded by the man on whom they were beftowed. Of this
gee) lord Tyrconnel and Mr. Savaye ‘afligned very dif-

ent reafons. Our author’s known charaéter pleaded
ftrongly again{ft him, for his condué was ever fuch as made
all his friends very foon grow weary of him, and even
forced molt of them to become his enemies.

Being thus once more without the means of fubfillence,
Savage thought himfelf at liberty to take revenge upon his
mother, He accordingly wrote “ The Baltard,” one of his
moft vigorous efforts, to which the fubje@ gave great tem-

VoL. XXXI.

porary popularity. This poem made its appearance at the
time when his mother happened to be at Bath, and many
perfons, indignant at her condu@, took frequent oppor-
tunities of repeating paflages from it in her hearing. This
was, probably,’ the firft time that ever fhe difcovered a fenfe
of fhame, and on this occafion the power of wit was very
confpicuous: ‘ The wretch,” fays Savage’s biographer,
“‘ who had, with fcruple, proclaimed herfelf an adultrefs,
and who had firft endeavoured to ftarve her fon, then to
tranfport him, and afterwards to hang him, was not able
to bear the reprefentation of her own condué, but fled
from reproach, though fhe felt no pain from guilt, and left
Bath in the utmoft halite, to fhelter herielf among the
crowds of London.’”? Some time after this Savage formed
the refolution of applying to the queen, who having once
given him his life, he hoped might extend her goodnelfs to
him by enabling him to fupport it. With this view he pub-
lifhed a poem for her birth-day, which he entitled «* The
Volunteer Laureat,”’ for which fhe fent him 50/., with an
intimation that he might expe a like fum annually. It
was, however, too {mall an allowance for a man of his ftrange
and fingular extravagance. His ufual cuftom was, as foon as
he had received his penfion, to difappear with it, and fecrete
himfelf from his moft intimate friends till every fhilling was
fpent, which being done he again appeared as pennylefs as
before. But he would never inform any perfon where he
had been, or in what manner his money had been diffipated.
From the reports, however, of fome, who found means to
penetrate his haunts, it fhould feem that he expended both
his time and his cafh in the moft fordid fenfuality ; particu-
larly in eating and drinking, in which he would indulge in
the moft unfocial manner, fitting whole days and nights by
himfelf, in obfcure public houfes, immerfed in filth and
floth, without decent apparel.

It was at this period that he contraéted an intimacy with
the afterwards celebrated Dr. Samuel Johnfon, then come
to London as a literary adventurer, who feems to have been
captivated by a politenefs of manner and elegance of con-
verfation in Savage, which atoned for his many moral de-
fects. He frequently accompanied him in his noéturnal
rambles, and made him a fubjeét of clofe obfervation, whence
he derived materials for that life of Savage, which is cer-
tainly among his moft admired performances.

After the death of the queen, Savage’s diftrefles became
fo urgent, that a fub{cription was raifed to enable him to
live in retirement in Wales. It was underftood that he was
now to quit, for ever, his town-haunts, and refign all far-
ther pretenfions to fame. This offer, made with thofe con-
ditions, he feemed gladly to accept ; but his intentions were
only to delude his friends, by retiring for a time to write
another tragedy, and return with it to London to bring it
on the flage.

Savage, after fome time {pent in Bri{tol, where he fo
much ingratiated himfelf with the principal inhabitants as
to be treated by them with the greateit attention, arrived at
Swanfea. Here he {pent about a year, employed in writing
another tragedy on the ttory of fir ‘Thomas Overbury.
From his great haughtinefs and infolence of behaviour many
of the fubferibers to his fupport had withdrawn their fub-
fcriptions, and he refolved to return to the metropolis, and
puth again for fame. He left Wales, arrived once more at
Briftol, where, at firft, he was received with as much kind-
nefs as he had experienced before, but his irregularities and
importunities at length tired out his admirers: he was no
longer invited to their houfes ; and having contracted con-
fiderable debts he was thrown into prifon. Here he found

a friend in the keeper of the gaol, who foftened the rigoure
3Y of

SA V

of confinement by every indulgence in his power. He fup-
ported him at his own table, gave him a commodious room
to himfelf, allowed him not only to ftand at the door, but
frequently took him little excurfions into the furrounding
country ; fo that in reality Savage endured fewer hardfhips
in this place than he had utually fuffered during the greater
part of his life. While, however, he was in this place, he
forgot all the kindnefs that he had experienced in that
city, and employed his time in writing a bitter fatire, entitled
« London and Briftol delineated,’’ in which he abufed the
inhabitants of the latter in fuch {trains, as would lead a per-
fon to fuppofe he had received from them no other than the
moft injurious treatment.

When Savage had remained about fix months in confine-
ment, he received a letter from Mr. Pope, who itill continued
to allow him 2o/, a-year, containing a charge of very atro-
cious ingratitude. He folemnly protefted his innocence, but
he was very unufually affected on the occafion, and ina few
days was feized with a nervous fever, under which he funk,
at the age of forty-fix.

Such was the life and fuch the death of Richard Savage,
whofe hard fate deferves compaffion, though there is but
little belonging to him either amiable or refpectable. He
was, however, generous to fellow-fufferers when he had any
thing to give ; and his equanimity under diftrefs might extort
fome praife, had it not ever been attended with a total want
of moral feelings. Asa poet, his works may be confidered
as of an inferior caft; they long lay difperfed in magazines
and fugitive publications, but were afterwards admitted into
Dr. Johnfon’s colleétions, in order perhaps to introduce his
fine life of the author. They have been {ince publifhed ina
feparate form, in two volumes, to which is prefixed that
lite ; the writer of which, fays Dr. Aikin, in the General
Biography, would, it is prefumed, ‘have given a different
eftimate of the moral and literary merits of his fubjeéts, had
he judged of them at a later period, and without the partia-
lity of an acquaintance.””

SavaGe, a vocal performer and finging-mafter of {ome
eminence in London. He was brought up in the King’s
chapel, and his treble voice was fo good, that he performed
in fome of Handel’s operas and oratorios under the title of
the boy. When his voice broke, it defcended into a powerful,
and not unpleafant, bafs ; and in this voice he performed for
Handel in fome of his early oratorios.

When he ceafed to fing in public, he became a finging-
mafter: and having in his boyifh days frequently heard
Italian fingers at the Opera, he had imbibed fome of their
tafte and manner, which brought him into vogue as a vocal
inftructor, particularly in the city, where he was appointed
matter of the boysin St. Paul’s cathedral. He was a vain,
pompous man, and felt and made others feel his import-
ance. He taught Vernon to fing the fairy’s fongs in the
pantomime of queen Mab, in 1750; and happening to call
on him one morning while he was dreffing, we found that
he had three boys to wait upon him while he was wafhing his
hands: one to bring in and hold the eure, one to prefent
him the wath-ball, and a third to hold the towel. He
was the firlt Englifh mufic-maiter who kept his carriage.
No mafter had then more than two guineas a month; but
fervants’ wages, houfe-keeping, and houfe-rent, were in
proportion. Savage, who diedin 1789, out-lived fafhion fo
one as to walk on foot during the laft years of his
life.

SAVAGE, in Geography, a {mall river of Maryland, which
runs through Alleghany county into the Potowmac, W. of
George’s creek. .

Savace Cree#, a {mall bay on the N.W. coalt of New-

i

SAV

foundland, near the weltern entrance of the bay of Moucoy
and 20 leagues N.E. of Cape Ferrol.

Savace J/land, an ifland in the South Pacific ocean,
difcovered by captain Cook in June 1774, and fo called
from the condu& and appearance of the inhabitants. It is
about eleven leagues in circuit, of a round form and good
height, and has deep waters clofe to its fhores. The whole
fea-coaft and the interior of the ifland that was vifited, was
covered with trees, fhrubs, &c. among which were fome
cocoa-nut trees. It did not appear to be very produétive ;
for the part of it that was feen confifted wholly of coral-rocks,
over-run with woods and bufhes. No foil was perceptible ;
the rocks alone fupplying the trees with humidity. If thefe
coral-rocks were firit formed in the fea by animals, how came
they to be thrown up to fuch an height ? Has this ifland been
raifed by an earthquake? or has the fea receded from it?
The inhabitants of this ifland are not numerous. They
feemed to be ftout well-made men, naked, except round the
waifts, and fome of them had their faces, breafts, and thighs
painted black. The canoes were precifely like thofe of
Amtfterdam ifland, with a {mall addition of a rifing, refem-
bling a gun-wale, on each fide of the open part; together
with fome carving about them, which fhewed that thefe
people are no lefs ingenious. Both thefe iflanders and their
canoes correfpond very well with the de(cription which M. de
Bougainville has given of thofe taken off the ifle of Navi-
gators, lying nearly under the fame meridian. _S.. lat. 19° 1!.
W. long. 169° 37'.

SavacGE Jfland, Great, an ifland in Hudfon’s ftraits.
N. lat. 62° 25’. W. long. 70°. 2

SavaceE Jfland, Lower, an ifland in Hudfon’s ftraits.
N. lat. 61°48’. W. long. 66° 20’. .

SavaGe Mountains, mountains in Pennfylvania; 110
miles N.W. of Philadelphia.

SAVAGE Sound, a paflage in the N. part of the Welcome
fea, in Hudfon’s bay into Repulfe bay.

SAVAGES, or Satvaces, wild, barbarous people,
without any fixed habitation, religion, law, or policy.

The word is formed from the Italian /a/vagio, of /alvaticus,
Jelvaticus, ox filvaticus ; which we find ufed in the barbarous
Latin for /i/vefris, belonging to the woods.

A great part of America is peopled with favages.
fome fay molt, of the favages are anthropophagi.

SAVALELAS, in Geography, a town of South Ame-
rica, in the province of Popayan; §2 miles N.W. of Cali.

SAVALOS, a town of South America, in the province
of Darien; 32 miles S.W. of St. Maria de Darien.

SAUAMEGC, a town of Perfia, in the province of Cho-
rafan ; 30 miles S.W. of Zauzan.

SAVAN Lake, a lake of North America.
to’, |W. long. go° 15!.

SAVANAS, a river of Darien, which runs into the
bay of Panama.

SAVANNAH a river of America, which feparates
the ftate of Georgia from that of South Carolina, and pur-
fues a courfe nearly from N.W. to S.E. into the Atlantic,
N. lat. 32°2'. W. long. 81°. It is chiefly formed of two
branches, viz. the Tugeloo and Keowee, which flow from the
mountains and unite 15 miles N. W. of the northern boundary
of Wilkes county. It is navigable for large veffels 17 miles
up to Savannah, and for boats of 100 feet keel to Au-

ufta.
E SAVANNAH River, Little, a river of Florida, which falls
into the gulf of Mexico, N.W. of St. Jofeph’s bay.

SAVANNAH, a bay at the E. end of the ifland of Antigua,
a little W. of Indian creek.

SAVANNAH, a port of entry and polt-town of America, in

Georgia,

Many,

N. lat. 50°

SAY

Georgia, formerly the metropolis of the ftate, in Chatham
county, on the S. fide of the river of the fame name, 17
miles from the ocean. Veflels are under a neceflity of un-
loading part of their cargo four miles below, as the river at
the town has only 14 feet water. The firit houfe of this
town was begun the 19th of February, 1733. The river
here forms a kind of crefcent, having banks on the S. fide
40 feet high, and on the top a flat, called by failors a bluff,
at leait 60 feet high from the river, and extends five or
fix miles into the country. In the centre of the crefcent
the town is fituated, and over-againft it is an iflet, confifting
of very rich pafture land. The town is regularly built in
the form of a parallelogram, and contained by the cenfus of
1810, 5215 inhabitants ; the county of Chatham containing
13,540. N. lat. 32°4!. W. long. 81° 12!

Savannau Key, a {mall ifland in the bay of Honduras,
near the coaft. N. lat. 15° 38'.. W. long. 89° 50’.

SAVANNAH Ja Mer, a town fituated on the E. coaft of
the ifland of Hifpaniola or St. Domingo, on the S. fide of
the bay of Samana, and oppoiite to the city of Samana on the
N. fide, between the bay of Pearls (an excellent port) and
the point of Icaque. ‘The city of Samana and this town
were both began in 1756. Shallows and breakers render
the navigation dangerous between this and the point of
Icaque, 44 leagues diftant.

SAVANNAH /a Mer, a town of the ifland of Jamaica, in
the county of Cornwall, on the S. fide of the ifland, as
Montego bay and Falmouth are in the fame county on the
N. In 1780 this town was almoft entirely deftroyed by a
dreadful hurricane. and inundation of the fea; but it has
been fince partly rebuilt, and contains from 60 to 70 houfes.
‘N. lat. 18° 13/. W. long. 78° .7/.

SAvANNAH Mountains, mountains in Jamaica; 12 miles
E. of Savannah la Mer.

Savannau, New, a town of Georgia; 12 miles S.E.
of Augutta.

SAVANNAH Point, a cape on the W. coaft of Dominica.
N. lat. 15°33'. W. long. 61° 29/.

SAVANNAS, or SAVANNAHS, a name given in the
United States to the level plains by the fides of rivers,
which are generally in a flooded ftate during the whole rainy
feafon.

SAVANT. See Scavanr.

SAVARNOLO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in
Friuli, 20 miles S. of Udino.

SAVARON, Joun, in Biography, a learned and pa-
triotic magifltrate of the 16th and 17th centuries, was
defeended from a good family at Clermont in Auvergne,
and he became prefident of the fenefchalcy and prefidial
court, and afterwards was made licutenant-general. He
was prefent in the States-General of 1614, as deputy from
the tiérs-états of the province of Auvergne, and defended
the rights of his order with great eloquence and firmnefs.
Ina conference with the order of nobility he gave fo much
offence to that body by the freedom of his harangues, that
it was judged pateny to aflign him a guard for his fafety.
He afterwards fupported, with great ability, the honorary
privileges of the magiftrates of his prefidency, againft the
chapter of Clermont, ina pleading before the parliament of
Paria. He died, at a very advanced age, in 1622. He was
author of a number of works, of which the principal are,
« Sidonii A pollinaris Opera,’’ with notes and commentaries ;
“Origine de Clermont ;’”’ “ T'raité contre les Duels ;’’
« Traité de la Souverainté du Roi ct de fon Royaume.” In
this, and in a fubfequent treatife on the fame fubjeét, Sa-
varon maintained the independence of the crown of France

SAV

on all other power, and fhews the unlawfulnefs of dif-
penfing its fubjects from their oaths of allegiance. Savaron
was likewife author of a work entitled «*Chronologie des
Etats-généraux,”’ inteaded to prove that the tiérs-états
always made a conftituent part of the States-General.

SAVARY, James, a commercial writer, was a native
of Doue, in Anjou, but removing to Paris, he acquired
there a confiderable fortune by trade, and in 1658 he pro-
cured the place of one of the royal fecretaries. His great
reputation for commercial knowledge caufed him to be fre-
quently employed in arbitrations, and in the year 1670 he
was engaged in compiling the ‘*Code Marchand,’’ which
appeared in the following year. He publifhed, in 1675, a
work entitled “* Le Parfait Négociant,’’ of which there
appeared eight editions, befides tranflations into modern
languages. The laft edition, in two vols. 4to. contains his
«< Avis et Confeils fur les plus importantes Matiéres de Com-
merce.”’? This eftimable author died in 1690.

Savary pes Brutons, James, fon of the preceding,
was appointed by the minilter Louvois, infpector-general of
the cuftoms of Paris. In this fituation he began to make a
colleétion of all the words which have any relation to trade
and manufaQures, with their proper meanings and derivations,
and to thefe he afterwards added all the commercial ordi-
nances and regulations in France and other countries. This
at length became the bafis of a di€tionary of commerce, in
which he was many years engaged, in conjunétion with his
brother Philemon-Louis, a prieft and canon at Paris. He
died in 1716, before the work was finifhed, but it was pub-
lithed under the infpection of his brother, with the title of
«‘ Didtionnaire Univerfel de Commerce,’’ in two volumes,
fol. 1723. A fupplemental volume was publifhed in 1730,
and a new edition of the whole was given in 1748, in three
vols. folio. Poftlethwayte’s Englith Dictionary of Trade
and Commerce is a tranflation, with confiderable additions
and improvements.

SAVARY, an eminent French traveller and writer, was
born at Vitre, in Britanny, about the year 1748. He re-
ceived his education at Rennes, and in 1776 he travelled
into Egypt, where he refided almoft three years, employing
himfelf in the ftudy of the Arabic language, and in ftudying
the antiquities and manners of .people. He then {pent 18
months in a tour among the iflands of the Archipelago, and
returned to France at the clofe of the year 1780. On his
return to France he publifhed 1. A Tranflation of the
Koran, with a fhort Life of Mahomet,’’ in two vols. 8vo.
From his verfion, which is reckoned faithful and elegant, he
extracted a “ Récueil de plus pure Maximes du Coran.’””
2. His next confiderable work was entitled “ Lettres fur
’Egypte,’’ in three vols. 8vo. 1785, which was read with
great avidity in tranflations, as well as in the original. It
contains an abundance of curious particulars relative to the
ancient and modern {tate of the country. Tncouraged by
this flattering reception, he prepared his ‘‘ Lettres fur la
Gréce,’”’ which, however, were not publifhed till after his
death, that occurred in Feb, 1788.

M. Savary was a lively and pleafant man; he had a well-
cultivated underftanding ; his heart was warm and benevo-
lent ; his imagination was vigorous; his memory retentive.
He was cheerful and open, and in company exceedingly
agreeable and initructive. He did not mingle much with the
world, but was fatisfied with performing well the duties of a
fon, a brother, and a friend.

Savany’s //land, in aerate an ifland in the gulf of
Georgia, fo named by captain Vancouver, about two leagues
long from E. to W., and half a league wide. On the S. fide

Sehica are

:
SAV

are innumerable funken rocks, and, as Vancouver thought,
only vifible at low water. The N.E. point of the ifland is
fituated in N. lat. 49° 57'. E. long. 235° 54!.

SAVASTOPOLI. See IsGaun.

SAUBAANA, in Ancient Geography, atown of Greater
Armenia, in the country called Sophene. Ptolemy.

SAUBATHA, a town of Arabia, called Sabatha by
Arrian.

SAUBUT-JUNG, in Geography, two fmall iflands in
the Chinefe fea. N. lat. 12° 35'. E.long. 114° 38'.

- SAUCE, Wuire. See Wuite.

Sauce-Alone, in Botany and the Materia Medica. See
Erystmum and Hedge Mustaro. :

SAUCEDA, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the

rovince of New Bifcay, on a river of the fame name.

SAUCER, acircular thin plate of iron or brafs, with a
hole in the middle, two of which, with a leather between,
conftitute the valves of the chain-pump. Alfo, a thick
circular plate of iron fixed in the capflern ftep for the
fpindle to turn on. :

Saucer J/land, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Mergui
Archipelago ; 1 mile S. of Weftminiter Hall.

SAUCES aux Bois, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Ardennes ; 7 miles N.E. of Rethel.

SAUCIDGE. See SausaGe.

SAUCISSE, Sausace, in the Military Art, a long
train of powder fewed up in a roll of pitched cloth, and
fometimes of leather, about two inches in diameter ; ferving
to fet fire to mines or caiflons. Jt is ufually placed ina
wooden pipe, called an auget, to prevent its growing damp.

The length of the fauciffe is to extend from the chamber
of the mine to the place where the engineer ttands to {pring
it. There are ufually two faucifles to every mine; that if
one fhould fail, the other may take effect.

SAUCISSON, French, fignifying literally a big /au/fage,
in Fortification, a kind of faggot, made of thick branches
of trees, or of the trunks of fhrubs, bound together ;
whofe ufe is to cover the men; and to ferve as epaulements ;
and alfo to repair breaches, ftop paflages, make *traverfes
over a wet ditch, &c.

The fauciffon differs from a fafcine, which is only made
of {mall branches; and by its being bound at both ends,
and in the middle.

Anciently, they made the fauciffon forty-fix feet long,
and fifteen feet thick ; fince it is ufually twenty-three feet
long, and twelve thick ; bound ftrongly together with three
bands ftrengthened with iron.

SAUCLIERES, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Aveiron; 15 miles S.E. of Milhau.

SAUCONA Creek, a river of Pennfylvania, which
runs into the Skuylkill, N. lat. 40° 26’. W. long. 75°58!.

SAUCOURT, atown of France, in the department of
the Somme, where the Normans were defeated by Louis II.
in the year 881; 6 miles S. of St. Valery.

SAUDRE, Perire, a river of France, which runs into
the Grande Saudre, near Salbris, in the department of the
Loir and Cher.

Saupre, Grande, a river of France, which runs into
the Cher, near Selles, in the department of the Loir and
Cher. Tut

SAUDRUPT, a town of France, in the department
of the Meule ; 6 miles N.E. of St. Dizier.

SAVE, a river of Germany, which rifes in the N.W.
part of Carniola, 6 miles S. of Villach in Carinthia, fe-
parates Sclavonia from Bofnia and Servia, and joins the
Danube at Belgrade,

SAU

Save, La, a river of France, which runs into the
Garonne, near Grenade, in the department of the Upper
Garonne.

SAVEIB, a town of Perfia, in the province of ‘Chu-
fiftan ; 72 miles S. of Sutter. «

SAVEIGNIES, a town of France, in the department
of the Oife; 4 miles N.W. of Beauvais.

SAUEL, in Jchthyology, a name given by the Portu-
guefe to a kind of fith, very frequent on the coatt of China,
which by the natives is called xiyz. In the months of April
and May vaft numbers of them are taken in the river Kiang,
near Nanking ; during which time one of the mott honour-
able of the emperor’s eunuchs takes care to have feveral
fhips filled with thefe fifh; which being put into the fhips
alive, are buried, as it were, in ice provided for that pur-
pofe, and in this manner preferved for the fummer’s provifion
of the emperor. The thips made ufe of to carry thefe fifh
tothe emperor’s court at Pekin, are of the neateft kind, and
richly adorned ; and all other veflels are obliged to make
way for them. . 3

SAVENAY, in «Geography, a town of France, and
principal place of a diltri€t, in the department of the Lower
Loire ; 18 miles N.W. of Nantes. The place contains
1814, and the canton 9876 inhabitants, on a territory of
2574 kiliometres, in 8 communes. N. lat. 47° 22’. W.
ong. 1° 47. °

SAVENNIERES, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Mayne and Loire; 6 miles S. of Angers.

SAVER-DE-FAULT, in Law, fignifies to excufe a
fault ; as when a man, having made default in court, comes
afterwards, and alleges good caufe why he did it; as im-
prifonment at the time, or the like. See Deraurt.

SAVERDUN, in Geography, atown of France, in the

department of the Arriege, and chief place of a canton, in”

the diftri&t of Mirepoix, 15 miles N.W. of Mirepoix.
The place.contains 2819, and the canton 8852 inhabitants,
on a territory of 250 kiliometres, in 14 communes. _
SAVERIO, a cape or pvuint on the N. coaft of South
America, in that part called the Spanifh main.
SAVERNDROOG. See Savinprooe.
SAVERNE, a town of France, and principal place of
a diltrict, in the department of the Lower Rhine; 18 miles

- W.N.W. of Strafburg. This place, which is the feat of a

tribunal, contains 3980, and the canton 11,899 inhabitants,
on a territory of 130 kiliometres, in'18 communes. N. lat.
48° 45'. E. long. 7° 26/. \

SAVERY, Rovann, in Biography, was the fon of James
Savery, and born at Courtray about the year 1576. His
father firft inftruéted him in the art of painting, in which, in
the end, he acquired much more celebrity than his inftru&tor.
His ftyle of execution is neat, even to minutenefs, like
that of Paul Brill and of Breughel. He went into France
in the reign of Henry IV. for whofe royal apartments he
painted many pictures. The fame he acquired caufed him
to be invited to the court of the emperor Rodolphus IT. and
there he paffed a confiderable part of his life, travelling
occafionally, under that monarch’s protection, through the
grand and mountainous diftri& of the Tyrolefe. There he
made a great number of drawings, from which he enriched
his future compofitions with romantic fcenery and figures.
He continued to refide at Prague till the death of the em-
peror, when he fettled at Utrecht, and died there in 1639,
in the 63d year of his age.

SAUGDY, in Geography, a village of Bengal ; 40 miles
S.S.E. of Dacca.

SAUGEES Town, a town of North America, in a

mountainous

SAV

mountainous country, inhabited by Indians, called Saugees.
N. lat. 42° 43’. W. long. 89° 48!.

; SAUGO. 4 town of Spang in the province of Leon ;-
12 miles S. Ciudad Rodrigo.

SAUGUES, a town of France, in the department of
the Upper Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the diftné
of Le Puy; 15 miles S.W. of Le Puy. The place con-
tains 2666, and the canton 6562 inhabitants, on a territory
of 3974 kiliometres, in 15 communes.

SAUGUTCHY, a town of Bengal; 17 miles E. of
Burdwan. N. lat. 23° 15’. E. long. 88° 16!.

SAVIG, atown of Norway, in the province of Dron-
theim ; 80 miles N. of Drontheim. -

SAVIGLIANO, a town of Naples, in the province of
Bari ; 9 miles E. of Minorbino.

SAVIGLIANO, a town of France, in the department of the
Stura, late capital of a diftricét in Piedmont, fituated on a
plain, watered by the Mairaand Grana. This place is emi-
nently diftinguifhed by the excellence of its air and the fer-
tility of its foil ; and in thefe refpedts was highly commended
by Charles V. when he refided here in June 1536. It con-
tains four parifh churches, and many religious houfes ;
8 miles E.S.E. of Saluzzo. N. lat. 44° 35’... E. long.

co]
SAVIGNAC-L--Egips, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Dordogne, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Perigueux ; 10 miles S.S.E. of Perigueux. The
place contains 916, and the canton 8313 inhabitants, on a
territory of 2824 kiliometres, in 15 communes.

SAVIGNANO, a town of Naples, in Principato Ultra ;
21 miles N. of Conza.—Alfo, a town of Italy, in the

artment of the Rubicon; 8 miles W. of Rimini.

SAVIGNE’, a town of France, in the department of the
Indre and Loire ; 15 miles W.N.W. of Tours.

Savicné ? Evégue, a town of France, in the department
of the Sarte ; 6 miles N.E. of Le Mans.

SAVIGNY, a town of France, in the department of the
Loire and Cher, and chief place of a canton, in the diitri&
of Vendéme ; 7 miles S.W. of Montdoubleau. The place
contains 2562, and the canton 9292 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 2374 kiliometres, in 10 communes.—Alfo, a town of
France, in the department of the Céte d’Or; 3 miles N. of
Beauvais.

Savieny fur Scille, a town of France, in the department
of the Sadne and Loire ; 4 miles W. of Louhans.

SAviGNY en Septaine, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Cher ; 7 miles E. of Bourges.

SAVILLA, Sr. See Sr. Savilla.

SAVILLE, Sir Henry, in Biography, an eminent {cho-
lar, was born of a good family, at Over-Bradley, near Hali-
fax, in 1549. He was admitted of Merton college, Oxford,
where he diftinguifhed himfelf for his claflical and mathe-
matical knowledge. He was ele¢ted a fellow of his college,
and in 1570 took his degree of M.A. after which he read a
mathematical leGture in the univerfity. He ferved as proCtor
for two years, and then made a tour to the continent, in
which he acquired feveral foreign languages, and improved
himfelf in his knowledge of the world. Upon his return,
he was appointed preceptor in the Greek language to queen
Eliz In 1581 he publithed a tranflation of the firtt
four books of Tacitus, with the life of Agricola, accom-

ied with notes, which were afterwards tran{lated into the
in language by Gruter,-and publifhed at Amlterdam.
He Saidbecied warden of Merton college in 1585, which
office he held for thirty fix years. In 1596 he enriched the
literature of his country by publifhing a colleétion of the
belt of its ancient hiltorians and chroniclers, to which he

4

SAV

fubjoined chronological tables of the kings and bifhops of
England, from the time of Julius Czfar to William I. In
the courfe of this fame year he was nominated, by favour of
the queen, provoft of Eton college. It was during the reign
of king James that he received the honour of knighthood.
About this period he loft his only fon, and having now no
hopes of raifing his family, he devoted his time and fortune
from henceforward to the encouragement of literature. He
fet up a Greek prefs at Eton, from which, at the expence of
800o/. and after the labour of feveral years, he fent forth an
edition of all the works of Chryfoftom, in 8 vols. folio,
which is {till efteemed as one of the moft elegant and correét
Greek books that has come from the Englifh prefs. He
alfo printed an edition of Xenophon’s Cyropzdia, and other
works. He was a great benefa€tor to the univerfity of Ox-
ford, and in 1619 founded two profefforfhips, one of geo-
metry, and the other of aitronomy, and endowed each with a
falary of 180/. per annum; and he gave at his death a legacy
of 600/. to purchafe more lands for the fame ufe. He alfo
furnifhed a library with mathematical books for the ufe of
his profeffors, and’ gave 100/. to the mathematical chett of
his own appointment. He gave 120/. towards new-building
the fchools, befides feveral rare manufcripts and printed
books to the Bodleian library, and a good quantity of Greek
types to the printing-prefs at Oxford. After a life thus
nobly fpent in the encouragement of literature and fcience,
he died at Eton college, on the 19th of February 1622, and
was buried in the chapel there. Upon this occafion, the
univerfity of Oxford paid him the greatett honours, by
having a public fpeech and verfes made in his praife, which
were publifhed under the title of «* Ultima Linea Savilii.’?
The higheft encomiums were beftowed on Saville by all the
learned of his time; by Cafaubon, Mercerus, Meibomius,
Jofeph Scaliger, and efpecially by the learned bifhop Mon-
tague, who ityles him “ that magazine of learning, whofe
memory fhall be honourable among not only the learned,
but the righteous, for ever.’’

SAvILLe, Sir GrorGe, afterwards marquis of Halifax,
and one of the molt confiderable ftatefmen of his time, was
born about the year 1630, and fome time after his return
from his travels he was created a peer, in confideration of
his own and his father’s merits. At the clofe of the reign
of Charles II. he ftrenuoufly oppofed the bill of exclufion ;
but propofed {uch limitations of the duke of York’s autho-
rity, as fhould effectually prevent him doing any harm. In
1682 he was created a marquis, and foon after he was made
privy feal ; but upon his refufal to confent to the repeal of
the teft, he was difmifled from all public employments. In
that aflembly of the lords which met after king James’s ac-
ceflion, he was made prefident, and upon the king’s return
from Feverfham, he was fent, together with the carl of
Shrewfbury and lord Delamere, from the prince of Orange,
to defire his majefty to quit the palace at Whitehall. In the
convention parliament he was chofen f{peaker of the houfe
of lords, and ftrenuoufly fupported the motion for the va-
cancy of the throne, and the conjunétive fovereignty of the
prince and princefs, upon whofe acceffion he was again made
privy feal. In 1689 he quitted the court, and became a
{teadfalt oppofer af the meafures of government till his
death, which happened in April 1695. Grainger {peaks of
him as “ a perfon of unfettled principles, and a lively ima-

ination, which fometimes got the better of his judgment,
fe was defervedly celebrated for his parliamentary talents ;
and, in the famous contelt relating to the bill of exclufion,
was thought to be a match for his uncle Shaftefbury. The
ieces he has left us thew him to have been an ingenious,
if not a malterly writer; and his * Advice to a Daughter’
contains

SAV

contains more good fenfe in fewer words, than is, perhaps,
to be found in any of his contemporary authors.’’ His
other principal works are, “« The Anatomy of an Equiva-
lent ;” « A Letter to a Diffenter ;”” ** A rough Draught
of a new Model at Sea,’’ and “* Maxims of State.’’ Thefe
have all been printed in one volume o€tavo. Under his name
have alfo appeared the charaéter of king Charles II., the
charaéter of bifhop Burnet, and hiltorical obfervations upon
the reigns of Edward I, IL. III. and Richard II., with re-
marks upon their faithful counfellors and falfe favourites.
Savittr, Sir GeorGe, a public-fpirited and truly pa-
triotic Englifh baronet and fenator, was defcended from the
Savilles, marquifes of Halifax. He diftinguifhed himfelf by
his oppefition to the American war, a conteft which was but
the beginning of thofe miferies in which this country has fo
long beeninvolved. He brought into parliament a bill to re-
oat the penal ftatutes againft the Roman Catholics, for
which his perfon was infulted, and his houfe deftroyed by an
abandoned rabble, during the infamous riots of June 1780.
He was a mott zealous friend to parliamentary reform, and en-
couraged the efforts of the late Mr. Pitt on that fubje&, who,
as well as himfelf, thought the falvation of the country de-
pended upon it. He was allo one of the committee ap-
pointed by different counties in England to obtain this de-
firable meafure; and it appears from his anfwer to an addrefs
of thanks prefented to him in January'1780, that he had
fome {mall hopes of fuccefs: ‘I moft heartily wifh,”’ fays he,
“nay, I will venture to entertain fome hope, that the voice
of a complaining people will be attended to; and that every
beneficial confequence may enfue which the moft fanguine
can promife themfelves from an application fo conftitution-
ally and temperately made.’’ But at the diffolution of par-
liament in the following autumn, he {peaks in a very de-
{ponding tone :, after giving an account of his conduct in
parliament to his conftituents, the freeholders of York, and
of the miferable ftate of the country, he fays, in offering
himfelf a candidate for their fuffrages, “¢ I return to you,
therefore, baffled and difpirited, and I am forry that truth
obliges me to add, with hardly a ray of hope of feeing any
change in the miferable courfe of public calamities.” He
was re-elected, and continued to exert himfelf in the great
caufe of his country, till May 1783, when, though ex-
tremely ill, he attended in the houfe to fupport a motion
made by Mr. Pitt for parliamentary reform, and zealoufly
entered into the debate, to which it appears his ftreneth was
unequal, and he very foon defired leave to vacate his feat,
being incompetent to perform the duties of an independent
fenator. On this occation he received a letter from Mr. W y-
vill, the chairman of the committee, who, in the true fpirit
of friendfhip, alluding to an obfervation of fir George Sa-
ville, that his attendance in fupport of Mr. Pitt’s motion
would probably be the laft aétion of his political life, fays,
«© Thefe are circumftances which I cannot recolleé without
feeling a fincere concern and regret, mixed with that high
refpect and elteem Which are fo juttly due to the purity of
your charaGter, Accounts which have been juft received
of your relapfe, and dangerous {tate of health, mult give
every private friend, every friend to the welfare of the
public, the utmoll anxiety. I fhall only fay, therefore, if
your appearance in parliament, on the 7th of May lait,
fhould unfortunately be your lait fervice to your conftitu-
ents, a life of fuch unfullied virtue could not be more con-
fittently clofed than by that attempt effectually to correé
the corruption of parliament.’’ Sir George died on the
gth of January 1784, and his title became extinét.
SAVIN, Sr., in Geography. See Sr. Savin.
SAVINDROOG, a town ard fortrefs of Hindooftan,

‘the moft penetrating rains.

SAU

in Myfore. The fortrefs is fituated on the fummit of a
mountain or rock, rifing, as it is faid, above half a mile per-
pendicularly from a bafe eight or ten miles in circumference.
It is divided at the top by a chafm into two hills, each of
which has its peculiar citadel, capable of being maintained
independently of the lower works. The whole mountain
is encompafled by a wall, and wherever it was thought to
be acceflible, crofs walls and barriers were conftruéted, fo
as to give the whole edifice a ftupendous and impregnable
appearance. Neverthelefs the Britifh under Col. Stuart,
on the 21{t of December 1791, affaulted and took poé-
feffion of this fortrefs; 18 miles W. of Bangalore.

SAVINE, in Botany, a corruption of Sabina.
JUNIPERUS.

Savine, Jndiax. See BAvHINtia.

SAVINES, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Higher Alps, and chief place of a canton,
in the diltri&t of Embrun; 4 miles S.W. of Embrun.
The place contains 970, and the canton 2869 inhabitants,
on a territory of 290 kiliometres, in 6 communes.

/SAVINIAN, Sr. See Sr. Savinian.

SAVIO, a river of Italy, which runs into the Adriatic ;
6 miles §.S.E. of Ravenna.

SAUJON, or Souson, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Lower Charente, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftri& of Saintes; 12 miles W.S.W. of Saintes.
The place contains 2000, and the canton 9515 inhabitants,
on a territory of 210 kiliometres, in 13 communes,

SAVIOUR. Order of St. Saviour. See Bricirrins.
By the conftitutions of this order, it is principally appointed
for women, who are to pay a particular honour and fervice
to the Virgin. The monks are only to afford them the
fpiritual afliftances they may need, to adminilter to them the
facraments, &c.

The number of nuns is fixed to fixty in each monattery,
and that of monks to thirteen, according to the number of
apoftles, of which St. Paul makes the thirteenth. Four of
them are to be deacons, to reprefent the four doctors of the
church, and eight converts; the whole number making
feventy-two, the number of the difciples of our Saviour.

Setting afide thefe circumftances, and the habit, this
order is under the rule of St. Auguftin.

It was approved of by Urban V., and feveral fucceeding
popes. In 1603, Clement VIII. made fome alterations in
it, on account of the double monatteries which then began
to be built in Flanders, &c.

SAVITRI, in Hindoo Mythology, is a name of Surya,
the regent of the fun.

SAUKIES, or Sarxtrs, in Geography, a tribe of Indians
in North America, refiding at Bay Puan, in the N.W. ter-
ritory, near the Minomanies. They have a large and well-
built town. It contains about go houfes, each large enough
for feveral families. Thefe are built of hewn plank, neatly
joined, and covered with bark fo compaétly as to keep out
Before the doors are placed
comfortable fheds, in which the inhabitants fit, when the
weather will permit, and fmoak their pipes. The ftreets
are regular and fpacious; fo that it appears more like a
civilized town than the abode of favages. The land near
the town is very good. In their plantations, which lie
adjacent to their houfes, and which are neatly laid out, they
raife great quantities of Indian corn, beans, melons, &e. ;
fo that this place is efteemed the beft market for traders
to furnith themfelyes with provifions of any kind within 800
miles of it. The Saukies can raife about 300 warriors,
who are generally employed every fummer in making in-
curfions into the territories of the Illinois and Pawnee na-

tions,

See

A LO me

oe

SAU

tions, from whence they return with a great number
of faves. But thofe people frequently retaliate, and, in their
turn, deitroy many of the Saukies. See the next article.

SAUKS, a nation of Indians on the Miffifippi, prin-
cipally refiding in four villages ; the firft at the head of
the rapids de Moyen on the W. fhore, confifting of 13
log lodges; the fecond in a prairie on the E. fhore,
about 60 miles above ; the third on the Riviere de Roche,
about three miles from the entrance; and the lait on the
river Jowa. They hunt on the Miffifippi and its confluent
itreams, from the Illinois to the river des Jowa, and on
the plains W. of them, which border the Miffouri. They
are fo perfectly confolidated with the Reynards, that they
can fcarcely be termed a diftin€& nation. They raife a
confiderable quantity of corn, beans, and melons. They
are more to be dreaded for their deceit and inclination for
itratagem than for courage. The Reynards refide in three
villages; the firft on the W. fide of the Miflitippi, fix
miles above the rapids of the river de Roche ; the tecond
about 12 miles in the rear of the lead-mines; and the third
in Turkey river, half a league from its entrance. They
hunt on both fides of the Miffifippi, from the river Jowa,
between the Prairie des Chicas, to a river of that name
above the faid village. They raife a great quantity of corn,
beans, and melons. The Jowas refide on the rivers de
Moyen and Jowa, in two villages: they hunt on the W.
fide of the Miffifippi, the river de Moyen, and weftward
to the Miffouri. They cultivate fome corn, but lefs than
the Sauks and Reynards, and are lefs civilized than thofe
nations. The Sauks, Reynards, and Jowas, fince the treaty
ef the two former with the United States, claim the land
from the entrance of the Sauflioni, on the W. fide of the
Miffifippi, up the latter river to the des Jowa, above the
Prairie des Chicas, and weftward to the Miflouri; but the
limits between them are undefined. The number of warriors
belonging to the Sauks or Saukies amount to 500, and of
perfons to 2500. Pike’s Account of Expeditions to the
Sources of the Miflifippi, &c.

SAULCE, La, atown of France, in the Higher Alps;
9 miles S. of Gap.

SAULGE, Sr. See Sr. Saulge.

SAULGEN, a town of Swabia; 5 miles S.W. of
Buchau.

SAULHEIM, a town of France, in the department of
the Rhine and Mofelle ; 14 miles E. of Creutznach.

SAULIEU, a town of France, in the department of the
Céte d’Or, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of
Semur ; 33 miles W. of Dijon. The place contains 2887,
and the canton 12,192 inhabitants, on a territory of 285
kiliometres, in 15 communes. Here was anciently a college
of the Druids, and a wood in which they performed their
facrifices ; and the ruins of a temple, dedicated to the fun,
are yet vifible. ‘The chief trade of this town confilts in
wood, thip-timber, ftaves, and corn. N. lat. 47° 16'. E.

long. 4° ‘-

SAUL » a town of France, in the department of the
Vauclufe, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of
Carpentras. The place contains 5590, and the canton
4644 inhabitants, on a territory of 325 kiliometres, in five
communes.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of
the Lower Alps; 18 miles W. of Forcalquier.

Saurr de Navailles, a town of France, in the department
of the Lower Pyrenées ; 6 miles N.E. of Orthes.

SAULTY, a town of France, in the department of the
Straits of Calais; 12 miles S.E. of St. Pol. ;

SAULX, a town of France, in the department of the
Upper Sadne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrit

SAU

of Lene ; 9 miles S.W. of Luxeuil. The place contains
1285, and the canton 8034 inhabitants; on a territory of
1524 kiliometres, in 18 communes.

SAUM, in Commerce, a liquid meafure in Germany and
Switzerland. The faum at Bafil is a wine meafure, con-
taining 3 ohms, 96 pots old meafure, or 120 pots new
meafure. The ohm of wine weighs r1oolbs. of Bafil weight,
and contains 2522 French, or 3106 Englifh cubic inches,
or 134 Englifh gallons. At Berne, the land fafs contains
6 faums, 24 brents or brends, or 600 maafles: the common
fafs contains 4 faums, 16 brents, or 400 maaffes. The
maas, or meafure, called alfo pinte, is divided into 2 halves,
4 quarters, 8 femiquarters or bechers: this meafure is a
cylinder, 4 inches in diameter, and 9 inches high, and when
full of {pring water, it weighs 51 ounces, 2 quintlins,
2 dwt. Berne weight, or 59 ounces avoirdupois; 97 fuch
meafures hold about 67 Englifh wine pints. Four meafures
of milk anfwer to 5 of the above wine meafures. Kelly’s
Un. Cambitt.

SAUMAISE, Craunk, in Biggraphy. See SALMASIUs.

SAUMAPETTA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Myfore ; 12 miles S. of Dalmacherry. .

SAUMAR, ariver of Germany, which rifes near Corvey,
and runs into the Wefer, g miles above Polle.

SAUMNAGUR, a town of Bengal ; 15 miles S.W.
of Midnapour.

SAUMUR, a town of France, and principal place of a
diftri€, in the department of the Mayne and Loire, before
the revolution the capital of a government, called « Sau-
murois.”” The place contains 9585 inhabitants, in three
cantons ; the firft containing 10,218, on a territory of 192
kiliometres, in g communes; the fecond containing 15,054,
on 177 kiliometres, in 16 communes ; and the third, 9596
inhabitants, on go kiliometres, in 4 communes; 21 miles
S.E. of Angers. N. lat. 47° 15!. W. long. 0° 3/.

SAUNDERS, Cuartes, in Biography, a dramatic
writer in the reign of Charles II. While a king’s fcholar
at Weftminfter he wrote a play, called “ Tamerlane the
Great,”’ to which Dryden wrote a prologue.

Saunpers, RIcHARD, who rofe to be a judge from being
acommon beggar. By accident his genius and talents were
difcovered by a lawyer of Clement’s-Inn, who took him
into his employment, and made him, in a. fhort time, his
clerk. - He afterwards ftudied for the bar, became an emi-
nent barri(ter, and at length obtained the high office of chief
juftice of the court of king’s bench. He died in the year
1683.

Saunpers, in Botany. See SANTALUM.

There are three different woods brought under this name
from the Eaft Indies, in large billets, and faid to be the
produce chiefly of the ifland of Timor, in the Indian ocean.

The yellow faunders is of a pale yellowifh or brownith
colour, clofe even grain, pleafant fmell, approaching to that
of the rofe, and bitterifh, aromatic, pungent talte. Dittilled
with water, it yields a fragrant eflential oil, thickening in
the cold to the confiftence of a balfam, and approaching in
fmell to ambergris, or a mixture of ambergris and roles.
Reétified {pirit extra&s, by digeftion, eonidenaliy more
than water, and yields a rich yellow tin@ture. The fpirit
diftilled off is flightly impregnated with the flavour of the
wood; the remaining brownith extract has a weak {mell,
and a moderate balfamic pungency. This wood is chiefly
valued on account of its fragrance ; hence the Chinefe are
faid to fumigate their clothes with it, and to burn it in their
—— in cee of their gods. It is thought not to
poflefs any confiderable thare of medicinal power. Hoff-
man confiders its virtues as fimilar to thofe of maisraeen

a

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and fome others have efteemed it in the chara&ter of a
corroborant and reftorative. .

The white faunders is of a paler whitifh colour, often
with a yellowifh tinge, and, being far weaker than the
ather, promifes little medicinal virtue, and has been long
neglected. Both the white and the yellow faunders are
the wood of the fame fpecies of tree; yet the latter, which
forms the central part of the tree, is not always to be found
in fufficient quantity to repay the trouble and expences of
procuring it, efpecially unlefs the trees be old ; while the
white, which is the exterior part of the wood, is always’
more abundant, and is confequently much cheaper.

The red faunders (Pterocarpus fantolinus), is of a dull
red, almoft blackifh colour on the outfide, and deep brighter
red within; its fibres are occafionally curled, as in knots.
It has no fmell, and little or no tafte. This, though recom-
mended as an altringent and corroborant, appears to have
very little virtue. Its principal ufe is a colouring drug.
To watery liquors it communicates only a yellowifh tinge,
but to reétified fpirit a fine deep red. A fmall quantity of
an extraét, made with this menitruum, tinges a large one of
frefh fpirit of the fame elegant colour, though it does not,
like moft other refinous bodies, diffolve in expreffed oils ;
of diltilled oils, there are fome, as that of lavender, which
receive a tinéture from the wood itfelf, and from its refinous
extra&t, but the greater number does not.

This wood is often confounded with Brafil wood ; but
though in appearance they refemble one another, they are
eafily diftinguifhed ; becaufe Brafil wood gives out its red
colour to water as well as alcohol, but faunders wood only
to alcohol. Hence it is of no ufe in general dyeing ; but
it is occafionally ufed for colouring fpirits, efpecially the
red {pirit employed for thermometers.

The true faunders wood is extremely hard, of a bright
garnet red colour, and bears a fine polifh. (See PrerocarPus
Santslinus.) It is, however, only the inner fubftance of the
wood that is ufed as a colouring matter ; and the more florid
red is moft efteemed. On being cut it manifefts a fragrant
edour, and this is faid to be moft perceptible in old trees.
Lewis Mat. Med. Woodv. Med. Bot.

Saunvers, Cafe, in Geography, a point of land in New
Zealand, fo called by captain Cook in 1770, in honour of fir
Charles Saunders, in S. lat. 45° 35’. W. long.. 189° 4!.
About three or four leagues to the S.W. of it, and very near
the fhore, there is a remarkable faddle-hill, which is a good
direGtion to it in that quarter. From three to four leagues
N. of this cape the fhore forms two or three bays, in which
appeared to be good anchorage and effeétual fhelter from
the fouth-wefterly and north-wefterly winds.—Alfo, a cape
on the ifland of Georgia, beyond which is a pretty large
bay, named by Cook Cumberland bay. Between Cape
Saunders and Poffeffion bay, which lies in S. lat. 54° 5’.
W. long. 37° 18', and 11 leagues E. of Cape North, were
vaft tracks cf fnow or ice, not broken loofe when captain
Cook vifited thefe feas in January 1775.

Saunver’s Jfland, Sir Charles, an ifland difcovered
and fo called by captain Wallis in July 1767, fituated in
the South Sea, about fix miles long, with a mountain of con-
fiderable height in the middle, which feemed to be fertile.
The inhabitants were few, and lived in {mall huts. S. lat.
17° 28/. W. long. oe 4'.—Alfo, an ifland in the South
Atlantic.ocean, fo called in honour of fir Charles Saunders
by captain Cook, who difcovered it in February 1775. It
appeared to be eight or ten leagues in circuit, exhibiting
a furface of confiderable height, whofe fummit was lott in
the clouds, and, like all the neighbouring lands, covered
with a theet of {now and ice, except on a projecting point

SAU

on the N. fide, and two hills feen over this point, which
probably might bé two iflands. Thefe only were clear of
{now, and feemed covered with a green turf. It is fituated
in S. lat. 57° 49’. W. long. 26° 44'; and N. diftant
I 3 leagues from Cape Montagu. Cook’s Second Voyage,
vol. ii.

SAUNDERSON, Nicuotas, in Biography, a cele.
brated Englith profeffor of mathematics, was born in the
year 1682, at Thurlfton, near Pennilton, in Yorkshire,
where his father had a {mall ettate, and a place in the excife.
At the age of twelve months he loft his eye-fight, and even
his eyes, by the fmall-pox. At avery early age he afforded
indications of confiderable abilities, and was fent to the free-
{chool of Pennifton, and there laid the foundation of that
knowledge in the Greek and Latin languages, which he af-
terwards fo much improved, as to hear with pleafure and
delight the works cf Euclid, Archimedes, and Diophantus,
read in the originals. Having finifhed his {chool education,
his father undertook to inftruG@ him ‘in the rules of arith-
metic, and very foon difcovered that he had an excellent
mathematical genius. At the age of cighteen he was intros
duced to the acquaintance of Richard Welt, efq. .a confi-
derable mathematician, who undertook to inftrué& him in the
principles of algebra and geometry, and gave him every en-
couragement in his power to the profecution of thefe ftudies.
Soon after this he found a kind and zealous friend in Dr.
Nettleton, and it was to thefe gentlemen that he owed his
firft inftitutions in the mathematical fciences, but he foon
furpafled his mafters, and became fitter to be teacher than
pupil. He next went to an academy at Attercliff, near
Sheffield, at which young men were educated for the mi-
niftry among Protettant diflenters ; here he remained but a
fhort time, preferring to purfue his ftudies in his own way,
rather than fubmit to general plans laid down for a elutes
Hitherto he had been on his father’s hands, who, on ac-
count of a numerous family, could ill bear the expences at-
tendant upon his fon’s prefent purfuits ; he began therefore
to devife means of putting him into a method of fupporting
himfelf, and as his inclination led him to prefer Cambridge
as a refidence, it was determined he fhould try his fortune
there. He accordingly went to the univerfity in 1707, and
took up his refidence in Chrift’s college without being ad-
mitted a member of that houfe. The fociety, well pleafed
with fo extraordinary a guetft, allotted him a chamber, gave
him the ufe of their library, and indulged him in every pri-
vileye which could prove of any advantage tohim. He
foon commenced the duties of lecturer, and obtained great
celebrity by his performances. Sir Ifaac Newton’s Princi-
pia, Optics, and Univerfal Arithmetic, were the foundation
of his lectures, and afforded him a noble tield for the difplay
of his genius. Numbers induced from motives of curiofity,
and many, no doubt, for the fake of inftruétion, came to
hear and admire a blind man give leGures on optics, dif-
courfe on the nature of light and colours, explain the theory
of vifion, the effeéts of glafs in the refraétion of the ee of
light, the phenomena of the rainbow, and other obj of
fight. '

A he undertook to inftruét the collegians in the princi-
ples of the Newtonian philofophy, he foon eon acquainted
with fir Lfaac himfelf, and correfponded with him on the
moft difficult parts of his works. | At this time Mr. Whif-
ton was the Lucafian mathematical: profeffor in the univer-
fity, bat when hewas ejected from his fellowfhip (fee Wats
ron), Mr. Saunderfon’s talents were known to be fo much
fuperior to that of any other competitor, that application
was made to the queen for a mandamus to confer apon him
the degree of A.M. which was granted, and he was chofen

SAU

Mr. Whiiton’s fucceffor, fir Ifaac Newton interefting him-
felf greatly in hisfavour. Mr. Saunderfon’s firft perform-
ance as profeflor was an inaugural fpeech, drawn up in very
elegant Latin. From this time he applied himfelf clofely to
reading le€tures, and the inftru@tion of his pupils. He con-
tinued to refide at Chrift’s college till the year 1723, when
he took a houfe at Cambridge, and very foon after married
the daughter of a neighbouring clergyman, by whom he
had a fon and a daughter. Inthe year 1728 king George II.
vifited the univerfity, and profeffor Saunderfon attending
upon him in the fenate, was, by tlie royal mandate, created
doétor of laws. Dr. Saunderfon was naturally of a ftrong
conttitution, but by confining himfelf too clofely to his
ftudies, he injured his health, and he died in April, in the
year 1739. There is fcarcely a branch of the mathematics
in which he did not compofe fomething for the ufe of his
pupils. Previoufly to his death he prepared for the prefs
his “* Elements of Algebra,” which were publifhed the year
following his deceafe in two volumes quarto. He left be-
hind him many other writings, but none ina ftate fufficiently
prepared for publication. Among thefe were fome com-
ments on the Principia of fir Ifaac Newton, which were
publifhed in the Latin language at the end of his pofthu-
mous treatife on “ Fluxions,”” which was publifhed in 1756.
Dr. Saunderfon was aman of much wit and vivacity in con-
verfation. He poffeffed a ftri& regard to truth, and was
fuch an enemy to all forts of difguife, that he thought it his
duty to {peak his thoughts, at all times, and on all occafions,
with uureftrained freedom. Hence his fentiments on men
and opinions were frequently expreffed without referve,
which created him many enemies. .

« A blind man,”’ fays one of his biographers, “ moving
in the {phere of a mathematician, feems a phenomenon diffi-
cult to be accounted for, and has excited the admiration of
every age in which it has appeared. Tully mentions it as
a thing fearcely credible in his own matter in philofophy,
Diodorus, that he exercifed himfelf in it with more affiduity
after he became blind ; and, what he thought next to impof-
fible to be done, that without fight, he taught geometry,
defcribing his diagrams fo exaétly to his fcholars, that they
could draw every line in its proper direGtion. St. Jerome
relates a ftill more remarkable inftance in Didymus of Alex-
andria, who, blind from his infancy, was enabled to learn the
fublimeft parts of geometry. But if we confider that the
ideas of extended quantity, which are the chief objeéts of
mathematics, may as well be acquired by the fenfe of feeling
as that of fight ; that a fixed and fteady attention is the
principal qualification for this ftudy, and that the blind
are neceflarily more abftraéted than others, we fhall find
reafon to conclude that there is no branch of {cience fo
much adapted to their circumftances.”’

At firit Dr. Saunderfon acquired moft of his ideas by the
fenfe of feeling, and this he enjoyed in great perfection, fo
much fo, that he could in a Se of Roman medals diftin-
guith the genuine from the falfe, though they had been
counterfeited with fuch exactnefs as to deceive a connoifleur
who had examined them with a keen eye. Dr. Saunder-
fon’s ear was alfo equally exaét. He could readily diftin-
guih the fifth part of a note. By the quicknefs of this

e¢ he could judge of the fize of a room, and of his
diftance from the four fides of it. He had an ingenious and
, method of performing arithmetical calculations, but
or an account of this we mutt referto Anitumetic, Pal-
pable. See alfo the life of Dr. Saunderfon prefixed to his

ee XS
AUNDERSVILLE, in Geography, a town of Ame-
Vor. XXXI.

SAV

rica, in Wafhington county, and ftate of Georgia: 2
miles from Milledgville, the capital of Georgia.

SAUNKLEY, a town of Hindooftan, in Candeith ;
zo miles S. of Chuprah.

SAVO, in Ancient Geography, a river of Italy, in Cam-
pania, which ran near Sinuefla, and ferved as a boundary to
New Latium.—Alfo, another river of Italy, near and N.E.
of Vada Sabatia, in Liguria.

SAVOI, Gasparo, in Biography, a fecond finger in
our Italian opera, under the regency of Mefirs. Vincent and
Gordon, in 1765. Savoi had a very fine contralto voice,
but was too idle to make the moft of it by application and
ftudy. He was a more ingenious and accomplithed virtuofo
in cookery than mufic ; and would gladly have drefled any
one’s dinner, on condition that he fhould be allowed to par-
take of it. Giardini had a very good portrait of him,
painted by Gainfborough, with a mufic-paper in his hand ;
and on afking Bartolozzi if he did not think it a good por-
trait ?—* yes,”’ he anfwered, « and I’! tell you what he is
faying in contemplating that mufic-paper in his hand: ¢ this
is one dam arda fong, and I never fhall a fing it in all a mine
life? His voice, however, was fo rich, fweet, and power-
ful, that though he had no fhake, and his execution was
heavy and inarticulate, he was heard with pleafure. He
had in Vinto’s Sofonifba, in Piccini’s Buonafigliuola, and
in fome of Sacchini’s operas, eafy airs, that difplayed his
fine voice, and fo concealed his defeéts, that in finging
them, he was always much and juftly applauded.

SAVOK, in Geography, a river of England, in the
county of Lancafter, which runs into the Ribble, about
three miles below Prefton.

SAVOLA, a town of Sweden, in Eatft Bothnia; 18
miles S.E. of Braheftad.

SAVOLAX, or Saworax, a province of Sweden, in
Eaft Bothnia, bounded on the N. by Cajana, on the E. and
S. by Ruflia, and on the W. by Tavattland ; about 200
miles long, and roo broad. It confifts chiefly of woods,
lakes, rivers, and moraffes, and produces very little corn or
patture. The fubfiltence of the inhabitants is derived from
fowing buck-wheat, grazing, and breeding cattle, hunting,
fifhing, and making wooden ware. They alfo trade in tal.
low, butter, dried fifh, hides and furs. The country abounds
in elks and rein-deers. With ref{pect to its ecclefiattical ftate,
it is under the jurifdiction of the bifhop of Borgo, and is
divided into three provottfhips.

SAVONA, a fortified and pretty large town of Genoa,
defended by a citadel on a high rock, the fee of a bifhop,
fuffragan of the archbifhop of Milan. The harbour has
been partly choaked up by order of the republic, to hinder
the approach of large fhips: 20 miles W.S.W. of Genoa.
N. lat. 44° 19’. E. long. 8° 31/.—Alfo, ariver which runs
into the bay of Naples, N. lat. 41°7'. E. long. 14°.

SAVONAROLA, Jerome, in Biography, a celebrated
Italian monk, was born at Ferrara in 1452. He was
grandfon of an eminent phyfician, who had removed thither
from Padua, and who with his father was folicitous to give
him a good education. At the age of fourteen, being en-
thufialtically difpofed, he repaired to Bologna, and put on
the habit of a Dominican friar. Some years after this he
mounted the pulpit at Florence, but with fo little fuccefs,
that he determined to enter upon a different courfe. The
reputation which he had acquired for learning and talents
caufed him to be invited in 1489, by Lorenzo de Medici,
to return to Florence, and at this period he became a moft
ih So preacher. By pretenfions to fuperior fanétity, and
a fervid eloquence, he hurried away the feelings of his

3Z hearers,

SAV

hearers, and gained a wonderful afcendaucy over their
minds. The fuccefs which he obtained encouraged him
to aflume the prophetic charaéter, and to take for his
topics the meets reforms in the church, and the difatters
impending Italy. While, however, he was regarded by
the multitude as an infpired prophet, he was confidered by
many people as a mere enthufiaft, and by others as a vile
impottor. He now began not only to detach himfelf from
his patron Lorenzo, but to decry his character, and pre-
diét his fall. Being made prior of St. Mark, he refuted
to pay the cuftomary vifit to that head of the republic,
and when Lorenzo came to St. Mark’s, Savonarola avoided
his prefence. Lorenzo was frequently urged to take mea-
fures again{t him, which he refufed, either from his own
natural lenity, or from fome fecret refpeét for his charaéter ;
and when he was on his death-bed, in 1492, the monk ob-
tained admiffion to him, and {poke to him with the autho-
rity of his funétions. Lorenzo meekly anfwered his quef-
tions, and requefted his benediétion. After the death of
Lorenzo, and the expulfion of his fon Piero, Savonarola
took a leading part in the political concerns of Florence,
and headed the citizens, who aimed at the eftablifhment of a
popular conititution. He declared, that he was authorized
to pronounce that the legiflative power muft be extended
to the citizens at large; that he himfelf had been the
ambaflador of the Florentines to heaven; and that Chriit
had promifed to be their peculiar king. Thus, by his in-
fluence chiefly, the form of government was changed in
Florence from an ariftocracy to a democracy. When the
Florentines were courted by the other Italian ftates to enter
into a confederacy with them, to oppofe any fecond at-
tempt that the French might undertake again{t Italy, pre-
parations for which were making in France, Savonarola’s
perfuafions prevailed to have all fuch propofals rejected.
He flattered them with hopes, and foretold in his difcourfes,
that the calamities of the republic would be turned into
profperity and increafe of dominion ; denouncing, at the
fame time, terrible judgments to the court of Rome, and to
the reft of the Italian ftates. ‘The. preacher and his pre-
diGtions were defpifed by the more difcerning, yet the bulk
of the people paid an implicit credit to him, and to all
that he faid, and among them not a few of the moit con-
fiderable citizens, infomuch that his adherents outnumbered
his oppofers, by which means many of them were elected
into the magiftracy, and other places of the greateft truit.
In the year 1498 a multitude of complaints againft him
having been carried to Rome, in which he was accufed of
having reproached, in his fermons, the conduct of that
court and the vices of the clergy, he had been frequently
fummoned to appear before the pope, but hitherto had
negleéted to pay obedience to the commands of his holi-
nefs, on which account he was at laft publicly excommuni-
cated. This fentence obliged him to refrain from preach-
ing for fome months, till, finding his intereft manifeitly de-
clining by his filence, he, in open contempt of the pontifical
authority, refumed his function, aflerting that their cenfures
againft him were null and void, as contrary to the divine
will, and the public welfare, and at the fame time bitterly
inveighing againft the pope and the court of Rome. This
kind of si ba sissaitcaed frequent tumults, for his ene-
mies, daily gaining ground upon him, animated the popu-
lace, who above all things abhorred difobedience to the
pope. The pontiff, Alexander, alfo thundering out new
briefs, and threatening to interdi& the city, the magiltrates
commanded him to defilt from preaching. Neverthelefs,
the friars of his convent continued to propagate his doc-

SAV

trines, which were oppofed by the religious of other orders.
Thefe difputes were carried on with great heat, and excited
fuch animofities, that at length, to defend his caufe, he pro-
cured the affiftance of a friar of his own convent, named
Fra. Domenico da Pefcia, who, in a fort of fanatical mad-
nefs, propofed to confirm his maiter’s doétrines by the ordeal
of walking through the flames, provided any one of their
adverfaries would do the fame. The challenge was accepted
by a Francifcan friar, and a day was appointed for the
trial. Savonarola, finding that the adverfe party were not
to be intimidated, propofed that Domenico fhould be allowed
to carry the hoft with him into the fire. This was ex-
claimed againit by the whole affembly as an impious and
facrilegious propofal. It was, however, infifted upon by
Domenico, who thereby eluded the ordeal. But the refult
was fatal to the credit of Savonarola. The populace in-
fulted and turned againft him, and in a pretty fevere con-
flict they apprehended him, with Domenico, and another
friar, and dragged them to prifon. The refolution and
eloquence of Savonarola difconcerted his judges at the firft
examination, but upon the application of torture his con-
{tancy gave way, and he acknowledged the impofture of
his pretending to fupernatural powers. He and his com-
panions were condemned to be firit ftrangled and then
burnt, and the fentence was put into execution on the
23d of May 1498, before an immenfe crowd of f{peétators,
a part of whom ftill looked up to him as a faint and
martyr, while the reft execrated him as a hypocrite and
feducer.

Such was Savonarola, concerning whofe real charaGer
opinions long continued to be at variance, and even at this
time they are faid by no means to be uniform. The
friends of reformation, civil and religious, fays the eloquent
biographer of Lorenzo, would willingly regard him as a
man who had elevated views and good intentions, though
perverted by a fpirit of fanaticifm, and there feems no reafon
to doubt that he was really a friend to the liberty of
Florence, and felt an honeit indignation at the profligacy
of the court of Rome, and the corruption of the Catholic
church. At the fame time defign and artifice appear to
have mixed with his enthufiafm, and the character of a
leader of a party is as difcernible in his conduct as that of
a reformer. ‘he great inftrument by which he obtained his
afcendancy was eloquence, and perhaps no man ever pof-
feffed more of that kind which is calculated to operate
upon a popniar aflembly. Several volumes of his fermons
have been publifhed with other works, afcetical, theological,
and apologetical, which are now configned to oblivion.
His numerous biographers, apologilts, and cenfurers, indi-
cate the {trong impreflion made on the public by his aétions
and unhappy fate. Guicciardini’s Hilt. Rofcoe’s Lorenzo.

SAVONIE'RES, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Indre and Loire, fituated on the
Cher; 8 miles S.W. of Tours.

SAVORGNANO, a town of Italy, in Friuli; 8 miles
N.N.W. of Udina. ;

SAVORY, in Botany. (See Satureta.) Two fpecies
of this genus are well known under the names of /ummer
favory, and qwinter favory.

The leaves of fayory are a warm aromatic, of a grateful
f{mell, and penetrating pungent talte. They give out the
whole of their active matter to rectified {pirit, with a dark
green tincture; to water they give a reddifh colour and
confiderable fmell, but little tafle. In diftillation with
water, they yield a {mall quantity of a fragrant eflential
oil, very pungent, fubtle, and volatile.

The

SAW

The extra& obtained from diftillation with reétified
fpirit {mells agreeably, and has a warm, pungent, aromatic
taite. Winter favory is much ufed in the kitchens. Miller’s
Bot. Off.

SAVOU, or Corrin J/land, in Geography, a {mall ifland
near the W. coaft of Madagafcar. S. lat. 17°30'. E.
long. 44° 22!.

SAVOUGE, a town of France, in the department of
the Cote d’Or; 9 miles S. of Dijon.

SAVOY, in Geography, a country of Europe, anciently
called “ Sabaudia,”?» bounded on the N. by the lake of
Geneva, on the E. by Switzerland, the Milanefe, and Pied-
mont, on the S. by Piedmont and France, and on the W.
by France; about 80 miles from E. to W., and 66 from
N.to S. In its whole extent Savoy includes the duchy of
Savoy, or Savoy Proper, the duchy of Chablais, the duchy
of Genevois, the lordfhip of Faucigny, the county of
Tarantaife, and the county of Maurienne. It is moftly
ever-run by lofty barren mountains and erormous rocks,
very rarely interfperfed with vallies, that yield fome grain,
but moftly pafture. The vicinity of the lake of Geneva,
Montmelian, and St. Jeanne de Maurienne, afford fome
tolerable wine, and fome parts of the country fupply a good
breed of cattle that furnifh Piedmont and the Milanefe with
oxen. Mules are alfo bred for exportation. But the
greateft part of the country is covered with huge mountains,
among the higheft of which we may reckon the Glaciers,
which fee. (See alfo Arps, Cenis, and Mont Bianc.)
The chief rivers in this country are the Rhone, the Arve,
the Siers, the Ifere, and the Arc; and of the lakes, the
principal are thofe of Annecy in Genevois, and Bourget in
Savoy, the latter of which is famous for the delicate fifh
called Javarctte. The Savoyards are generally poor } info-
much that a farmer, with a yoke of oxen, two horfes, four
cows, a few goats and fhecp, and a {mall fpot of land, is
deemed aman of fubftance. The common bread is made of
Oats, ae the more wealthy ufe wheat; the ordinary
drink is milk and good water; their food, cheefe, butter,
walnuts, garden-ftuff, and occafionally, but not often, flefh-
meat. he inhabitants of tlie vallies, however, fubfift on
fomewhat better fare. Accuitomed to a temperate mode of
life, they are healthy, chearful, and prolific. Both fexes
furnith feveral inftances of deformity ; and the women in
particular have wens that reach from ear to ear, which fome
afcribe to the water. (See Cretin and Gorrre.) The
Sayoyards are well-known emigrants through various parts
of Europe, feeking a fubfiftence in France, England, and
elfewhere, in quality of fhowmen, chimney-fweepers, fhoe-
blackers, &c.; and at times, being diligent and frugal, they
return home with their favings. r¥ mott of them are chair-
men and mule-driyers, they derive an additional means of
fupport from the paflage of mount Cenis. In Savoy, every
one {peaks French, a mott of the towns and villages have
their names in that lan
and difpofition, the inhabitants bear a great affinity to Ger-
mans. They are all Roman Catholics. ‘The high court of
juftice, or the parliament, as it is called, fat in Cham x
The king being, on account of Savoy, a member of the
ancient kingdom of Arles, and a vaflal of the empire, had a
feat and yote in the diet of the Germanic body. Savoy bad
formerly its own courte, among whom Amadeus I, who lived
in the 1ath century, bore the title of marggrayve 5 in Italy,
Amadeus V. was the founder of the line of the counts of
Savoy ; but it is needlefs to trace the fucceflions as in the
iad 1792 this country was over-run and fubdued by the

rench republicans; the people being, for the moft part,
ready to receive them as friends rather than as enémies ; and
a decree of the national convention was pafled in order to

¢; but with regard to cuftoms”

SAU

form it into a department of the republic, under the deno-
minaticn of Mont Blanc, which fee. The capital is Cham-
bery.

Savoy, 2 townthip of Berkfhire county, in Maffachufetts ;
incorporated in 1797 3 the county contains 32 townfhips and
35,907 inhabitants.

Savoy Cabbage, in Gardening, the common name of a
hardy ufeful cabbage of the winter kind. See Brassica.

SAURA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in the
interior of Sufiana, on the banks of a {mall river which ran
into the Euphrates to the W. of that town.—ALlfo, a town
of Italy, in Magna Grecia, which belonged to the people
called Saunite, in Japygia.

Saura, in Geography. See SAWARA.

Saura, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the pachalic of
Diarbekir ; 40 miles S.W. of Diarbekir.

Savura, the name of a f{eé& of Hindoos, fo called from
being worfhippers folely or chiefly of Surya, or the fun.
See Surya.

SAURAT, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Arriege; 3 miles N.W. of Tarafcon.

SAUREK, a mountain of Arabia, in the province of
Yemen; 24 miles E. of Taas.

SAURIN, Ex tas, in Biography, an eminent Pied-
montefe Proteftant minifter, was born in the year 1639.
He was educated in grammar learning by his father, under
whofe inftruGtions he made fuch a proficiency, that at the age
of 18 he entered upon his academical ftudies with diftin-
guifhed advantage. . He attended, fucceffively, feveral Pro-
teltant feminaries, and in 1661 was admitted to the miniftry,
and appointed paftor of the church at Venterol. At this
place, and at Embrun, he acquired fo high a reputation
for learning and talents, that in 1664 he would have been
appointed profeflor of divinity at Dié, had he not been
driven from France by perfecution. Knowing the bitter-
nefs of his enemies, and what he had to expe& from judges
already prejudiced againft him, he withdrew to Holland.
Here he became paftor of the Walloon church at Delft,
and retained that fituation till 1671, when he accepted the
fame office at Utrecht. He was one of the miniiters ac-
cufed of herefy by Jurieu ; and he had a conteft with Bayle.
He died in 1703. His principal works were “* An Exa-
mination of the Divinity of M. Jurieu ;”? “ Reflections on
the Rights of Confcience ;”? « Treatife on the Love of
God ;”’ and another “ Treatife on the Love of our Neigh-
bour.’?

Saurtn, James, a celebrated French Proteftant preacher,
the fon of an eminent lawyer at Nifmes, was born in the
year 1677. Upon the revocation of the edit of Nantes in
1685, his father retired with his family to Geneva, where
the fubjeé&t of this article made a confiderable progrefs in
learning while he was very young. At the age of 17 he
went into the army, in which he ferved with reputation till
the year 1696, when the duke of Savoy, in whofe employ-
ment he was, having made peace with France, he returned
to his ttudies at Geneva, which, at that period, was the re~
fidence of fome of the beft {cholars in Europe. Under thefe
profeffors Saurin applied affiduoufly to feveral departmente
of literature, but particularly to the ftudy of divinity.
When he had completed his courfe of ftudies, in 1700, he
vifited Holland and England, In the former country his
ftay was yery fhort, but in the latter he continued almoit
five years, and preached among his fellow refugees in
ehdeai In 1703 he married, and in 1705 he returned te
Holland, where he was defirous of fettling with a church,
but as nothing of the kind offered, he accepted the office of
chaplain to one of the principal families at the Hague, Soon
afterwards he became one of the paftors to a church of

3Z2 French

SAU

French refugees, who were permitted to aflemble in the
chapel belonging to the palace of the princes of Orange at
the Hague, in which he officiated during the remainder of
his life. When the princefs of Wales, afterwards queen
Caroline, pafled through Holland on her way to England,
M. Saurin had the honour of paying his refpeéts to her, and
fhe, upon her return, defired Dr. Boulter, the preceptor to
prince Frederic, the father of the prefent king, to write to
M. Saurin, to draw up a treatife on the education of princes.
The work was done, but never printed, and the author re-
ceived a handfome prefent from the princefs, and afterwards
a penfion from George II. to whom he dedicated a volume
of his fermons. M. Saurin died in 1730. His addrefs was
a happy compound of the affable and the grave ; his voice
was ftrong, clear, and harmonious, and he never loft the
management of it. His ityle was pure, unaffected, and elo-
quent. In the introductions to his fermons he ufed to de-
liver himfelf in a tone modeft and low ; in the argumentative
part he was clear and plain, paufing at the clofe of each
period, that he might difcover by the countenances of his
hearers whether they were convinced by his reafoning ; and
in his perorations he was extremely pathetic and animated.
His doctrine was that inculcated by the French Protettants
in general, which was, what is known under the term mo-
derate Calvinifm. He was a fine fcholar, and took the
greateft intereft in the concerns and fpiritual welfare of his
hearers. He was author of 12 volumes of Sermons. From
thefe, felections, tranflated into Englifh, were publifhed
between the years 1775 and 1784, by the Rev. Robert Ro-
binfon, in 5 vols. 8vo. Dr. Hunter tranflated and pub-
lifhed a fixth volume in 1796. M. Saurin was author of
many other works, but the moft confiderable of them is en-
titled ** Difcourfes Hiftorical, Critical, and Moral, on the
moft memorable Events of the Old and New Teitament,”’
which form fix large volumes folio, but they were not all
written by M. Saurin ; he died before the third was finifhed,
which was completed by M. Roques, who added a fourth on
the Old Teftament. To thefe M. Beaufobre fubjoined two
volumes on the New Teftament. See Robinfon’s Memoirs
of M. Saurin, prefixed to vol. i. of his fermons.

Saurin, JosepH, a celebrated French mathematician,
was born in 1659. He received the elements of learning
under his father, and made a rapid progrefs in acquiring the
learned languages. He was carly admitted into the mi-
niftry, but from the freedom of his difcourfes he was obliged
to quit the country, and in 1683 he went toGeneva. From
thence he removed to Berne, where he was appointed paitor
of the church of Bercher. Here he lived very peaceably till
he ventured to preach againft fome of the eftablifhed doc-
trines of the church, to which he had with difficulty con-
formed. By this conduét he raifed a ftorm among the neigh-
bouring clergy which threatened his perfonal fafety. Under
thefe circumitances he withdrew to Holland, and difgutted
with the condué of his own brethren, he refolved to renounce
the Proteftant communion, and to embrace that of Rome.
Having informed M. Bofluet, the bifhop of Meaux, of his
intention, he was encouraged by that prelate to vifit him at
one of his country houfes, and make an abjuration before
him. This was in the year 1690. This change in his reli-
gious profeffion he carefully concealed till he could have an
opportunity of withdrawing his wife from Switzerland ; the
report, however, was foon made known, and in bringing away
his lady, they were both arrefted on the frontiers. By the
interpofition of Lewis XIV. they foon obtained their
liberty. He now fixed his refidence at Paris, was received
under the moft flattering aufpices, and was introduced by
Boffuet to the king, who almoft immediately fettled a pen-
fion upon him. He now devoted himfelf chiehy to mathe-

SAU
matical purfuits, and acquired a high reputation from the
important papers which, from time to time, he contributed
to the Journal des Savans, and the Memoirs of the Academy
of Sciences. In 1707 he was admitted a member of the
Academy in the quality of geometrician. He died in 1737,
at the age of 78. His mathematical and philofophical
papers in the ‘* Mémoires’? of the Academy are to be found
in the volumes publifhed between the years 1709 and 1727.

Saurin, Bernarp-JosEPpH, a dramatic writer, fon of
the lait, was educated for the profeffion of the law, which
he deferted for the more pleafant {tudies of polite literature.
He prattifed fome time as an advocate, and afterwards be-
came a member of the French Academy. He was author of
a tragedy entitled “ Spartacus,’’? which was a@ed with
great applaufe at the theatres. This was followed by a
comedy in profe, entitled * Mceurs du Temps,” in which
he painted, with great fuccefs, the manners of the higher
ranks of the times in which he flourifhed. Of his other
pieces the following may be mentioned; ‘ Blanche et
Richard,” being an imitation from Thomfon’s « Edward
and Eleanora ;”’ ‘ Beverley,’ from the ‘* Gamefter ;”
* L’Anglomane ;’’ and * Le Mariage de Julie.”” Saurin
was the intimate friend of Montefquieu, Voltaire, and Hel-
vetius, the latter of whom gave him a penfion of a thou-
fand crowns, and upon his marriage prefented him with a
{um equal to the capital of that annuity. He died at Paris,
at a great age, in the year 1781. He was a member of the
French Academy. The ‘* Théatre de Saurin’’ was printed
in two vols. 8vo. His fongs have been inferted in feveral
colleGtions. 21 re

SAURITES, a ftone mentioned by Pliny, and fup-
pofed by the ancients to be found in the belly of a lizard.
It feems to have been a kind of cornelian of a pale flefh-
colour.

SAURIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain,
inthe Tarragonenfis, according to Mela.

SAUROMAT SE. See Sarmarians. :

SAURUNGPOUR, in Geography, a town of Hin-
dooftan, in the Malwa country ; 43 miles N.E. of Ougein.
N. lat. 23° 35’. E. long. 76° 32!.

SAURURUS, in Botany, trom cxvex, a lizard, and
xpe, a tail, alluding to the fhape and fcaly appearance of
the long taper {pike of flowers. The fame name had been
given by Plumier, for the fame reafon, to a tribe of plants,
now referred to the genus Piper.—Linn. Gen. 184. Schreb.
246. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 292. Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 4.
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 337. Purfh v. 1. 252. Juff. 19,
Lamarck Illuftr. t. 276.—Clafs and order, Heptandria Te-
tragynia. Nat. Ord. Piperite, Linn. Naiades, Jufl.

en. Ch. Cal. Catkin oblong, covered with florets.
Perianth to each floret of one leaf, oblong, lateral, coloured,
permanent. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments feven, capillary,
long ; anthers oblong, ereét. Pi/?, Germens four, fuperior,
ovate, pointed; ftyles nene ; ftigmas oblong, united to the
inner apex of each germen. eric. Berries four, ovate, of
one cell. Seed folitary, ovate.

Eff. Ch. Calyx a catkin, with fingle-flowered feales.

Corolla none. Germens four. Berries four, with folitary

feeds.
1. S. cernuus. Drooping Lizard’s Tail. Linn. Sp. Pl.
489. Willd. n.1. Ait. n. 1. Purfhn.1. (Serpentaria

repens, floribus ftamineis fpicatis, bryonie nigre folio am-
pliore pingui; Pluk. Almag. 343. t. 117. f. 3, 4.)—Fre-
uent in {wamps and fhady wet woods, from Canada to
Garclins, flowering in Auguft and September. Pur/b. It
was cultivated by Miller, and is {till preferved in curious
ardens, treated as a hardy aquatic. The root is perennial,
Fomovihat: creeping. Stems rifing a foot above the water,
6 fimple,

SAU

fumple, round, leafy. Leaves alternate, ftalked, heart-
fhaped, entire, fmooth, with many radiating ribs. Spikes
folitary, greenifh-white, axillary, italked, recurved, about
two inches long, fhorter than the leaves.

SAURUS, in Ichthyology, a name given by fome authors
to the lacertus or longer gar-fith, called aguglia imperiale by
the Italians, and the girrock by the Englifh fifhermen.

Saurus, the /izard-f/b, is alfo a name given by Salvian,
and fome other writers, to a fifh of the cuculus kind, re-
fembling the mackarel in figure and tafte, and more ufually
called trachurus.

SAURZAH, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Oude ; 30 miles N.W. of Lucknow.

SAUSAGE, or Saucincs, a term of fome fignificancy
in commerce, denoting a popular food, prepared of fome
crude meat, ufually either pork or veal, fhred {mall, fea-
foned, and put up in a fkin, in manner of a pudding. The
word comes immediately from the French /auciffe, which fig-
nifies the fame, formed of the Italian /aleiccia, and that, ac-
cording to Salmafius, from the Latin /akifium, written for
Salfum, falted.

The moft efteemed confe@ion of this kind is the Bologna
faufage, which is much thicker than the common one, and is
made with much fuccefs in fome cities in Italy, particularly
Bologna, Venice, &c. whence great quantities are exported
to other places.

It is made of raw pork, well beaten in a mortar, with a
quantity of garlick, pepper in the grain, and other {pices ;
the Italians are furmifhed with great part of the fkins or
guts for their faufages in England; the quantities of that
commodity yearly exported are greater than one would
imagine.

SausaGE, in War. See Saucisse.

SAUSCH, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Car-
niola ; 4 miles N. of Stein.

SAUSELLE, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon ;
30 miles N.N.W. of Civdad Rodrigo.

SAUSSEMENIL, atown of France, in the department
of the Channel; 3 miles N. of Valognes.

SAUSSENBERG, a landgraviate in the fouth part of
the Brifgau, belonging to the marggrave of Hochberg.

SAUSSURE, Horace Benepict ve, in Biography,
born at Geneva in the year 1740, was the fon of Nicholas de
Sauffure, a member of the council of Two Hundred, known
by his works on agriculture. From his father, and other
diftinguifhed naturalifts who adorned his native place, the
fubjeét of this article imbibed a great ardour for the ftudy of
nature, and he made fo rapid a progrefs, that at the age of
22 he obtained the profefforfhip of alatagtt, at Geneva,
which he held with high reputation during a period of 25
years. His vacations from public duty were employed in
travels; which, however, were devoted to the improvement
of his mind, and to the increafe of his ftock of knowledge.
He vifited France twice ; the firlt time for the purpofe of
examining fome extinét volcanoes in different parts, and the
fecond time in order that he might ftudy the principles of
acroftation. He alfo came over to England, became ac-
quainted with Franklin, and went to Holland for {cientifie
purpofes. The {truéture and elevation of mountains were
the efpecial objets of his enquiries, and upon a journey to
Italy he carefully examined the curious iron mines of the
now celebrated ifland of Elba, afcended Vefuvius with fir
W. Hamilton, and he meafured the height of mount Etna.
Botany was likewife one of his purfuits, and he difcovered
feveral new {pecies of lichens, and two kinds of tremella
having an ofcillatory motion. In a correfpondence with
Spallanzani he communicated to him feveral obfervations on

SAU

infufory animalcules, in order to prove that they follow the
law of polypes in their reproduction. His ingenuity was
difplayed in the invention of feveral delicate inftruments,
fuch as a *cyamometer,” to afcertain the degree of blue
colour in the fky ; an ‘* anemometer ;” an “eleGtrometer ;”?
an initrument to deteét the prefence ofiron in minerals ; and
another to determine the force of magnetifm; an ‘ helio-
thermometer,”? and a hair ‘ hygrometer,’? which is much
in ufe, and which is reckoned the molt ingenious of all his
inventions. It was, however, chiefly as an explorer of
mountains that Sauflure rendered his name celebrated. In
1760 he vifited the glaciers of Chamouni, and from this time
he refolved to make annual journeys in the Alps, till he had
purfued their chains in every direGtion. In 1779 he had
croffed them fourteen times, in eight different tracks. The
firft volume of his travels through the Alps, publifhed in this
year, contains a circumftantial defcription of the environs of
Geneva, and of an excurfion as far as Chamouni, a village
at the foot of Mont-Blanc. During the troubles of Geneva
in 1782, he made a vait number of curious and interetting
experiments, of which he publifhed an account in 1783.
This has been thought to be his beft work. De Sauilure
refigned his chair to Piet, who difcharged the duties of his
office with high reputation. Still the philofopher was in-
terefted on the fubjeét of education, and projected a plan of
reform in that conduéted at Geneva. The defign of this
was to make young people, at a very early period, acquainted
with the natural {ciences and mathematics. It was not, how-
ever, carried into effet. In 1786 he publifhed his fecond
volume of travels, containing a defcription of the Alps
round Mont-Blanc, the whole having been examined with
the eye of a mineralogift and geologift. He founded the
“ Society of Arts,”’ to the operation of which Geneva is
faid to have been much indebted for the ftate of profperity
to which it arrived. Over that fociety he prefided as long
as he lived. In 1788 Sauflure, with his eldeft fon, en-
camped for 17 days on the Col du Geant, which he employed
in accurate and interefting obfervations, both meteorological
and geological. In thefe branches of knowledge he was
confefledly one of the greateft proticients in Europe, and his
numerous writings on thefe and other {cientific fubjects,
ar him admiffion into the principal learned focieties in dif-
erent countries. He was vifited by all the eminent and
illuftrious travellers who pafled through Geneva, whom he
inftruGed by his converfation, and gratified with the view of
a cabinet, rich in the natural produéts that he had colle&ted
during his travels. When Geneva was united to the French
republic he was made deputy to the National aflembly.
But this revolution, in its deftructive courfe, {wept away the
greateft part of his fortune, and its political ftorms ruined the
peace of his mind. In 1794 his health began to decline,
and a fevere paralytic feizure almoft wholly deprived him of
the ufe of his limbs ; he was {till aétive in his mind, and pre-
pared the two lait volumes of his travels for the prefs, which
appeared in 1796. ‘They contain a mafs of new facts and
oblervations of great importance to {cience. During his
illnefs he publifhed « Obfervations on the Fulibility of
Stones by means of the Blowpipe.’”? He was, in general,
a Neptunian, that is, afcribed the revolutions of the globe to
water, and fuppofed it to be poffible that mountains fhould
have been thrown up by elattic fluids difengaged from the
cavities of the earth. He died on the 22d of March 1799,
in the sgth year of his age, lamented by his family, to whom
he was dear; by his country, to which he had done honour ;
and by Europe at large, the knowledge of which he had
atly extended.

SAUSTRA Beapy, in Natural Hifory, a name given

y

SAV

by the people of the Eait Indies, to a kind of foffile, to which
they attribute great virtues in medicine.

Before it is given internally, it undergoes a hundred cal-
cinations, and feveral preparations with the juices of herbs.
When the operation is over, they fay it will cure a thoufand
difeafes. It has its name from thence, the word /au/fra fig-
nifying with them a thoufand.

It is a talcy ftone, and in its native ftate is of a reddifh
colour.

SAUT, in the Manege. See SAvts.

SAUTGUD, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the Carnatic ; 25 miles S.S.W. of Chittoor.

SAUTHEY, a river of Wales, in the county of Caer-
marthen, which runs into the Towy, about a mile S. from
Llangadock.

SAVU, an ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, about eight
leagues long from I). to W. The harbour in which Cook
lay, when he vifited it in September 1770, is called Seba,
from the diftriét to which it belongs: it is fituated on the
N.W. fide of the ifland, and well fheltered from the S.W.
trade wind, but open to the N.W. There are faid to be
two other bays, where fhips might anchor, the beft of them
being called Timo, and lying on the S.W. fide of the S.E.
point. The fea-coaft, in general, is low; but in the middle
of the ifland there are hills of confiderable height. At this
time, which was the latter end of the dry feafon, there had
been no rain for feven months ; and when this dry feafon
continues fo long, there is no running {tream of frefh water
upon the whole ifland, but only {mall {prings, at a confider-
able diftance from the fea-fide; and yet nothing, we are
told, can be imagined fo beautiful as the profpeét of the
country from the fhip. The level ground next to the fea
was covered with cocoa-nut trees, and a kind of palm, called
‘arecas ;”’ and beyond them the hills, which rofe in a gentle
and regular afcent, were richly clothed, quite to the fummit,
with plantations of the fan-palm, forming an almoft impene-
trable grove. How much mutt even this profpeét be im-
proved, when every foot of ground between the trees is
covered with verdure, by maize, and millet, and indigo, can
fcarcely be conceived but by a powerful imagination not un-
acquainted with the ftatelinefs and beauty of the trees that
adorn this part of theearth. The dry feafon commences in
March or April, and ends in OGtober or November. The
principal trees of this ifland are the fan-palm, the cocoa-nut,
tamarind, limes, oranges, and mangoes; and other vegetable
produétions are maize, Guinea corn, rice, millet, callevances,
and water-melons. Here were alfo feen one {urgar-cane, and
a few kinds of European garden ftuff; particularly celery,
marjoram, fennel, and garlic. For the fupply of luxury, it
has betel, areca, tobacco, cottor, indigo, and a {mall quantity
of cinnamon, and feveral other kinds of fruit. The tame
animals are buffaloes, fheep, goats, hogs, fowls, pigeons,
horfes, afles, dogs and cats, allin great abundance. Of the
filh which the fea produces here, we have no account ;
turtles are fometimes found upon the coaft, The people
are rather under the middling fize ; the women are fhort and
f{quat-built ; their complexion is a dark brown, and their
hair univerfally black and lank. The men are in general
well-made, vigorous, and aétive, and exhibit a great variet
in their features; but the women are, on the contrary, all
alike. Both fexes eradicate their hair ; but the men fuffer
a little to remain upon their upper lips, which is always kept
fhort. The drefs of both fexes confifts of cotton cloths of
their own manufa€ture, which being dyed blue in the yarn,
and not uniformly of the fame fhade, exhibit ends or
waves of that colour. The ornaments of thefe people are
very numerous; they confilted ‘of gold chains worn round

SAV

their necks, and rings which defcended from one generation
to another, beads worn about the neck and as bracelets on
the wrifts, and alfo round the waifts of the women. Both
fexes had their ears bored, but they affixed no ornaments to
them. Almoft all the men had their names traced upon
their arms in indelible chara&ters of a black colour, and the
women had a fquare ornament of flourifhed lines, imprefied
in the fame manner, jult under the bend of theelbow. The
houfes of Savu are all built upon the fame plan, and differ-
ently in fize, being large in proportion to the rank and riches
of the proprietor. Some are 400 feet long and fome not 20;
all are raifed upon potts about four feet high; the roofs are
thatched with palm leaves ; and the {pace within is generally
divided lengthwife into three equal parts. The food of
thefe people confifts of every tame animal in their country.
The hog being firtt in eftimation, and the horfe the fecond ;
next to the horfe is the buffalo, then their poultry ; and they
feemed to prefer dogs and cats to fheep and goats. Of fifh
they are not fond, and it is never eaten but by the poor people,
and by thenronly on particular occafions, when their fituation
or bufinefs will not allow of their obtaining any other fufte-
nance. The fan-palm is, at certain times, a fuccedaneum to
all other food, both for man and bealt. A kind of wine,
called toddy, is procured by incifion from the buds of this
tree ; of the furplus, above that which is neceflary for their
common drink, they make both fyrup and a coarfe fugar.
The leaves of this tree are ufed for thatching houfes, and for
making bafkets, cups, umbrellas, and tobacco-pipes. The
common method of dreffing food is by boiling, and as fire-
wood is very fearce, they are very faving of their fuel, and
adopt expedients for ufing as little of it as poffible. Both
{exes are flavifhly addiéted to the hateful and pernicious habit
of chewing beetle and areca, which they praétife inceffantly,
mixing with them a kind of white lime, made of coral ftone
and fhells, and a {mall quantity of tobacca, Thofe who are
not without a mouthful of this odious preparation are
fmoking ; and they are accultomed to fwallow the fmoke,
The natives of this ifland are diftributed into five principalities
or nigrees, each of which is governed by its refpe&tive raja or
king ; and though they are of a warlike difpofition, and
always defend themfelves courageoufly againft foreign ins
vaders, they have lived, for time immemorial, in the ftri@eft
alliance and moft cordial friendfhip with each other. It is
faid that the ifland can raife, upon very fhort notice, 7300
fighting men, armed with mufkets, {pears, lances, and targets,
Befides thefe arms, each man is furnifhed with a pole-ax of a
large fize ; and they are fo dextrous with their lances, that
at the diftance of 60feet they can throw them fo exaétly as
to pierce a man’s heart, and with fuch force as to pafs
through his body, There feemed to be diltinétion of rank
between the raja and the land-owner ; the inferior ranks
confift of manufacturers, labouring poor, and flayes. The
flaves are conneé&ted with the eftate, and bath defeend to.«
gether. Although the land-owner may fell his flave, he has
no other power over his perfon, fo much as even to correct
him, without the privity and approbation of the raja. Some
have 500 flaves, and fome not half a dozen; the common
price of each is a fat hog. When a great man goes out, he
is commonly attended by two or more of them. Jn thefe
attendants confilt their whole magnificence ; for the raja
himfelf has no other mark af diltinction, The chief object
of pride among thefe people is a long pedigree of refpectable
anceftors. Every raja fets up in the principal town of his
province, or nigree, a large {tone, which ferves as a memorial
of his reign. Many of thefe ftones are fo large, that it is
difficult to conceive how they could have been brought to
their prefent fituation, efpecially as it is the fummit of ath

ele

SAU

Thefe itones ferve not only to record the reigns of fucceffive
princes, but for tables at public feitivals, which are pro-
claimed on occafion of the death of any raja. Such is the
- profufion at thefe feftivals, and fuch their duration, that they
are fucceeded by faits, and the whole kingdom is obliged to
fubfilt upon fyrup and water if it happens in the dry feafon,
and no vegetables can be procured.

The religion of thefe people is an abfurd kind of Paganifm,
every man choofing his own god, and determining for him-
felf how he ought to be worfhipped ; fo that there are almolt
as many gods and modes cf worfhip as people. In their
morals, however, they are faid to be irreproachable, even
upon the principles of Chriitianity : every man has one wife ;
inftances of theft are very rare ; and when mutual injuries
occur, the termination and fettlement of them are referred
to the determination of their king, as they wifh to
avoid debate and all occafions of refentment and ill-will.
They appear to be healthy and long-lived. They are
cleanly and delicate. The boats ufed in this ifland are a
kind of proa. .

This ifland was feized by the Portuguefe as foon almoit as
they found their way into this part of the ocean; but they
were, in a fhort time, f{upplanted by the Dutch. The iflands
in the vicinity of Savu are Timor and Rotte, three little
iflands called the “ Solars,’? under the influence of the
Dutch fettlement at Concordia, and Ende, W. of the Solars,
in the hands of the Portuguefe, who have a good town. and
harbour in the N.E. corner of it, called Larntuca. The in-
habitants of each of thefe little iflands have a language pe-
culiar to themfelves ; and it is an obje& of Dutch policy to
prevent, as much as poflible, their learning the language of
each other. The language of Savu appears to have fome
affinity with that of the South-fea iflands, many of the words
being exactly the fame, and the numbers manifeitly derived
from the fame fource. The middle of this ifland lies in about
S. lat. 10° 35’. W. long. 237° 30. Hawkefworth’s
Voyages, vol. i. p. 277, &c.

SAUVAGE'RE, La, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Orne; 10 miles E. of Domfront.

SAUVAGES, Fravcis Boissirr pe, in Biography,
a diftinguifhed phyfician, and the inventor of modern nolo-
logy, was the fixth fon of a military officer of rank, and
was born at Alais, in Lower Languedoc, on the 12th of
May, 1706. The means of education which his native
town then afforded were very limited, and the only tutors
whofe afliftance he had were men of indifferent attainments.
Neverthelefs his own talents enabled him to overcome thefe
obitacles, and his progrefs in literature and philofophy was
great and rapid. Having determined to adopt the profef-
fion of medicine, he went to Montpellier in 1722, where he
attended the courfes delivered by Chicoyneau, Aftruc, and
other celebrated profeffors, and received the degree of
doGtor in 1726, The thefis which he defended on this
occalion attracted a good dezl of notice, partly perhaps
from the fingularity of the fubje&t; which was, “ Si
Vamour peut étre guéri par les remedes tirés des plantes ?””
He itill continued to purfue his ftudies ; and in 1730 went
to Paris with a view to farther improvement in his profeffion.
He afterwards returned to Montpellier, where he obtained
a profeflorthip in 1734. His reputation for ingenuity of
fpeculation and extenfive reading, and his knowledge of
mathematical {cience, feemed to retard his progrefs to prac-
tice ; as it was hinted that he was a mere ingenious theoritt
neverthelefs his fludies never interfered with his attention
to the difeafes which he was called upon to treat. He
adopted with ardour the doétrine of Stahl refpeéting the
inBuence of the anima medica, and was difgofed to

3

SA U

combine this with the principles of the mechanical feéts
In 1740 Sauvages was appointed demonttrator of the plants
in the botanic garden, and in 1752 he was made profeffor
of botany; in the performance of the duties of which office
he obtained the fame celebrity, which he had acqujred in
the difcharge of his other avocations. He married in 1748,
and had two fons and four daughters, who furvived him.
A ferious difeafe, which continued nearly two years, un-
fortunately cut him off in the midft of his ufeful and honour-
able career, in the month of February, 1767, in the 61ft
year of his age.

Sauvages was a man of great fimplicity of manners and
opennefs of charater. He was much loved by his pupils,
becaufe he communicated freely all that he knew, and re-
ceived with equal readinefs whatever information any one
was enabled to give him. His knowledge came forth with-
out pomp or difplay, in the way of ordinary converfation,
though the habit of teaching fometimes imprefled the for-
mality of lecture upon his manner in private; neverthelefs,
the ability and information which he always evinced, fhed
a charm upon his fociety. Sauvages was an able mathe-
matician, an accurate obferver of phenomena, and ingenious
in devifing experiments; and he was indefatigable in the
performance of all ufeful labours. He had, however, a
little too much bias to fyftems, fo that he did not always
confult fa&ts uninfluenced by prepofleflion. He was a
member of the moft learned focieties of Europe, viz. of the
Royal Society of London, of thofe of Berlin, Upfal, Stocks
holm, and Montpellier, of the Academy ‘* Natura Curio-
forum,’’ of the Phyfico-Botanical Academy of Florence,
and of the Inititute of Bologna. He obtained the prizes
given by many public bodies to the belt eflays on given
fubjeéts, and a colle&tion of thefe prize-eflays was publifhed
at Lyons in 1770, in two volumes, with the title of « Chef
d’CEuvres de M. de Sauvages.”” The following is a lift of
his works. <« Differtation fur les Animaux vénimeux ;’’
“ Nouvelles Clafles des Maladies dans un ordre femblable
a celui des Botaniftes, comprenant les genres et les efpeces,’”
Avignon 1732, in 12°. ‘This is the fkeleton of his great
fyftem of nofology, which has celebrated his name, but
which was not publifhed in. its complete form till after an
additional labour of thirty years had been bettowed upon it.
“ Memoire fur les Eaux Minerales d’Alais, pour fervir a
VHiftoire Naturelle de la Province,” 1736; ‘* Theoria
Febris ;” Monfpel. 1738, in which he fupported the theory
of Stahl; « Pathologia Methodica,” 1739; ‘ La Maniere
d’elever les Vers 4 Soie,’’ 1740 ; “* Nova Somni Theoria,”’
id.; ‘De Motuum Vitalium Caula,” 1741; ‘ Inflam-
mationis Theoria,” 1743; ‘* Mémoire fur les Maladies des
Becufs du Vivarais,’? 1746; ‘ Diflertatio de vaforum ca-
pillarium corporis humani fuétu,” 1747; ‘ De Noétam-
bulatione,” 1748; ‘ De Hemiplegia per Electricitatem
fanata,” 1749; a prize-eflay “ Sur la nature et la caufe
de la Rage,’ id.; * Confpeétus Phyfiologicus,” 1751 ;
“ Methodus foliorum; feu aie Flore Mon{pelienfis juxta
foliorum ordinem, &c.””? Hag. 1751. ‘This work contained
about 500 plants, omitted in the Botanicon Monfpelienfe
of Magnol. Ditlertation fur des Médicamens qui affec-
tent certaines parties du corps plutét que d’autres,”? Bour-
deaux, 1752; ‘ Nova pulf(iset circulationis 'Mheoria,”” id. 5
«“ Embryologia, feu, Diflertatio de Patu,” 17535 “ Sy-
Wopfis morborum oculis infidentium, genera ct {pecies ex-
ponens,”’ id. ; ‘ Theoria ‘Tumorum,”’ id. ; a_ prize differ-
tation “ Sur Ja maniere dont lair agit fur le corps hu-
main,” 1754; ‘ Phyfiologia Mechanica Elementa,” 1755 5
“ Theoria doloris,” 1757. ‘Three diflertations in this and
the following year, ‘ De Refpiratione difficili ;” De

. aftrorum

SAU

aftrorum influxu in hominem ;’’ “‘ De Vifione.”’? In 1759
«© Medicine Sinenfis Confpe&tus;’’ and ‘* Theoria Con-
vulfionis :”? and in the three following years differtations
« De Amblyopia,” ‘“ De Suffufione,’ «© De Anima
rediviva,” “* De Catharticis,’’ “* De prognofi Medica ex
Necrologis eruenda ;’’ and an anfwer to Eberhard; “ De
animi imperio incorp.”” His lait work was the bi refult
of more than thirty years’ labour, “* Nofologia Methodica,
fiftens morborum claffes, genera, et {pecies, juxta Sydenhami
mentem, et Botanicorum ordinem,’”’ Amit. 1763, in five
volumes, 8vo. ; a work with which his name will furvive
as long as nofology is the fubje& of the ftudy of the phy-
fician. We have entered at length into the plan and prin-
ciples of the claffification of difeafes propofed by Sauvages,
in a former article. (See Nosotocy.) He had himfelf
colle&ted many new obfervations and defcriptions, with a
view to incorporate them in a fecond edition; but he did
not live to accomplifh thisintention. Thefe materials, how-
ever, were ufed by Dr. Cramer, in a new edition, publifhed
at Amfterdam in 1678, in 2 vols. gto. See Eloy Did.
Hift. de la Médécine.

SAUVAGESIA, in Botany, was fo called by Linneus
in honour of his diftinguifhed friend and corre{pondent de
Sauvages, the celebrated phyfician of Montpellier, who
prefented him with his own entire herbarium, collected in
that neighbourhood, which is now incorporated with the
Linnzan colle&tion, each fpecimen being diftinguifhed by
the letter m.—Linn. Gen. 112. Schreb. 157. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1185. Mart. Mill. Di@. v. 4. Jufl. 426.
Lamarck Illuftr. t. 140.—Clafs and order, Pentandria Mo-
nogynia. Nat. Ord. doubtful, Linn. Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in five deep
lanceolate, acute, concave, {preading, permanent fegments.
Cor. Petals five, obtufe, equal, ovate, inclining to rhomboid,
the length of the calyx. Neétary of five fmaller leaves,
alternate with the petals, oblong, ereé&t, furrounded with
numerous fhort hairs: Stam. Filaments five, awl-fhaped,
very fhort ; anthers oblong, acute, fhort. Pif. Germen
fuperior, ovate; ftyle fimple, the length of the ftamens ;
ftigma fimple, obtufe. Peric. Capfule ovate, pointed, of one
cell, {plitting at the top into three valves, with inflexed
margins. Seeds numerous, minute, ranged longitudinally.

Eff. Ch. Petals five. Neary of five leaves, encom-
pafled by hairs, alternate with the petals. Calyx of five
leaves. Capfule of one cell, with three valves and many
feeds.

1. S. ereGa. Upright Sauvagefia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 294.
Willd. n. 1. Jacq. Amer. 77. t. 51. f. 3. (S. Adima;
Aubl. Guian. v. 1. 251. t. 100. f. a. Tron herbaceus
minor, foliis oblongis leviffimé crenatis, ftipulis ciliatis,
floribus fingularibus ad alas; Browne Jam. 179. t. 12. f. 3.)
—Native of mountainous paftures in Martinico and Jamaica,
but not common. Stem branched, leafy; according to
Jacquin always ereé&t; Browne defcribes it as obliquely
afcending. Leaves alternate, more or lefs ftalked, oblong,
ferrated, fmooth above, from one to one and a half inch in
ar Stipulas lanceolate, remarkably fringed. lowers
axillary, folitary, on fhort ftalks, with white petals, the calyx
often purplifh.

Lamarck feems, by his plate, to have intended making
Browne’s plant a different fpecies from Jacquin’s. We
have noticed feveral different appearances, as to colour and
laxuriance, in various cried fpecimens of Sauvagefia, but
fcarcely any f{pecific diftin&tions.

SAUVASSANGES, in Geography, a town of France,
r the department of the Puy de Pome 15 miles S, of
Ambert

SAU

SAUVE, a town of France, in the department of the
Gard; 4 miles S.E. of St. Hypolite.

SAUVEL, a river of France, which runs into the
Rhine near Strafburg. ie

SAUVER, or Sur, a river of France, which runs
into the Rhine, between Seltz and Fort Louis.

Sauver, Fr. in Mufic, to refolve a difcord. (See
Counterpoint, and Resotution.) A difcord muft be
refolved upwards or downwards diatonically, never by leaps.
The fharp 2d, fharp 4th, and fharp 7th, afcend; all other
difcords defcend one degree upon a concord to the next
bafs. Double difcords, Pack as the 3 and 3, muft be doubly
prepared and doubly refolved. Rouffeau regards the refo-
lution of every difcord as a kind of cadence. See Ca-
DENCE.

SAUVETAT, La, in Geography, a town of France, in -

the department of the Lot and Garonne; 5 miles N.W.
of Lauzun. N. lat. 44° 37’. E. long. 0° 14.

SAUVETERRE, a town of France, in the department
of the Aveyron, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri&
of Rodes; 15 miles S.W. of Rodes. ‘The place contains
823, and the canton 6629 inhabitants, on a territory of
220 kiliometres, in 16 communes. N. lat. 44° 13!. E.
long. 2° 24'.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department
of the Lower Pyrenées, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Orthes ; g miles S.W. of Orthes. The place
contains 1611, and the canton 10,653 inhabitants, on a ter-
ritory of 1624 kiliometres, in 30 communes.—Alfo, a
town of France, in the department of the Gironde ; 21 miles
E.S.E. of Bourdeaux.—Alfo, a town of France, in the
department of the Lot and Garonne ; 10 miles E.N.E. of
Montflanquin.

SAUVEUR, Josrpu, in Biography, a French mathe-
matician, was born at La Fléche in the year 1653. Till
he was feven years old he was completely dumb, and
even then the organs of fpeech were not fo effectually
developed, but that he was ever afterwards obliged to
{peak very flowly, in order to be intelligible. In early
life he difcovered a great turn for mechanics, and con-
ftruéted a number of little machines. He was fent to the
college of Jefuits for inftruétion in the claflics and belles
lettres ; but he could fettle to nothing but arithmetic and
geometry. He was —— for the church, and was fent
to Paris to ftudy philofophy and theology : but to thefe new
departments of learning he devoted very little attention ;
neverthelefs, in a fingle month he made himfelf mafter of
the firft fix books of Euclid without the aid of a tutor,
and entered upon other parts of the mathematics, for the
{tudy of which he felt a predominant bias. On account of
the impediment in his fpeech, he was advifed to abandon
all thoughts of the ecclefiattical profeffion, and to enga
in that of medicine: but he determined to devote himfelf
entirely to his favourite {cience, and to acquire fuch an
acquaintance with it, as to render himfelf independent, by
teaching others. In this objeét he completely fucceeded,
and that fo fpeedily, that at the age of twenty-three he
had become a fafhionable preceptor in mathematics, and
had prince Eugene for his pupil. In 1680 he was ¢hofen

to teach mathematics to the pages of the dauphinefs, and in _

the following year he went to Chantilly, with another philo-
fopher, to make experiments on the waters at that place,
by which he gained much credit, and the patronage of the
prince of Condé, who frequently had recourfe to his talents,
and beftowed upon him many marks of his favour, In
1686 he was appointed mathematical profeflor in the royal
college. During his vifits to Chantilly, M. Suveur con-
ceived the defign of writing a treatife on fortification, and

in

SA U

“in order that he might combine praétice with theory, he

went, in 1691, to the fiege of Mons, and fpent every day
in the trenches. After the fiege was over, he vifited, with
the fame view, all the ftrong towns in Flanders, and on his
return he was made mathematician to the court, with a
penfion for life. In 1696 he was admitted a member of
the Academy of Sciences: and upon the promotion of M.
Vauban to be a marfhal of France in 1703, and his pro-
ceeding to join the army, M. Sauveur was, on his recom-
mendation, nominated by the king his fucceffor in the
office of examiner of the engineers, with a penfion, which
he enjoyed till his death, in 1716, at the age of 63. He
was twice married, and had children by both wives; and
by the laft a fon, who, like himfelf, was dumb for the firft
feven years of his life. M. Sauveur was of a kind and
obliging difpofition, and notwithitanding the celebrity to
which he had attained, he preferved an humble deportment,
and his original fimplicity of manners. He ufed to lay it
down a3 an axiom, that what one man could accomplifh in
mathematics, another might if he chofe. This has been
afferted by others befides M. Sauveur, but certainly without
any foundation in fact: mathematics, like every other
branch of knowledge, requires talents as well as induftry ;
and he whofe abilities are the greateft, will, ceteris paribus,
be able to do much more than others. M. Sauveur ftudied
very clofely the fcience of mnfic. He introduced a new
dition in mufic, and invented a new doétrine of founds ;
and he was the firft who difcovered, by theory and expe-
riment, the velocity of mufical {trings, and afcertained the
fpaces which they defcribe in their vibrations under all
the circumitances of tenfion ard dimenfions. He invented
the monochord and echométer. His writings on geome-
trical, mufical, and other fubjecs, are inferted in different
volumes of the Memoires of the Academy of Sciences
from 1700 to 1716. ;

Sauveur had propofed an expedient for a fixed pitch,
or univerfal tone, to determine the bafis of all tones in the
general mufical feale or fyftem; but his own reafoning
proves that there is no fixed tone in nature; and the very
ingenious and very impracticable artifice by which he
tried to find an arbitrator, proves but too plainly how far
hypothefes, or, if you will, the truths of {peculation, are
from the fimple roles of practice. There is no fonorous
body which is not affeéted by the perpetual atmofpherical
changes. Wood contraéts and expands by heat and cold;
ftrings of all kinds lengthen and fhorten by the fame
elements, whatever may be their tenfion. Even the pierres
Jonores, the founding flones of China, mutt be affeéted, to
a certain degree, in the open air, by the elements.

M. Sauveur was the inventor of the term acouflics (from
a Greek word which fignifies J sear), which the Academie
Royale adopted, and which implies the theory of founds and
their properties. In his. * Syftem of Mufic,’’ he gives at
once the rules for determining the ratios of founds, and the
notes which exprefs them.

He has alfo invented a kind of chronoméire. Yt wasa
particular pendulum, intended to determifie with accuracy
the time of every mufical movement. ‘The author propofed
to the Academy feveral expedients to that purpole. Rouffeau
was of opinion that uone of them would fucceed. But
Romieu of Montpellier, the rival of Tartini in his “ Terzo
Suono,”’ in a memoir read publicly at the academy of that
city in 1751, fays, that no one ever developed the nature of
found as Sauveur has done; and adds, “I have often
realized what he has advanced on the fubjeét ; and I do not
believe that his excéllent difcavery can ever be overthrown,”

Sauveur has given, in 1701, a general fyftem of intervals,

Vor. XXXII.

SAW

and its application to every other fyftem, and to every in-
ftrument of mufic. In 1707 he gave a general method for
forming a tempered fy{tem of mufic, and the choice of that
which ought to be followed. In 1711 he produced to the
Academy a general table of tempered feaies in mufic. ‘* But
all the fyilems of temperament which the imagination can
fuggeft, (fays M. Laborde, or rather his guide, the abbé
Rouffier,) ought henceforth to be laid afide as ufelefs, their
abfurdity having been pointed out in the * Memoir fur la
Muf. des Anciens ;’ and as the twenty-one founds, of
which the oftave is compofed, have certain {tations or cle-
vations in the {cale, it would be madnefs to try to fubftitute
others arbitrarily ; but in the time of Sauveur this truth
was ftill unknown.’? Laborde.

SAUVIAT, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Upper Vienne; 6 miles N.E. of St.
Leonard.

SAUVIGNEY-les-Angirey, a town of France, in the
department of the Upper Saéne; 6 miles E. of Gray.

SAVUS, in Ancient Geography, a navigable river of Pan-
nonia, and one of the moit confiderable which fell into the
Danube.—Alfo, a river of Africa, in the eaftern part of
Mauritania Czfarienfis, which had its rife about eight
leagues to the fouth of Icofium, and ran into the fea, be-
tween this town and Ruftonium.—Alfo, a town of Venetia.

SAVUTO, in Geography, a river of Naples, which rifes
in Calabria, and runs into the gulf of St. Eufemia, N. lat.
39° 8!. E. long. 16° 20'—Alfo, a town of Naples, in
Calabria Citra, on a river of the fame name; 11 miles S.
of Cofenza. _

SAUX-/e-Duc, a town of France, in the department
of the Céte d’Or; 14 miles N.W. of Is fur Tilie.

SAUXILLANGES, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Puy de Déme, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri& of Iffoire; 6 miles E. of Iffoire.. The place
contains 1744, and the canton 9957 inhabitants, on a ter-
ritory of 180 kiliometres, in 16 communes.

SAUZA, a town of Naples, in Principato Citra; 6
miles N. of Policaftro.

SAUZAY-k-Poitiers, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Cher, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of St. Amand; 7 miles S. of St. Amand. The
place contains 631, and the canton 6096 inhabitants, on a
territory of 2874 kiliometres, in 11 communes.

SAUZE!-Vefaly, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the T'wo Sevres, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri&t of Melle ; 7 miles S.E. of Melle. The place con-
tains 1295, and the canton 9099 inhabitants, on a territory
of 2124 kiliometres, in 12 communes.

SAUZET, a town of France, in the department of the
Drome ; 4 miles N.E. of Montelimart.

SAW, Serra, an inftrument ferving to divide into
pieces divers fulid matters, as wood, ftone, marble, ivory,
&c. The faw is one of the moft ufeful machines, in the
mechanic arts, ever invented. ‘The fable which is perhaps
founded on fome furer tradition, attributes the invention of
it to Icarus, who, vying with his father Daedalus, enriched
the rifing arts with feveval difcoveries. It is added he took
the firlt hint from the {piné or back-bone of a flat ith, fuch
as the foal. The faw is madé of fteel, with teeth; but
thofe differently filed, and turned, according to the ufe it
is defigned for. ‘There is alfo a kind of faws without
teeth, ufed in the fawing of marble, and other ftones.

The belt faws are of tempered feel, ground bright and
{nooth: thofe of iron are only hammer-hardened ; hence,
the firlt, befides their being ftiffer, are likewife found
{moother, than the laft. They are known to be well ham-

4 A mered

SAW

mered by the ftiff bending of the blade; and well or
evenly ground, by the bending into a bow.

The edge, in which the teeth are, is always thicker than
the back, in regard the back is to follow the edge. The
teeth are cut and fharpened by es. file ; firlt fixing
the blade of a faw in a whetting block.

When filed, the teeth are to be /2, that is, to be turned
alternately afkew, or out of the right line, to make the
wider kerf or fiffure, that the back may follow the better.
This is done by putting an inftrument, called a /aw-wri/t,
between every aie two teeth, and giving it a httie wrench,
which turns one of the teeth a little towards you, and the
other a little from you. The teeth are always fet ranker
for coatfe cheap {tuff, than for hard and fine ; becaufe the
ranker the tooth is fet, the more ftuff is loft in the kerf;
andif the ftuff be hard, the greater is the labour of “he it.

The workmen who make the greateft ufe of the faw,
are the fawyers, carpenters, joiners, ebonifts, ftone-cutters,
carvers, feulptors, &e. The lapidaries too have their faw,
as well as the workers in mofaic ; but thefe bear little re-
femblance to the common faws.

But of all mechanics there are none who have fo many faws
as the joiners ; nor of fo many different kinds. The chief
are as follow :

Pit-faw, a large two-handed faw, ufed to faw timber in
pits. It is fet rank for coarfe tuff, fo as to make a kerf
or fiffure of almoft a quarter of an inch ; but for finer ituff
it is fet finer. .

Whip-faw, which is likewife two-handed, ufed to faw
fuch large pieces of ftuff as the hand-faw will not eafily
reach.

The Hand-faw is made for a fingle man’s ufe ; of which
there are various kinds; as the

Ripping-faw, Tenon-faw, Safh-faw: the two latter are
fiffernd oa a narrow nae es as they are made very
thin for fine work. :

The Two-hand, or Crofs-cat faw, is much longer, and is
ufed by two men.

The Frame-faw is a thin faw furrounded by a wooden
frame, in which it is ftretched very tight, to prevent its
bending : it is ufed in a pit for cutting deals and vineers. —

The Compafs-faw, or Turning-faw, which is very narrow,
has its teeth not ufually fet out of a right line, like the
above ; but the cutting-edge is made thick, and the back
thin, that it may freely be turned in a circular or compafs-
kerf.

The Hack-faw is made of a fcythe jagged at the edge,
and ufed for cutting off iron bolts.

The furgeons likewife ufe a faw to cut off bones. It is
to be very f{mall, and light, in order to be managed with
the more eafe and freedom ; the blade exceedingly fine, and
the teeth exquifitely fharpened, to make its way more
gently, and yet with more expedition, in amputations of

imbs.

The faw is alfo a gardener’s inftrument, ufed in the
pruning of trees, &c. It is chiefly applied in the cutting
of old, dry, and confequently bard woods, whether roots
or branches, which might fpoil the pruning-knife; and
branches, which the knife could not well take off at one
ftroke. :

Except on thefe occafions, Quintiney always prefers the
knife to the faw.

Saw-fijh, in Ichthyology, the Englifh name for the fith
ealled by authors the priflis ferra pifcis, and /qualus priflis of
Linneus. It hag thefe names from the form of its {nout,
which refembles a large-toothed faw.

According to the new fyltem of Artedi, this is a fpecies

SAW

of {qualus, and is diftinguithed from the other {pecies of

the fame genus, by the name of the fqualus, with a long,
pointed, and flattened fnout, dentated on eacili fide.

This fith, from its large fize, is generally reckoned a kind
of whale, but erroneoufly ; for it is truly of the fame genus
with the galei or hound-fifh. It is afh-coloured on the back,
and white on the belly ; its head is of a heart-like fhape,
and flattened ; its mouth is placed far below the end of the
fnout, and in the upper part of the head, as in the zygzna ;
its lips are rite and fharp, like a file, but it has no
other teeth ; its head is terminated by a long and flat bony
fubftance, furnifhed on each fide with jags or points, like
the deep teeth of a faw: there are from twenty to thirty
of thefe tecth on each fide; the body is round, and grows
{mall towards the tail. The {word of this fifh is fometimes
very long. It is found in the Weltern ocean.

Saw-wort, in Botany. See SErRaTuta. ; ms

SAWA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the country
of Sahara; 180 miles S.W. of MourzSuk. N. lat. 26°.
E. long. 12° 10’.

SAWADABAD, a town of Hindooftan; 3 miles W.
of Benares. %

SAWAN, a town of Bengal ; 5 miles S.E. of Mauldah.

SAWAR, a town of Hindoottan, in Bahar; 28 miles
S. of Arrah. ‘

SAWARA, or Sauna, Upper, an Indian town of North
Carolina, on the Dan, in the county of Stoko; 23 miles
N.W. of Guildford.

Sawara, or Saura, Lower, an Indian town of North
Carolina, on the Dan; 19 miles N.N.E. of Guildford.

SAWAY, a town onthe S.E. coalt of the ifland of
Timor. 5S. lat. 9° 1o!. E. long. 125° ro’.

SAWBRIDGEWORTH, or SasriwcEwortH, a
market-town in the hundred of Braughin, and county of
Hertford, England, is fituated near the north-weltern bank
of the river Stort, at the diftance of 12 miles N.E. from
Hertford, and 25 miles N.N.E. from London. It oc-
cupies “a dry hill of gravel,”’ and confilts of two ftreets,
interfecting each other at right angles.. Henry VI. granted
to the inhabitants the privileges ot holding a weekly market
on Wednefday, and two annual fairs on the 23d of April,
and the rgth of Oétober ; but at prefent the former right
is little more than nominal. After the Conquett, the manor
here was conferred by king William on Geoffrey de Mag-
naville, from whofe family it was carried by marriage into
that of William de Say, in the reign of king Richard I.
Henry Bourchier, earl of Kent, became potleffor of it in
the fame manner at a later period. This nobleman left an
only daughter and heirefs, Anne, married to fir William
Parr, afterwards marquis of Northampton, who; having
joined with the duke of Northumberland in his attempt to
place lady Jane Grey on the throne, was condemned to
death, after the acceffion of queen Mary, and had his eftates
confifcated to the crown. Since that period the manor
has paffed through various families, and is now the property
of earl Hardwicke.

The church of Sabridgeworth is an ancient building in
the earlieft pointed ftyle of archite@ture. It is divided into
a nave, chancel, and aifles, and has a maflive, embattled
tower at its weftern extremity. The monumentstare nume-
rous, and among them are fome fine old brafles. One monu-
ment of the latter kind, in a fmall chapel or chantry, dif-
plays two full-length figures, completely emaciated, and in
winding-fheets; which by the arms appear to have been
intended to commemorate perfons connected with the family
of the Plantagenets. ‘Two other braffes of a knight and
his lady, in the fame chapel, bear fimilar arms; and adjoin-

5 ing

a

i

SAW

ing are a very ancient tomb, and fome curious braffes of the
Leventhorpes. In the chancel, under a rich canopy, is an
altar-tomb, adorned with brafles of a knight, his two wives,
and their children. This monument has no infcription ;
but Weever, in his “ Funeral Monuments,” attributes it to
fir Ralph Jocelyn, kat., who was twice lord-mayor of
London, and whofe family became feated at Hyde Hall, in
this vicinity, as early as the thirty-third year of the reign
of Henry III., by the marriage of Thomas Jocelyn with
Maud, daughter and coheirefs of fir John Hyde. Here are
likewife monuments in memory of the Hewyts, fome time
lords of the manor. George, lord Hewyt, who was created

a baron by king James II. in 1689,.and died the fame year,

is reprefented in armour, ftanding upright, and furrounded
by trophies. Sir Walter Mildmay, knt. and his lady, both
le buried, and have a monument in this church.

According to the parliamentary returns of 1811, Sa-
bridgeworth contained 373 houfes, and 1827 inhabitants.
The Hiftorical Antiquities of Hertfordfhire, &c. by Sir
Henry Chauncey, Knt. fol. London, 1700. Beauties of
England and Waies, by E. W. Brayley, and John Britton,
vol. vi. 8vo. i806.

SAWING, the application of the faw, in dividing of
timber, &c. into boards, -&c.

There are wind-mills and water-mills which do the office
of fawing wood, with infinitely more expedition and eafe
than is performed by the hand. They confilt of feveral
parallel faws, which are made to rife and fall perpendicularly,
by means of one of the grand principles of motion. A very
few hands are here needed, viz. only to puth forward the
pieces of timber, which are laid on rollers, or fufpended
by ropes, in proportion as the fawing advances. Thefe
mills are frequently ufed abroad ; and have been alfo intro-
duced in England; but the parliament, in confideration of
this, that they would {poil the fawyers’ trade, and ruin great
numbers of families, thought fit to f{upprefs them.

The mechanifm of a fawing-mill may be reduced to three
principal things ; the firit, that the faw be drawn up and
down as long as is neceflary, by a motion communicated
by water to the wheel; the fecond, that the pieces of
timber to be cut into boards be advanced by an uniform
motion to receive the itrokes of the faw, for here the wood
is to meet the faw, and not the faw to follow the wood,
therefore the motion of the wood and that of the faw ought
immediately to depend the one on the other: the third, that
when the faw has cut through the whole length of the
piece, the whole machine {tops of itfelf, and remains im-
moveable, for fear, left having ro obftacle to furmount, the
force of the water fhould turn the wheel with too great
rapidity, and break fome part of the machine.

M. Felibien mentions a kind of long faws, invented by
one Miffon, infpector of the marble quarries in the Pyre-
neans; by means of which ttones are fawed even in the rock
itfelf, whence they are taken. He adds, that fome of them
were made twenty-three feet long; but does not defcribe
either their form or application: he only fays, they are of
iron, and without teeth.

The common fawing-mill is fo well known, as to require
fearcely any defcription. The faw is madé to work verti-
eally, being ftretched in a wooden frame, which flides up and
down, within another fixed “frame, exactly the fame as a
window-fath rifes and falls in its frame: the motion is given to
it by a crank placed beneath, and revolving by a wheel and
pinion from the water-wheel; a fly-wheel is fixed upon the
axis of the crank to equalize the movement, and the pinion
is fo proportioned, that the crank will make three or four
turns to one of the water-wheel. The timber is faltened

SAW

upon a carriage, which is an horizontal frame, fliding on the
floor of the mill; and being fufficiently narrow to pats
through the infide.of the vertical or moving faw-frame, it
will carry the tree through, and fubje& it to the aGtion of

_ the faw : the carriage is provided with a rack, which is en-

gaged by the teeth of a pinion, and this gives the means of
advancing the carriage when the pinion is turned, which is
done by means of a large ratchet-wheel, with a click moved
by levers, connected with the faw-frame. In this manner,
when the faw-frame rifes, the click flips over a certain num-
ber of teeth of the ratchet-wheel, but when it defcends to
make the cut, the click turns the ratchet-wheel round, and
advances the wood forwards juft as much as the faw will cut
into it during its defcent. The trees are generally dragged up
an inclined plane, through a door at one end of the mill, and
being placed upon the carriage, they go through the mill,
and are divided by the faw into two or more pieces, which
are carried forwards, and go out at a door on the oppofite
fide of the mill, where a boat receives them. Sometimes the
faw-frame is fitted up with feveral faws {tretched parallel to
each other, and at fuch diftances, that they will divide the
whole tree into feveral boards of any required thicknefs at one
operation.

A great improvement in fawing-machines has been made
by Mr. Brunel, by which they are enabled to cut more
timber in a given time, with any given power, and alfo cut
much more corre@ly, and without winding in the furfaces
which the faws divide. A capital mill on this plan has been
conftruéted by Mr. Maudflay for the arfenal at Woolwich ;
it is driven by a fteam-engine, which is a pattern of elegance
in its appearance, as much as of perfection in its contrivance ;
the motion is communicated from this to the cranks of the
four faw-frames, by leather belts, which are here very judi-
cioufly applied in lieu of cog-wheels, becaufe thefe will flip
and yield if any thing fhould get into the movements, but
cog-wheels would in a fimilar cafe break every thing te
pieces. Each crank has an independent fly-wheel to regu-
late its motion, in addition to the great fly-wheel of the
{team-engine. The vertical er moving frames for the faws
are made of iron, but the fides are ‘olla, and filled up
with wood, by which means they are very {trong, but of no
greater weight than neceflary. he moft ingenious part of
the contrivance confifts in the means of ftretching all the
faws in the frame, fo that they will be exatly parallel to
each other, and all {trained to an equal degree of tenfion.
The faws are fo fitted in the frame, that they can be removed
in a few minutes, and a new {et of {harp faws putin. Each
faw has apiece of metal rivetted to it at each end, which are
formed like hooks. The hook at the lower end of the faw is
hooked into a proper recefs made in the lower crofs-bar of
the. faw-frame, and the upper hook is engaged with the
hook of a fhackle or link, which hangs upon the upper crofs-
bar, and has wedges through it, by means of whch it can
be drawn tight to ftrain the faw. As there is nothing to de-
termine the parts of the crofs-bars where the hooks of the
faws fhall hang upon them, they can be fet at any required
diftance afunder ; but to retain them, pieces of hard wood
are put in between the blades of the faw at the upper and
lower ends, and the {paces being thus filled up, they are
bound tight by ferews, which are tapped into the fides of the
faw-frame. As the tenfion of the different faws would be very
uncertain, if it depended merely trpon driving the wedges of
their fhackles by a hammer, thie inventor has applied a very
ingenious kind of fteclyard, to {train each of the faws in its

turn. It confifls of the following parts: a {trong axis is
extended acrofs the fixed frame, in which the faw-frame
flides, and above the top of this frame; from one fide of

4A 2 this

SAW

this axis a lever proceeds, which has a weight fixed at the
end, and from the oppofite fide of the axis proceed two fhort
levers, which are conneéted by links witha ftrong crofs-bar,
fituated juft over the upper crofs-bar of the faw-frame, when
it is at its greateft point of elevation. This fteelyard crofs-
bar has a link or fhackle upon it, which can be united by a
key with any one of the fhackles upon the upper crofs-bar
of the faw-frame, which fhackles are, as before-mentioned,
united by their hooks with the upper end of their refpeétive
faws; by this means the lever, with its weight, becomes a
fteelyard to draw up any one of the faws with a determinate
force, and it can be applied fucceffively to all the different
faws. In ufing this apparatus, the band or ftrap of the
crank-fhaft is calt off, to ftop the motion of the faw-frame ;
the crank is turned round, to elevate the frame to the highett
point; two wedges are then put in between the top of the
faw-frame and a fixed part of the itationary frame, and this
holds the faw-frame faft whilft the fteelyard is applied,
otherwife it would tend to draw up the frame, and ftrain the
crank andcrank-rod. The fharp faws are now put into the
faw-frame, by hooking them upon the lower crofs-bar there-
of, and uniting the upper hooks to the fhackles on the upper
crofs-bar : the pieces of wood are next put between the faws,
according to the gauge of the wood which is intended to be
fawn, and bound falt by the {crews, as before-mentioned.
The loaded end of the fteelyard is now lifted up by a rope

afling over a pulley, and the link upon the crofs-bar of the
fteclysrd is united with the fhackle of one of the faws by
means of its keys; then fuffering the fteelyard to defcend, it
ftretches the faw: the wedge of the fhackle for the faw is
thruft in by the hand as far asit will go, and thus retains the
faw at the tenfion to which the fteelyard had {trained it.
The fhackle of the fteelyard is then difengaged from this
faw and removed to the next, and thus, in turn, all the faws
are equally ftrained, a circumftance which is of great im-
portance, becaufe any faw which is more flack than another
will be liable to bend and cut crooked, when the grain of the
wood tends to divert it from its true direétion.

The carriages of this mill are very admirably contrived
to hold the trees firmly, and to fix them in a little time:
they are advanced, as the faws cut, by a rack and pinion,
with a ratchet-wheel ; and the click of the ratchet is moved
by means of an excentric wheel, or camm, upon the axis
of the crank. There is alfo a contrivance, by which the
faw-frame is allowed to retreat a {mall quantity in its af-
cent, fo that the teeth of the faw will’be quite clear from
the wood, when they return, that is, when they afcend,
and do not cut. Mr. Brunel has direéted the execution of
feveral other faw-mills upon the fame principle, particularly
a very large one in the dock-yard at Chatham.

Circular Sawing-Machines.—Thefe a& by a circular fteel
plate, having ee. like thofe of a pit-faw, cut all round its
circumference. This faw is fixed upon an axis, and made
to revolve by bands or ftraps with great rapidity. ‘The
wood being prefented to it, is cut by a continuous motion ;
and as this admits of a far greater velocity than canbe given
to any reciprocating machine, the circular faw cuts a fur-
prifing quantity of wood, not lefs from this circumflance
than becaufe it is always in aétion; whereas the reciprocat-
ing faw only cuts in one direétion, and all the time occupied
in the return is loft. Attempts have been made to make
reciprocating faw-frames cut double, by having the different
faws reverfed, that is, fome fo placed that. they fhall cut in
afcending, and the others in defcending ; but this did not
fucceed, becaufe the faws which do not cut will not allow
the others to advance into the wood, at lealt without great
fri€tion upon the back of the returning faws.

SAW

The circular faw is ufually fixed in a horizontal table, or
beneh, which has a cleft, through which the faw comes up ;
the {pindle being fituated under the bench, and acrofs the
direction of its length. A fegment or portion of the faw is,
therefore, left projecting above the bench; and the piece of
wood being laid flat thereupon, it is advanced forwards to
the faw, and cut with the greateft facility, and is certain to
be cut fquare; but if the fe€tions are required to be at any
other angle or bevel, the bench is inclined to fuitit. A
long parallel ruler is fixed down upon the bench, and this is
capable of being brought nearer or farther from the faw,
and thus forms a guide, againit which the piece of wood is
held ; by this the faw cuts always to the fame width; but
the width can be varied at pleafure.

The time of the introduction of this valuable machine is
not well afcertained. Circular faws, for cutting the teeth
of watch and clock wheels, have been in ufe fince the time
of Dr. Hook; but we do not know who firft applied the
fame to fawing: wood in the large way. Mr. Taylor of
Southampton ufed them in his manufactory many years
ago; but, we believe, they were moft completely introduced
by Mr. George Smart, and have fince become very general
for all kinds of purpofes. (See the articles CANTEEN,
Coms-cuTTiInG, and Macuinery, Block, where defcri
tions of machines ating with circular faws will be found. )
It only remains here to mention an improvement in the mode
of mounting them, by Mr. Maudflay. The firft faws, as
the moft fimple method, were made with fharp conical
points at cach end of the {pindle, and thefe were received
into conical holes at the ends of fcrews, fitted through the
folid frame of the machine; or, otherwife, the points were
made upon the ends of the fixed f{crews, and the holes in
the ends of the {pindle. In either cafe, the parts were
made of hardened fteel, and the moft accurate and con-
yenient circular. motion was thus obtained. But if thie
method is ufed on a large fcale, and with a great velocity,
the oil cannot be kept in the fockets, and the: fri€tion will
then caufe the points of conta& to heat: by heating, th
expand, and thus increafe the fri€tion and the prefiure, 4
that the heat is rapidly increafed, till the metal becomes
foft, and will twift off the points. The reafon of the efcape
of the oil is, that the centrifugal force induces the oil to
mount up the cone, and thus efcape from the point, where
it is chiefly wanted. The faw-fpindles made by Mr.
Maudflay have double conical fockets, and the oil is intro-
duced by a {mall hole into the {malleft part of the double
cones, where they join; by this means, the centrifugal force
draws the oil into the fitting, inftead of throwing it out, a8
in the other inftance.

An ingenious circular faw was prefented to the Society
of Arts, by John Trotter, efq., in 1805, and the Society
complimented the inventor with their gold’ medal. It is
called a curvilinear faw, being made concave, that is, like
a circular difh or bowl, inftead of a flat circular plate. If
this is a fegment of a f{phere, tke faw will cut fegments of
circles, inftead of itraight lines. This is very ufeful for
fellies of wheels, &c.; but by varying the curve of the faw,
any required curve of a moderate bend may be cut.

Other circular faws have been made like the trepan ufed
by furgeons; the fize, of courfe, being determined by the
fize required to be cut. See Macuinery, Block.

A patent has been obtained for a circular faw, or rather
a faw with a continuous motion, which confifts of an endlefs
{teel band or blade, cut with teeth, and extended over two
wheels placed at a diftance afunder, juft like the endlefs
ftraps which are ufed to communicate motion from one
wheel to another, Tbe wood is applied to that part =

I

SAX

the blade which is extended between the two wheels. We
have not been informed if it is found to fucceed in prattice ;
but we fear there would be many difficulties in making fuch
endlefs belts of fteel.

SAWKOSIN, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Warfaw ; 33 miles N. of Ploczko.

SAWKUL, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Mahur; 22 miles N. of Mahur.

SAWMBEAH, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 16
miles N.E. of Bahar.

SAWMILL Creek, a river of Maryland, which runs
into the Potomack, N. lat. 39° 6!.. W. long. 77° 201.

SAWPOUR, a town of Hindooltan, in the circar of
Bopal; 6 miles S.E. of Bopaltol.

SAWREE, 2 river of Guzerat, which runs into the fea;
10 miles S.E. of Puttan Sumnaut. !
. SAWTU, atown of America, in the flate of Georgia;
50 miles W.S.W. of Tugeloo. ‘ t

SAWYER, Sir Rosert, in Biography, an eminent
lawyer, who flourifhed in the reigns of Charles II. and
James II., was a great admirer of lord chief juftice Hale,
whofe virtues he imitated. He was attorney-general from
1681 to 1687, when he was removed from his office by
James II., becaufe he nobly refufed to affiit him in his
arbitrary meafures, and hence he hasa claim to the gratitude
of polterity.

Sawyen’s Ferry, in Geography, a poft-town of South
Carolina; 14 miles N. of Nixonton.

Sawyer’s, or Aferadores I/land, a {mall ifland on the
W. coait of Mexico; which has on its S.E. fide a {mall
creek of its name, into which boats can enter only at high
water ; 12 miles from the bar of Realejo. y

SAX, a town of Switzerland, which gives name to a
bailiwick in the canton of Zurich, on the Rhine ; 8 miles
S.E. of Appenzel.—Alfo, a town of Spain, in the province
of Valencia, near which is an ancient citadel, built on the
fummit of a rock; 15 miles W. of Alicant. ©

SAXAPAHAW, the upper part of the N.W. branch
of Cape Fear river, in North Carolina; formed by Ara-
manche and Deep rivers, and capable of navigation for boats
about 50 miles.

SAXAZA, a town of Sweden, in the province of War-
meland; 38 miles N.W. of Carlftadt.

SAXE, Maurice, Count of, in Biography, a celebrated

eral, born at Goflar in 1696, was the natural fon of
Frederic Auguiftus I. elector of Saxony and king of Poland,
by the countefs of Konig{marck. Ata very early period he
difplayed a moft decided talte for arms. It was with difficulty
that he was taught to read and write: the only means of in-
ducing him to attend to his leffons, was to promife him fome
military exercife when they were finifaed. While he was a
child he ferved in the allied army, commanded by thofe great
matters of the art of war, prince Eugene and the duke of
Marlborough. He was prefent with the Saxon troops at the
fiege of Lille in the year 1708, and at that of Tournay, and
at the battle of Malplaquet in the following year. Upon
all oceafions he exhibited the moft determined and enter-
prifing valour, and in the campaign of 1710 he obtained the
ublic eulogies of the allied generals. He accompanied the
42 of Poland to the fiege of Strafburg in 1711, where he
fo much diftinguithed himfelf, that a regiment of cavalry
was railed for him, with which he fought againft the Swedes
at the battle of Gadebufch. Soon after his mother pro-
cured him a marriage with the countefs of Loben, a lady of
fortune and beauty, by whom he had a child, which died in
infancy. Count Saxe was, however, too much attached to
licentious pleafure to be able to live happily in a domettic

SA X

union : he obtained a divorce in 1721, after which he never
married again. In the mean time he had been purfuing his
military career, and in 1717 he ferved in Hungary under
prince Eugene again{ft the Turks. After the treaties of
Utrecht and Paffarowitz, having no longer a field for the
exercife of his valour, he withdrew to France, in which he
was fixed by a brevet of marefchal-de-camp, granted to him
in 1720 by the regent, auke of Orleans. He there engaged
with great ardour in the ftudy of all the branches of mathe-
matics conneéted with the military art, and in ta@tical im-
provements. In the year 1722 he obtained the command of
a German regiment in the French fervice ; he difciplined it in
anew method of exercife, the merit of which caufed the che-
valier Folard to prediét that he would become one of the firft
generals of his time. On the death of the duke of Courland
in 1725, count Saxe was inftizated to become a candidate
for the fucceffion to that fovereignty, but he was in the end
unfuccefsful, and after a long ftruggle he gave it up, and
returned to Paris. He there employed himfelf in cultivating
his mind, and in his favourite military ftudies, of which one
of the fruits was a work which he entitled «* Mes Reveries,’”
full of ingenious and original thoughts on military fubjeéts.
In the new war which broke out in 1733, in confequence of
the death of the king of Poland, count Saxe declined the
command of the Polifh army offered him by his brother, the
eleétor, and joined the French army on the Rhine, under
the marfhal-duke of Berwick. His brilliant fervices caufed
him, in 1734, to be advanced to ‘the rank of heutenant-
general. After a fhort peace in Europe, the death of the
emperor Charles VI. occafioned a new war, and in 1741 count
Saxe took Prague by efcalade, and then reduced Egra. In
1744 he was created a marthal of France, and at the fame
time the chief command of an army in Flanders was given him.
At this period he was in extremely ill health, and being
afked how he could venture in fo weak a condition to take
upon himfelf fuch a burden, confidering his fituation, he
replied, “‘my bufinefs is not to live, but to march.’”? In
1745 he gained the famous battle of Fontenoy, during the
heat of which he mounted on horfeback, though in fuch a’
{tate of debility, that his death was almott every moment ex-
pected. The fruits of this victory were all the principal
towns in Flanders, of which Bruffels furrendered the laft in
February 1746. The marfhal was greatly diftinguifhed in
the campaigns of 1747 and 1748, which la{t was followed by
the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, and marfhal Saxe was appointed
commandant-general of all the conquefts in the Low Coun-
tries. He now, with his well-earned fame, retired to his
eltate in France, which had been given him by the king of
France, where he paffed his time in, the fociety of men of
letters and artifts. He only once quitted this retreat, and
that was for the purpofe of vifiting the king of Pruffia at
Berlin, where he was received with the higheft honours. He
died at the early age of 54, being worn out with the labours
of his military life. In his laft illnefs he faid to his phyfician,
Senac, “ [ have had a fine dream,’’ fuch did he mean had
been his life, which to others, certainly, had been fomething
more thanadream. By, and under his command, thoufands
had been cut off in the prime of life ; but generals and mu-
narchs feldom regard the lives of their men, except as mate-
rials adapted to their ufe, and formed for their glory.
Marfhal Saxe, though extremely licentious in his manners,
remained attached to the Lutheran religion, and he was
interred with great funeral pomp in the principal Lutheran
church at Strafburgh, where a magnificent maufoleum was
ereéted to his memory. Marfhal Saxe, though ardent avd
enterprifing, was, notwith{tanding our obfervation of com-
manders in general, {paring of the lives of his foldiers, He

wae

SAX

was juft to the merit of his officers, zealoufly difplaying their
fervices, and fupporting their interelt atcourt. ‘ He had,’”
fays his biographer, ‘‘a romantic eee te and formed
various projects of ambition befides that refpeéting the duke-
dom of Courland; among thefe was a defign upon the crown
of Corfica, and feveral plans for fettlements in America:
snd it is even faid that he had an idea of collecting the
fcattered nation of the Jews, and placing himfelf at their
head.”? His « Reveries’? have been feveral times reprinted 5
the beft edition is that of Paris, 2 vols. 4to. 1757.

SAXE-COBURG, in Geography. See Cosure.

SAXE-GOTHA. See Gorna.

SaxEecoTHa, atown orrather village in South Carolina,
on the fouthern bank of Cangaree river, about 48 miles
N.W. of Auguita, in Georgia.

SAXE-LAUENBURG, Duchy of, a principality of
Germany, bounded on the N.W. by the duchy of Hfolftein,
onthe N.E. and E. by the duchy of Mecklenburg, and on the
S. and S.W. by the principality of Luneburg. The country
is generally level and partly fandy, covered with heath: but
fome parts of it produce corn and flax. The paitures are
eonfiderable ; and great profit is made of the acorns and
beech-matts colle&ted in the woods. The lakes and rivers
abound in various kinds of fifh. ‘The duchy contains four
towns, and about 32,000 inhabitants, who are Lutherans :
manufaétures are little known among them. The exports
confilt chiefly of rye, butter, cheefe, timber, and fifth. “This
country was formerly a part of Slavia Tranfalpina, and its
inhabitants, who were a tribe of the Weftern Slavi, or
Wendi, were named Polabers. Henry the Lion, duke of
Saxony and Bavaria, fubjugated thefe Polabers, and held
their country as his abfolute property. The imperial invef-
titure of it, together with a feat and vote among the princes
of the empire, was firit obtained by George I. king of
England, as eleftor of Hanover, in the year 1716. This
duchy, though dependent on the privy council of Hanover,
had pace its own regency.

SAXELEN, or Saxten, a town of Switzerland, in the
canton of Underwalden, on the lake of Sarnen; 12 miles
§.S.E. of Lucern.

SAXEN, a town of Sweden, in the province of Medel-
padia ; 25 miles W. of Sund{wall.—Alfo, a town of Ger-
many, belonging to Nuremberg, infulated in Anfpach; 3
miles W.N.W. of Lichtenan.

SAXENBURG, an ifland in the South Atlantic ocean,
difcovered by John Lindeftz, a Dutchman, in 1670. S. lat.
30° 45’. W. long. 20°.

Saxenpure, or Sachfenburg, a town of the duchy of
Carinthia, on the Drave, belonging to the archbifhop of
Salzburg. Near it are three citadels anda ftrong pafs; 38
miles W. of Clagenfurt. N. lat. 46° 45’. EE. long.
LFt 10. ;

SAXI, fometimes fpelt Sasst, Joseph ANTHONY, in
Biography, an Italian writer in ecclefiaftical hiftory, was born
at Milan in the year 1673. He was educated to the eccle-
fiattical profeflion, and for fome time taught the belles lettres
in his native city. He afterwards difeharged the duties ofa
miffionary. In 1703 he was admitted a doétor of the Ambro-
fian college at Milan, and eight years afterwards he was ap-
pointed dire&tor of that college, and of the library attached
toit. He died about the year 1756. He was author of
many theological, hiftorical, and chronological works, of
which the titles of the following may be mentioned ; “ Epif-
tola ad Card. Quirium de Literatura Mediolanenfium,”’
gto, “ De Studiis Mediolanenfium Antiquis et Novis.”
«* Archiepifcoporum Mediolanenfium Series critico-chrono-
logica.” « Hiftoria Getarum.’’. Some of the works of

SAX

Saxi have been inferted in the colle€tion ‘ Rerum:Italicae
rum Scriptor.”” by Muratori. »

SAXIFRAGA, in Botany, an appellation given by
fome old writers to feveral rock plants, which by infinuating
their roots into the crevices of ftones, feparate or break them
to pieces. This is exprefled by the name itfelf, derived
from /axum, a ftone, and frango, to break; and the plants
in quettion were confequently fuppofed likely to be ufeful in
breaking down the calcu/us in the human bladder. We meet
with few more abfurd hypothefes, in the darkeft ‘of
medical or botanical fcience. Tournefort and Linneus
have retained this name, for a beautiful genus of her-
baceous, principally mountain, plants, to fome of which it
had been long ago applied; whillt others had been referred
to Sedum. They often occupy the fiffures and broken edges
of rocks; fo far anfwering to the original idea of the name
before us.—Linn. Gen. 223. Schreb. 301. Willd. Sp. Pl.

v. 2. 638. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. “Sm. Fl. Brit. 448.
Prodr. Fl. Grac. Sibth. v. 1. 275. Ait. Hort. Kew.
v. 3. 64. Purfhv.1. 310. Jufl. 309. Tourn. t. 129.

Lamerck Illuttr. t. 372. Gaertn. t. 36. (Geum; Tourn.
t. 129.)—Clafs and order, Decandria Dizynia.. Nat. Ord.
Succulente, Linn. Saxifrage, Sua. .

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth more or lefs completely inferior,
of one leaf, in five deep, fhortifh, rather acute, permanent
fegments. Cor. Petals five, {preading, contraéted at the
bafe, often fomewhat unequal. Stam. Filaments ten, awl-
fhaped ; anthers roundifh. Pi/?. Germen roundifh, pointed,
with two beaks, ending in two fhort fpreading ftyles ; Ser
obtufe. Peric. Capiule nearly ovate, membranous, of one
cell, with two beaks, and opening at the top between them.
Seeds numerous, minute.

Obf. Saxifraga of Tournefort fhould have the germen
inferior, being furrounded, near the top, with the re-
ceptacle of the flower, or rim of the calyx, while Geum of
the fame author has a fuperior germen, feated upon that
part; but. thefe precife limits are not always difcoverable,
there being feveral intermediate fpecies, whofe germen is
half fuperior.

Eff. Ch. Calyx five-cleft, permanent. Petals five.
Capfule with two beaks, of one cell, burfting between the
beaks. Seeds numerous. ‘

The fpecies of Saxifraga have proved nearly as puzzling
to botanifts as thofe of Ro/z, and there is till as much di-
verfity of opinion about them. Linnzus defines 38 in his
Species Plantarum, to which four are added in Syf. Veg.
ed. 14. Willdenow has 49. Practical alpine botanifts, and
efpecially Picot Lapeyroufe, in his Flore des Pyrenées, v. 1.
have raifed to the dignity of {pecies, feveral fuppofed varieties
of other authors, befides defcribing fome that are indubita-
bly new. We fhall take a general view of the whole, cor-
reéting fome miftakes, and offering a few remarks. The
genus 1s divided into four tolerably natural fections.

Se&. 1. Leaves undivided. Stem Sightly leafy.

S. Cotyledon. Pyramidal Saxifrage. Linn. Sp. Pl. 570.
Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 146. t. 2. f. 2. Willd. n-1. Ait. n. Ie
Fl. Dan. t. 241. (S. multiflora; Ehrh. Exfice. 74. S.
n.977; Hall. Hitt. v. 1. 419. Cotyledon pyramidale,
lato crenato, et retufo folio, polyanthos ; Bocc. Muf. —
t. 86.)—Radical leaves aggregate, tongue-fhaped,
fharp cartilaginous ferratures. Stem panicled, fomewhat
leafy. Calyx hairy and vifcid. Petals unfpotted.—Native
of the Lapland and Swifs mountains ; common in a luxuriant
{tate in gardens, where it is a hardy perennial, much admired
for its ae pyramidal panicle of innumerable {now-white
flowers, produced chiefly in the early part of fummer. The
leaves ave dark green, rather fichhy, fmooth, forming per .

Ps rofe-

SAXIFRAGA.

rofe-like tufts; their edges furnifhed with fharp, imbricated,
white, callous ferratures. Stem five or fix inches high in a
wild ftate; two or three feet when cultivated ; reddith,
hairy, bearing feveral alternate leaves; its flowering
branches flender, purplifh, hairy and vifcid, repeatedly fub-
divided. Bradeas linear. Petals obovate, three-ribbed,
pure white, without any dots or ftains.—Notwithftanding
the opinion of fome botanifts, the figure in Fl. Lapp. cer-
tainly belongs to this {pecies.

S. callofa. Callous Saxifrage. Sm. in Dickf. Dr.
Pi. 63. (S. lingulata; Bellardi Append. ad Fl. Pe-
dem. 20. S. longifolia; Lapeyr. Pyren. v. 1. 26. t. 11.
Sanicula montana crenata, folio’ longiore, pediculo foliofo ;
Pluk. Phyt. t. 222. f. 1. Aizoum ferratum alterum ;
Cord. Hift. 92. Sedum ferratum, longiore folio, mar-

inibus argenteis; Morif. fect. 12. t. 9. f. 20.)—Radical
few: aggregate, linear-oblong, with cartilaginous marginal
warts. Stem panicled, fomewhat leafy. Calyx naked and
fmooth. Petals unfpotted.—Found on the rocky moun-
tains of Piedmont, towards the fea, flowering in Augutft.
We have feen it in Mr. Rofcoe’s garden at Allerton, near
Liverpool, and elfewhere, but rarely in flower. Mott bo-
taniits feem to have confounded this with the foregoing, yet
nothing can be more diftin& ; efpecially in the eaves, which
are much narrower, more glaucous, and edged with a row
of white callous warts, inftead of being ferrated. The
panicle is neither hairy nor vifcid, the calyx being likewife
perfeGily f{mooth and naked. Petals of a lefs confpicuous
and brilliant white than in S. Cotyledon. Dr. Bellardi has
well diftinguifhed this fpecies, but his name appears to us
lefs correé&t than the older one which we have retained ; the
leaves being much lefs lingulate than in the firft {pecies.

S. Aizoon. Marginated Saxifrage. Jacq. Auttr. v. 5.
18. t. 438, excluding the reference to Linneus. Willd.
n.2. Ait. n.2. Dickf. Dr. Pl. 64. (S. rofulenta;
Ehrh. Exfice. 5. S. {edi folio anguttiore ferrato; Segu.
Veron. v. 1. 448. t. 9. f. 1. Aizoum ferratum; Cord.
Hift. 92.)—Radical leaves aggregate, tongue-fhaped, with
fharp cartilaginous ferratures. Stem racemofe, fomewhat
leafy. Calyx naked and {mooth. Petals dotted.—Not un-
frequent in alpine fituations on the continent of Europe, nor
is it rare in gardens, flowering in June and July, being pe-
rennial, like the laft, and perfeétly hardy. he whole
plant is fmaller than S. callofa, being hardly a, foot hizh,
with much fewer flowers, rather racemofe than panicled;
the petals cream-coloured, with tawny or reddifh dots,
which, however, are faid by Jacquin to be occafionally
wanting. The ferratures of the /eaves are acute, imbri-
cated, and each marked with a dot, or minute excavation,
as in §. Cotgledon ; but the ‘eaves themfelves are very much
fmaller than in that {pecies, from which the prefent is alfo
clearly diftinguifhed by its {mooth calyx ; {maller, and dif-
ferently coloured, petals 5 racemofe inflorefeence, and very
difimilar afpe&. The form of the ferratures, as well as
the broader and fhorter figure of the /eaves, to fay nothing
of the petals and inflorefcence, render this plant abundantly
dittin& from our callofa. Perhaps §. reda of Lapeyroute,
t. 15, ought to be added as a fynonym. Linnwus con-
founded thefe three {pecies together, nor has Willdenow
diftributed their fynonyms properly. We have aimed only
at a few certain ones, thofe of the earlier writers bemg in-
volved in much obfcurity. Haller perhaps included our
eallofa under bis n. 978, which is properly the prefent

8. aati Saffron-coloured Saxifragé. Linn. Sp. Pl.
xe. Willd. n. 3. Ait. m4. Jacq, Ic. Rar. t. 466.
urt. Mag. t. 351. (S. 0.979; Hall. Hilt. v. 1. 420.

t. 16. f. 2.) — Radical leaves aggregate, tongue-fhaped,
with a cartilaginous, fomewhat notched, fringed border,
Stem panicled, leafy, hairy and vifcid like the calyx. Pe.
tals lanceolate.—Found on the alps of Carniola, Switzer-
land, and Italy ; requiring fome fhelter with us in winter,
and apparently very difficult of culture, being extremely
rare. Mr. Curtis raifed it from feeds fent by Mr. Davall;
but the late Mr. Blackburne appears to have cultivated this
{pecies in 1779. Its beauty is great, though not ftrikin
at firft fight. In fize the plant nearly approaches §. Cotyle-
don; but the /eaves are not ferrated, though dentely fringed ;
and the copious very remarkable flowers have narrow
orange-coloured petals ; flamens and /lyles of the fame hue,
with a purple centre, or floral receptacle. Hialler’s figure is
a better reprefentation of the wild plant, except the petals,
than thofe of Jacquin or Curtis.

S. penfylvanica. Pennfylvanian Saxifrage. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 571. Willd. n.4. Ait. nu. 4. Purth no 10. (S.
penfylvanica, floribus mufcofis racemofis; Dill. Elth. 337.
t. 253. f. 328.) — Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, hairy, ob-
{curely notched. Stem leaflefs. Flower-{talks alternate,
bearing corymbofe heads.—In wet meadows, from New
York to Virginia, flowering in June. Purfh. — Preferved
in curious botanic gardens only, the {mall greenifh tufted
flowers having no pretenfions to beauty. The Jfiem is from
one to two feet high, with feveral large ere&t radical /eaves,
or five inches long.

To this are nearly akin S. erofa, Purfh n. 11; and S.
hieracifolia, Willd. n. 5. Waldit. and Kitaib. Pl. Rar.
Hungar. v. 1. 17. t. 18. The latter is cultivated in Kew
garden, flowering in June. Its eaves are {mooth, with a
wavy, minutely fringed, edge. Nor is S. androfacea, Linn.
Sp. Pl. 571. Willd. n. 6 Ait. n. 6. Jacq. Auftr.
t. 389, fo widely different as, at firft fight, it appears.
The /eaves, though but an inch long, are more or lefs hairy,
‘and though ufually entire, are fometimes notched near the
end. The /lem indeed, about three inches high, bears but
one or two flowers, five times the fize of §. penfylvanica,
with white petals.

S. media. Intermediate Saxifrage. Gouan Illuftr. 27.
Poiret in Lamarck’s Di&. v. 6. 673. Illuitr. t. 372.
f. 6. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. t. 376, unpublifhed. (S.
cxfia; Linn. Mant. 382, but not Sp. Pl. 571. S. calyci-
flora; Lapeyr. Pyren. v. 1. 28. t. 12.) — Radical leaves
aggregate, tongue-fhaped ; with a cartilaginous entire mar-
gin; dotted onthe upper fide. Petals obtufe, fhorter than
the calyx.—This rare and beautiful fpecies is faid to grow
on limettone rocks among the Pyrenean mountains. Dr.
Sibthorp met with it on the fummit of the Bithynian
Olympus. The perennial roots bear numerous denfe rofe-
like tufts, of fmooth, glaucous, flethy, obovate or tongue-
fhaped, /eaves, half an inch or more in length, remarkable
for a row of depreffed dots, each accompanied by a callous
deciduous feale, near the cartilaginous entire margin. The
Jlems are fimple, four or five inches high, racemofe, purplith,
hairy, vifcid, clothed with alternate hairy /eaves, fmaller
than the radical ones, and tinged with purple. F/oqwers
axillary, folitary, nearly feflile, from all the leaves of the
upper half of the ftem, and ca 2 a denfe, hairy, dark
purple, bracteated, often drooping, clufter or f{pike. Calyx
inferior, hairy, of a deep blood-colour, its legments con-
verging, fo as nearly to conceal the dull crimfon obovate
petals. Anthers brown. Germen and flyles red. Willdenow
has overlooked this Saxifraga, which bas not as yet found
its way into our gardens.

5. cafia. Grey Saxifrage. Linn. Sp. Pl. 571. ° Willd.
n7. Ait. nm. 7. Jacq. Aultr. t. 374. Scop. Carn.

Pee

SAXIFRAGA.

v. 1. 295. t. 1§. (S.n. 982; Hall. Hilt. v. 1. 421. S,
alpina minima, foliis cefius deorfim recurvis ; Segu. Veron.
v. I. 449. t.g. f. 2. Sedum pipigum tertium Clufii;
Ger. Em. 516. Sedi aut phylli {pecies minima alpina ;
Gefn. Fafe. 24. t. 11. f. 30.)—Radical leaves aggregate,
{patulate, recurved, imbricated downwards ; fringed at the
bafe; dotted on the upper fide. Petals thrice as long as
the calyx.—Native of the alps of Germany, Switzerland,
and Italy, often found near the limits of perpetual fnow,
flowering in July and Augult. Roots perennial, long,
much branched, crowned with numerous, denfe, almoft
globular, tufts of glaucous /eaves, not a quarter the fize of
the laft, and though dotted in a fimilar manner, differing
effentially in their recurved gibbous form, and imbricated
pofition. The flems are flender, two or three inches high,
moftly reddifh, hairy and vifcid, bearing a few {mall, {cat-
tered, linear, recurved leaves, and terminating in from one
to four white Aswers, with rather large obovate petals.
The fimilar dots on the radical /eaves caufed Linneus to
confound this with the laft, but they have f{carcely any
other charaGter in common. The remark in his Man-
tifa 382, concerning an Italian variety of cefia, and copied
by Willdenow under this f{pecies, belongs to the media.
We can hardly account for the expreflion of caule multifloro
in the Linnzan character of ce/ia.

S. diapenfoides. Diapenfia-leaved Saxifrage. Bellardi
Append. ad Fl. Pedem. 20. t. 3.—Radical leaves aggre-
gate, imbricated upwards, keeled, abrupt, fomewhat fringed,
without dots. Stem hairy, with few flowers.—Native of
the fillures of rocks on the moft lofty alps of Piedmont.
We have a fpecimen from Dr. Bellardi himfelf, which has
much of the habit of cefia, but the /eaves are not recurved,
nor dotted; and if fringed at all, it is about their blunt
abrupt extremities. The /lem and its /eaves are very hairy
and glutinous. Flowers varying from one to four, ufually
three, white, larger than the la{t, from which we believe this
plant perfe@tly diltin@, being rather more akin to the fol-
lowing.

S. burferiana. Burfer’s Saxifrage. Linn. Sp. Pl. 572.
Willd, n. 8. Wulf. in Jacq. Mifc. v. 1. 152. t. 17. f. 3.
(S. alpina, foliis glaucis acutis, monanthos, caule foliofo ;
Segu. Veron. y. 3. 201. t. 5. f. 2.)—Radical leaves aggre-
gate, awl-fhaped, acute, triangular, fmoeth. Stein hairy,
fingle-flowered.—Native of the alps of Carinthia and the
north of Italy. Larger than the laft, with {mooth pointed
leaves, and very large white folitary flowers, whole calyx,
like the fem and its eaves, is reddifh and hairy, as in the
preceding. Such is the plant of Burfer, Jacquin, and Se-
guier ; confequently of Linnzus in his Sp. P/.; though no
{pecimen an{wering to this defcription exilts in his herbarium.
What is there preferved, fent by Vandelli, and mentioned
in Willdenow (after Linn. Syft. Nat. ed. 12. v. 2. 303),
has thicker /eaves, and a corymbole lem, with feven flowers,
rather {maller than in the kind with a folitary fower. Its
flem, calyx, &c. are equally reddifh, hairy, and vifcid. This
is Haller’s S. foliis craffis pungentibus, caule vifcido paucifloro,
A&. Helvet. v.6. 10. n. 39; and is confidered by Jacquin
and Vandelli, with apparent juftice, as a diltinét {pecies.

S. bryoides. Thread-mofs Saxifrage. Linn. Sp. Pl. 572.
Willd. n. r1. Ait. n.66. Scop. Carn. v. 1.295. t. 15.
Jacq. Mifc. v. 2.49. t. 5. f. 1. (S.n. 969; Hall. Hilt.
y. 1. 416.)—Radical leaves aggregate, lanceolate, pointed,
{mooth, with a cartilaginous fringed margin. Stem with
few flowers. Calyx obtufe, nearly {mooth.—Frequent on
the alps of Germany, Switzerland, and Italy ; fometimes
preferved in curious gardens. It is allied to the two laft, but
the flems are almott entirely {mooth, bearing feveral fringed,

obtufe, green, {mooth and fhining feaves, and ufually one

flower, occafionally two or three. The calyx isa little hairy

at the bafe. Petals white, dotted in their lower half with
yellow. Germen entirely f{uperior.

We now come to a fomewhat different tribe, with more
dilated /eaves ; for the moft part beautifully fpotted and
parti-coloured petals ; and generally a fuperior germen ; com-
prifing Tournefort’s genus of Geum. Several of them are
of Britifh or Irifh growth.

S. fellaris. Starry Saxifrage. Linn. Sp. Pl. 572.
Willd. n. 13. Ait. n.g. Fi. Brit. n. 1. Engl. Bot.
t. 167.) Fle Dan... t.:23.-Jacq- Coll... v.j1--2025yt-uage
Scop. Carn. v. 1. 292. t. #3. Purfh n. 2. (S. n- 9735
Hall. Hift. v. 1. 418.)—Leaves ferrated. Stem naked,
branched. Petals pointed. | Capfule entirely fuperior.
Calyx reflexed.— Frequent throughout Europe, about the
borders of alpine rivulets, in fhady fituations ; and found
alfo in Labrador and Canada. Abundant on the mountains
of Wales, Scotland, and Weitmoreland, in a black boggy
foil, flowering in June and July. The perennial roofs bear
feveral lax Bi ean tufts of obovate, green, pliant, rather
flefhy and flightly hairy eaves, with a few broad and diftant
ferratures, but no cartilaginous edge. Sloqwer-lems from
three to fix inches high, panicled, more or lefs hairy, naked,
except a few fimple or divided dra@eas. Flowers {olitary at
the end of each branch. Petals ovate with a fhort claw,
white, except two yellow {pots near the bafe. Germen

violet. Cap/ule green, with a purple ring.
S.crafifolia. Thick-leaved Saxifrage. - Lion. Sp. Pl.
573- Willd. n. r4. Ait. n. ro. Linn. fil. Dec. 2. 27.

t. 14. Curt. Mag. t. 196. (S. n. 78; Gmel. Sib. v. 4.
166. t. 66.) — Leaves coriaceous, roundifh-oval, abrupt,
ftalked, ferrated, {mooth. Stem naked. Panicle denfe,
cymofe.—Native of the mountains of Siberia. A very
common hardy perennial in our gardens, into which Dr.
Solander is faid to have introduced it in 1765. ‘The great
fize. of every part, particularly the broad fhining coriaceous
leaves, diltinguih this plant from its congeners. The very
copious light purple flowers, whofe parts or divifions are
often greatly multiplied, make a handfome appearance in
March and April.

The Hortus Kewenfis, on the authority of Mr. Haworth,
diltinguifhes as a {pecies, by the name of cordifolia, what we
have always confidered as a variety with leaves heart-fhaped
at the bafe.

S. nivalis.

Cluftered Alpine Saxifrage. Linn. Sp. Pl.

573- Willd. n. 15. Ait. n.12. Fi. Brit. n. 2. Engl.
Bot. t. 440. Fl. Dan. t. 28. Lightf. Scot. 221. t. 12.
Purfh n. 6. (S. foliis oblongo-rotundis dentatis, floribus”

compattis ; Raii Syn. 354. t. 16. f. 1.)—Leaves obovate,
ferrated. Stem naked. Flowers crowded. Capfule half
inferior. Calyx {preading.—Native of the alps of Lapland,
Greenland, Scotland, and Wales, growing in the moift and
fhady clefts of rocks, flowering in July. Mr. Dickfon has
received it from Labrador and Canada, and we have a Penn-
fylvanian {pecimen from the Rey. Dr. Muhlenberg. This
is moft allied to S$. /lel/aris, next to which it ought to ftand 5
but the broader, thicker, more copioufly ferrated aves ;
denfe tuft of fowers ; and efpecially the {preading half-
fuperior calyx; afford clear marks of diflin¢tion. The

petals are white, with two green fpots, and a green tip; their

outfide often purplith.

S. farmentofa. Chinefe Saxifrage. Linn. Suppl. 240.
Willd. n. 18. Ait. n. 13. Curt. Mag. t.92. Ehrh.
Exficc. 25. Thunb. Jap. 182. (S. ftolouitera; Jacq.
Mifc. v. 2. 327. Ic. Rar. t. 80. Meerb. Ic.'t. 23. Se-
kika, vulgo Kifinfo; Kempf. Amoen, 870.) — Leaves

roundifh,

7

SAXIFRAGA.

roundifh, toothed, hairy. Scyons creeping. Two of the
petals elongated.—This elegant and fingular f{pecies, a native
of China and Japan, is very hardy in European gardens,
thriving in fhady places, or running over rock-work, and
flowering about June and July. The trailing fhoots {pread
like thofe of a itrawberry plant, and as widely, taking root,
and producing young offsets here and there. The caves
are {mooth above, variegated with fhades of green; red and
hairy beneath, like the foot/aiks. Siem. a toot or more in
height, leafiéfs, panicled, many-flowered, more or iefs hairy.
Calyx halt inferior, nearly {mooth. Three of the petals are
ovate, pink, with red {pots ; while the other two, at the
lower fide of the flower, are lanceolate, thrice as long,
white and unfpotted.. On the contrary fide to thefe longer

petals, is an orange-coloured glandular ne@ary. The irre-

gularity of the flower has induced feveral botanifts to think
this fpecies qught to conftitute a diftin& genus, and Linneus
was once evidently of the fame opinion, his own {pecimen
being marked Rupifraga ferpens. Mr. Purth would add to
the genus ia queftion the §. /eucanthemifolia of Michaux,
whole petals are hkewife unequal ; but-that plant has not
come under our obfervation.

S. pun@ata. Dotted-flowered Saxifrage. Linn. Sp. Pl.
574- . Willd. n. 19. Ait. n. 14. (Sedum bicorne fer-
ratum, pallidiore folio rotundiore, floribus punGtatis ; Morif.
v. 3- 478. fe&. 12. t. 9. f. 17.) —Leaves roundifh, broadly
toothed, with long footitalks. Stem panicled, leaflefs, with
linear braéteas. Calyx ereét. Germen partly inferior.—
Gathered by Gmelin in Siberia. Morifon {peaks of. his
plant as common in gardens, yet we fcarcely recollect to
have feen the true pun@ata in any collection. Gmelin’s
f{pecimen has feveral radical /eaves, of a roundifh form, an
inch wide, veiny, minutely hairy, of a light grafs green, with
broad, deep, callous-pointed teeth, or ferratures, but delti-
tute of any cartilaginous edge; the bafe tapering down
into a footfalk, which is three or four'times as long as the
leaf, and bordered at the bafe with a ftipulaceous membrane.
Stem a foot high, firiated; leaflefs below ; panicled and fome-
what corymbofe above, with numerous, very {mall flowers,
on hairy » with {mall entire bra@eas. Calyx embracing
about one-fourth of the germen, its fegments ereét, or
fomewhat fpreading, broad, fhort and obtufe. Of the
petals we cannot judge. The germen is ovate, much longer
than the calyx.

S. leucanthemifolia. Ox-eye-leaved Saxifrage. Lapeyr.
Pyren. v. 1. t. 25. (S. Clufii; Gouan Illultr. 28, ex-
cluding the fynonym of Clufius. Sanicule alpine aliqua-
tenis affinis; Baub. Hift. v. 3. 708.)—Leaves oblong,
broadly toothed ; wedge-fhaped and entire at the bafe, with
bordered foot{talks. Stem panicled, leafy, with lanceolate
braéteas. Calyx reflexed. Germen entirely fuperior,—
Found on the borders of mountain, rivulets, in the fouth of
France and north of Italy. ‘I’his is nearly akin to the latt,
but befides the eflential differences indicated in the above
charaéter, the ‘aves are more hairy; the flowers larger,
with white unfpotted petals; and the panicle is accom-
panied at its primary divifions with deeply-toothed /eaves.
Bauhin’s figure and defcription, cited by Gouan, anfwer
well to our plant.

§. umbrofa. London pride, or None-fo-pretty. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 574. Willd, n. 20. Ait. n.15. FI. Brit. n.
Engl. Bor t. 663. (Geum folio fubrotundo minori, pil-
tillis floris rubro ; Magn. Hort. $8. t. 14.) —Leayes A
vate, bluntifh, with a cartilaginous notched margin ; taper-
ing at the bafe. Stem naked, panicled. Calyx reflexed,
inferior.—Found by ‘Tournefort on hills in the wedtern
part of Spain. It grows on feveral of the Irifh mountains,

Vor. XXXII.

as well as in Yorkthire, and is one of the moft popular of
our garden flowers, thriving amid the London {moke, and
flowering from April to June. The aves form large rofe-
like tufts, and are more rigid and coriaceous than in the
two la{t-defcribed fpecies, as well as quite {mooth; often pur-
ple beneath ; their edges white and horny, bluntly ferrated ;
the bafe tapering, in a wedge-like fhape, into the flat foot-
ftalk, which varies in length. Stem from nine to eighteen
inches high, ere&, panicled, red and hairy, with a few
{mall fcattered entire bradeas. Flowers numerous, ere,
without fcent. Calyx reddifh. Petals obtufe, white or
flefh-coloured, beautifully fpotted with yellow near the
bafe, and dark red towards the extremity. Germen deep
red, entirely fuperior. Cap/ule purplith.

S. hirfuta. Hairy Oval-leaved Saxifrage. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 574. ‘Willd. n. 21. Ait. n. 16. Lapeyr. Pyren.
v. I. 45.t. 23. Engl. Bot. t. 2322.—Leaves oval, fome-
what heart-fhaped, abrupt, with a cartilaginous notched
margia.. Stem naked, panicled. Calyx reflexed, inferior. —
Native of the Pyrenées, as well as of the mountains of Ireland,
in which lat country it was difcovered by Mr. I. T. Mackay.
This is an intermediate fpecies between umbrofa and Geum ;
poflibly a variety of one or the other. The hairinefs of
the lem, which gave rife to the name, is variable. The
flowers mott refemble the laft defcribed; but the aves
differ in their rounder figure, and in being heart-fhaped,
not decurrent nor wedee fhaped, at the bafe, with fmaller
blunter notches. Their footflalks are hairy. Magnol’s plate,:
cited by Linnzus, is faid by Lapeyroufe to be, in its general
afpeét, good, but in the details incorret. To us it feems
rather to reprefent the following, to which we venture
therefore to transfer the fynonym in queftion.

S. Geum. Kidney-leaved Saxifrage. Linn. Sp. Pl. 574.
Willd. n. 23. Ait.n.18. Lapeyr. Pyren. v. 1. 46. t. 24.
Engl. Bot. t. 1561. (Geum folio circinnato, acuté crenato,
piltillo florisrubro; Magn. Hort. 87. t. 13. Sedum mon-
tanum rotundifolium minus album, non guttatum; Morif.
vy. 3. 478. Sanicula montana minor; Cluf. Pann. 441.)—
Leaves roundith-kidney-fhaped, fharply toothed. Stem
naked, panicled. Calyx reflexed, inferior.—Native of the
Hungarian, Pyrenzan and Irifh mountains. Mr. Mackay
found it in the county of Kerry. This differs from the
laft in its fhorter, more kidney-fhaped aves, whofe edges
are lefs préceptibly cartilaginous. The petals are white,
with one yellow fpot only, and a purplifh claw. We have
fome Irifh fpecimens, the teeth of whofe aves are broad
and abrupt, more like the figure of Lapeyroufe than that
of Magnol, or Engl. Bot. ‘The petals moreover have each
two red fpots, befides the yellow ftain, Can this be a
diltiné {pecies, or only an intermediate variety, or mule?
All the three laft deferibed are very nearly akin, and yet
appear to have fufficient marks of difference; but their
feeming varicties are extremely puzzling.

S. cuneifolia. Wedge-leaved Saxifrage. Linn. Sp. Pl.
574 Willd. n. 22. Ait. n. 17. Waldft. and Kitaib,

Hung. v. 1. 43. t.44. (S.n.9743 Hall. Hilt, vy, 1. 418,
Cotyledon altera olim Matthiolo; Bauh. Hitt. v. 3. O84.
Cotyledonis aut Sedi fpecies quedam; Geln. Vale. 29,
t. 12. f. 37.)—Leaves wedge-fhaped, very obtufe, with wavy
teeth. Stem naked, panicled, Calyx inferior, reflexed
after flowering. —Native of the alps of Styria and Switzer-
land. Sent to Kew in 1768 by M. de Sauffure. ‘This is
nearly allied to the three laft, but in all its parts about
half the fize, and fcarcely at all hairy, except the flower-

SJlalks. "The leaves ave quite [mooth and even ; often purple
underneath, Panicle fender, of but few flowers. Petals
white, and ay far as we can difcover, dellitute of {pots

4B Calyx

SAXIFRAGA.

Calyx at firit {preading, but reflexed as the flower begins
to fade.

Se&.2. Leaves undivided. Stem entirely leafy.

S. oppofitifolia. Purple Bet oo Linn. Sp. Pl..575.
Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 148. t. 2. f. 1. Willd. n. 24. Ait. n. 19.

Fl. Brit. n. 4. Engl. Bot.t.9. Curt. Lond. fafe. 6. t. 27.,

Fl. Dan. t. 34. (S.n. 9803 Hall. Hift.v.1.420. Sedulis
alpinis cognata; ut et Herniaria petrea; Gefn. Fafc. 26.
t. g. f. 32, 33-)—Leaves oppofite, ovate, obtufe, flefhy,
fringed; the lower ones imbricated, keeled and abrupt.
Germen half inferior.—Native of rocky alpine precipices
throughout Europe, flowering in the fpring. Frequent in
gardens, where, if cultivated in pots and fheltered in a frame
in winter, it makes a beautiful appearance with its copious
purple bloffoms, in March and April. The lems are
branched, proftrate and entangled, compofing denfe, leafy,
evergreen tufts, very variable in luxuriance. Leaves alfo
very variable ; the lower ones fhort and abrupt, marked at
the end with one deprefled point, like thofe of §. cefia ; thofe
of the flowering branches larger, flatter, and more diftant.
Flowers larger than the leaves, terminal, moftly folitary.
Petals of a purplith crimfon, unfpotted. :

The retu/a of Gouan’s Obf. t. 18. f. 1. Lapeyr. Pyren.
y. 1.38. t.18; figured alfo in Petiver’s Gazophylacium,
t. 65. f. 14; appears from an examination of many fpeci-
mens, to be but a more {tarved or condenfed ftate of S$. pur-
purea; while the diforaof Allioni, Lapeyr. Pyren. v. 1. 37.
t. 17, is a more luxuriant and dilated form of the fame
plant, in confequence of a more favourable foil and climate.
This latt is Haller’s n. 981, and we mutt allow its firft ap-
pearance to be very different from our ordinary purpurea.

S. afpera. Rough Saxifrage. Linn. Sp. Pl. 575. Willd.
n.25. Ait.n. 20. Jacq. Auttr. v. 5. 44. append. t. 31.
ente alpinum foliis crenatis afperis ; Gefn. Fafe. 22. t. 6.
27.)—Leaves lanceolate, alternate, fringed. Stems pro-
cumbent. Germen fuperior—A common plant on the
loftieft alps of Europe, but not of Britith growth. The

ftems form tufts, as in the preceding ; but the /eaves are
alternate, long, acute, almoft linear, and the flowers cream-
coloured, fomewhat panicled, on long flender ttalks.

S. Hirculus.. Yellow Marth Saxifrage. Linn. Sp. Pl.
576. Willd. n. 26. Ait. n.21- Fi. Brit. n.'5. Engl.
Bot. t. 1009. Curt. Lond. fafc. 6. t. 26. Fl. Dan. t. 200.
(S. n. 972; Hall. Hilt. v. 1. 417. t. 11. Chamaciltus
frificus; Ger. Em. 1284. Hirculus frificus; Cluf. Cur.
Poft. 5, 6.)—Leaves lanceolate, alternate, without teeth or
fringe. Stem ere€&t. Germen ovate, fuperior.—Native of
turfy bogs in Lapland, Siberia, Germany, Switzerland, and
England. It has leng been known on Koutsford moor,
Chefhire, and has lately been difcovered, by Mr. John Binks,
on Cotherftone fell, near the jun€tion of the Blackbeck with
the Baulder, Yorkfhire. It flowers in Augult, and is a
handfome as well as peculiar fpecies. The roots creep by
means of leafy {cyons. The /fems are from fix to twelve
inches high, fimple, ere&t. Leaves an inch or more in
length, tapering into a footftalk, obtufe, fmooth, except an
occafional rufty fhagginefs on fome of the uppermott, at the
back. Flowers one, two, or three at the fhaggy top of the
ftem, large and fhowy. Calyx reflexed. Petals elliptical,
ribbed, rh full yellow, beautifully dotted with red in their
lower half, and furnifhed witht two remarkable protuberances
juft above the bafe. Stamens yellow, flender. Germen green.
It is ftrange that this and the following fhould ever have
been confounded.

S. aizoides. Yellow Mountain Saxifrage. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 576. Willd.n.27. Ait.n.22. Fl. Brit.n.6. Engl.
Bot.t. 39. (S.awtumnalis; Willd. n. 28. Fl. Dan. t. 72.

Scop. Carn. v. 1. 293. t.14. S.n.g713; Hall. Hilt. v. 1.
417- Sedum alpinum primum Clufii; Ger. Em. 516.)—
Leaves alternate, linear, with fringe-like teeth. Stem de-
cumbent at the bafe. Germen depreffed, half inferior.—
Native of lofty mountains throughout Europe, in wet boggy
{pots, flowering all f{ummer long. Few plants vary more in
fize and luxuriance ; and, like all thefe alpine Saxifrage,
the /eaves are very variable in fize and compaétnets, being
often deprived of their utual rigid fringe. Hence authors
have made two fpecies. Several flowers terminate each
branch, and are very handfome, of a more or lefs deep yel-
low, dotted with crimfon.- The depreffed half-inferior ger-
men, often red at the top, clearly diftinguifhes this, in its
effential charaéter, from §. Hirculus, to which indeed the
whole plant has but little refemblance.

S. rotundifolia. Round-leaved Spotted Saxifrage. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 576. Willd. n. 29. Ait.n.23. Curt. Mag.t. 424.
Lapeyr. Pyren. v.1. 50.t.26. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth.t. 377,
unpublifhed. (S.n. 975; Hall. Hilt. v. 1. 418. Sanicula
alpina; Gefn. Fafc. 19. t. 10. f. 25. Camer. Epit. 764.
S. guttata; Ger. Em. 788.)—Radical and ftem-leaves
kidney-fhaped, toothed, ftalked. Stem panicled. Calyx in-
ferior, fpreading. Found on the alps of Auttria, Switzer.
land, Savoy, Crete and Greece, chiefly in fhady fituations,
It has been cultivated in our gardens from the time of Ge-
rarde, and flowers abundantly in May. The roofs are fibrous
and perennial. Stem a foot or more in height, ereé, leafy,
unbranched, except at the top, where it forms a large hairy
panicle of moit elegant flowers, whofe white petals are co-
pioufly dotted with crimfon. Their calyx, though altogether
inferior, is never reflexed at any ftage of growth. The
leaves grow on long hairy ttalks, and refemble thofe of §.
Geum and its allies, to which this {pecies, except in having a
leafy flem, is moft nearly related.

Sect. 3. Leaves lobed. Flowering-flems ered.

S. granulata. White, or Granulated, Meadow Saxifrage.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 576. Willd. n. 30. Ait. n. 25. Fl. Brit.
n.7- Engl. Bot.-t. 500. Curt. Lond. falc. 1. t. 30.
Woody. Suppl. t.232. Fl.Dan. t. 514. (S.alba; Ger.
Em. 841. S. quarta; Camer. Epit. 719.)—Leaves kid-
ney-fhaped, lobed. Stem panicled. Root granulated.
Germen half-inferior. This fpecies inhabits dry gravelly
pattures and meadows, fometimes moift fituations, or fhad
banks, in moft parts of Europe. In England it is not a
general plant, though frequent in Norfolk and other gravelly
counties, but not in the mountainous or micaceous tracts.
The little granular knobs of the perennial root have, on
account of their fhape, been foolifhly fuppofed good for the
gravel or ftone. The /lems are a foot high; fimple below.
Herbage downy, or rather hairy. Fowers loofely panicled,
large, white, and, as in all of this fection, unfpotted. Calyx
brown or reddifh, hairy and vifcid. The radical /eaves have
long ftalks.. A variety with double flowers is common in
gardens, making an elegant appearance in May. "

S. bulbifera. Bulbous Meadow Saxifrage. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 577. Willd. n. 31. (Saxifragia bulbofa altera bulbifera
montana; Column. Ecphr. 318. t. 317. Sedum rotundi-
folium ere&tum foboliferum ; Morif. feet. 12. t.9. f. 24.)
—Leaves roundifh-kidney-fhaped, lobed. Flowers ofe.
Germen half-inferior, Stem bearing axillary bulbs.—Na-
tive of thady, ftony paftures, among the mountains of Ttaly
and Switzerland, flowering in April and May. Seguier,
Haller, and by their perfuafion Linnzus, have confidered
this as a variety of the Tat ; while Gunner has miftaken for
it a flight variety of S. cernua, figured in F). Dan, t. 390,
taking from Linneus the character of germen inferior, which
however eXilts not in this variety, any more than in cernua

5 itfelf.

SAXIFRAGA.

itfelf. §. bulbifera is truly diftin@ from granulata, which it
moit refembles, in the root being an aflemblage of {mall, erect,
crowded, oval knobs, not of round ones connected: by a
fibre ; but efpecially in the cymofe inflore/cence, which, like
the fem, is befet with bulbs.or knobs. The whole plant
too 1s more hairy, and the flowers not half fo large. Itisa
firanger in the Englifh gardens. Morifon’s figure is copied
from the excellent one of Columna. The germen is rather
more inferior in this fpecies than in the granulata. :

S. cernua. Drooping Bulbous Saxifrage. Linn. Sp. PI.
577- El. Lapp.ed. 2. 140. t.2.f.4. Willd. n. 32. Ait.
n.25. Fl. Brit.n.8. Engl. Bot.t. 664. Fl. Dan. t. 22,
and t. 390.—Leaves palmate, ftalked. Stem with aggregate
axillary bulbs. Germen fuperior. Petals blunt.—Native
of alpine rills in Lapland, more rarely in Scotland. Mr. Dick-
fon difcovered this plant on the fummit of Ben Lawers,
flowering in July. Mr. W. Hooker found it, though not
abundantly, in Iceland. It is much {maller and more deli-
cate than eithér of the lait-defcribed, as well as nearly {mooth.
The fem and bulbs are purple. Flower terminal, white,
folitary, moftly drooping. Sometimes the /fem has a few
alternate branches, tipped with granular bulbs. We are now
fatisfied that both the above plates of F/. Dan. reprefent
one f{pecies.

5. rivularis.

Alpine Brook Saxifrage. Linn. Sp. Pl.

577- Fi. Lapp. ed. 2. 142. ti2..f.7. Willd. n. 33. Ait.
n. 26. Fl. Brit. n. 9. Engl... Bots t.. 2275. Fl. Dan.
t.118. Purfh n. 15.—Leaves palmate, ftalked ; the upper-

moft fpatulate. Stem with few flowers. Root fibrous.
Germen half-inferior.—Native of mountain rills in Lapland,
Labrador, and the Highlands of Scotland, flowering in June
and July. The fibrous, partly creeping, root ; {maller fize,

perfect {moothnels, of the herb ; and half-inferior germen ;
diltinguith this from the laft. The petals too are much fmaller
in comparifon with the fegments of the calyx.

S. fibirica. Siberian Saxifrage. Linn. Sp. Pl. 577.
Willd. n. 36.—Leaves kidney-fhaped, palmate, hairy. Stem
and flower-ftalks capillary. Root fibrous. Germen fupe-
rior.—Native of Siberia. This has the habit of S. cernua,
but the aver are more deeply divided and very hairy, nor is
there any appearance of bulbs. The flowers are few, large,
white, rather drooping, folitary at the ends of the capillary
ttalks, and the petals are ovate, ut, asin cernua, obovate with
taper claws. Fl. Dan. t. 22. exaétly reprefents the petals of
5. fibirica, yet we cannot {uppofe it to have been drawn from
this {pecies.

S. geranioides. Crane’s-bill-leaved Saxifrage. Linn. Sp.

Pl. 578. Willd. n. 34. Ait. n. 27. Lapeyr. Pyren.
v. 1. 66. t. 43. Gouan. Obf. 28. t. 18. f. 2, from the
author. — Radical leaves kidney-fhaped, tive-lobed, fub-
divided ; ftem-leaves digitate, with linear fegments. Stem
corymbofe, many-flowered. Calyx hairy; its fegments
linear-lanceolate, {uperior.—Native of the Pyrenees; kept
in fome curious gardens, 28 a hardy perennial, without dif-
ficulty, flowering in the {pring. ‘Phe /eaves are numerous
on the {preading lower branches. Flowering Slems ereé&, al-
mott leaflefs, bearing numerous whitith fowers in compound
corymbofe panicles, with remarkably elongated petals and
calyx. 8. pedemontana, Allion. Pedem. v. 2. 73. t. 21,
f. 5, 6, communicated to us by the author himfelf, appears
to be a variety of geranivides, whofe leaves are more clon-
— into a wedge-like form at the bafe, and their fegments
ufuall s compound and divaricated. Poflibly 8. pedati-
Jida, Ebrh. Exfice. n. 15. Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 10.
340. Engl. Bot. t. 2278. Ait. n. 295 which is guinque-
Sida of Don's Cambridge Catalogue; may be, on the other
hand, a more divided-leaved variety of the fame {pecies.

S. trifurcata. Shining-calyxed Saxifrage. Schrad. Hort.
Getting. 13. t.7. (S.ceratophylla; Sims in Curt. Mag.
t. 1651. Ait. ni 28.)— Smooth. Leaves three-lobed,
channelled, acute; the fegments of the radical ones threes
cleft, faleate. Stem panicled. Calyx variihed.—Native
of Spain. Introduced into England in 1804. It flowers
in May and June, and requires the fhelier of a frame in
winter. The /eaves have a peculiarly rigid {mooth afpe&.
Flowers white ; their calyx fuperior, as in all this tribe.

S. ajugifolia. Bugle-leaved Saxifrage. Linn. Sp. Pl.
578. Willd. n. 55. Ait. n..30. Lapeyr. Pyren. v. 1.
56. t. 31.—Leaves fomewhat palmate, with three or five
flat, linear, obtufe, roughifh fegments; the floral ones un-
divided. Stem afcending, panicled. Calyx downy and
vifcid.—Native of the Alps and Pyrenees, in lofty fitua-
tions. The very narrow blunt fegments of the copious
leaves, which clothe the numerous, tufted, radical branches,
diftinguifh this from all the preceding. The flowers are
{mall, cream-coloured or greenifh, fometimes tinged with
purple. Calyx hairy and vifcid, the fegments of a much
fhorter and broader proportion than in §. geranioides. Few
botamilts have been well acquainted with this {pecies, the
Swifs and Italians having generally taken it for Aypnoides.
Lapeyroule’s /adanifera, t. 42, is furely no more than a
variety. The name ajugifolia feems to refer to Ajuga-
Chamepitys of Fl. Brit. ‘hough Linnzus erroneoutly
made that plant a Zewcrium, Camerarius had called it Ajuga.
S. intricata, Lapeyr. Pyren. t. 33; and one fent by Dr.
Bellardi under the name of elongata, are very nearly allied
to ajugifolia, though we dare not, from the examination of
dried {pecimens alone, fay they are the fame.

S. tridaéylites. Rue-leaved Saxifrage. Linn. Sp. Pl.
578. Willd. n. 38. Ait. n. 32. Fi. Brit. n. 10. Engl.
Bot. t. sor. Curt. Lond. fafe. 2. t. 28. (Paronychia
rutaceo folio; Ger. Em. 624.)— Leaves wedge-fhaped,
with three or five fegments; the uppermoft undivided.
Stem panicled. Calyx fuperior, one-fourth as long as the
germen.—Common on walis, {andy ground, and fometimes
on alpine rocks, throughout Europe, flowering in the early
{pring. The root is {mall and annual, a very unufual cir-
cumftance in this genus. Herb downy, vifcid, reddifh,
varying much in luxuriance, but the whole /lem is more or
lefs copioufly panicled, from one to fix inches high. Flowers
{mall, white, with a large, urn-fhaped, downy, inferior
germen, aud minute calya.

_ §. petrea. Bufhy Rock Saxifrage. Linn. Sp. Pl. 578.
Wulf. in Jacq. Coll. v. 1. 200. Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 81.
(Saflifragia bianca petrea; Pon. Bald. 183. Segu. Veron.
v. 1. 447. Cluf. Hilt. v. 2. 337. Sedum tridactylites
alpinum majus album; Bauh. Pin. 284. Morif. fect. 12.
t. 9. f. 28. Sanicula alpina; Pluk. Phyt. t. 222. f. 3.)—
Leaves palmate, in three deep, jagged, fomewhat three-
cleft, lobes. Stem lax, much branched and leafy through-
out. Calyx fuperior, with ovate digress Petals emar-

inate. Stalks elongated, fingle-flowered. — Found by
a and Seguier, flowering in Bae and July, on the pre-
cipices of mount Baldus; and by Wulfen in a rocky forett,
near Haafberg, in Carinthia. It is one of the rarett of its
genus, as wel as the leaft underftood, Linnwus having af-
filted in embroiliog its hiftory ; and all other writers, except
Wulfen and Seguier, having confounded it with other
plants. Willdenow’s enumeration of fynonyms is, above
all others, faulty ; nor do we know whether this {pectes 1s
entitled to a place in Mr. Aiton’s work, but we rather be.

lieve not. Linnaeus has, in the firft place, erred in taking
for Pona’s plant, before he had feen the trug one, a mere
luxuriant Lapland fpecimen of §. tridadylites. (See Fl,

4B2 Lapp.

%

SAXIFRAGA.

Lapp. n. 173, and Fl. Suec. ed. 2. n. 375.) Willdenow,
led as it feems by Vahl, has referred to petrea the adfcendens
of many authors, but not of Linnzus, and has made a dif-
tin fpecies, by the name of rupeffris, n. 37, of the plant
of Wulfen and Jacquin. The true petrea, fent by Seguier
to Linnzus, and firft defined in Syit. Nat. ed. ro. v. 2.
1027, appears to be an annual plant, having a fingle, {mall,
tapering root. Stems one or more, about fix inches high,
branched from the bottom throughout, in an alternate man-
ner, round, downy, loofely {preading, of a weak and deli-
cate habit, many-flowered, often purplifh. Leaves feveral
at the root, and many {cattered about the flem, all ftalked,
hairy, light green, rather flefhy and tender, divided, fre-
queatly almoit to the bafe, into three principal lobes, which
are varioufly cut, and often fomewhat three-lobed ; the
upper leaves are lefs divided, and thofe of the ultimate
branches quite entire. Flower-falks lateral and terminal,
folitary, fimple, long, flender, hairy, fingle-flowered.
Segments of the calyx about the length of the hairy germen,
entirely fuperior, ovate, obtufe, three-ribbed, flightly
downy, pale or whitith. Petals thrice as long as the calyx,
obovate, emarginate as in Pona’s figure, white, unfpotted,
triple-ribbed. We truft that this defcription, and the
figures cited, will prevent all poffibility of mittake in
future.

S. adfcendens. Wedge-leaved Saxifrage. Linn. Sp. Pl.
ed. 1. 405. ed. 2. 579. Aallion. Pedem. v. 2. 72. t. 22.
f. 3. Wulf. in Jacq. Coll. v. 1. 197. t. 11, and t. 12.
f. 1,2. (S. petrea; Willd. n. 39, excluding the Linnean
fynonyms. Ait. n. 33. Fl. Dan. t. 68. Gunn. Norv.
v. 2. 30. t.g. §. hypnoides; Scop. Carn. v. 1. 296.
t.16. S.n. 987; Hall. Hift. v. 1. 422. Sedum tridac-
tylites alpinum majus tertium; Bauh. Prodr. 131.) —
Leaves wedge-fhaped, toothed at the extremity. Stem fo-
litary, ere€t, leafy, panicled. Calyx fuperior, with ovate
fegments. Petals fomewhat emarginate.—Common on thie
lofty mountains of Norway, Carinthia, Switzerland, &c.
Haller hefitated to feparate this plant from the common
tridaaylites, and moft other authors have taken it for the
petrea. From both it is unqueftionably diftin@. Wulfen
afferts the root to be perennial, though fibrous. ‘The /fem
is always folitary, from two to five inches high, ereé, ftout,
round, downy, leafy; for the moft part fimple below,
though more or lefs branched above. eaves numerous,
efpecially at the root, all wedge-fhaped, tapering down into
a broad flat ftalk, which is very fhort in the upper ones ;
their fub{tance coriaceous, with feveral ftraight ribs; their
furface a little hairy and vifcid; their lateral margins
ftraight and entire ; the extremity abrupt, ftrongly and va-
rioufly toothed. The inflore/cence, in {mall plants, is fimply
racemofe ; but ufually panicled in a corymbofe manner, the
primary flower being larger than the reft, and furmounted
by them. Their partial ftalks, as well as the petals, are
much fmaller than in S. petrea, and the whole plant more
ftraight, clofe, and erect. Linnaeus defcribed it from
Burfer’s {pecimen, as appears by a mark in his own co of
Bauhin’s Pinax ; but he fubfequently miflook for the fame
the petraa of Gouan, which latter 1s the ad/cendens of his
Mantifla 2, 384. The younger Linnzus feems to have in-
tended calling our prefent fpecies premorfa, a much better
name than adfcendens ; for whatever might accidentally be
the poflure of Burfer’s {pecimen, the ftem is naturally very
ttraight and upright, fo that /fri@a would have been more
appolite.

S. aquatica. Water Saxifrage. Lapeyr. Pyren. t. 28,
29. (S. petrea; Gouan. Ob{. ag. t. 18. f. S. ad-
fcendens; Linn. Mant. 2. 384, excluding Aliioni’s fy-

nonym. Willd. n. 40. Ait. n. 34? ~S..n. 990; Hall.
Hitt. v. 1. 423. S. pyrenaica tridaétylites latifolia; Tourn.
init. 253.)—Leaves in three deep, palmate, deeply cut
lobes. Stem panicled, ereét, leafy. Calyx fuperior, with
ovate fegments. Petals entire. Stalks fomewhat corym-
bofe.—Native of the Pyrenées. Notwith{tanding Gouan’s
pofitive affertion that this plant proved, on comparifon, the
fame with Seguier’s pefrea from mount Baldus, we can aver
that they are diftincét. Copious original fpecimens, from
both authors, are now before us, and the accounts of more
recent ones have illuitrated the fubjeét better than it was
formerly underftood. The prefent is a perennial plant, a
foot high at leaft ; the main /fem ereét, or afcending, ftout,
leafy, downy, fimple and unbranched, except that all its
upper part is panicled, with numerous crowded corymbofe
fowers. Leaves commonly more deeply divided and jagged
than even in petrea ; quite unlike thole of adjcendens. Seg-
ments of the calyx twice as large as in petrea, and more firm
intexture. Petals narrower, and entire, defcribed by Gouan
as either white, or of a fine fulphur colour; in one of his
{pecimens they have five or feven ribs, in another only three.
We do not find the germen at all fuperior, as his figure in
fome meafure exprefles it. Willdenow mott unaccountably
refers to this plant S. decipiens of Ehrhart.

S. mofchata. _Mufky Alpine Saxifrage. Willd. n. 41.
Ait. n. 35. . Fl. Brit. n.12. Engl. Bot. t. 2314. La-
peyr. Pyren. v. 1. 61. t. 37, 38. Wulf. in Jacq. Mifc.
v. 2. 128. t. 21. f. 21? (S. n. 985; Hall. Hilt. v. 1.
421.)—Radical leaves aggregate, thin, linear-lanceolate, un-
divided, rarely ya te triple-ribbed. | Stem nearly
naked, corymbofe, with very few flowers.—Found on the
mountains of Germany, Switzerland, Scotland, Dauphiny,
and the Pyrenées, flowering in May or June. The powrige
branching reots are crowned with many denfe rofe-like tufts
of oblong, obtufe, flat, blunt aves, for the moft part un-
divided, but a few of them are occafionally divided, or three-
cleft. Stems two or three inches high, bearing a few fcat-
tered, moftly undivided /eaves, and terminated by one, two,
or fometimes as many as five flowers, in a corymbofe form,
the later furmounting the earlier ones. The fegments of the
calyx are fuperior, ovate, obtufe, about the length of the
germen, but lefs. hairy. Petals twice as long, obovate,
triple-ribbed, buff-coloured ; their ribs, like the /famens and
Syyks, tinged with red. The whole herb is glutinous, and
minutely hairy, exhaling a mufky aromatic {cent. ;

S. mufcoides. Mofly-tufted Saxifrage. Wulf. in Jacq.
Mifc. v. 2. 123. Wilid. n. 42. (S. cafpitofa; Scop.
Carn. v. 1.293. t. 14. » S. n. 988; Hall. Hift. v. 1. 422.
S. pyrenaica, foliis partim integris, partim trifidis; Hall.
Opufe. It. Helvet. 292. t. 1. Segu. Veron. v. 1. 451.
t. 9. f. 4. fuppl. 205.)—Ratical leaves aggregate, linear,
three-cleft, rarely undivided, ribbed. Stem nearly naked,
with very few, fomewhat racemofe, flowers.—Native of the
mountains of Carniola, Carinthia, Switzerland, and the
Pyrenées. Differs from the lait confiderably in afpect, and
eflentially in its thicker, narrower, more linear or wedge-
fhaped, itrongly ribbed /eaves, almoft always three-cleft
nearly half way down. The /lems are three or four inches
high, flender, bearing a very few undivided or ‘three-cleft
leaves, and one, two, or more yellowifh flowers; {maller than
the preceding, and rather racemofe than corymbofe. The
Swifs botaniits, mifled indeed by Linneus himfelf, ufuall
take this for his c#/pitofa, which is very diftin&t. Wulfen’s
figure in Jacq. Coll. v. 2. t. a1. f. 21, is certainly taken
from mujfcoides, whatever may be intended in his letter-prefs.
We believe the fame is figured in Lapeyroufe, Pyren. t. 35-

S. ca/pitofa. Tufted Alpine White Saxifrage. =

p-

SAXIFRAGA.

Sp. Pl. 578. Willd. n. 43. Ait. n. 36. Fi. Brit. n. rr,
excluding the reference to Scopoli. Engl. Bot. t. 794.
Gunn. Norv. v. 2.135. t. 7. f. 3,4. (S. n. 989; Hall.
Hift. v. 1. 423.)—Radical leaves aggregate, linear-wedge-
fhaped, undivided, three-cleft, ‘or five-cleft, flefhy ; ribbed
beneath. Stem nearly naked, with very few, fomewhat
corymbofe, flowers.—Native of the mountains. of Lapland,
Switzerland, Ireland and North Wales, flowering in June.
The dark-green flefhy /eaves are tufted about the root, or
radical fhoots, and are commonly digitate, with a wedge-
fhaped bafe, flightly hairy and vifcid, without any parti-
cular fmell. Stem two or three inches high, bearing a few
divided or entire leaves, and one or more large white flowers,
with obovate triple-ribbed fera/s. If there be more than one,
the earlier fowers ave always inferior to the others. The
calyx is almoft completely fuperior, with broad ovate feg-
ments.

We are difpofed to confider as varieties of the prefent
f{pecies, the two following.

S. groenlandica. Lian. Sp. Pl. 578. Ait. n. 37. La-
peyr. Pyren. v. 1. 39. t.19. (S. tridactylites groenlandica,
caulibus valde foliofis ; Dill. Elth. 337. t. 253. f 329.)—
This is found on the Pyrenées as well as in Greenland, and
feems to differ only in its {maller fize and more condenfed
habit ; for the flattened woolly ftigmas, indicated by La-
peyroufe, do not eflentially differ from the ordinary ce/pito/a.
Gunner has figured this variety in his v. 2. t. 7. f. 1.

S. hirta, Donn. Cant. ed. 5.107. Engl. Bot. t. 2291,
appears to be, on the other hand, a more dilated and luxu-
riant form of ce/pitofa.. Mr. I. T. Mackay has favoured the
writer of this with a {till more luxuriant {pecimen than that
in Engl. Bot., bearing nine flowers, the root of which,
when taken from the lofty top of Brandon mountain in the
county of Kerry, bore plants of the common fize and afpect
of wild cefpitofa. S$. levis of Donn and Haworth, found by
Mr. Mackay in the fame fpot, is evidently a {mooth variety
of hirta, more flender in all its parts. Thefe {pecimens
teach us caution in eltablifhing {pecies of Saxifraga, and
prove that too many of this particular tribe have been’ made
by our Britifh cultivators. Willdenow confiders Allioni’s
pedemontana, like his hypnoides, as belonging to capitefa.
What the latter may be we are not certain, but the former
we have little fcruple in referring, as above, to geranioides.
The long calyx is totally unlike cafpitefa-

S. tricufpidata, Willd. ». 44. Fl. Dan. t. 976, feems
by its {potted petals, akin to ieveral {pecies in the fecond
feétion, notwithitanding its lobed /eaves ; but we have feen
no {pecimen.

S. palmata. Palmate Saxifrage. Fl. Brit. n. 13. Engl.
Bot. t. 455. Ait. n. 38. (S. decipiens; Ehrh. Herb. 5 ?)—
Leaves hairy, palmate, with a linear-wedge-fhaped bate ;
the lower five-lobed ; upper three-lobed. Shoots afcending.
Stem ereét, leafy, with a denfe panicle of few flowers.
Petals roundifh. Found by Mr. Griffith, on the rocks of
Cwm Idwell, North Wales, flowering in May: This is
S. petraa of Withering, and we have been dilpofed to con-
fider it as the ce/pitofa of Fl. Dan. t. 71. How far it is

anently diftinét from the real ca/pitofa, may admit of
fome doubt. It is extremely like Ehrhart’s own {pecimens
wf his decipiens, except the roundifh, not obovate, petals ;
nor are we fure how far circumftances may affect even that
charaéter, as our various {pecimens differ among themfelves.

S. platypetala. Broad-petalled Saxifrage. Sm. ‘Tr. of
Linn. Soc. v. 10. 341. Engl. Bot. t. 2276.—Leaves in
three or five briftle-pointed fegments. Shoots procumbent.
Stem fomewhat Te Petals obovate, nearly orbicular.—
Native of Snowdon, according to Mr. D, Turner; and of

6

the mountains of Clova, in Angusfhire, according to the
late Mr. G. Don. This is fufficiently diftin& from all the
foregoing, if it be not a variety of Aypnoides, hereafter de-
{eribed. The three, five, or feven, narrow divaricated lobes
of the /eaves, are each tipped with a hair or briitie-lke
point. Shoots long, trailing, leafy. Flowers large, white,
panicled, ufually four. Calyx brittle-pointed. Petals almoft
orbicular in their limb, each with three ribs, of which the
external ones fend off many {mall lateral branches. Stalks
and calyx covered with brown glandular vifcid hairs. Germen
partly fuperior.

S. elongella. Long-ttalked Saxifrage. Donn. Cant.
ed. 5. 107. Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 10. 340. Engl.
Bot. t. 2277.—Leaves in three or five briitle-pointed feg-
ments; their bafe elongated ; the uppermott linear and un-
divided. Flower-ftalks very long and naked.—Gathered
by Mr. G. Don ona rock by a river called Lintrathen, a
mile and a half north of Airly caftle, Angusfhire, flower-
ing in June. The creeping /lems fend off many leafy fhoots.
The lower /eaves on each branch, and one or two below the
flower-ttalk, are undivided, and nearly linear; the rett,
from a long narrow bafe, divide fuddenly into three fhort,
acute, nearly equal lobes, the lateral ones rarely cloven.
All the eaves are more or lefs fringed with foft hairs, and
their points tipped with a fmall briftle. The greateft pecu-
liarity of this {pecies confifts in its folitary, fimple, termi-
nal, naked flower-flalks, very {lightly glandular, each about
two inches tall, and bearing a very large white flower,
whofe obovate fefa/s are ribbed in a fimilar manner to the
laft. By culture one or two lateral divided flower-/lalks
are fometimes produced; but this is accidental. Strittly
{peaking, this might be referred to the next feCtion, but
it would be offering great violence to nature.

S. Aypnoides. Motly Saxifrage, or Ladies? Cufhion.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 579. Willd. n. 49. Ait. n. 40. Fl. Brit.
n. 14, Engl. Bot. t. 454. Fl. Dan. t. 348. Lapeyr.
Pyren. t. 32. (Sedum alpinum trifido folio; Morif.
fect. 12. t. g.. f. 26.) —Leaves linear ; undivided or three-
lobed, briftle-pointed. Shoots procumbent. Stem fome-
what leafy, with a corymbofe panicle. Petals elliptic-
oblong.—Native of the mountains of Derbythire, Weit-
moreland, Scotland, and Wales, as well as of Norway and
the Pyrenées ; but we can find no certain proof of its being
a Swifs or German plant, fo many things having been by
various authors miftaken for it, that we dare not truit
the reports of any. Nothing is more commonly cultivated
in gardens, where it thrives much on fhady walls or rock-
work, flowering in the early part of fummer. The long
entangled leafy /hoots form denfe mofly tufts of a light
green. ‘The leaves are fearcely ever more than three-cleft,
moltly undivided, fomewhat fringed ; thofe on the prottrate
fhoots often bearing pale, axillary, bulb-like, oval buds,
as deferibed by Lapeyroufe, but this is a cafual circum-
{tance. Flowers from three to fix or cight in each level-
topped panicle. Pe/als much narrower and more oblong
than in S. platypetala, triple-ribbed, the mid-rib fometimes
branched at the top. Germen not quite half fuperior.

Seétion 4. Leaves lobed. Stems procumbent.

S. cymbalaria. Yellow Proltrate Baxiteaney Linn. Sp.
Pl. 579. Willd. n. 45, excluding ‘l'ournefort’s fynonym.
Sm. Fl. Grac. Sibth, t. 378, unpublifhed. (5. orientalis;
Jacq. Obf. fafe. 2. g. te 34. Willd. a. 47. 5. exigua,
foliis cymbalaria ; Buxb. Cent. 2. 40. t- 45. f. 2. Geum
orientale rotundifolium fupinum, flore aureo ; ‘Tourn. Cor.
18.)—Leaves kidney-fhaped, with about feven lobes; the
uppermolt three-lobed, or undivided. Stems procumbent.
Petals ovate, with two dots near the bafe,—Found on 0

naflus,

SAXIFRAGA.

naflus, Delphi, and other Grecian mountains, in moift
fhady fituations, by Dr. Sibthorp and Mr. Hawkins.
Tournefort had long ago brought this plant from the Eait,
but its precife place of growth was not recorded. The
roots are perennial, creeping, tufted. Stems about a fpan
long, compofing lax procumbent tufts, branched, leafy,
round, {mooth, and flender. Leaves fmooth and fhining,
much refembling thofe of Antirrhinum Cymbalaria, but net
tinged with purple; thofe on the {tem frequently oppofite ;
their footftalks flender, thrice as long as the leaves. Flowers
rather fmali, yellow, folitary, on long, flender, folitary,
chiefly terminal, partly axillary, ftalks. Ca/yx {mooth, re-
flexed, perfe&tly inferior. Peta/s with fhort claws, ovate,
obtufle, each marked near the bafe with two tranfverfe,
prominent, orange-coloured points, in a flightly bordered
cavity, or depreffion.

S. hederacea. Ivy-leaved Saxifrage. Linn. Sp. Pl. 579.
Willd. n. 46. Ait.n.39 Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. t. 379,
unpublifhed. (S. cretica annua minima, hederaceg folio ,
Tourn, Cor, 18.)—Leaves ovate, flightly three-lobed ; the
uppermoft oblong, undivided. Stem thread-fhaped, prof-
trate, flaccid. Petals rounded, with claws.—Gathered by
Tournefort, as well as by Sibthorp, on moift fhady rocks
in Crete and Cyprus. The root is fibrous and annual. Stems
numerous, {preading in every direétion, proftrate, from fix
to twelve inches long, repeatedly branched, flender, {mooth.
Leaves oppofite, roundifh, f{mooth and fhining, unequal,
longer than their footfalks. Flowers axillary and terminal,
very {mall, folitary, on long flender ttalks; their fize and
afpe& like fome Arenaria or Sagina. Calyx {preading, con-
cave, {mooth. Petals white and {potlefs, each with a claw
of its own length. Germen in fome degree inferior, fo as
to juftify Tournefort’s idea of the genus, though the greater
portion is fuperior and ovate, as in the laft. Miller is faid
to have cultivated this fpecies in 1752, but we have never
met with it in any garden. Our f{pecimens have been com-
pared with thofe of Tournefort.

S. mollis. Tender-leaved Saxifrage. (Geum orientale,
cymbalariz folio molli et glabro, flore magno albo; Tourn.
Cor. 18. Voyage, v. 2. 148, with a plate. )—Leaves kid-
ney-fhaped, with about feven lobes; the uppermoft undi-
vided. Stems procumbent. Petals obovate, triple-ribbed.
—Gathered by Tournefort, in the clefts of perpendicular
rocks on mount Ararat, flowering in Auguft. Several
botanifts have confounded this rare f{pecies with one or
other of the two laft deferibed; but they are all perfeétly
diftinét, as appears by Tournefort’s own fpecimens. The
prefent agrees moft in chara¢ter, and mode of growth, with
S. cymbalaria, to which Willdenow refers it, nor was Jac-
pot fatisfied of their being eflentially different. Their
eaves indeed are fimilar, but mott flefhy in the plant before
us, and its flowers are totally unlike cymbalaria, being large
and white, with obovate, green-ribbed, unfpotted petals, and
downy flower-flalks, characters belonging to many f{pecies in
the laft fe€&tion. The form of the /eaves and petals, as well
as the perfectly fuperior germen, and whole habit of the
plant, diftinguifh this fpecies from the weak, trailing, {mall-
flowered §. hederacea.

We have not numbered the {pecies of Saxifraga; becaufe
we have not aimed at a complete view of the whole, but
merely an illuftration of fuch as required it. A few, even
of the Linnwan ones, are therefore not mentioned, becaufe
we had nothing new to remark concerning them. — Still lefs
have we undertaken to define the limits 0 {pecies in various
authors, of which we had accefs to no {pecimens. Several
of thofe we have feen are involved in uncertainty ; for in-
ftance, S! pedinata of Mr. Purth, n. 17, a plant of Mr.

Menzies, with five Myles, and five bivalve cap/ules, confe-
quently no Saxifraga. S. cuneata, Willd. n. 48. (S. cunei-
folia; Cavan. Ic. v. 3. 25. t. 248.), is erroneonfly placed in
the laft feétien of the genus, and evidently, as far as can be
judged by the figure, belongs to the fame tribe as ce/pitofa,
of which it may even be a variety, not very remote from
hirta, Engl. Bot. t. 2291.—Horticulturifts make many
more fpecies of this elegant genus than we are difpofed to
admit, and we prefume not to decide, but rather to contri-
bute to the mafs of praétical obfervation ; for the ufe of
thofe, who with a ftill more complete tock of original
{pecimens, and with more time for inveftigation than prefent
circumttances allow us, may hereafter further elucidate the
matter.

SAXIFRAGA, in Gardening, contains plants of the low,
hardy, herbaceous, perennial kind, of which the {pecies culti-
vated are, the pyramidal faxifrage (S. cotyledon); the
white faxifrage (S. granulata); the thick-leaved faxifra
He: craffifolia) ; the London pride (S. umbrofa) ; the mofly
axifrage. or ladies’ cufhion (S. hypnoides) ; the China faxi-
frage (S. farmentofa) ; and the round-leaved faxifrage (S.
rotundifolia). And there are other {pecies that may be cul-
tivated where great variety is wanted.

In re{pe& to the firft fort it isobferved, that when the plants
are {trong they produge very large pyramids of flowers,
which make a fine appearance ; and being kept in the fhade,
and fcreened from wind and rain, continue in beauty a con-
fiderable time. There are feyeral varieties. ’

The fecond fort varies with double flowers, in which ftate
it is cultivated as an ornamental plant.

In regard to the third fort it is obferved, that the ftem
changes every year into root ; that which flowers one year
lofing its leaves during the-winter, turning to the ground,
becoming black, and putting forth fibres; and after the
plant has flowered, the ftem puts forth branches from the
axils of the leaves, which have the panicles of flowers
for the next year included in their gems. According to
Curtis, the leaves are large, red on the under, and of a fine
fhining green on their upper furface, and may be ranked
among the more handfome kinds of foliage: the flowering
ftems, according to the richnefs and moitture of the foil in
which they are planted, rife from one to two or even three
feet-high ; at top fupporting a large bunch of purple pen-
dulous flowers, expanding in April and May, and, if the
feafon prove favourable, making a fine appearance. It is
likewife remarked, that there is another faxifrage in gardens,
exceedingly like this in appearance, but differing, in produc-
ing larger bunches of flowers, and in having larger, rounder,
and more heart-fhaped leaves.

The fourth fort has the names of none-fo-pretty, and
London pride.

Method of Culture. —The firit fort may be readily increafed
by planting off-fets taken from the fides of the old plants in
{mall pots filled with frefh light earth, placing them in
the fhade during the fummer, but letting them be expofed
to the influence of the fun in winter; all the off-fets fhould
be taken off, as by that means they will flower much ftronger :
the young plants afford flowers the fecond year. The fecond
fort may likewife be increafed in the fame way, which fhould
be planted out where they are to remain in July, when
the {tems decay, in frefh undunged earth, giving them a
fhady fituation till winter ; they fhould be fet out in large
tufts, and when in the open ground have a fhady place
afliyned them. .

The third fort may be increafed with little trouble by
parting the roots, and planting them out in the {pring or
autumn in the open ground, or in pots in the former fituation,

being

We ot em

SAX

being protected in fevere weather, and in the latter removed
to the greenhoufe or a garden-frame.

The fourth may alfo be raifed by off-fets in the fame way,
a fhady fituation being chofen.

The fifth fort is eafily increafed by planting its trailing
rooted branches in the autumn where they are to remain:
it fhould have a moift foil and fhaded fituation.

- The fixth may be readily raifed by the runners, which
may be planted in pots to be placed in thegreenhoufe, though
it will bear the open air in mild winters in a warm fheltered
fituation.

And the laft may be increafed by parting the roots and
planting them out in the early autumn: it fhould have a
moift fhady fituation, with a rather ftiff loamy foil.

They all afford ornament and variety in the clumps,
borders, and other parts of pleafure-grounds ; except the
fixth, which muft have a place in the greenhoufe colletion.

SAXxIFRAGA, Saxifra/a, in the Materia Medica. We have
two very different plants under this name, fo that the writers
on this fubjeé& feem often ftrangely to contradiét one another
in their defcriptions, when they are really defcribing two dif-
ferent plants. The oneis the /axifraga antiquorum. This
is a low plant, fomewhat refembling thyme, and its feed is of
an agreeable fmell, and warm and acrid tafte. The other
is the common white meadow faxifrage, the /axifraga alba, or
S. granulata, a plant of fix or eight inches high, with roundifh
leaves and large white flowers. The root of this fpecies is
granulofe, or made up of a number of {mall knobs, and thefe
are in moft places ufed in the fhops under the name of faxi-
frage feed,

he feeds, which are numerous, very f{mall, and black, and
which were adminiftered by infufing them in white wine, or by

a decoétion in common water, as well as the leaves and roots
of faxifrage, were once in great efteem as aperients and
diuretics, in obitruétions of the menfes, ftranguries, and
nephritic cafes, whence the name ; but they have of late loft
their credit. ‘

Linnzus defcribes the tafte of this plant to be acrid and
pungent, which, fays Dr. Woodville, we have not been able
to difcover: neither the tubercles of the root, nor the leaves,
manifeft to the organs of tafte any quality likely to be of
medicinal ufe; and therefore, though this {pecies of faxifrage
has been long employed as a popular remedy in nephritic
and gravelly diforders, yet we do not find, either from its
fenfible qualities, or from any publifhed inttances of its efli-
cacy, that it deferves a place in the Materia Medica. The
fuperftitious doétrine of fignatures”’ fuggefted the ufe of
the root, which is a good example of what Linnzus has
termed radix granulata. The bulbs or tubercles of fuch
roots anfwer an important purpofe in vegetation, by fup-
plying the plants with nourifhment and morfture, and there-

y enabling them to refift the efforts of that drought to
which the dry foils they inhabit peculiarly expofe them.
Woody. Med. Bot.

SAXIFRAGE, in Botany, the eighty-fourth natu-
ral order in Juffieu’s fyftem, the fecond of his fourteenth
clafs; fee Ficoinem. The charaéters of the order are
thefe.

Calyx {uperior, or more frequently inferior, in four or five
divifions. Petals four or five, rarely wanting, inferted into
the upper part of the calyx, and alternate with its fegments.
Stamens as many, or moftly twice that number, inferted into
the fame place. Germen dmple, fuperior, or rarely inferior.
Styles and figmas two. Fruit often capfular, of one or two
cells, with many feeds, its fummit with two valves, the par-
tition formed by their inflexioms Corculum incurved, fur-
rounding a farinaceous or fomewhat flefhy mafo. Stem gene-

SA XK

rally herbaceous. Zeaves alternate, rarely oppofite ; fome-

times thickifh, or flefhy. ;

2 ig 1. Fruit fuperior, capfular, terminating in two
aks.

Heuchera, Saxifraga, Tiarella, and Mitella. To thefe the
late Mr. Dryander properly added Galax.

Se&. 2. Fruit inferior, capfular or pulpy.

Chryfofplenium and Adoxa.

Set. 3. Genera allied to the Saxifrage.

Weinmannia, Cunonia, and Hydrangea.

Mr. Salifbury in Sims and Konig’s Ann. of Bot. v. 1. 513,
has fuggefted the propriety of eftablifhing another feétion of
this order, with an indefinite number of flamens, which is ex-
emplified in Bauera, a genus named by the writer of this,
and not by his friend fir Jofeph Banks, in honour of thofe
eminent botanifts and draught{men, the two brothers of the
name of Bauer. The author of Bauera however difclaims all
fanciful comparifons between the plant and the perfons
whofe name it bears, as-well as all invidious ones between the
re{peétive merits of the parties, which in his opinion are equal
and unrivalled.

SAXIFRAGE, Burner. See Pimpinecra and ANISE.
The roots of the greater burnet faxifrage with a white
umbel have a hot and pungent, but not very durable, tafte ;
their virtue is extracted partially by water, and completely
by rectified {fpirit. When large quantities are diltilled with
water, there feparates from the water a {mall portion of a
yellowifh effential oil, extremely acrid and fiery. The leaves
and feeds of the plants have likewife a confiderable acrimony ;
the leaves lefs than the feeds, and both lefs than the roots.
This pungent root is in great efteem among the Germans,
asa warm {timulating refolvent, aperient, diaphoretic, &c. in
weaknefs of the {tomach from vifcid phlegm, infarGions of
the breaft, tumours and obftructions of the glands, impurities
of the blood, and, in general, wherever tenacious humours
are to be attenuated, or the fluid fecretions promoted.
It is an ufeful ingredient in our officinal compound arum
powder ; and it is alfo employed as a mafticatory for {timu-
lating the falival glands, and in gargarifm for diflolving vifcid
mucusin the fauces. Lewis Mat. Med.

SAxiFrraGe, Golden. See CurysosPpLENIUM.

SaxiFRAGE, Red, Saxifraga rubra, a name given by fome
botanic authors to the filipendula, or dropwort.

SaxirraGE, Yellow, Saxifraga lutea, a name given by
Fachfius, and fome other authors, to the common melilot.

SAXKIOBING, in Geography, a fea-port town of
Denmark, in the ifland of Lapland, trading chiefly in
corn; 15 miles E. of Nafcow.

SAXMUNDHAM, a market town in the hundred of
Plometyate, and county of Suffolk, England, is fituated on
an eminence, at a fhort diftance from the river Alde, and
diftant 89 miles N.E. from London. The houfes are in
general well-built, but the {treets are narrow and unpaved,
The market day is ‘Thurfday, weekly ; and there are two
annual fairs, on Holy Thurfday, and on the 23d of
September. Here was formerly a houfe of induftry, which
was deftroyed in Augutt, 1766, by ariotous mob, under the
pretence of releafing the poor, but in reality to defeat an
aét of parliament which had jutt paft refpeéting them. On
this oceafion it was neceflary to call in the aflittance of the mi-
litary, and in confequence of refiftance feveral lives were lott.
At the fouthern extremity of the town {tands Hurts-Hall,
a feat belonying to Charles Long, efq. The houfe has been
partly rebuilt, and confiderably enlarged, by the prefent
proprietor ; and has attached to it a large extent of ground
judicioufly laid out, and embellifhed with a fine lake, which,
in one place, is open to the view, and in another is deeply

embolomed

SAX

embofomed in wood. Near this manfion {tands the church
of Saxmundham, a fpacious edifice, containing various mo-
numents to the memory of different members of the Long
family.

According to the population returns for 1811, this parifh
contains 114 houfes and gg inhabitants. Beauties of Eng-
land and Wales, vol. xiv. by F. Shoberl.

SAXO, in Biography, the oldeft of the Danifh hiftorians,
called Grammaticus, on account of his great learning, was
defcended from an illuftrious family, and born in Seland,
but at what time is not known. By fome writers he is
ityled Longus, an epithet which is fuppofed to have been
applied to him in confequence of his ftature. He was fe-
cretary or amanuenfis to Abfolon, archbifhop of Lunden,
by whofe defire he wrote the hiftory of his native country,
in fixteen books, ‘This hiltory commences with Dan, the
firlt king of Denmark, who was contemporary with David,
and terminates with the year 1186. Saxo died in 1204,
and was buried in the cathedral of Rofkild. He collected the
materials of his hiftory from the works of the old Danith
poets, infcriptions on old ftones, the Icelandic chronicles,
and the relation that had been drawn up by his friend and
patron Abfolon. He wrote in Latin, and the ityle, confi-
dering the age in which it was written, is extremely elegant,
but rather too poetical for hiftory. He is highly applauded
by Heinfius and Gerard Voffius ; and Erafmus, {peaking of
his hiitory, fays, ** Probo vividum et ardens ingenium,
orationem nunquam remiflam aut dormitantem, tum miram
verborum copiam, fententias crebras, et figurarum admira-
bilem varietatem, ut fatis admirari, nequeam unde illa ztate
homini Dano tanta vis eloquendi fuppetiverit.”” With
re{peét to the authenticity of the fa&ts, Holberg remarks
that the firft part, which relates to the origin of the Danes
and the reign of the ancient kings, is full of fables, but
that the laft eight books, and particularly thofe that refer
to the events G the author’s own times, deferve the utmoft
credit. :

SAXON, or the Saxon Language, as it is fpoken in Eng-
land, is diftinguifhed by three feveral epochs, aud may there-
fore be divided into three diale&s. The firft of thefe is
that which the Saxons ufed, from their entrance into this
ifland, till the irruption of the Danes, for the {pace of three
hundred and thirty years. This has been called the Britifh
Saxon: and no monument of it remains, except a {mall
metrical fragment of the, genuine Caedmon, inferted in
Alfred’s verfion of the Venerable Bede’s Ecclefialtical Hif-
tory. The fecondis the Danifh Saxon, which prevailed from
the Danifh to the Norman invafion, A. D. 1066; and of which
many confiderable {pecimens, both in verfe and profe, are
ftill preferved: particularly, two literal verfions of the four
gofpels, (MSS. Bibl. Bodl. Oxon. Cod. membran. in Pyxid.
4to. grand. quadrat. And MSS. Cotton. Otho. Nor. D. 4;
both thefe manufcripts, which were written and ornamented
in the Saxon times, are of the higheft curiofity and anti+
quity); and the {purious Caedmon’s beautiful poetical pa-
raphrafe of the Book of Genefis, printed by Junius, Ant.
16553 andthe prophet Daniel. The third may be properly
ityled the Norman Saxon; which began about the time of
the Norman acceffion, and continued beyond the reign of
Henry LI. who died in 1189.

The lait of thefe three dialeéts formed a language extremely
barbarous, irregular, andeintra€table ; and confequently pro-
mifes no very {triking {pecimens in any {pecies of compofi-
tion. Its fubftance was the Danith Saxon, adulterated with
Frerch. The Saxon indeed, a language fubfilling on uni-
form principles, and polifhed by poets and theologilts, how-
ever corrupted by the Danes, had much perfpicuity, ftrength,

SAX

and harmony: but the French imported by the Conqueror and _
his people, was a confufed jargon of Teutonic, Gaulifh, and
vitiated Latin. In this fu€tuating {tate of our national {peech,
the French predominated. Even before the conqneit the
Saxon language began to fall into contempt, and the French,
or Frankifh, to be fubitituted in its ftead: a circumftance
which at once facilitated and foretold the Norman acceflion.
In the year 652, it was the common practice of the Anglo-
Saxons to fend their youth to the monaiteries of France for
education: and not only the language, but the manners of
the French, were efteemed the moft polite accomplifhments.
Inthe reign of Edward the Confeflor, the refort of Normans
to the Englifh court was fo frequent, that the affectation of
imitating the Frankifh cuftoms became almoit univerfal: and
even the lower clafs of people was ambitious of catching the
Frankifh idiom. It was no difficult tafk for the Norman lords
to banifh that language of which the natives began to be
abfurdly afhamed. The new invaders commanded the laws
to be adminiltered in. French. Many charters of monatteries
were forged in Latin by the Saxon monks for the prefent fecu-
rity of their poflefliovs, in confequence of that averfion which
the Normans profefled to the Saxon tongue. Even children
at {chool were forbidden to read in their native language,
and inftruG@ed in a knowledge of the Norman only. In the
mean time we fhould have Me regard to the general and
political {tate of the nation. ‘The natives were fo univerfally
reduced to the lowett condition of negle& and indigence, that
the Englifh name became a term oe reproach: and feveral
generations elapfed, before one family of Saxon pedigree
was raifed to any diltinguifhed honours, or could fo muchas
attain the rank of baronage: Among other inftances. of
that abfolute and voluntary fubmiffion, with which our
Saxon anceitors received a foreign yoke, it appears that they
fuffered their hand-writing to fall into difcredit and difufe ;
which by degrees became fo difficult and obfolete, that few
befide the oldeft men could underttand the charaéters. In
the year 1095, Wolltan, bifhop of Worcefter, was depofed
by the arbitrary Normans : it was objected againft him, that
he was ‘a fuperannuated Englith idiot, who could not {peak
French.”’ It is true, that in fome of the monatteries, par-
ticularly at Croyland and Taviftock, founded by Saxon
princes, there were regular preceptors in the Saxon language:
but this inftitution was fuffered to remain after the conquett,
as a matter only of intereft and neceflity. The religious
could not otherwife have underftood their original charters,
Wiiliam’s fuccellor, Henry I.; gave an inftrumeut of con-
firmation to William archbifhop of Canterbury, which was
written in the Saxon language and letters.

The Saxon.was probably fpoken in the country, yet not
without various adulterations from the French: the courtly
language was French, yet perhaps with fome veitiges of the
vernacular Sason. But the nobles, in the reign of Henry II.
conitantly fent their children into France, lett they fhould
contraét habits of barbarifm in their f{peech, which could
not have been avoided in an Englifh education. From
the declenfion of the barons, and prevalence of the com-
mons, moft of whom were of Englith anceltry, the na-
tive language of England gradually gained ground: till at
length the interett of the commons fo far iucceeded with
Edward III., that an aét of parliament was pafled, ap-
pointing all pleas and proceedings in law to be carried on in
Englifh: although the fame ftatute decrees, in the true
Norman fpirit, that all fuch pleas and proceedings fhould
be enrolled in Latin. Yet this change did not reftore either
the Saxon alphabet or language. It abolifhed a token of
fubjeétion and difgrace : oo in fome degree, contributed to
prevent further foc innovations in the language then

ufed,

SAX

ufed, which yet remained in a compound ftate, and retained
a confiderable mixture of foreign phrafeology. In the mean
time, it muft be remembered, that this corruption of the
Saxon was not only owing to the admiffion of new words, oc-
ceafioned by the new alliance, but to changes of its own forms
and terminations, arifing from reafons which we cannot in-
veftigate or explain. - Warton’s Englifh Poetry, vol.1. See
AnGLO-Saxon and EnGrisuH.

Saxon Blue. See Buve.

Saxon Green, in Dyeing. Sée GREEN.

Saxon Verfion.” See Bisve.

SAXONIA, Hercures, in Biography, was born at
Padua in the year 1551, of a family which had been al-
ready diftinguifhed in the fcience of medicine ; his father,
Vidor, and his paternal uncles, Jerom and Francis, having
held a high medical reputation at Venice and Padua. Fol-
lowing their example, Hercules decided to purfue the fame
profeffion, and obtained the degree of doétor in his native
univerfity. Before the year 1574 he was appointed to
le€ture on logic; but in 1579 he removed to Venice, for
the purpofe of praGtifing his profeffion, and he fucceeded
fo well, that in a few years he attained the higheft
reputation, and had more applications from the fick
than he could attend to. It has been faid, that even
fo early as 1573 he was fent for to Vienna, with Mer-
curialis, to attend the emperor Maximilian II. in his ill-
nefs; but the probability is, that a man of two and
twenty could not have arrived at that degree of reputation,
and that he merely accompanied Mercurialis on his journey
thither. After about ten years of laborious practice in
Venice, the chair of Capivaccio becoming vacant at Padua,
Saxonia was nominated his fucceflor. The faculty of
Padua welcomed him back to his native univerfity; and he
fulfilled the duties of his office with great credit and repu-
tation from the year 1590 till 1607, when he died.

Saxonia left feveral works; the firft of which, “ Dif-
reese de phznigmis, vulgo veficantibus, et theriace ufu in
ebribus peftilentialibus,”” Patav. 1591, originated from a
difcuffion with Maflaria, during the prevalence of an epi-
demic, when the duke of Urbino had applied to both fer
their direétions. A fecond work alfo appeared during this
conteft, entitled “* De Phenigmis Libri tres. In quibus
agitur de univerfa rubificantium natura, &c.; de quorum
ulu in febribus peftilertialibus multa difputantur,” 1593.
He next employed his pen on the fubjeét of fyphilis, call-
ing his work, “« Traétatus perfeétiflimus de Morbo Gallico,
feu, de Lue venerea,” 1593, which went through feveral
editions. This was followed fome time after by ‘ Trac-
tatus triplex, de febrium putridarum fignis, de pulfibus, et
de urinis,” Francf. 1600; “‘ De Plica, quam Poloni
Guvozdziec, Roxolani Koxtunum, vocant,’? Pat. 1600;
“ De pulfibus Traétatus abfolutiflimus,” 1603. And
after his death were publifhed, “ Praleétionum Praéti-
carum Libri duo,” 1610; and “ Opera Prattica,” 1639,
which went through nine fucceflive editions from the
prefs of Padua, the laft being printed in 1681. A pupil
of his had alfo colleéted all that he knew of the produc-
tions of his mafter, and publifhed them at Francfort, in
1603, with the title of ‘ Pantheon Medicine feleétum,
feu, Medicinz Templum in Libros XI diftin&tum.” See
Eloy Dit. Hilt. de la Médécine.

SAXONS, in Hiflory, the denomination of a people
who began to moleft Britain foon after the dominion of the
Romans terminated, and in whofe fortunes we are peculiarly
interefled. We fhall therefore devote a {mall part of our
work to the curfory hiltory of thefe people before and
after their invafion and occupation of Britain. We are

Vor. XXXI.

SAX

enabled to do this with the greater facility by having accefs
to the valuable hiltory of the Anglo-Saxons, written by
our refpe€ted friend Sharon Turner, efq. the fecond edi-
tion of which is now before us. :

The Anglo-Saxons, who tranfported themfelves from the
Cimbric peninfula and its-vicinity in the fifth and fixth cen-
turies into England, were branches of the grand Saxon con-
federation, which, from the Elbe, extended itfelf at lait to
the Rhine. ‘The hoftilities of thefe formidable people had
long diftreffed the weitern regions of Europe, and when the
Gothic nations overran the moft valuable provinces of
Rome, the Anglo-Saxons invaded Britain foon after the
Romans quitted it. As thefe new conquerors advanced,
their laws, language, manners, government, and barbarifm
over{pread the land.

The Saxon name, which became, on the continent, the
appellation of a confederacy of nations, denoted at firft a
fingle ftate. The firlt writer who feems to have men-
tioned the Saxons, was Ptolemy, the famous Alexandrian
geographer. From him we learn, that before the year 141
after Chrift, a people, called Saxones, inhabited a territory at
the N. fide of the Elbe, on the neck of the Cimbric Cher-
fonefus, now Jutland, and three fmall iflands, at the mouth
of this river: but they were at this period of no great im-
portance. Attempts have been made to trace their hiftory
beyond this period ; and in doing this, many wild and in-
confiflent fitions have been framed. Our author invefti-
gates their origin among the Scythians, and is of opinion,
that the Sakai, or Sace, a powerful tribe of this nation,
were their progenitors. Sakai-funa, or the fons of the
Sakai, abbreviated into Sakfun, which has the fame found
with Saxon, feems to be, as he conceives, a reafonable
etymology of the word Saxon. Strabo places the Sace
ea{tward of the Cafpian, and he Jeads us to conclude, that
in fome of their hottile excurfions, they feized on Bac-
triana and the moft fertile part of Armenia, which from
them derived the name of Sacaflena, and that they reached
the Cappadoces on the Euxine. (See Sac#.) Some of
thefe marauding Sac or Sacaffani might probably be driven
forward to the weftern coafts of Europe, where they were
found by Ptolemy, and whence they molefted the Roman
empire in the third century of our era. The three iflands
which the Saxons occupied in the time of Ptolemy were
thofe that are now denominated North Strandt, Bufen,
and Heiligland. On the continent they alfo occupied a
territory, which was fituated on the weltern fide of the
Cimbric peninfula, between the Elbe and the Eyder. From
thefe countries our Saxon anceftors made their incurfions
in the time of Ptolemy, and trom them they fpread terror
through Europe, when their attention became direéted to
maritime depredations. ‘The fecond writer who mentions the
Saxons was Eutropius, who lived above a century after Pto-
lemy. In accounting for the rebellion of Caraufins, and his
affumption of the purple, he ftates the Saxons to have united
with the Franks, and to have become formidable to the
Romans by their piratical enterprifes. During the interval
that had sldsed rom the age of Ptolemy, the Saxons had
profpered ; and their profperity feems to have arifen from
the repulfe of the Romans from the Elbe to the Rhine,
from the rife of the Pranks, A.D. 235—240, and from
their own application to maritime expeditions. In the be-
ginning of the 4th century the Saxon flects acquired an
addition of ftrength from the umon of other ftates, and
their league with concurring princes was extended. ‘The
Chauei led the way; the Frifii followed ; and at length the
Chamavi, the Batavi, the Toxandri, and Morini, Bexuttis
their allies, The Cimbri, the Jutes, the Angles, and others,

4C added

SAXONS.

added their numbers to the formidable league, which began
to diffolve after their expedition to Britain. As the bound-
aries of the Saxon {tates enlarged with their leagues, they
comprehended the population between the Elbe and the
Weler; from the Wefer they reached to the Ems, and
diffufed themfelves to the Rhine. The allies of the
Saxons, however, with whom the hiftory of Britain is moft
conneéted, were the Jutes and the Angles. At length,
A.D. 368, the Saxons with their allies aflaulted the maritime
coafts of Britain; but were defeated by Theodofius. In the
year 370 they were repulfed by the Romans on the con-
tinent; but before the lapfe of many years, they renewed
their depredations and defeated Maximus. At the clofe of
the fourth century they exercifed the activity and refources
of Stilicho; but in confequence of the prevailing triumphs
of Charlemagne, the celebrity and power of the Saxons
on the continent ceafed. Soon after the period above-men-
tioned, the Saxon invafion of England occurred. In the year
449 Hengitt and Horfa made a defcent on the Britifh coatt ;
and the achievement of Hengilt was a beacon of emulation to
the maritime part of the Saxon confederation, and affifted
to conyert it from naval piracy to views of regular conqueft
in Britain. Ella was the next Saxon chieftain, or king,
who invaded Britain; and though he with his three fons
came only with three fhips to the Suffex coaft, they fue-
eeeded in gaining a fettlement, and by flow degrees they
enlarged their conquetts on the coaft. Eighteen years after
Ella’s arrival, another powerful colony of Saxons arrived
in the ifland, under the aufpices of Cerdic, who, as well as
Hengilt and Horfa, derived his genealogy from Woden.
Under Cerdic, the Ifle of Wight, Tompiiees and Bucking-
hambhire witnefled the Sh aais of the Saxons ; and Somer-
fetfhire, Wiltfhire, and Oxfordfhire experienced thofe of
his fon. At length they eftablifhed a kingdom fo powerful
as to abforb every other fovereignty. The progrefs of
Cerdic, however, was long refifted by Arthur the Britifh
chieftain ; and this brave refiltance on the part of the Bri-
tons was celebrated by the bards of Bretagne, fo that
Arthur became the popular hero.

About fifty-two years after the expedition of Cerdic,
and almoft a century after the landing of Hengilt on the
ifland, another fleet of warriors dire&ted their courfe to the
North. Thofe who had hitherto arrived were Jutes and
Saxons ; but the affociates of Ida were Angles; and as he
came with forty veffels, this was by far the moft formidable
emigration. he progrefs of the Angles in the North was
flow; but at length Ida’s conquefts eftablifhed them in
Bernicia, and they were maintained by his fons. At fome
period near the year 500, the Eaft Anglian ftate was co-
lonized, though the monarchy did not appear till after the
year 530. The various parts of Britain, into which the
Saxons and their confederates {pread themfelves, were as
follow, according to the ftatement of the Irifh primate,
Uther. The Jutes pofleffled Kent, the Ifle of Wight, and
that part of the coalt of Hampthire which fronts it. The
Saxons were diftinguifhed from their fituation into South
Saxons, who peopled Suflex ; Eaft Saxons, who occupied
Effex, Middlefex, and the fouth part of Hertfordfhire;
and Weft Saxons, who fixed themfelves in Surrey, Hamp-
fhire (the coaft of the Jutes excepted), Beka, Wilts,
Dorfet, Somerfet, Devon, and that part of Cornwall
which the Britons were unable to retain. The Angles
were divided into Ealt Angles, in Norfolk, Suffolk, Cam-
bridge, the Ifle of Ely, and part of Bedfordhhire ; and
Middle Angles in Leicefterfhire, which appertained to
Mercia. The Mercians were dwided by the Trent into
South Mercians, in the counties of Lincoln, Northampton,

7

Rutland, Huntingdon, the north parts of Bedfordthire
and Hertferdthire, Bucks, Oxfordfhire, Gloucefterfhire,
Warwickfhire, Worcefterfhire, Herefordfhire, Stafford-
fhire, and Shropfhire ; and North Mercians, who inhabited
the counties of Chefter, Derby, and Nottingham. The
Northumbrians were the Deiri, in Lancafter, York, Weit-
moreland, Cumberland, and Durham; and the Bernicians
in Northumberland, and the fouth of Scotland, between
the Tweed and the Frith of Forth.

After the exertions of the Britons to repel the invaders of
their country had failed, eight Anglo-Saxon governments
were eftablifhed in the ifland. But it was by a flow conquelt

that the nations, comprifed under the title of Anglo-Saxons, ;

poflefled themfelves of the different diftriéts of the ifland; and
almoft a century and a half lapfed from the firft arrival of
Hengift to the full eftablifhment of the o€tarchy. In their
progrefs the Anglo-Saxons did not extirpate the Britons ;
but as they wanted hufbandmen, artifans, and menials for do-
mettic purpofes, the majority of the Britifh population was

referved to be ufeful to their conquerors. Some Britons,
who difdained the Saxon yoke, emigrated to other countries:
Armorica or Bretagne afforded refuge to many ; Cornwall
and Wales received a confiderable acceffion of population :
and fome migrated to Holland. The moft indignant of the
Cymry retired into Wales.

As foon as the Anglo-Saxons were releafed from the
preffure of the Britons, and began to feel themfelves fecure
and ftrong in the population of their provinces, and in the
fubmiffion of the natives, their propesfity to war, and their
ambitious defire of power, excited them to turn their arms
upon one another. From Hengilft to Egbert talents were
never wanting on fome of the Anglo-Saxon thrones; the
refult was, that the Anglo-Saxons, though they flu@tuated
in the profperity of their feveral diltricts, yet, confidered
as a nation, they improved rapidly in civilization and power,
Ina’s laws contributed in a high degree to his reputation,
and his reign was long and profperous. It is befides
our purpofe to give a detail of the fucceffion of the
Anglo-Saxon kings, and it is much more inconfiftent with
our limits to recite even the principal events that occurred
during their refpe€tive reigns. This is the lefs neceffary,
as fome brief notices of them will be found under the
biographical articles in this work. It will be fufficient to
obferve in this place, that the Anglo-Saxon dynafty termi-
nated with Harold II. and the advancement of William of
Normandy to the Englifh throne.

The charaéter of the ancient Saxons difplayed the qua-
lities of fearlefs, ative, and fuccefsful pirates. Thus they
are defcribed by Orofius, Julian, and Zofimus: their fero-
cious qualities were nourifhed by the habit of indifcrimi-
nate depredation ; they traverfed both land and fea with a
view to plunder, and in purfuit of this obje& they were
no lefs heedlefs of their own lives, than unfeeling and cruel
with refpe& to thofe of others. Their perfons were of
the largeft fize. As to their drefs, their loofe linen velts
were adorned with trimming, woven in different colours:
their external garment was the fagum, or cloak, and they
had fhoes. Their females had gowns, and feveral orna-
ments for the arms, hands, and neck. . Their armour con-
filted of fhields, long lances, and large knives or crooked
{words by their fides, and their horfemea ufed iron fledge
hammers or mallets. ‘The government of the continental
Saxons in the eighth and preceding centuries was an arifto-
cracy of chieftains, and they had no kings but in time of
war, who laid afide their power when peace was re-
eftablifhed. When they vifited England, they were con-
dued and governed by their war-kings; and thefe they

were

|

|

SAXONS.

were under a neceflity of continuing until.a permanent,
though limited, monarchy was eftablifhed. Among the an-
cient Saxons, there were four orders of men; the Etheling
er noble, the free man, the freed-man, and the fervile.
The nobles were jealous of their race and rank ; their inter-
marriages were reftricted to one another, and the feverelt
penalties were annexed to a violation of this order. Of
their ancient laws, in their Pagan ftate, little certain is
known. It appears, however, that pecuniary compenfation
was their general mode of redreffing perfonal injuries and
of punifhing criminal offences. Their feverity againft adul-
tery was perfonal and fanguinary ; if a woman became un-
chafte, fhe was compelled to hang herfelf, her body was
burnt, and the adulterer was executed over her afhes ; or
elfe, a° company of females whipped her from diftri@ to
diftri@, and, dividing her garments to the girdle, they
pierced her body with their knives. They drove her, thus
bleeding, from their habitations ; and wherefoever fhe went,
frefh parties of women renewed the cruel punifhment, and
continued it till fhe expired. In their marriages.they allowed
a fon to wed his father’s widow, and a brother his fifter-
in-law. Among the Frifians, who were confederates of the
Saxons, a perfon guilty of facrilege, or of breaking into a
temple and taking away any of the facred things, was ordered
to be led to the fea, and in the fand which the fea ufually
covers, to have his ears cut off, to be ca{trated, and to be
immolated to the gods whofe temples he had violated.

The moft ancient religions of the world appear to have
been pure theifm, without idols and temples. By degrees
the Deity was reprefented by a variety of fymbols, among
which the principal were the heavenly bodies ; and in pro-
cefs of time heroes and kings were exalted into gods.
At length the air, the fea, the rivers, the woods, and the
earth, were fo ftocked by the creative fancy with divinities,
that it was more eafy, as an ancient fage remarked, to find
a deity than a man. When the Anglo-Saxons fettled in
Britain, they feem to have abandoned the cultoms of their
anceltors, of which indeed the traditionary account is very
imperfect ; and they then had idols, altars, temples, and
pricfts; their temples were encompaffed with inclofures ;
they were profaned by throwing lances into them; it was
not lawful for a prieft to bear arms, or to ride, except ona
mare. Thefe particulars are detailed on the authority of
the Venerable Bede. Some of the objeéts of their adora-
tion are found in their names for the days of the week ;
and they are as follow :

Sunday, or Sunnan deg, is the Sun’s day.

Monday, or Monan dag, is the Moon’s day.

Tuefday, or ‘liwesdrg, is ‘Tiw’s day.

Wednefday, or Wodnes dzg, is | Woden’s day.

Thurfday, or Thunres dag, is Thunre’s day.

Friday, or Frige deg, is =—- Friga’s Hoe
rg,

Saturday, or Sceternes is Seterne’s day.

Of the fun and moon it is carious to remark, that their
fun was a female deity, and their moon was of the male
fex. Woden was the great anceftor from whom they de-
duced their genealogies, and he was the predominant idol
of the Saxon adoration, though little is known of him,
as diftinét from the Odin of the Danes and Norwegians.
(See Opin.) The names of two of the Anylo Saxon

oddefles have been tranf{mitted to us by Bede ; he mentions
heda, to whom they facrificed in March, hence denomi-
nated Rehd-monath, and Zofre, whofe feltivities were
celebrated in April, called on this account Eoftre-monath.
The idol adored in Heiligland, one of the iflands occupied
by the Saxons, was Fo/ee, which gave name to the slates

and was hence called Fofetefland. That the Angles had
2 goddefs called Hertha, or mother Earth, we learn from
Tacitus. The Saxons dreaded an evil being, whom they
named Fau/: fome kind of female power they called an
elf. They alfo venerated ftones, groves, and fountains.
The continental Saxons refpeéted the lady Hera, an imagi-
nary being, who was thought to fly about in the air in the
weck after their Jule, or between our Chriftmas and Epi-
phany. Her vifit was followed, as they conceived, by
abundance. That the Saxons had many idols is a well-
known fa&: but it is needlefs to enumerate them. That
they had the horrid cuftom of offering human facrifices is
unquettionable: but whether fuch facrifices were an efta-
blifhed part of their fuperftitious ritual, or whether they
were merely an occafional immolation of captives or crimi-
nals, is a poiat which cannot be decided. The latter is
thought to be moft probable. The Saxon idol, whofe cele-
brity on the continent was the moft eminent, was the Jrmin-
Jula, or Armenfula. The temple of this idol, which ftood
at Erefberg on the Dimele, or Merfberg, was'{pacious and
magnificent ; the image was raifed upon a marble column ;
and the predominant figure was an armed warrior ; its right
hand held a banner, in which a red rofe was confpicuous ;
its left prefented a balance: the creft of its helmet was a
cock ; on its breaft was engraven a bear, and the fhield de-
pending from its fhoulders exhibited a lion in a field full
of flowers. Priefts of both fexes attended the temple. The
women applied themfelves to divination and fortune-telling ;
the men facrificed, and often intermeddled with political
affairs, as their fanétion was thought to infure fuccefs.
Thefe prietts named the fixteen judges, who annually de-
cided the provincial difputes. In the hour of battle they
took their favourite image from its column, and carried it
to the field. After the confli&, captives, and the cowardly
of their own army, were immolated to the idol. In 772
this venerated obje&t of Saxon fuperitition was thrown
down and broken, and its fane deftroyed by Charlemagne.
Its immenfe wealth and precious veflels were diltributed to
the conquerors, or devoted to pious ufes. The ancient
Saxons were addifted to the prognoftication of events by
auguries, lots, and omens, and to the practice of various
kinds of magic.

In the computation of time our Saxon anceftors reckoned
by nights inftead of days, and by winters inftead of years.
Their months were governed by the revolution of the moon.
They began their year from the day which we obferve as
Chriftmas day, and in their common years they appropriated
three lunar months to each of the four feafons: and when
a year of thirteen months occurred, they added the fuper-
fluous month to their fummer feafon.

It has been a fubje4t of difpute whether the Anglo-
Saxons had the ufe of letters when they took poffeffion of
England. Although no fpecimen of any Saxon writing,
anterior to their converfion to Chriltianity, can be pro-
duced, yet fome reafons have been alleged in favour of
their knowledge of the art of writing in their Pagan ftate.
To this purpofe it has been urged, that alphabetical cha-
racters were ufed by the northern nations on the Baltic, be-
fore they received Chriftianity, and their origin bas been
aferibed to Odin, who is faid to have fettled in Saxony
before he advanced to the north, Either, it is faid, the
Pagan Saxons were acquainted with the Runic charadters,
or they were introduced into the north after the fifth cen-
tury, when the Saxons came to Britain, and before the
middle of the fixth, when they are mentioned by Fortu-
natus, which is contrary to the hiftory and traditions of the
Scandinavian natiéns, and to probability. Moreover, as

4C 2 the

SAXONS.

the Anglo-Saxons were not inferior in civilization to any
of the barbarous natious of the north, it cannot be reafon-
ably fuppofed that they were ignorant of Runic charaéters,
if their neighbours ufed them; but, befides, though the
letters of our Saxon MSS. written after their converfion,
are undoubtedly of Roman origin, except only two, yet
thefe two chara@ters, viz. thofe for #4 and w, are allowed
by the beit writers to be of Runic parentage: hence it
may be inferred, that the Anglo-Saxons were acquainted
with Runic as well as with Roman charaéters, when they
commenced the hand-writing that prevails in their MSS.
It is urged further, that if the Saxons had derived the ufe
of letters from the Roman ecclefiattics, it is probable they
would have taken from the Latin language the words they
would ufe to exprefs them: other nations, fo indebted,
have done this: but nations who had known letters before
they became acquainted with Roman literature would
have indigenous terms to exprefs them, and the Saxons
have fuch terms. Upon the whole Mr. Turner is induced
to believe, that the Anglo-Saxons were not unacquainted
with alphabetical characters when they came into England:
but if they had ancient letters, they ceafed to ufe them
after their conyerfion, with the exception of thofe for the
th and the w. If, however, the Anglo-Saxons had alpha-
betical chara&ters, they were much more ufed for divina-
tions, charms, and funeral infcriptions, than for literary
compofitions. ,

Mr. Turner proceeds to examine the manners of the
Anglo-Saxons after their occupation of England. Having

fiefled themfelves of the fouth part of Britain during the
fifth and fixth centuries, they difplayed qualities peculiarly
inaufpicious to the improvement of intelle& and of moral
chara&ter. They appear to have been bands of fierce, ig-
norant, idolatrous, and fuperttitions pirates, enthufiattically
courageous, but habitually cruel. Their improvement in
manners and mental affociations was very much promoted
by the internal ftate of Britain at the time of their invafion.
What this ftate was Mr. Turner has particularly defcribed.
He obferves, “that the firft great change in the Anglo-
Saxons appeared in the difcontinuance of their piracies.
They ceafed to be the ferocious {poilers of the ocean and
its coafts. They became land-owners, agriculturifts, and
induftrious citizens; they feized and divided the acquifitions
of Britith influence, and made the commonalty of the ifland
their flaves. Their war-leaders became territorial chiefs ;
and the confli@ts of capricious and fanguinary robbery were
exchanged for the pofleffion and inheritance of property in
its various forts; for trades and manufactures ; for ufeful
luxuries, peaceful indultry, and domeftic comfort.’”’? He
proceeds to ftate, that their tendereft and mott helplefs years
were under the care of females; that they had infant bap-
tifm, which they performed by immerfion ; that they ufed the
cradle; that they venerated the relationfhip of god-fathers ;
and that on the death of the father, the children remained
under the care of the mother, who was enjoined to provide
for them and recompenfed for her trouble. Bede men-
tions, that their period of infancy ended with the feventh
year, and that the firft year of their childhood began with
the eighth. As the Anglo-Saxons were not a literary
people, their childifh occupations mult naturally be the
exercifes of mufcular agility. The names of the Anglo-
Saxons were impofed, in their infancy, by their parents;
and thefe names were frequently compound words, rather
exprefflive of caprice than of appropriate meaning. Whe-
ther the Anylo-Saxons had furnames has been a fubje& of
difeuffion ; it appears, however, that additional appellanigns
were occafionally ufed by them, as mere perfonal diftine-

tions; but in the progrefs of civilization, the convenience
of a permanent family denomination was fo generally felt as
to occafion the adoption of the cuftom ; and it is probable
that the firft permanent furnames were the appellations of
the places of birth, or refidence, or a favourite anceftor.
(See Name.) Education among the Anglo-Saxons was, as
we may well imagine, in an imperfeét ftate. Some men,
however, rifing above the level of the age, endeavoured to
recommend tie ufe of fchools. Thus Sigebert, in the
feventh century, as foon as he regained the Ealt-Anglian
throne after his exile in France, ellablithed a {chool in his
dominions for youth to be inftruéted in learning. We find
alfo in Alfred’s time that moft of the nobles, and many of
the inferior orders, were put under matters, who taughc
them both Latin and Saxon books, and alfo writing.
Neverthelefs, the great and powerful undervalued know-
ledge. The education of the Saxons was much affifted by
the emigrations or vifits of Irifh ecclefiaftics ; and after the
prevalence of Chriftianity, a portion of the youth was taken
into the monafteries. We may obferve, in general, that
the Saxon youth feem to have been accuftomed to habits of
docility and obedience. The Anglo-Saxons cultivated both
wheat and barley, and reared oxen, fheep, and {wine for
their food. They ufed likewife fowls, deer, goats, and
hares ; and they alfo fed on various kinds of fifh, and particu-

larly eels, which, as well as hogs, they ufed in great abun- —

dance. Their orchards afforded figs, grapes, nuts, almonds,
pears, and apples. Honey appears to have been a favourite
diet, and falt they ufed in great quantities. Ale and mead
were their favourite drinks, and wine was an occafional
luxury. They boiled, baked, and broiled their vi€tuals.
In their drefs they indulged vanity by a variety of orna-
ments. The ladies had coitly necklaces and bracelets, and
rings on their fingers. Their hair was twifted and delicately
curled. They alfo ftudied to improve their natural com-
plexion by paint. The men alfo intruded on the province
of the females, by ufing fimilar ornaments, fuch as neck-
laces of gold and precious {tones, bracelets on their arms,
and rings on their fingers. They had alfo filk, linen, and
woollen garments. ‘The hair of the men was divided from
the crown to the forehead, and combed down the fides of
the head in waving ringlets: their beards were continued
whifkers on each fide, meeting the hair from the chin, but
there dividing, and ending in two forked points. Youn
men, and femetimes fervants, are reprefented without beards ;
and they were forbidden to the clergy. Their fhoes were
tied with thongs. Their garments were lined with furs
made from fables, beavers, and foxes, or, when they wifhed
to be lefs expenfive, with the fkins of lambs or cats. Their
dwelling-houfes were {mall and inconvenient, and their furni-
ture rude and coarfe. Some of their tables were very coftly,
being made of filver and gold. In their food and convivial
entertainments they ufed many expenfive articles, formed of
the Vere metals. The Anglo-Saxons feem to have been
acquainted with the precious ftones and alfo with the odori-
ferous produétions of the Eaft. They alfo nfed the luxury
of hot baths; and it was an indifpentible part of hofpitality
to offer to vifitors the refrefhment of wafhing the feet in
warm water ; and wathing the fect of the poor was one of
the aéts of penance to be performed by the rich. At the
cheerful meetings of the Anglo-Saxons it was the praCtice
for all to fing im turn, and for this purpofe the harp was
fometimes circulated. Dancing, bear-baiting, games at
hazard, hunting, hawking, falconry, and fowl » were di-
verfions to which the Anglo-Saxons were addicted.
Among thefe people females were held in honourable
eftimation. They were allowed to poffefs, to inherit, and
te

a

SAXONS.

to tran{mit, landed property; they fhared in all the focial
feftivities ; they were prefent at the witena gemot and the
fhire gemot ; they were permitted to fue and be fued in the
courts of juttice; their perfons, their fafety, their liberty,
and their property, were protected by exprefs laws; and
they poffefled all that influence which they will always retain
in countries that have the wifdom and the urbanity to treat
them as equal, intelligent, and dependent beings. The
earlieft inftitutions refpecting the Anglo-Saxon marriages
occur in the laws of Ethelbert; and the cuftomary forms
attendant upon their marriage-contraéts are more clearly
difplayed to us in the laws of Edmund. Within certain
degrees of confanguinity marriages were forbidden, and
fevere penalties were attached to the violation of female
chaftity. The different clafles of fociety among the Anglo-
Saxons were fuch as belonged to birth, office, or property,
and fuch as were occupied by a freeman, a freedman, or one
of the fervile defcription. It is to he lamented in the. re-
view of thefe different clafles, that a large proportion of
the Anglo-Saxon population was in a {tate of abjeét flavery.
They were bought and fold with land, and were conveyed
in the grants of it promifcuoufly with the cattle and other
property upon it; amd in the Anglo-Saxon wills thefe
wretched beings were given away precifely as we now dif-
pofe of our plate, our furniture, or our money. At length
the cuftom of manumiffion, and the diffufign of Chriftianity,
meliorated the condition of the Anglo-Saxon flaves. Some-
times individuals, from benevolence, gave the flaves their
freedom ; fometimes piety procured a manumiffion. But
the moft interefting kind of emancipation appears in thofe
writings which announce to us, that the flaves had purchafed
their own liberty, or tkat of their family. The Anglo-
Saxon laws recognifed the liberation of flaves, and placed
them under legal proteétion. The liberal feelings of our
anceftors towards their enflaved domeflics, are not only
evidenced in the frequent manumiflions, but alfo in the
generous gifts which they appear to have made them. The
grants of lands from mafters to their fervants weré very
common. The gilds, or focial confederations, in which the
Anglo-Saxons chofe to arrange themfelves, were eltablith-
ments that have been particularly noticed in the hiftory of
thefe people. Thefe gilds are fometimes alluded to in the
laws. Such aflociations were a kind of clubs. In mercan-
tile towns and fea-ports there were alfo gilds, or fraternities
of perfons conftituted for the purpofe of carrying on more
fuccefsful enterprifes in commerce. The tradefmen of the
Anglo-Saxons were, for the moft part, men in a fervile
flate: but by degrees the manumiffion of flaves increafed
the number of the independent part of the lower orders.
Befides thofe perfons who made particular trades their bufi-
nefs, fome of the clergy laboured to excel in the mechanical
arts. And the fortunate conneétion which Chriftianity efta-
blithed between the clergy of Europe favoured the advance-
ment of all thefe arts. The external commerce of thefe an-
cient times was reftricted; becaufe imperfect civilization,
and the poverty of a great aps of the population, pre-
vented an extenfive demand for foreign commodities, At
length commerce became more general ; public markets were
eftablifhed in various parts of England; and laws were
enaGted for the protection and encouragement of buyers and
fellers. We tuft not forbear to mention that hofpitality
was exercifed with circumflances of peculiar attention and
kindnefs. Piracy was gradually reftrained, and commerce
became honourable ; oa time, kings became the patrons
of merchants. It is ftated, that after the tenth century,
i became difreputable, and in every reign after that
time it approached nearer to its extinétion, until it was com-
pletely fuperfeded by the influence of commerce, the firmer

6

eftablifhment of legal governments, improved notions of
morality, and the experience of the fuperior comforts of
focial order, induttry, aud peaceful purfuits.

The Saxon money was fometimes reckoned by pennies,
but the name for money mott frequently occurring im the
charters is the mancus, the value of which was fix fhillings,
or thirty pennies, five pennies making one filling. But by
the laws of Alfred there were two forts of pennics, the
greater and the lefs. The money mentioned in our earlieft
law confifts of fhillings, and a minor fum called icetta. In
the laws of Ina the pening occurs, and the pund as a
weight. In thofe of Alfred the pund appears as a quan-
tity of money, as well as the fhilling and the penny; but
the fhilling is the ufual notation of his pecuniary punifh-
ments. In his. treaty with the Danes, the half mark of gold,
and the mancus, are the names of the money ; as is the ora in
the Danifh compa& with Edward. In the laws of Ethel-
ftan, we find the thrymfa, as well as the filling and the
penny ; the fcetta and the pund. The thilling, the penny,
and the pound, appear under Edgar. In the time of Ethel-
red, the pound is frequently the amount of the money
noticed. The fhilling and penny, the healf-marc, and the
ora, alfo occur. In the charters we find pennies, mancufa,
pounds, fhillings, and ficli, mentioned. As no Anglo-Saxon
gold coins have reached modern times, though we have nu-
merous fpecimens of their filver coinage, it is prefumed by
antiquaries that none were ever made ; yet it is certain that
they had plenty of gold, and it perpetually formed the me-
dium of their purchafes or gifts. Mr. Turner is of opinion,
that in the concerns of life gold was ufed, in an uncoined
{tate, which was fometimes the cafe with filver: fo that
there were two f{pecies of money, the coined and uncoined.
Our author thinks that the mancus was not a coin, and he
confiders the two forts of pennies as the only coins of the
Anglo-Saxons above their copper coinage, and all their
other denominations of money, as weighed or fettled quan-
tities of uncoined metal. That money was coined by the
Anglo-Saxons in the o@tarchy, and ia every reign after-
wards, is clear, as Mr. Turner apprehends, from thofe which
remain. Molt of them have the mint mafter’s name; nor
does it appear certain, that they had coined money before
their invafion of England, and converfion. The {cyllinga
our author prefumes to have been a quantity of filver,
which, when coined, yielded five of the larger pennies, and
twelve of the fmaller. The fceat denoted a definite piece
of metal originally in the uncoined ftate, and the feeat and
the {cyllinga feem to have been the names of the Saxon
money in the Pagan times before the Roman and French
ecclefiaftics had taught them the art of coining. The value
of the feeat in the time of Ethelbert feems to have been the
twentieth part of a fhilling. About three centuries later it
was raifed in value, and appears to be like one of their fmaller
pennies ; for the laws of Ethelftan gave 250 fceatta to a
pound, or 12} to a {cyllinga. Perhaps we may jultly flate
the fceat to have been the fmaller penny, and the pening,
properly fo called, to have been the larger one. ‘The word
pening, pfening, or penning, occurs in many countries for
coin; and if we confider the Saxon pening as their only
filver coin, it may be derived from the verb punian, to beat,
which may be applied to metal coined. There has been a
variety of opinions about the value of the Saxon pound. In
the time of the Confeflor it confifted of 20 folidi or fhil-
lings; but Dr. Hickes contends that the Saxon pound con-
filted of 60 fhillings; and other authors allert, that the
pound contained only 48 fhillings. The tlyca, the helfling,
and the feorthling, were copper monies. The thrymla is
reckoned by Dr. Hickes to be the third part of a thilling,
or four-pence. From other paflages the thrymfa and the

{ceatta

SAXONS.

{ceatta appear to have been the fame. The privilege of
coining belonged to feveral places, and to fome ecclefiattical
perfons, as well as the king. j

Although the northern nations, at one period, burnt their
dead, yet the cultom of interring the body was e(ftablifhed
among the Anglo-Saxons at the era when their hiftory
began to be recorded by their Chriftian clergy, and was
never difcontinued. Their common coffins were wood: and
the moft coftly were ftone. The faul-fceat, or the payment
of the clergy on death, was a very general practice. Several
of their gilds were formed chiefly in order to provide a fund
for this purpofe ; this alfo appears in all the wills.

The Anglo-Saxons cultivated the art of hufbandry with
fome attention. Their fields and lands were feparated by
hedges and ditches: they had common of pafture attached
to the different portions of land which they pofleffed, and
had other extenfive diftric&ts laid out in meadow. Every
eftate had alfo an appropriated quantity of wood. They
had ploughs, rakes, fickles, {cythes, forks, and flails, very
like thofe that have been commonly ufed in this country.
They had alfo carts and waggons: and their wind-mills and
water-mil!s are frequently mentioned. Their woods were an
obje& of legiflative attention, and they were very careful of
their fheep; and it was an exprefs law, that the value
of a fheep fhould be one fhilling until a fortnight after
Eafter. Saltpans and alfo fifheries were often encouraged
in grants of lands. Vineyards, gardens, and parks are fre-
quently mentioned. With regard to the tenures of land,
it appears from Domefday book that of fome lands the king
was the chief proprietor ; of others, the bifhops and abbots ;
and of others, feveral earls and perfons of inferior dignity.
Of the tenures which appear from the Anglo-Saxon grants,
the firft that may be noticed is that of pure freehold of in-
heritance, unconnected with any limitation or fervice. Free-
hold eftates alfo occur, made fubjeét to the three great fer-
vices to which almott all lands were liable. In thefe cafes
the duty of military expedition, and bridge and caftle-work,
were exprelsly excepted. For other tenures we refer to the
work now cited. :

The oldeft Saxon grants which are now in our pofleffion
contain refervations a fervices which the pofleffors of the
land had to perform; and from thefe we perceive, that cer-
tain burdens, varying in kind and quantity, were attached
to eftates in eyery age, with fome few exceptions. The
three common labours, or univerfal neceffities, as they are
called, were the military fervice, or ‘ fyrd-frrelde,” to
which all the Saxon lands were fubje&, thofe excepted
which the king alone, or the king with the confent of his
witena, exempted from the obligation ; and this fervice con-
fitted in providing a certain number of armed men, propor-
tioned to the rated quantity of land, who were to attend the
king or his officers on expeditions made for the public
fafety, or again{t invading enemies: the “ bryge-geweorc,”’
and the “ weal’’ or * faeflen-geweorc,”’ which were the con-
{truction or reparation of bridges and fortreffes, or walls.
Thefe three great fervices have been called by later writers
the “ trinoda neceffitas ;”’ and befides thefe, there were many
other burdens to which the landed intereft was more or lefs
liable in the hands of fub-proprietors. Accordingly, when
the original proprietors aliened or demifed their lands to
others, they annexed a variety of conditions to their grants,
which fubfequent transfers either repeated or difcharged.
We may here remark, that the Saxon deeds of convey-
ance had no wax-feals; thefe were introduced by the Nor-
man conqucft. See SEAr.

In treating of the Anglo-Saxon government, the firft ob-
je& of confideration is the cyning, or king, who, without
concentrating in himfelf the defpotifm of an eaftern monarch,

was yet elevated far above the reft of the nation in dignity,
property, and power. The firft cynings of the Anglo-
Saxons feem to have been their war-kings, continued for
life, whofe crown was not hereditary, but elective. The
cyning was elected by the witena-gemot, which was held on
the demife of the preceding fovereign. In the greatelt
number of inftances, however, the witena-gemot, in their
election, followed the rule of hereditary fucceffion. This
power of the witena-gemot was terminated by the Norman
conquelt, when the crown was changed from an ele<tive to
an hereditary fucceffion. The Anglo-Saxon queen was
crowned, as well as the king, until the reign of Egbert,
when this honour was taken from her; but it was foon re-
ftored, for Ethelwulph, on.his fecond marriage, permitted
his queen, Judith, to be crowned. In Alfred’s time the
difufe of the coronation continued ; but by the time of the
fecond Ethelred it was reftored. The queen’s name is

joined with the cyning’s in fome charters, and it is not un-

ufual to find them figned by her: fhe had her feparate pro-
perty and officers oF her own houfhold. The king’s fons
had land appropriated for them, even though aitee age.
The power and prerogative of the Anglo-Saxon cynin
were progreffively acquired: much of his power acetal
at firft on his perfonal character and talents ; and this power
afterwards naturally increafed. The crown was a perma-
nent eftablifhment, which it was the intereft of every on
but the fuperior nobles to maintain and to aggrandize, til
its power became formidable enough to be felt in its op-
preffions. Its domains were increafing by every fuccefsful
war ; and its revenue, privileges, and munificence, were per-
petually adding to its wealth and influence. In Bait of
time, when the converfion of the ifland was completed b
the zeal of the pope, and an hierarchy was eftablifhed, the
kingly power received great fupport and augmentation
from the religious veneration with which the clergy fur-
rounded it. The molt ancient fpecimens of legiflation
which remain are the laws of Ethelbert, the firft Chriftian
king of Kent, who was converted about the year 600. In
mie the cyning appears already diftinguifhed by fuperior
rank and privileges. In the laws of Ina the cyning is men-
tioned in a {tyle of authority very much refembling that of
fubfequent fovereigns. The epithets given to the king by
the popes, the high titles they aflumed, and the preroga-
tives and influence which they exercifed, concurred to exalt
his aggrandizement. On the diflolution of the oétarchy,
his property in every part of England was very extenfive.
His revenues were very confiderable ; as they were the rents
and produce of his lands in demefne ; cuftoms in the fea-
ports; tollsin the markets, and in the cities on fales; duties
and fervices to be paid to hii in the burghs, or to be com-
muted for money ; wites, or penalties and forfeitures, which
the law attached to certain crimes and offences; heriots
from his thanes, and various payments and benefits, arifing
to him on the circumttances ttated in the laws. Neverthe-
lefs, all the prerogatives and rights of the Anglo-Saxon
cyning were definite and afcertained. They had n efta-
blifhed by law or cuftom, and could be.as little exceeded by
the fovereign as withheld by his people; fo that they were
not arbitrary privileges of an unknown extent. The mili-
tary force, whenever it was aflembled, was under the com-
mand of the king, but it was rather a militia than a regular
army. For an account of the witena-gemot, we refer to that
article. The official dignitics of the Anglo-Saxons were as
follow. The ealdorman, who was the Inghett officer in the
kingdom, but in rank inferior to an etheling: he was the
chief of a fhire, and was one of the witena-gemot: he
ranked with a bifhop, and prefided with him at the {cire-
gemot and the fole-gemot ; he had great civil powers in ad-
miniftering

iy

‘ snenenet-

SAXONS.

miniftering juftice; and alfo enjoyed high military authority.
The eor! is alfo a dignity recognized in our earlieft laws.
It appears in thofe of Ethelbert, who died in 616, and is
mentioned in a charter, dated 680. He is alfo noticed in
the laws of Alfred, Edward, Ethelftan, and Edgar. In
the latter part of the Anglo-Saxon period, the title ealdor-
man feems to have been fuperfeded by that of eorl. The
term 4eretoch implies the, leader of an army, and 4o/d is men-
tioned as a dignity in /Ethelitan’s laws. The gerefas were
officers appointed by the executive power, and in rank in-
ferior to the eorl or ealdorman; and they were judicial
officers of various kinds, and were made refponfible for
their official condu&. The thegns were in rank below the
eorls and ealdormen: they formed a fpecies of nobility pe-
culiar to thofe ancient times, which was attainable even by
perfons of the fervile clafs; but it was effential to the dig-
nity of a thegn, that he fhould be a landed proprietor. The
thegns were of two dcfcriptions; viz. the king’s thegns,
and the inferior thegns, who were very numerous. The
thegn feems to have been a military noble; thegn being a
Saxon word correfponding to miles ; the tenure of five hides
of land was effential to this dignity ; military fervice was
attached to it ; and the thegns were judicial magiftrates, and
affifted at the fhire-gemots. °
Our author has traced the progrefs of Saxon legiflation
in its relation to fome of the principal offences, viz. homi-
cide, perfonal injuries, theft, and adultery. The Saxons
confidered homicide as a public as well as a private wrong:
hence, befides the redrefs appointed to the family of the de-
ceafed, or ‘* were,” another pecuniary fine was impofed on the
murderer, which was called the “ wite.’’ This fatisfaGtion to
the community was paid to the prefiding magiftrate, and
varied according to the dignity of the Ben in whofe jurif-
dition the offence was committed. In the firft Saxon laws
that were committed to writing, or which have defcended to
us, and which were eftablifhed in the beginning of the feventh
century, murder appears to have-been only punifhable by
the were and wite, provided the homicide was not in the
fervile ftate. In the laws of Ethelbert, the were feems to
have been uniform. The differences of the crime arifing
from the quality of the deceafed, or the dignity of the ma-
iftrate within whofe jurifdiGtion it occurred, or the circum-
ances of the ation, were marked by the differences of the
wite rather than of the were. As the order and civilization
of the Anglo-Saxon fociety increafed, human life acquired
an iecteated value, and the penalties of its deprivation were
In the days of Ina, the were, or protecting
valuation of an individual’s life, was not uniform. The po-
pulation was arranged into clafles, and each clafs had an ap-
propriated were. Rank and property feem to have been
the criterion of the eftimation. The wealthier a man was,
the more precious his life was deemed. This method of
regulating the enormity of the crime by the property of the
deceafed was highly barbarous. It diminifhed the fafety of
the poor, and yave that fuperior protection to wealth which
all ought aauily to have thared. The were, or compenfa-
tory payment, feems to have been made to the relations
of the defun@. If the deceafed was ina fervile ftate, the
compenfation feems to have become the property of the lord.
On the murder of a foreigner, two-thirds of the were went
to the king, and one-third only to his fon or relations; or
if no relations, the king had one-half, and the gild-fcipe,
or fraternity to which he was affociated, received the other.
The members of thefe gild-fcipes were made to a certain
de refponfible for the good conduét of one another,
aed therelioce they were, in fact, fo many bail for each other.
This principle was fo far extended, that by Ina’s law every
one who was in the company where a man was killed, was

required to juftify himfelf from the a&, and all the com-
pany were required to pay a fourth part of the were of the
deceafed. The fame principle was eftablifhed by Alfred in
illegal affociations. Excufable homicide was not allowed to
be done with impunity. If a man fo carried a {pear as that
it fhould deftroy any individual, he was made amenable for
the were, but excufed from the wite.

In the reign of Edmund, an important improvement in
this branch of legiflation took place. The legal feverity
againit murder was increafed on the head of the offending
individual ; but his kindred were guarded from the revenge
of the family of the deceafed. Although the wite was the
whole penalty exacted by fociety to itfelf for murder, and
the were the whole pecuniary compenfation that was per-
mitted to the family, yet we are not to fuppofe that murder
was left without any other punifhment. The relations of
the deceafed avenged themfelves, if they could, on the mur-
derer, or his kinfmen. The law did not allow it; but as
all that the law exacted was the fine and the compenfation,
individuals were left at liberty to glut their revenge, if they
chofe to pay for it. Neverthelefs this {pirit of revenge was
early reftrided. Ina’s laws, and alfo thofe of Alfred,
ferved to reftrain it; and Edmund I. checked it with
marked feverity. In the adjuftment of the eompenfation
allotted to “ perfonal injuries,” arifing from what modern
lawyers would call aflault and battery, the Saxon legiflators
were anxious to diftinguifh between the different wounds to
which the body is liable, and which their laws lead us to
conclude they frequently fuffered. In judging of their
fcale of pecuniary compenfations by modern experience,
there feems to be a grofs difproportion, not only between
the injury and the compenfation, but alfo between the dif-
ferent claffes of compenfation. Alfred made fome difference
in thefe compenfations, and he alfo appointed penalties for
other perfonal wrongs. ‘* Theft”? appears to have been
confidered as the moft enormous crime, and was, as fuch,
feverely punifhed. It was made felory, confidered as a for-
feiture of goods and chattels, by the Anglo-Saxons in their
earlie‘t law ; for if a freeman ftole from a freeman, the com-
penfation was to be threefold; the king had the wite, and
all his goods: but whilft a freeman’s theft was to be atoned
for by a triple compenfation, the fervile were only fubjeé&ted
to a twofold retribution. The punifhment of theft was
foon extended farther; and, indeed; the Saxon legiflators
were never weary of accumulating feverities again{t thieves.
To other penalties infli&ed by the laws of Wihtred and of
Ina, the amputation of the hand and foot was foon added.
In the reign of Ethelitan, a milder fpirit introduced a prin-
ciple, which has ever fince prevailed in our criminal jurif-
prudence ; and this was, that no one fhould lofe his lite for
ttealing lefs than twelve-pence ; to which the Saxon legif-
lators added a provifo, which we have dropped, ‘ unlefs he
flies or defends himfelf.”’ They alfo introduced another
mitigating eae a viz. that no youth under 15 fhould
be executed. Againfl “ adultery”? our Saxon legiflators
enaéted penalties, asa public wrong, always punifhed when
it occurred, varying the amount of the penalty according to
the rank of the a Even thofe of the poor fervile clafs
were proteéted in their domeltic ig! oat
connubial righty of one of this defeription incurred the
penalty of a double compenfation. Forcible violation was
chaftifed more feverely. Subfequent laws made adulterers
fubjeét to ecclefialtical cenfure and excommunication, and
enjoined the banifhment of foreigners, who would not
abandon fuch couneétions. The pecuniary penalties were
alfo augmented. In the time of Alfred, fome new modi-
fications were introduced. He regulated the punifhment of
adultery by the rank of the hufband; and he alfo diftin-

guifhed

To invade the

SAXONS.

guithed the different fteps of the progrefs towards the com-
pletion of the crime, afligning to each a pecuniary fine.
Alfred and his witan provided that if the wife had tranf-
grefled before, the fines of her paramour were to be reduced
one-half. The terms “¢ were” and “ mund’’? frequently
occur in the Saxon laws: we fhall here explain their mean-
ing. The were was the legal valuation of an individual,
varying according to his fituation in life. If he were killed,
it was the fum his murderer had to pay for the crime ; if he
committed crimes himfelf, it was the penalty. which, in
many cafes, he had to difcharge. The amount of this were
was exaétly regulated by a man’s condition in life, and it
was therefore the meafure and mark of his perfonal rank and
confequence. The “ mundbyrd” was a right of protection
or patronage, which individuals poffefled for their own
benefit and that of others. The violation of it towards
themfelves, or thofe whom it fheltered, was punifhed with a
feverity varying according to the rank of the patron. The
mund was the guardian of a man’s houfehold peace, as the
were was of his perfonal fafety.

The fyftem of giving ‘borh,’’ fureties, or bail, to anfwer
an accufation, feems to have been coeval with the Saxon
nation, and has continued to our times. In our earlieft
laws it was provided, that the aceufed fhould be bound over

by his fureties to anfwer the crime of which he was accufed, ~

and to do what the judges fhould appoint. Felonies were
bailable in the Saxon times. But the moft curious part of
the Saxon “ borh’”? was not the fureties which they who
were accufed or condemned were to find to appear to the
charge, or to perform the judgment pronounced; but it
was the fyftem that every individual fhould be under bail
for his good behaviour. Nothing feems to be more repug-
nant to the decorous feelings of manly independence than
this flavifh bondage and anticipated criminality. Such a
law was a libel on human nature, and muft have created
more depravity than it prevented: and this feems to have
been experienced ; for no period more abounded with po-
litical or focial vices and calamities than the reigns which
followed the eftablifhment of this law, if we date it from
Edgar.

The fupreme legal tribunal of the Saxons was the wifena-
gemot; which fee. The fcire-gemot was another tribunal.
By the laws of Canute it was ordered, that there fhould be
two fhire-gemots and three burgh-gemots every year, and
the bifhop and the ealdorman fhould attend them. By the
laws of AEthel{tan, punifhments were attached te thofe who
refufed to attend gemots. Every man was to have peace in
going to the gemot, and returning from it, unlefs he were
a thief.

As much of their judicial proceedings refted on oaths,
the punifhment of perjury was very fevere. A perjured
man was ufually clafled with witches, murderers, and
the moft obnoxious beings in fociety ; he was declared un-
worthy of the ordeal ; he was difabled from being a witnefs
again; and if he died, he was denied Chriftian burial.

In the laws of Ina we have a full account of the Anglo-
Saxon ordeals, of hot water and hot iron. See OrDEAL.

The jury is an inftitution, the principle of which may be
traced, according to Mr. Turner’s ftatement,. to the earliett
Anglo-Saxon times. See Jury.

The poetry of the Anglo-Saxons was of two forts; the
poems which they compofed in their own tongue, and the
poems which they wrote in Latin. Thefe two kinds of
poetry were completely diftinét from each other ;—diltin&
in origin, diftin& in flyle. .

The chara@teriftics of the Anglo-Saxon native poetry
feem to be thefe: it confilts chiefly of periphrafis, and meta-
phors expreffed in a metrical but fimple arrangement of

words, with fome alliteration. The ufual particles are moft
frequently omitted ; and the intended meaning is conveyed
in fhort and contra¢ted phrafe, multiplied by the periphrafis
and metaphor. The pofition of the words is forced out of
their natural arrangement by a wilful inverfion, and the re-
gular courfe of the fubje¢t is frequently interrnpted by vio-
lent and abrupt tranfitions. By thefe peculiarities, which
feem to be quite artificial, the Saxon poetry is diftinguifhed
from profe.

The dtyle of the Anglo-Saxon poetry feems to have been
originall y the common, imperfect language of the people, in
its half-formed and barbarous ftate; but its metre is the
fimpleft that can be conceived, and is, indeed, often little
elfe than a feries of fhort exclamations. Its inverfions are
more- artificial. But when mufic was applied to poetry,
and men found it beneficial to fing or recite a chieftain’s
praife, we may conceive, that, to fecure to themfelves the
profits of the profeffion, fome little iagenuity was exerted
to make difficulties which would raife their ftyle above the
vulgar phrafe. Its inverfion was one of the eafieft modes of
making a peculiar {tyle of compofition: and as fociety ad-
vanced in its attainments, the tranfition, the alliteration,
and other ornaments, may have been added, either as new
beauties or as new difficulties.

The hiftory of the Saxon poetry, and, indeed, of all
modern European poetry, in its ruder ftate, may be divided
into three heads: fongs, or ballads’; the lengthened narra-
tive poems, or romances ; and that mifcellaneous kind which,
if we term it lyric, it is more for the convenience of ufing a
fhort generic word, than for the exact appropriation of its
meanisg.

That our anceftors had popular fongs on the aétions of
their great or favourite characters, or on fuch other fubjeéts
as interefted the vulgar mind, is proved by many inftances,
which may be traced in the ancient writers. Aldhelm
applied himfelf to compofe fongs, or ballads, in the Anglo-
Saxon language, to inflruét, as well as to amufe, his coun-
trymen. None of Aldhelm’s vernacular poetry has fur-
vived ; but the circumttance that he compofed and fang thefe
ballads as if ** he profeffed the art of finging,’”? thew that
the harpers of the day were accuftomed to recite them.
That fuch things were then in general circulation is alfo
implied by Bede, when he mentions, that in a feltive com-
pany the harp was fent round, that thofe might fing who
could.

Tt was a book of Saxon poems which firft allured Alfred
to learn to read; and the fa&, that he had his children
taught to read Saxon poems, and that he himfelf vifited the
Danifh camp as a harper, which, in the reign of his grand-
fon, Anlaf imitated, prove the exiftence of popular fongs,
which interefted both the child and the rude warrior.

The genuine ballad feems to have originated when the
old Saxon poetry began to decline. The laboured meta-
phor, the endlefs periphrafis, the violent inverfion, and the
abrupt tranfition, were. the great features of the Saxon
poetry. Thefe conftituted that’ pompoufnefs which Wil-
liam of Malmfbury truly ftates to have been its great cha-
ra@teriftic. But it was impoffible that, while thefe con-
tinued prevalent and popular, the genuine ballad could have
appeared.- The ballad, therefore, probably arofe from
more vulgar and homely poets ; from men who could not
bend language into that difficult and artificial ftrain, which
the genius of the Anglo-Saxon bard was educated to ufe.
The ambulatory glee-men, who ftrove to pleafe the public
by their merry-andrew antics, were molt probably the firft
inventors of the genuine ballad. While at one time
tumbled and danced, fhewed their bears, and frolicked be-
fore the people in the dreffes of various animals; at others,

they

SAX
they may have told little tales to intereft the mob, from
whofe liberality they drew their maintenance.

Incidents narrated in verfe were more intelligible than
the pompous fongs of the regular poets, and far more in-
terefting to the people. In time they gained admiffion to
the hall and the palace; and, by the ftyle of Canute’s
ballad, this revolution muft have been achieved by the be-
ginning of the eleventh century. Then the harfh and ob-
{eure ftyle of the old Saxon poetry began to be unpopular ;
and being itill more difcredited after the Norman conqueft,
it was at length completely fuperfeded by the ballad and the
metrical romance. See RomANce.

The Anglo-Saxon verfification, fays Mr. Turner, pof-
feffes occafional rhyme and occafional alliteration, and fome-
times the alliteration peculiar to the Welfh poetry. But
none of thefe form its conitituent charaGter. Mr. Tyrhwit
and Mr. Ellis are alfo right in aflerting, that it does not de-
pend upon “a fixed and determinate number of fyllables,
nor on that marked attention to their quantity which
Hickes fuppofed to have conftituted the diftin@tion between
verfe and profe.”’ The only rule of the Saxon verfification,
which we can now difcover, is, in our author’s opinion,

that the words are placed in a peculiar rhythm or cadence,_

examples of which the fpecimens of their poetry extant fup-
ply; and to produce this rhythm feems to have been the
perfection of their verfification : but, happily for the ftrength
of their poetry, they extended their rhythm into a more
dignified cadence. The Latin poetry of the Anglo-Saxons
originated from the Roman poetry, and was compofed ac-
cording to the rules of Roman profody.

The literature of the Anglo-Saxons muft be dated
from their converfion to Chriftianity, which event took
place about the year 570; and it is certain, if we allow
that they had Runic letters and fongs before this era,
that their knowledge of books, and of the learning which
had been accumulated in happier regions of the world,
were derived from their religious intercourfe with Rome.
During this period, it was the prevailing praétice among
the Saxons, not only of the clergy, but of the better
fort of laity, to make a voyage to Rome; and Rome, in
return, fent her emiflaries to Britain. The firft ftep of their
intellectual progrefs was the introduction into England of
the Latin and Greek languages; and the next was the col-
lection of the authors who ufed thefe languages. St. Au-
guitin, and the monks who accompanied him, not only fuc-
ceeded in eftablifhing Chriftianity, but alfo occafioned a
defire of knowledge to {pread among the Anglo-Saxons, in
the feventh century. At this period, Ireland was diftin-
guithed for its religious literature ; and many of the Anglo-
Saxons, both of the higher and lower ranks, retired into it
to purfue their ftudies or their devotion. In the Jewith
and Chriftian feriptures, to which the Anglo-Saxons had
accefs, they would find a rich treafury of general know-
ledge. Theodore, archbifhop of Canterbury, and Adrian,
an abbot of a monaltery near Naples, and an African, vifited
England about this time, A.D. 668; and nothing could be
more fortunate for the Anglo-Saxon literature than the
fettlement of thefe men in the country. ‘Their converfation
and exhortations excited among the Anglo-Saxons a great
emulation for literary ftudies. Benediét, who founded the
abbey at Weremouth, mutt in this conneétion be mentioned
with applaufe. Egbert alfo, who was archbifhop of York
in 712, was famous in his day. Wilfrid was another bene-
factor to Anglo-Saxon literature, by favouring the collec-
tion of books. The three great luminaries of the Anglo-
Saxons, whofe attainments contributed fo much to increafe
intelleétual cultivation among their countrymen, in the cen-

Vor. XXXI.

SAX

tury preceding Alfred the Great, were Aldhelm, Bede, and
Alcuin. Inthe days of Alfred, a great acceflion of know-
ledge was introduced among the Anglo-Saxons by the tafte
and patronage of that illuftrious king. It is certain that
literature was at its height among our Saxon anceftors
about the eighth century; and this was almoft entirely
owing to the attention of king Alfred, who encouraged
learning by his own example, by founding feminaries of in-
ftru€tion, and by rewarding the labours of {cholars.
Among the arts and fciences of the Anglo-Saxons we
may mention riufic, the art of defign and painting, and ar-
chitef&ture. Befides the rules of Latin poetry and rhetoric,
the Anglo-Saxons ftudied arithmetic and aftronomy as la-
borious fciences. Theit geography and topography, though
not wholly negleéted, were not much ftudied. To the
{cience of medicine the Anglo-Saxons direéted their atten-
tion as early as the feventh century; and fome of them
practifed it as a profeffion. With furgery they were little
converfant. On the eftablifhment of Chriftianity among the
Anglo-Saxons, after its introduction into Kent by St. Au-
guftine, it is needlefs to enlarge; nor need we trace its
beneficial effe&ts on the difpofitions and manners of the
people. Of the Anglo-Saxon language we have given as
ample an account as our limits will allow, under other ar-
ticles. See AnGio-Saxon, ENGLISH, and Saxon, /upra.
SAXONY, in Geography, a kingdom of Europe, com-
pofed of the duchy of Saxony, the greater part of the marg-
gravate of Meiffen, a part of the Vogtland in the fouth,
and the north part of Thuringia in the weft, Lufatia in
the eaft, and a part of the county of Henneberg. The
kingdom of Saxony, formerly the E/eoraie, is in length
from eait to weit about 220 Britifh miles, and in breadth
from north to fouth about 130. The territories of the
eleG&tor (now king) of Saxony have been computed at
11,680 f{quare miles, and the inhabitants at 1,896,000, and
the revenue at 1,283,333/. fterling. In 1792, by Hoeck’s
calculation, there were 2,104,320 inhabitants ; and the army
confilted of 21,576 infantry and 6180 cavalry, fo as, in-
cluding other corps, to. form a total of 32,c00. ‘The ree
venue (A.D. 1800) amounted to 7,800,000 rixdollars.
The country furnifhes abundance of grain, pulfe, legumes,
and fruit ; hops, flax, hemp, tobacco, anifeed, woad, &c. ;
and wine is made in Meiflen. Its forefts, which are con-
fiderable, yicld timber and pitch. Coals are found in fe-
veral places ; and its mines afford filver, copper, tin, lead,
iron, cinnabar, quickfilver, antimony, bifmuth, arfenic,
and different kinds of precious ftones. It has alfo quarries
of various forts of marble. The principal rivers are the
Elbe, Elfter, the Pleiffe, Mulda, Saal, and the Spree of
Lufatia. Saxony is in general well cultivated and po-
pulous: it contains 200 towns, aud about 5000 villages.
Saxony was the nurfery of the reformation, introduced by
Luther, which is now the prevailing religion ; but ambition
to be king of Poland induced the eleGtor Frederic Auguftus,
in 1697, to become a Roman Catholic, engaging, however,
for himfelf and his fucceflors, not to make any alteration
in the church, worthip, ceremonies, univerfities, or fchools.
The arts and feiences flourifh in Saxony; and it has nu-
merous manufactures of thread, linen, porcelain, glafs,
cutlery, carpets, velvet, and muflins. ‘The ancient dukes
of Saxony fprung from the kings who defended themfelves
with fuch valour againft France. Otho IIL, duke of
Saxony, became emperor in 936, and refigned Saxony to
the houfe of Seitibelleeet, or Billing, which ended in 1106;
and foon after, this dukedom pafled by marriage to the
houfe of Bavaria, Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony and
Bavaria, 1139—1180, was diflinguifhed by his valour and
4 D power,

SAX

power. In 1180 the eaftern part of Saxony was afligned
to Bernard of Afcania, the weftern half being given to the
archbifhop of Cologne; and Wittenberg became the ufual
refidence. The firft ele€tor was Frederic, the warlike marg-

rave of Meiffen, in the year 1422, and was fucceeded by

rneft, his eldeft grandfon; and the dignity continued in
his family until the year 1547, when John Frederic was put
under the ban of the empire, and duke Maurice, a de-
fcendant of Albert, the brother of Erneft, was named
eleGtor by Charles V. This duke was fucceeded by his
brother, whofe defcendants have {till retained the eleCtorate.
His grandfon, George I., added to his pofleflions Upper
and Lower Lufatia, and fome other acquifitions. The
eleGtor Frederic Auguftus, by afpiring to the crown of
Poland, and taking pofleffion of it, in the latter part of the
17th century, deftroyed his own comfort, and ruined his
country. Saxony fuffered greatly by the invafion of the
Pruffians in the war of feven years; but afterwards re-
covered itfelf, and became, for a long interval, the tranquil
feat of the arts and fciences. 1n the beginning of the year
1807, Saxony was erected into a kingdom, and Frederic
Auguitus [V., duke and ele&or, was crowned the firit
king. Its future condition, in confequence of the late con-
tinental war, and the congrefs of fovereigns at Vienna in
1815, with their partitions and arrangements, is not finally
fettled.

Saxony, independently of Lufatia, is divided into feven
circles and two bifhoprics. The circles are thofe of Saxony,
or the Eleétoral, Thuringia, Meiflen, Leipfic, Erzge-
birg, Vogtland, and Neuftadt; the bifhoprics are Merfe-
burg and Naumburg. The chief city is Drefden.

Saxony, Duchy of, or Ele@oral Circle, is {urrounded by
the circles of Meiffen, Leipfic, and Thuringia, the princi-
pality of Anhalt, and the marquifate of Brandenburg and
Lufatia; and contains 27 towns and goo villages. This
circle or duchy is different from the ancient duchy of
Saxony, which extended from Denmark to the Rhine.
The prefent eletoral circle was taken from the Wends by
the marggrave Albert the Bear; and his fon Bernhard,
who became pofleffed of it, obtaining the dignity of a duke
of Saxony, entailed the name of the duchy of Saxony on
the portion of it that belonged to this country ; and the
eleGtoral dignity being attached to the duchy, it has ob-
tained the title of the EleCtoral Circle. Wittenberg is the
capital.

Fadkouet Lower, a circle of Germany, bounded on the
north by the duchy of Slefwic and the Baltic, on the ealt
by the circle of Upper Saxony, on the fouth by the circles
of Upper Saxony and the Upper Rhine, and on the welt
by the circle of Weftphalia and the German fea. The
eftates belonging to this circle were the duchies of Magde-
burg and Bremen, the principalities of Lunenburg or Zell,
Grubenhagen, Calenberg, Wolfenbuttle, Halberftadt,
Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Gultro, Holltein-
Gottorf, Holftein-Gluckitadt, Hildefheim, Saxe-Lauen-
burg, the bifhopric of Lubeck, the principality of Schwe-
rin, Ratzeburg, Blankenburg, and Ranzau, with the cities
of Lubeck, Gofslar, Mulhaufen, Nordhaufen, Hamburg,
and Bremen. As to religion, this circle has been wholly
Lutheran.

Saxony, Upper, a circle of Germany, bounded by the
eircles of the Upper Rhine, Franconia, Lower Saxony,
the Baltic, Pruffia, Silefia, Lufatia, and Bohemia. It is
compofed of 22 ftates, which are the following: wz. the
eleétor of Saxony, the eleétor of Brandenburg, Saxe-
Weimar, Saxe-Eifenach, Saxe-Coburg, Saxe-Gotha, Saxe-
Altenburg, Saxe-Querfurt, the Hither and Farther Pome-

5

SAY

rania, Cammin, Anhalt, Quedlinburg, Gernrode, Wal- -

kenried, Schwarzburg, Sonderfhaufen, Schwarzburg-
Rudolftadt, Mansfeld, Stolberg, Barby, the counts of
Reuffen, and the counts of Schonburg. This whole circle
is Lutheran, except the eleGtorate of Saxony. '

SAXTON’S River, a river of America, in the {tate
of Vermont, which difcharges itfelf into the Conne@ticut,
at Weitmintter.

SAXUMA, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon.

N. lat. 31° 35’. E. long. 131° 2!
- SAY, or Save, in Commerce, a kind of ferge; or a very
light croffed {tuff, all wool; much ufed abroad for linings,
and by the religious for fhirts; and with us, by the
Quakers, for aprons, for which purpofe it is ufually dyed
green.

There are very confiderable manufactures of it at Sud-
bury and Colchelter; alfo at Ypres, Houdfcot, &e. in
Flanders, &c. Thofe made in England are chiefly exported
to Portugal and Leghorn. :

SAYA, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Cuba;
15 miles $.S.W. of Spiritu Santo.

SAYACU, in Ornithology, the name ef a Brafilian bird,
of the fize of our chaffinch, and all over of a greyifh-green
colour, and very beautifully bright and fhining in the back
and wings. Its beak is black, as are alfo itseyes. Itisa
{pecies of the Tanagra; which fee.

SAYAN, a name given by fome to a fpecies of fea-
fwallow. This is the bird whofe nefts are fo famous an in-
gredient in foups. : :

Sayan Kiamen, in Geography, a poft of Chinefe Tar-
tary. N. lat. 43°37!. E.long. 105° 39!.

SAYANE, or Sayanfk Mountains, mountains on the
borders of Siberia, the nethermoft f{now-tops and granitic
main-ridges of which determine at the Yenifley, and thence
as far as the Baikal, the. boundaries between Siberia and
the Mongoley ; fo that only the northern fide of the moun-
tains belongs to Siberia. ‘The whole range, whofe highett
ridges, neareft to the Yenifley, are called Sayanfkoi-Krebet,
but towards the ridges of the Oka, Krebet. Khandabaga,
confilts, more or lefs, of rugged granite and porphyry
fummits, which interchange into various kinds of {chittus ;
and farther onwards, between the Yenifley and the Angara,
is underrun with powerful fleetzes of chalk, marle, clay,
and fand. The granite in many of the hills is fo peer A
grained, that the beft mines here are of Mufcovy glafs. In
thefe mountains, about the Yenifley, are found numbers of
mines called old tfhudi mines ; though their mineral contents
are almoft wholly unknown, and except iron-ore, little has
been gained from them. In theyvallies that interfeé& this
range of mountains there are forelts of pines, birch, larch,
and cedar. The chief rivers of the Sayane mountains are
the Yenilley, the Tuba, the Mana, the Kan, the Byrafla,
the Ouda, the Oka, the Irkut, &e.

SAYAQUE, a town of New Mexico; 30 miles N. of
Santa Fé. ,

SAYBROOK, a poft-town of America, in Middlefex
county, and ftate of Connecticut, fituated on the welt fide
of the mouth of Conneticut river ; 36 miles E. of New
Haven, and 367 from Wafhington. ‘This is the moft an-
cient town in the ftate, having beén fettled by Mr. Fenwick
in 1634, who gave it its prelent name in honour of lord Say
and Seal, and lord Brook. Its fort has been a fecurity
again{t the Pequet Indians, and againft other more for-
midable enemies, in defence of the entrance into Conneéticut
river.

SAYD. See Saipe.

SAYDA, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Erzge-

birg ;

=? Lo ete, <r

SCA

birg; 24 miles S.W. of Drefden. N. lat. 50° 39. E.
long. 13° 23'-

SAYN, atown of Germany, in the electorate of Treves,
on the Sayn; 6 miles N. of Coblentz.—Alfo, a county of
Germany, divided into two principal diftri@s, viz. Sayn-
Altenkirchen and Sayn-Hachenbach. Its territories are
fituated chiefly.in the Wefterwald,. and intermixed with
thofe of Heffe-Darmitadt. Sayn-Altenkirchen was inveited
in the marggravate of Anfpach, and after the death of the
marggrave, adjudged to the prince of Naffau-Ufingen.—
Alfo, a river of Germany, which runs into the Rhine,
about five miles below Coblentz.

SAYOU, a town of Africa, in the country of Sierra
Leone; 60 miles E.N.E. of Portlogo.

SAYPAN, or St. JosErH, one of the Ladrone iflands,
about 20 miles in circumference. It is the northernmoft of
the three iflands, Saypan, Tinian, and Aiguigan; and from
the N.E. point of that ifland to the S.W. point of Aigui-
gan, the diitance is about 17 leagues. Thhefe three iflands
are between two and three leagues diftant from each other.
Saypan is the largeit, and Aiguigan, which is high and
round, the fmalleft. Saypan is not only much larger, and
rifes higher, than Tinian, but has a much pleafanter ap-

ce. - In commodore Byron’s voyages, it was vifited
Auguft 1765; and fome of the crew of the Tamar landed
upon a fine fandy beach, which is fix or feven miles long,
and walked up into the woods, where they {aw many trees,
which were fit for topmafts. They faw no fowls nor tracks
of cattle, but of hogs and guanicoes there was plenty.
They faw no frefh water near the beach, but obferved a
large pond ifland. They perceived lange heaps of oytter-
fhells thrown together, and other figns of people having
been there not long before; from which circumftance
they thought it fabakte, that, at certain feafons of the
year, the Spaniards may vifit the ifland, and carry on a
pearl-fifhery. They alfo faw many of thofe fquare pyra-
midal pillars, which are to be found at Tinian, and which
are particularly defcribed in lord Anfon’s Voyage. The
foil is fertile, the climate ferene, and the neceflaries of life
abundant. See Laprone and Tinian.

SAYR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 30 miles S.
of Bettyar.

SAYTAN Harsouvr, a bay on the weft coaft of the
ifland of Sumatra. S. lat. 1° 2!. E. long. 99° 55!.

SAZA, atown of Spain, in Aragon; 6 miles S.W. of
Ainfa.

SBAINEE, a town of Algiers; 27 miles E. of Con-
ftantina.

SBARAZ, a town of Ruffian Poland, in the palatinate
of Braclaw ; 38 miles N. of Burnaw. N. lat. 49° 30. E.
Jong. 29° 1'. ‘

SBE-AH, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Tunis,
anciently called “ Rufpz ;’’ 20 miles S. of El Medea.

SBEEBAH, a town of Africa, in Tunis, anciently
called “ Tucca Terebinthina;” 20 miles S. of Keff, and 50
N. of Spaitla.

SBEKKAH, a town of Africa, in Biledulgerid, an-
ciently called “ Cerbica ;” 50 miles S.W. of Gafsa.

SBICA, a town of Arabia, in the province of Nedsjed,
pear a lake; 220 miles E. of Madian.

SBOAKLE’, a town of Egypt, on the left bank of the
Nile; § miles N. of Tahta.

SBRASLAW, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Beraun; g miles E. of Beraun.

SBROGLIAVACA, a town of Italy, in Friuli;
8 mules from Concordia.

SCAB, in Rural Economy, a contagious difeafe, incident

SCA
to fheep. It is a cutaneous difeafe, fomewhat like the
itch. It commonly fhews itfelf in the form of {mall circum-

{cribed tumours, which, when they break out, appear in the
manner of fcabs, or havea fort of crulty difperfion over the
parts. It is known by the manner of the fheep working
themfelves in the fields, called ferretting, {uch as feratching
different parts of their bodies in a particular way by the
claws of their hind feet, rubbing againft the fences, biting
the parts with their teeth, and many others. Whenever
any of thefe appearances difplay themfelves, the difeafed
fheep fhould dire&ly be feparated from the reft of the flock
which are found.

In fome places the infeGted fheep become extremely reft-
lefs, and manifeft great impatience. Inftead of feeding
quietly, they tear and difplace the wool of the parts by biting
it, being continually on the fearch for ftones, banks, and
other places, to rub againft. The fkin, when minutely ex-
amined, has a reddifh fretted afpe&, emitting a peculiar
ichorous difcharge, which hardens into a fort of cruft or
fcurf. The coat becomes foul, and falls off before its pro-
per time of being cut. The fheep difcontinues its growth,
becomes reduced in flefh, waftes and pines away, and, un-
lefs the difeafe be removed, conitantly finks under the con-
tinual irritation and poverty caufed by it. The complaint
is extremely infectious, and when once introduced among a
flock, leflens the value very confiderably, by endangering
the whole. The purchafe of fuch ftock for keeping will
not be made, and the fheep farmer who would fell any of
fuch infected for found fheep, would be found liable to da-
mages. The diftemper rarely attacks fheep that are in pro~
per condition, or in a fattened ftate. Nor does it feem to
{pread fo much among the flock by direét conta@, as by
means of the rubbing places; as in many cafes where the
whole fheep tock of a farm has been difplaced in confe-
quence of it, the flock which was afterwards put upon the
fame land has immediately become infected ; probably on
account of fome infeétious matter, or animalcule, having
{till continued to adhere to the ftones, banks, or other rub-
bing places of the former flock. Fine-woolled old rams are,
itis faid, of all fheep the mott liable to be affeéted with the
difeafe. But if the hogs of fome breeds, as the Cheviot
and Leicefter, be not carefully taken notice of, and properl
fmeared in due feafon, they too will become liable to be dif-
eafed in this way. In fome forts of fheep, where {mearing
is well attended to, it is feldom produced, though this prac-
tice does not abfolutely prevent infection from taking
place.

This is a difeafe which is very prevalent in the Romney
Marth fheep diftriét, and, in the opinion of fome, more fovat
prefent than it was formerly. The Upland farmers there-
abouts, it is thought, are not fufficiently attentive with re-
fpe& totheir fheep-folds, as it is in this way that the difor-
der is much propagated, the Marth graziers being under the
neceffity of lodging their tegs in thefe contaminated places.
The difeate ufually commences between the fhoulders, per-
haps from rubbing moft in that part, and great pain is fuf-
fered in handling the fheep. Though the opinion is pretty

eneral in the above Marth diftriét, that the difeafe is in the
Blood, and the management dire¢ted accordingly by turning
the fheep into rich paftures, to {trike it out, which is often
attended with mifchief; it is evidently only of a local na-
ture, being wholly confined to the fkin, and to be removed
by topical applications,

In the northern diltriéts it is fometimes very troublefome
among the fine-woolled breeds, in the flocks which are upon
the low-lying groucds. It occafionally alfo finds its way
into flocks which are compofed of other breeds, by being

4D2 introduced

SCA

introduced in different modes of managing them by the con-
tagious matter. It fhould, however, always be checked or
removed on its firft attack, by fuch means as are proper.

When mild, and the cure attempted in time, wafhing
with tobacco-water will often remove it without rifk. But
fulphur ointment isa {till more effeGtual remedy. However,
when the difeafe is of a more virulent nature, the cure is
often attempted by the application of the common blue
ointment of the fhops, which is compoled of quickfilverand
hog’s-lard, in the proportion of about two ounces of quick-
filver to fixteen ounces of lard, by rubbing them well toge-
ther in a mortar: a pound of the ointment, thus prepared,
being fufficient for four or fix fheep. The greateft caution
fhould however be conftantly taken in applying this ointment,
efpecially with ewes that have lambs, as the ac are often
liable to be deitroyed by pa 2 falivated by it.» The beft
mode of applying it is very {paringly in theds at four or
five inches apart on the fides and back.

But the following form has been advifed by fir Jofeph
Banks: take one pound of quickfilver, half a pound of
Venice turpentine, half a pint of oil of turpentine, four
pounds of hog’s-lard: let them be rubbed in a mortar, till
the quickfilver is thoroughly incorporated with the other
ingredients. It fhould then be applied along the back, on
the {kin, in two lines on each fide, and in one down the
fhoulder and between the legs, and the operation fhould not
be performed later than about Michaelmas.

But a ftill more elaborate preparation has been propofed
for the cure of this diforder, but which, perhaps, has little,

if any, fuperiority. Take a gallon of foft well or pond*

water, which divide into two equal parts: in one of thefe
parts diffolve eight ounces of old hard foap ; to which, when
it is diffolved, add two ounces of {pirits of hartfhorn, and
feven ounces of common falt, with four ounces of roll brim-
ftone, beat to a fine powder and fifted ; then take the other
part of the water, in which put two ounces of tobacco-leaf,
and one of white hellebore root ; boil this fecond part till
you have a ftrong infufion, or rather decoétion, after which
ftrain it clear from the leaves and roots. Afterwards take
that part of the water, firft mentioned, and fet it over the
fire ; let it boil for about half an hour, keeping it continually
ftirring with a wooden ladle during that time; in the mean
time heat again the other part, in which the tobacco and
hellebore were infufed; and when it is hot, mix the two
parts gradually together over the fire, keeping the mixture
continually ftirring till it is taken off the fire, which fhould
be in about a quarter of an hour: when itis quite cold, let
it be put into a {tone bottle, in order to its being kept in a
cool place for ufe. This liquor fhould be ufed with caution
at firft, but may afterwards be ufed more freely. It is bett
to apply it by fhedding the wool on the back and other parts.
Thefe mixtures fhould be boiled in well-glazed earthen or
iron pots. .

A preparation made by boiling two pounds of white
hellebore root coarfely pounded, one pound of fulphur vivum,
and one ounce of the fublimate of mercury, or the fame
quantity of white arfenic, in four gallons of {trong afh-ley for
half an hour or more, is alfo greatly recommended by fome.
The affected parts of the fheep are to be well wafhed with
this liquor once or twice in the day, which will afford
almoft immediate relief. When the liquor happens to
be too ftrong, it may be diluted by means of more ath-ley
being added

Or the following ointment, which is of a fimilar nature,
may be employed in cafes where the fheep are almoft ina
naked ftate. Mix two ounces each, of finely powdered ful-
phur vivum and white hellebore, and one ounce of finely le-

SCA

vigated fublimate, with three quarters of a pound of hog’s-
lard, rubbing them very well together. The difeafed parts
are to be fli aki anointed withthis fubftance once or twice
in the i of the day. Its ftrength may be reduced when
neceflary, by adding more lard.

Turpentine, and train-oil and brimftone in mixture, as
ointments, are likewife in fome initances made ufe of for this
purpofe with much benefit.

In that ftate of violent itching which is denominated the
rubbers, that permits of no reft for the fheep which are af-
fected with it ; the only means of relief are probably thofe
of houfing the animals, cutting off their coats in a clofe
manner, wafhing and cleaning their fkins well with afh-ley,
and then applying over it a fh
other, fuch as that of fublimate in a weak {tate. Internal
remedies are fometimes combined with thofe of the alterative
and fulphur kinds.

The occafional appearances of hard feurfy matters on
the backs of fheep, caufed by heat or in other ways, are,
for the moft part, neither dangerous nor infetious, it being
oe fufficient to have them anointed with a little fheep-

alve.

In fome inftances, a foul ftate of the body, and red lice,
are taken for the fcab, though the difference is readily de-
tected by proper attention; as in them the affeétions are not
on the fame parts, or the appearances the fame, the animals
not pulling off their wool, or ferretting about in the fame
manner as in that cafe. Nor is there any thing infeétious in
fuch complaints.

On the whole the fcab, though not very dangerous, is ex-
tremely troublefome and diftrefling to the fheep, being at-
tended with confiderable pain; and by negleé it may ulti-
mately become fatal.

This is likewife a diftemper in horfes, often proceedin
from their being over-heated, whichis to be removed in muc
the fame manner. See Horse and SHEEP.

Scas, Crown-/cab, inthe Manege. See Crown-/cab.

SCABBARD, is the fkin that ferves for a fheath or cafe
to a horfe’s yard.

SCABBED Heap, in Medicine. See Porrico.

Scassep Heels, or Frufh, in the Manege, is an eating
putrefaction upon a horfe’s frufh, which is very hard to cure,
and has a noifome {mell.

SCABELLA, or Scasitra, the perfons who in antiquity
beat time to the performance of mufic ; they were generally
furnifhed with wooden or fron fandals, in order to mark the
meafure in amore diftin& manner. ‘Thefe inftruments were
called xpam lice, xXpemAdc, OF xeuTTa, by the Greeks, by the
Latins pedicula, /cabella or fcabilla, becaufe they refembled
little pattens or clogs.

SCABELLUM, in the Ancient Archite@ure, a kind of
pedeftal, ufually fquare, fometimes polygonous, very high
and flender, commonly terminating in a kind of fheath or
{cabbard, or profiled in manner of a balutter. Its ufe is to
fupport buitos, or other relievos, &c.

SCABIES, in Medicine, the itch, fo called from the in-
tenfe itching which accompanies every form of this conta-
gious difeafe.

We have given, under the popular term Itcu (which fee),
a brief defcription of the varieties of this eruptive complaint,
and of the methods of curing it, which it will not be necef-
fary to repeat. We learn from the treatife of Dr. Bateman,
on the difeafes of the fkin, publifhed fince that article was
written, that Dr. Willan had adopted the diftinétions of the
vulgar (who indeed have the belt opportunities of becoming
intimately acquainted with this filthy malady) in his nomen-
clature of {cabies ; which he divided into four {pecies, “i
the

arp folution of fome kind or

aa SS EE—E—E—&«w-—

=

ape A

the rank itch, Scabies papuliformis, from the pimple-like ap-
pearance of the little veficles ;—the watery itch, S. lympha-
tica, which is nearly a tranflation of the popular term ;—the
pocky itch, S. purulenta, from the puttular form which it af-
fumes ;—and the fcorbutic itch, S§. cache@ica, as connected
with a bad habit of the body. This laft form of the itch
fometimes originates independently of contagion, where the
conftitution is fuffering under fome chronic malady, or has
been debilitated by fome acute difeafe; whence fir John
Pringle obferved that, in military hofpitals, the patients
often became the fubje¢ts of itch after the crifis of fevers.

The term /cabies, like moft of the appellations applied to
difeafes of the fkin, has been employed in various accepta-
tions by different writers: and many of them fpeak of fca-
bies ficca and humida, and agree in confidering the humid
as more curable than the dry forms of fcabies. But
thofe who thusemploy the term, apply it to all tettery and
leprous eruptions$ and the affertion, therefore, is equiva-
lent to this, that the dry tetters, lepra, pforiafis, &c. are
not fo eafily cured as impetigo and feabies, which is true.
But the term /cadies fhould be limited to the contagious
itch; for we have above pointed out the error of appro-
priating the Greek term p/ora to this difeafe. See Itcu.
See Bateman’s Praét. Synopf. of Cutan. Difeafes. Alfo,
Willis, Pharmac. Rational, p. ii. § 2, cap. 6; and Callifen,
Syit. Chirurg. Hodiern. § 324.

SCABIOSA, in Botany, a very natural genus of plants,
fo named from /cabies, the itch, or fome fimilar eruptive
difeafe, which certain fpecies were thought to cure. Am-
brofini derives the word from /caber, rough, becaufe of the
roughnefs ufual in thefe herbs, and efpecially of the fcaly
harfhnefs of their heads of flowers.—Linn. Gen. 48. Schreb.
64. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 545. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4.
Sm. Fl. Brit. 170. Prodr. Fl. Gree. Sibth. v. 1. 79.
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 1. 224. Juff. 194. Lamarck II-
luftr. t. 57. Gaertn. t. 86.—Clafs and order, Tetrandria
Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Aggregate, Linn. Dip/facee, Jull.

Gen.Ch. Ca/. Common perianth many-flowered, {pread-
ing, of many leaves, furrounding the receptacle in various
rows, and inferted into that part, the inner ones gradually
{maller ; proper perianth double ; the outermott inferior, of
one leaf, tubular, plaited, permanent; the innermoft fu-
perior, in five deep, awl-fhaped, capillary-pointed fegments.
General corolla equal, though often compofed of unequal
florets ; partial of one petal, tubular, cut about half way
down into four or five, equal or unequal, fegments. Stam.
Filaments four, awl-{haped, or nearly capillary, weak ; an-
thers oblong, incumbent. Pi/. Germen inferior, eufolded
in an appropriate fheath like a partial inferior calyx ; ftyle
thread-fhaped, the length of the petal; fligma obtule,
obliquely emarginate. Peric. none. Seeds folitary, ovate-
oblong, theathed, and varioufly crowned, by their partial
calyxes. Common receptacle convex, either covered with
chaffy leaflets or {cales, or fometimes naked.

Obf. ‘The outermoit florets are often largeft, and molt
unequal. ‘The crown of the feed differs in different (pecies.
The fpecies are primarily diftinguifhed by the partial corolla
being in four or five fegments.

Eff. Ch. Common calyx of many leaves ; partial double ;
the innermolt fuperior. Receptacle chaffy, or naked. Seed
coated and crowned by the partial calyx.

An extenfive genus, of herbaceous or flightly thrubby
— confined to Europe-and fome parts of Africa, un-

nown in America. The herbage is ufually rough; ftem
forked ; leaves oppofite, varioufly cut or compound, rarely
undivided and entire; flowers blucifh, white or yellowith,
of a handfome, often radiated, form, and generally fup-

florets radiant.

SCA

ported by long ftalks, being very rarely feffile. The fol-
lowing examples may fuffice. Linnzus has 24 of this genus
in his Species Plantarum ; Willdenow 41. Some of their
Knautie moreover are Scabiofe. ‘Three are natives of Britain,
and feveral new ones are figured in the Flora Graca. All
thefe we hall particularly notice.
Se&. 1. Partial corollas four-cleft.

S. alpina. Alpine Scabious.. Linn. Sp. Pl. 141.
Willd. n. r. Ait. n. 1. (S. alpina maxima; Lob. Ic.
537-f.2. S. montana maxima; Ger. Em. 721. S. alpina

centauroides; Befl. Hort. Eyit. zxftiy. 8. t.9. f. 1. Dip-
facus n. 2co; Hall. Hilt. v. 1. 86.) —Corollas four-cleft,
equal. Calyx imbricated. Flowers drooping. Leaves
pinnate; with lanceolate ferrated leaflets. — Native of the
mountains of Switzerland and Italy. Dr. Sibthorp found
it alfo,on mount Athos. The plant has been for thefe 250
years a hardy perennial in our gardens, flowering in June
and July. The /lem is often five or fix feet high. Leaves
of the colour and afpe@t of Elder, but more rigid, with
more numerous, rather hairy, leaflets. Flowers {mall in
proportion, pale buff, or yellowifh, in round {caly heads.
This is a coarfe inelegant plant, taking up much room, with
little fhow, and is fit only for the borders of a fhrubbery, or
very {pacious garden.

S. ambrofioides. Ambrofia-leaved Scabious. Sm. Fl.
Gree. Sibth. v. 2. 5. t. 103.—Corollas four-cleft, equal.
Calyx imbricated, acute. Leaves interruptedly and doubly
pinnatifid, cut, downy.—Difcovered by Dr. Sibthorp, on
mount Parnaflus. About four feet high. Diftinguifhed
from the laft by its more fubdivided and jagged /eaves, and
larger, yellowifh, upright flowers.

S. didens. 'Twin-toothed Scabious. Sm. Fl. Gree.
Sibth. v. 2. 6. t. 104.—Corollas four-cleft, radiating.
Lower leaves lyrate, ferrated. Fruit compreiled, with two
principal teeth.—Gathered by Dr. Sibthorp, in A fia Minor,
probably near Smyrna. Root biennial, tapering. Stem foli-
tary, a yard high, ereét, ftraight, leafy, round, hollow,
roughith to the touch; branched, or panicled, at the top.
Leaves four or five inches long, roughifh, rather flaccid ;
the upper ones with an undivided linear bafe. Flowers
rather fmall, light purple, with red anthers ; the margtnal
Fruit approaching the form of that of a
true Knautia.

S. fyriaca. Syrian Scabious. Linn. Sp. Pl. 141. Willd.
n.7. Ait.n.5. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 2. 6. t. 105.
(S. fruticans latifolia alba ; Morif. fe. 6. t. 14. f. 14. S.
eltivalis Clufii; Ger. Em. 724.)—Corollas four-cleft, equal.
Calyx imbricated, awned ; as well as the {cales of the cylin-
drical receptacle. Leaves lanceolate, ferrated.—Native of
cultivated fields in Syria, and the ifle of Cyprus. The
root is annual. Habit of the plant like the laft, but the
leaves undivided, ftraight and mgid, all uniform. Flowers
puiple, conical, with red, projecting, briftly awns to their
calles.

S. fuccifa. Devil’s-bit Scabious. Linn. Sp. Pl. 142.
Willd. n. 9. Ait.n.7. Fi. Brit.n. 1. Engl. Bot. t. 878.
Curt. Lond. fafe. 3. t. 10. Fl Dan. t. 279. (Morfus
Diaboli; Ger. Em. 726.)—Corollas four-cleft, equal.
Stem-leaves toothed. Heads of flowers peers | globular.
Branches few, ereét.—Native of rather moilt meadows
throughout the cooler parts of Europe, flowering with us
in autumn. ‘The root 1s perennial, tuberous, sp having,
it is faid, been bitten off by the Devil, out of {pite to its
many medical virtues. Stem twelve or eighteen inches high,
round, leafy, purplith, bearing about three or more flowers
of a violet purple, often white, but f{carcely ever of the
bright blue reprefented in Englifh Botany. Radical /eaves

1 ovate,

SCABIOSA.

ovate, or obovate, entire. Hairs of the ftem deflexed, thofe
of the flower-ftalks ere&t. Flowers nearly regular.

S. arvenfis. Field Scabious. Linn. Sp. Pl. 143. Willd.
n. 15. Ait. n. ro. Fi. Brit. n.2. Engl. Bot. t. 659.
Curt. Lond. fefe. 4. t. 13. Fl. Dan. t. 447. (S. major
vulgaris ; Ger. Em. 719.)—Corollas four-cleft, radiating.
Leaves pinnatifid, cut. Stem briftly. Receptacle hairy.
—Common throughout Europe, in gravelly fields and paf-
tures, flowering in July. Root perennial, long, tapering.
Plant three or four feet high, hairy. Radical /eaves nume-
rous, undivided, ferrated ; upper ones pinnatifid, and cut.
Flowers large and handfome ; the great radiating pea
florets of a purplifh-blue; the reft pale reddifh ; all ac-
quire a bright green colour if held over a lighted pipe of
tobacco. Seed crowned with many briftles. Receptacle
hairy, not fealy.

S. fylvatica. Broad-leaved Scabious. Linn. Sp. Pl. 142.
Willd. n. 17. Ait. n. 12. | Jacq. Auftr. v. 4. 32. t. 362.
(S. n. 204 and 205 ; Hall. Hilt. v. 1. 89. 5S. rubra auf-
triaca; Ger. Em. 721.)—Corollas four-cleft, radiating.
Leaves all undivided, ovate-oblong, acute, ferrated. Stem
hifpid.— Native of the borders of woods in Auftria, Hun-
gary, and Switzerland, flowering from June to September.
The root is perennial. The broad, more uniform and acute,
undivided aves diftinguifh this from the laft, and the
flowers are {maller. The plant has little to recommend it
as an objeé&t of general cultivation, and though every now
and then introduced among other foreign feeds, is feldom
kept long in any garden.

We here beg leave to obferve that S. Aybrida, Allion.
Aué&. ad Fl. Pedem. 9, is no other than the Linnzan inte-
grifolia, Willd. n. 10; of which a figure is much wanted,
and to which Willdenow erroncoufly refers Haller’s n. 205 ;
though that author tells us in his Nomenclator, p. 20, that
his 204 and 205 are one and the fame fpecies. Magnol’s
fynonym does not belong to Haller’s 205, but to the true
integrifolia.

Se&. 2.

S. columbaria.

Partial corollas five-cleft.

Small Scabious. Linn. Sp. Pl. 143.
Willd. n. 19. Ait. n. 14. Fi. Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot.
t. 1311. Fl. Dan. t. 314. (S. minor, five columbaria ;
Ger. Em. 719. S. minor; Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 319.)—
Corollas five-cleft, radiating. Radical leaves ovate or ly-
rate, crenate ; thofe of the ftem pinnatifid, with linear feg-
ments.—Found in moft parts of Europe, on dry gravelly
or chalky hills, flowering in June and July. Root perennial,
woody. Herb {maller, and more flender, than S. arvenfis,
and readily diftinguifhed from that, as well as from /ucct/a,
by the five fegments of its florets. Stamens four, not five,
as drawn in the Fl. Danica. Outer partial calyx finally
crowned with a membranous border: inner of five large
brown briftles.

S. churnea. Ivory Scabious. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth.
vy. 2. 7. t. 106.—Corollas five-cleft, radiating, with fringe-
like teeth, much fhorter than the common calyx. Leaves
pinnatifid; the uppermoft linear and undivided.—Gathered
by Dr. Sibthorp in the way between Smyrna and Burfa.
Root {mall and annual. Stem twelve or eighteen inches
high, bufhy, branched from the very bottom, leafy, hairy,
polifhed. Leaves narrow, recurved, flightly hairy. Flowers
of an ivory white, with a long, deflexed, leafy, linear com-
mon calyx. ‘The Linnean §. ficula, Mant. 196. Willd.
n. 21, much refembles this in general afpeét, but differs in
having equal, not radiating, florets, and dilated, obovate or
lyrate, radical /eaves. §. maritima, Linn. Sp. Pl. 144.
Willd. n. 23, has /eaves like ficula, while its flowers are
radiant, as in our eburnea, but red and entire, not toothed.

S. flellata. Starry Scabious.
Willd, n. 24. Ait. n. 17. (S. major hifpanica; Cluf.
Hit. v. 2. 1. Ger. Em..722.)—Corollas five-cleft, radi«
ating. Leaves cut and jagged. Outer crown of the feed
orbicular, f{preading, membranous, with many ribs.—
Native of Spain. A common hardy annual in gardens,
raifed not fo much for the fake of its large cream-co-
loured flowers, as for its heads of feeds, which ferve to
decorate flower-pots in winter, and whofe dark five-rayed
inner calyx is prettily fet off by the orbicular and fhining
outer one.

S. prolifera. Proliferous Scabious.
Willd. n. 25. Ait. n. 18. Sm. Fl. Gree. Sibth. v. 2. 8,
t. 107. (S. ftellata humilis integrifolia prolifera; Herm.
Parad. 223, with a plate.)—Corollas five-cleft, radiating.
Flowers nearly feffile. Stem proliferous. Leaves undi-
vided.—Native of Egypt, and of the ifle of Cyprus, in cul-
tivated fields ; a hardy annual, kept in fome curious gardens.
The repeatedly forked leafy fem, with a nearly feffile buff
coloured flswer between each of the divifions, gives this
fpecies a peculiar appearance. S§. parviflora, Desfont.
Atlant. v, 1. 119, and one very near it, a native of Hun-
gary, called dichotoma in Donn. Cant. ed. 5. 28, have
however the fame habit and inflorefcence as the prolifera ;
and, if we miftake not, the outer partial caly# of all of
them is of the fame orbicular membranous ribbed nature as
that of §. flellata, though not quite fo large.

S. atro-purpurea. Sweet, or Mufky, Scabious. Linn.

Curt. Mag.

Sp. Pl. 144. Willd. n. 26. Ait. n. 19.
t. 247. (S. rubra indica; Ger. Em. 724.)—Corollas five-
Leaves pinnatifid and cut. Receptacle

Linn. Sp. Pl. 144.

Linn. Sp. Pl. 144.

cleft, radiating.
cylindrical. uter crown of the feed fhort, lobed, and
crenate.—The native country of this common garden bien-
nial is unknown, for the term indica throws little light on
the fubje&. The plant is valued for the fingularly deep red
of its large and copious flowers, and efpecially for their rich
mufky {cent, which feems to convey a fort of warmth as we
inhale it. 9

S. argentea. Silvery Scabious. Linn. Sp. Pl. 145. Willd.
n.27. Ait. n..20. Sm. Fl. Gree. Sibth. v. 2..9. t. 108.
«© Desfont. Ann. du Mul. v. 11. 167. t. 24.”?—Corollas five-
cleft, radiating, entire, the length of the calyx. Leaves
pinnatifid, acute, hairy.—Native of the Levant; found by
Tournefort, and introduced: by him into the gardens of
France and England, where it is hardy and perennial, flower-
ing from June to the end of autumn. Dr. Sibthorp met
with this fpecies between Corinth and Elis, as well as in
maritime fituations near Con{tantinople, and by the road
from Smyrna to Burfa. The plant, except being perennial,
7 in habit with our eburnea, but the fowers are {maller,
of a purer white, with entire edges, and the common calyx
does not extend beyond them. The lobes of the /eaves too
are more numerous, crowded, and acute.

S. brachiata. Spreading-branched Scabious. Sm. Fl.
Gree. Sibth. v. 2.9. t. 109. (Knautia paleftina ; Linn.
Mant. 197. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 562; fee KNautra.)—
Corollas five-cleft, radiating, crenate. Leaves fearcely di-
vided. Outer crown of the feed membranous, pierced
underneath.—Found in Palefline by Haffelquift ; in fields in
Cyprus by Dr. Sibthorp. The root is fmall and annual,
Stem ere&, a foot or thereabouts in height, with a few (tiff,
oppofite, {preading branches. Leaves of a glaucous green,
hairy on both fides; the lower ones obovate, undivided,
{talked, crenate; the upper much narrower and fharper,
fometimes pinnatifid at their bafe. Flowers on long hairy
(talks, light purple, with a large radius, whofe florets are
crenate. The outer coat of the /eed is crowned with a

membranous

a

OE —— — —

EEE Ee

SCABIOSA.

membranous border, elevated on ten ribs, with intermediate
perforations ; inner crown of ten hairy rays.

S. Sibthorpiana. Sibthorpian Scabious. Sm. Fl. Gree.
Sibth. y. 2. ro. t. 110.—Corollas five-cleft, radiating, entire.
Leaves pinnatifid at the bafe. Outer crown of the feed
membranous, pierced underneath.—Gathered by Dr. Sib-
thorp, in Cyprus, with the preceding. As he efteemed it a
diitin f{pecies, and had a drawing prepared for the Flora
Greca, this plant could not but find a place in that work,
though we greatly fufpeét it to be only a variety of the lait,
with more luxuriant herbage, the edges of the corolla being
poffibly fometimes entire, fometimes crenate.

S. plumofa. Feathery-topped Scabious. Sm. Fl. Gree.
Sibth.v.2. 11.t. 111. (S. cretica, capitulo pappos men-
tiente; Tourn. Cor. 34, on the authority of his herba-
rium. Knautia plumofa; Linn. Mant. 197. Willd. Sp. Pl.
vy. 1.4. )—Corollas five-cleft, radiating, acute. Leaves lyrate.
Outer crown of the feed obfolete ; inner feathery.—Plenti-
ful on the rocks of Crete. This has the habit of the two
lat. Allthe Laves are lyrate. The itruGure of the fowers
is very different, the fegments of the marginal flsrets being
elongated and very aeute, tipped with dark red ; the outer
covering of the /zed has no marginal dilatation; the inner
crown confifts of eleven or twelve long, linear, purplifh,
feathery rays.

S. involucrata. LLeafy-headed Scabious. Sm. Fl. Grec.
Sibth. v. 2.11. t. 112. (S.pappofa; Gertn. t. 86. Linn.
Sp. Pl. ed. 1. 1o1, excluding Tournefort’s fynonym, which
belongs to our foregoing fpecies ; nor is this what Linneus
fubfequently called pappo/a. )—Corollas five-cleft, radiating,
acute. Leaves doubly pinnatifid. Outer crown of the feed
minute. Common calyx pinnatifid.—Native of little hills
in Crete and Cyprus, flowering in June. This alfo has a
{mail annual root. The /lem is about a foot high, with a few
divaricated branches. Leaves hoary, villous, with many
narrow decurrent fegments. Flowers pink, encompafled
with a large, leafy, {preading calyx.

S. pterocephala. Wing-headed Scabious. Linn. Sp. PI.
146. Willd.n. 41. Sm. Fl. Grac. Sibth. v. 2. 12. t. 113.
—Corollas five-cleft, radiating. Stem procumbent, fhrubby.
Leaves lyrate, cut, downy. Inner crown of the feed fea-
thery.—Gathered by Dr. Sibthorp on the rocky parts of
mount Parnaflus. The roots are perennial, woody, very
long, and much branched, throwing up numerous, {mall,
fhrubby, procumbent lems, with fhort leafy branches,
which all together compofe denfe tufts, covered with hoary
lyrate aves, and crowned with large, light-purple, folitary

lowers, of great beauty, on flalks of a pet length. The
outer crown of the /eed is very {mall ; the inner of numerous,
feffile, feathery rays. Vaillant eitablifhed a genus called
Pterocephalus, of which this was a {pecies, and hence Linnzus
chofe his fpecific name; but he might eafily have invented
one more appropriate and difcriminative.

S. coronopifolia. Buck’s-horn Scabious. Sm. Fl. Grac.
Sibth. v. 2. 13. t. 114.—Corollas five-cleft, radiating,
toothed. Stem procumbent, fhrubby. Leaves doubly pin-
natifid, {moothith. Inner crown of the feed rough; outer
dilated, notched. —We have not been able to afcertain that
Dr. Sibthorp met with this {pecies in any partof Greece. A
Sicilian {pecimen of the fame, from Mr. Bivona, rather induces
a fufpicion of the dottor’s having gathered his plant in that
ifland, as is the cafe with a few others, which, being new, he
neverthelefs deftined for the Flora Graca. The habit, and it
is to be prefumed the natural ftation of the plant before us,
are fimilar to the lat, The thrubby, branched, deprefled
Alem: are clothed with narrowly divided, thick, and rather
Mlethy Jeaves, occalionally {mooth or hairy. Flowers large

and handfome, on long, folitary, hairy ftalks.
purple, itriated with darker veins.

Scasrosa, in Gardening, contains plants of the herbaceous,
annual, biennial, perennial, and fhrubby kinds, of which
the fpecies moftly cultivated are ; the alpine fcabious (S.
alpina) ; the {nowy fcabious (S. leucantha) ; the devil’s-bit
{cabious (S. fuccifa) ; the red-flowered annual fcabious (S.
integrifolia) ; the giant fcabious (S. tartarica); the cut-
leaved {cabious (S. gramuntia) ; the ftarry feabious (S. ftel
lata) ; the {weet fcabious (S. atro-purpurea); the filvery
f{eabious (S. argentea); the grafs-leaved {cabious (S. gra-
minifolia) ; the African fcabious (S. africana) ; and the
Cretan fcabious (S. cretica).

The feventh fort varies with different jagged leaves, and
with red and white flowers.

In the eighth fort the flowers are very {weet, and there is
a great variety in their colour, fome being of a purple ap-
proaching to black, others of a pale purple, fome red, and
others variegated. It alfo varies in the leaves, fome being
finer cut than others: and fometimes from the fide of the
calyx come out many flender peduncles fuftaining {mall
flowers, like the (proliferous or) hen-and-chicken daify.

In the eleventh fort, the variety with the leaves finely cut,
has, according to the late edition of Miller, the italks hairy,
and dividing into feveral branches: the bottom leaves are
lanceolate, crenate, and entire ; but thofe on the upper part
of the {talk are bipinnate : the flowers are produced on long
naked footitalks from the end of the branches; are of a pale
flefh-colour, and large, but have no {cent.

In the twelfth fort, according to the new edition of Mil-
ler, the plant from Candia has fhorter and much broader
leaves, and not fo white as thofe of the Sicilian ; the flowers
are not fo large, and are of a pale purple colour.

Method of Culture.—AI\ the annual and biennial forts may
be increafed by feed, which fhould be fown in a bed or border
of common mould, or in pots, to be forwarded in the hot-bed
in the early {pring months; but the biennial fort is better
fown in the latter end of the fummer, as about Augutt, as
they flower ftronger and more fully the following fummer.
Some may, however, be fown at both feafons. And when
the plants have attained fome growth, in the fpring-fown
fort, they fhould be pricked out into the places where they
are to grow, on beds, to be afterwards removed: and in the
autumn-fown forts into nurfery-rows, fix or eight inches
apart, to be removed into the places where they are to re-
main, with balls about their roots, in the following {pring,
being duly watered and kept free from weeds.

But the ftarry fort is beft fown in patches in the borders
or clumps where the plants are to flower.

And the herbaceous perennial kinds may be readily in-
creafed by fowing the feeds ina bed or border of good light
earth, in the{pring feafon, the plants being planted out when
they have attained a little growth, where they are to grow:
they are alfo capable of being raifed by parting thé roots,
and planting them out where they are to grow in the
autumn.

All the fhrubby kinds may be readily raifed by planting
flips or cuttings of the young branches in the {pring or fum-
mer feafon, in the former feafon in pots, and plunged in a
moderate hot-bed, or under a glafs-frame; but in the latter,
in the open ground, being well fhaded and watered. ‘They
{oon become tolerably well-rooted, and in the autumn may
be potted off into feparate pots filled with light loamy earth,
and managed in the fame manner as other exotic greenhoufe
plants during the winter.

All the annual and perennial forts afford ornament and
variety among other plants of the flower kind in the borders,

&e.

Corolla light

SC &

&c. and the fhrubby kinds produce variety in greenhoufe
colleGtions, and other proteéted fituations.

Scastosa, Scabious, in the Materia Afedica. The com-
mon f{cabious of our corn-fields has been accounted a
great alexipharmic and peétoral, and made an ingredient in
ptifans, and infufions given in coughs and all diforders of
the lungs, and recommended greatly by authors in pleurifies,
quinzies, coughs, afthmas, and confumptions. Some have
recommended it in malignant fevers, and even in the plague.

It has been alfo ufed externally, either in a ftrong decoc-
tion, or elfe boiled into an ointment with lard, in the itch, and
many other diforders of the fkin ; whence it has its names,
viz. from /cabies, itch ; and upon which account it was for-
merly often met with in decoétion, and fometimes in a fyrup,
among fuch things as are called f{weeteners : but it feems
now, in a great meafure, to have loft its credit and ufe.

SCABIOUS, Sueep’s, in Botany. See Jasione.

SCABRITA, fo named by Linnzus, from /eaber, rough,
becaufe of the remarkable roughnefs of the leaves. See
NycraNTHEs.

SCABROUS Lear, See Lear.

Scasrous Stalk. See STALK.

SCAD, in Zchthyclogy, the Englifh mame of a fifh, re-
fembling the mackarel in fhape, called by writers the tra-
churus. See Scomper Trachurus.

SCADRANK, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the
province of Natangen; 3 miles N. of Marggrabowa.

SCAEN, a town of France, in the department of Finif-
terre, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of Quim-
perle ; 10 miles N.N.W. of Quimperle. The place con-
tains 4100, and the canton goog inhabitants, on a territory
of 190 kiliometres, in three communes.

SC/ENANTH, or Scua#nanvuy, in the Materia Medica,
the dried {talk of a plant brought to us from Arabia.

This plant is called, by the generality of botaniflts, juncus
odoratus, and aromaticus ; but Linneus gives it the name of
ifchemum, under which head its botanical chara¢ters are
defcribed.

The ftalk is ufually eight or ten inches in length, fome-
times confiderably more ; it is {mooth and glofly on the fur-
face, and about the thicknefs of a wheat-ftraw, but much
more rigid and firm. It is round, jointed, and not folid, but
has a cavity in it filled with a central pith, like that of our
commonrufhes. Its colour is yellowifh at the bafe, or to-
ward the root,. but toward the top it is purplifh or greenith ;
it is very light, yet confiderably hard, and is of a fragrant
aromatic {mell, in which we may difcover fomething of a
mixed fcent, between that of the rofe and penny-royal. Its
tafte is acrid and bitterifh, but not unpleafant.

It fhould be chofen frefh, found, and clean, not dufty or
decayed, of a good {mell and {trong acrid tafte.

The word /chenanth, fignifying the flower of the rufh,
might naturally lead us to fuppofe, that what we now receive
under that name, is not the drug that was fo called by the
ancient Greeks and Romans, and fome have very vigoroufly
{upported this opinion. But on enquiry into the Grecian
materia medica, we find that none of their {chenanth had
flowers on it any more than ours.

The ancients ufed the whole plant in medicine, ftalk, leaves,
and flowers ; its virtue refided pretty equally in every part of
it, as is manifeft from every part’s poflefling the fame fmell
and tafte, and having the fame pungency in the mouth.

They prefcribe it as a deobftruent and promoter of the
menfes; but at prefent it is never heard of in extempo-
raneous prefcriptions, only kept as an ingredient in fome
compofitions.

SCAEVOLA, in Botany, a Linnzan name, apparently

SC &

derived, as De Theis well imagines, from /ceva, the left
hand, or a left-handed perfon ; becaufe of the direGtion of
the corolla towards one fide, which gives the flower an
oblique and imperfe& appearance.—Linn. Mant. 2. 145.
Schreb. 121. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.955. Mart. Mill. De.
v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 1. 364. Brown Prodr. Nov.
Holl. v. x. 582. Juff. 165. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 124.
(Lobelia; Plum. Gen. 21. t. 31. Gaertn. t. 25.) —Clafs
and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Campanacee,
Linn. Campanulacee, Julf. Goodenovie, Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, very
fhort, in five equal fegments, permanent, foinetimes obfo-
lete. Cor. of one petal, unequal; tube long, hairy inter-
nally, with a longitudinal fiffure, through which the organs
of impregnation are protruded ; limb all turned to one fide,
in five deep, oblong, equal, membranous-bordered fegments.
Stam. Filaments five, fhort, capillary, inferted into the re-
ceptacle, finally flaccid, deciduous with the corolla (Brown) ;
anthers diftinét, ereét, oblong, obtufe, fometimes bearded.
Pift. Germen inferior, ovate ; ftyle thread-fhaped, thickened
upwards, longer than the ttamens, proje€tin
fiffure of the tube, and incurved towards chet ftigma
comprefled, obtufe, with a fringed integument. Peric.
Drupa roundifh, umbilicated, either dry or pulpy, of one
cell. Sced. Nut ovate, acute, rugged, moftly of two
cells.

Eff. Ch. Corolla fplit longitudinally at one fide, pro-
truding the organs of impregnation ; limb in five deep, bor-
dered, uniform fegments, turned one way. Anthers dif-
tin. Integument of the ftigma fringed. Drupa inferior.

Mr. Brown, who has well defined this genus, and aug-
mented its {pecies from the three in Willdenow, to twenty-
four at leaft, has thus explained its leading charaéters, The
fpecies are either fhrubby or herbaceous, of various afpeéts,
their pubefcence, if any, fimple. Leaves alternate, rarely
oppofite, fcarcely divided, often toothed. Snflorefcence
axillary, or difpofed in a leafy {pike. Germen fubtended by
two braéteas, moftly of two cells, rarely four, with one
feed in each; occafionally of one cell, with one or two
feeds. Corolla white or blue, rarely yellowifh, deciduous,
for the molt part downy at the outfide, the wings of its fee-
ments often fringed, at leaft at the bafe, with minute woolly
tufts ; the tube villous within, its mouth fhaggy with fimilar
tufts to thofe of the fegments, and placed in lines confluent
therewith.

The following examples will give an idea of the genus.

S. Lobelia. Shrubby Purflane-leaved Scevola. Willd,
n. 3. Ait.n.1. (Lobelia Plumieri ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1317.
Jacq. Am. 219. L. frutefcens, portulace folio ; Plum, Ic.
t. 165. f. 1. ** Catefb. Carol. v. 1. t. 79:’? )—Leaves obo-
vate, {mooth, entire. Calyx undivided, very fhort.—Na-
tive of the Weft Indies. Catefby is faid to have communi-
cated it to the Chelfea garden in 1724 ; but we believe none
of the plants exift, at prefent, in any colleétion. This is a
flefhy, {carcely milky, inelegant /orub, with rugged branches,
leafy at the top. Leaves {talked, two or three inches long,
abrupt, flefhy.. Flowers very few together, in axillary, fo-
litary, ftalked cymes. Corolla yellowith-white. Drupa fuc-
culent, black.

S. Koenigii. Eaft Indian Shrubby Scevola. Willd. n, 2.
Brown. n. 1.—Cymes fmooth. Flowers with partial
ftalks. Calyx as long as the germen. Leaves obovate,
fomewhat wavy at the ead, very fmooth, as well as the
branches.—Native of the Eatt Indies, and of the tropical
part of New Holland. Larger than the former, with more
numerous flowers.

S. fericea. Silky Scevola. Forft. Prodr., 89. Willd.

n. 3:

out of the ©

a ee

on

ee

Oe ES 66 9b BGI OO *

“lowe

BP cath 4: ate me ee

SCA

un. 3. Brown. n.2. Vahl. Symb. v. 2. 37.—Cymes and
outfide of the corolla downy. Flowers with partial ftalks.
Calyx as long as the germen. Leaves obovate, fomewhat
wavy, clothed on both fides, as well as the branches, with
foft down. Native of Savage iiland, and of the tropical
part of New Holland. According to Mr. Brown, this
fcarcely differs, but in its downinefs, which is variable, from
the laft. :

S. crafffolia. Thick-leaved Scevola. Labill. Nov. Holl.
v. I. 56. t. 79. Brown. n. 5. Ait. n. 2.—Shrubby,
afcending, very fmooth. Leaves rather flefhy, toothed,
obovate or lanceolate. Bra¢teas undivided. Covering of
the itigma but flightly fringed.—Native of the fouthern fea-
coait of New Holland. Sent to Kew, by Mr. Brown, in
1805. A greenhoufe fhrub, flowering from Auguit to Oc-
tober. The ers are much fmaller thar the lait, in long

_ braéteated fpikes. Branches and leaves often purplifh.

5. microcarpa. Smiall-fruited Scevola. Cavan, Ic. v. 6.
6.t. 509. Brownn.1z. Ait.n. 3. (Goodenia albida;
Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 2. 347; fee Goopenia. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 1. 954. G. levigata; Curt. Mag. t. 287.
Willd. ibid.) — Herbaceous, downy. Leaves roundifh-
wedge-fhaped, toothed; tapering at the bafe. Bratteas
pe a Calyx lobed. Hairs inthe mouth of the corolla
fimple or capitate. Style longitudinally villous. Germen
of one cell, with rudiments of two feeds. Native of New
South Wales, and Van Diemen’s land. A greenhoufe
plant, flowering all fummer, various in habit, with blue or
white flowers in leafy /pikes. t

S. fuaveolens. Sweet-{cented Scevola. Brown n. 14.
Ait. n. 4. (Goodenia calendulacea; Andr. Repof. t.-22.)
—Herbaceous, diffufe, downy. Leaves fpatulate, flefhy ;
with axillary hairs. Bra¢teas linear-lanceolate.—Native of
various parts of New Holland, fent to Kew in 1793.
Flowers blue, with a yellow tube. Leaves entire, much
thicker than in the preceding. .

SCAFATA, La, in Geography, a village of Naples, that
has.a bridge over the Sarno, near which Tei2,’ king of the
Goths, was defeated by Narfes, in the year 553. A pond
in this place is fuppofed tc poilefs great medical virtue, and
on the anniverfary of the fealt of the Virgin, many people re-
fort hither to bathe. :

SCAFFOLD, a timber work, raifed in manner of an
amphitheatre, to place {pectators upon for the commodious
viewing of fome fhow or ceremony.

Some derive the word from the German /chawhaus, which
fignifies the fame, compounded of /chawen, to look, view ; and
baus, houfe. Guyet derives it from the Italian catafalco,
which fignifies the fame thing. Du-Cange, from e/chafaudus,

a word in the corrupt Latin, fignifying a tribunal or pulpit:
he adds, that it might come originally from cata, a wooden
machine ufed to carry earth to fillup ditches, and carry over
the foldiers to the attack: whence the Italians formed their
catafaleo, the old French their chafaut, the monks their /ca/-
Saldus, and finally the Englith their feaffold. ~

Scarvo pn is alfo ufed fora little ttage, or theatre, raifed in
fome public place, to execute criminals upon, either by be-
heading, or Srethion upon the wheel.

Scarrouip, or Scaffolding, is alfo ufed for an aflemblage
of planks and boards, fultained by trefles, or by pieces of
wood fixed in the wall, whereon mafons, {culptors, painters,
&e. ftand to work’in high places, cielings, &c.

SCAGEN, Scavn, or Skagen, in Geography, a town of
Denmark, at the extremity of North Jutland, near a cape
of the fame name; the inhabitants fubfilt partly by fithing,
and partly by carrying on a little trade, and piloting thips
about thefe dangerous coalts, to and from the Baltic. he

Vou. XXXI.

SCA

fand-bank called “ Scagen’s Reef,’ or “ Scaggerac,” or
ss Grenan,”’ extends from cape Skagen far into the fea, on
which account a large coal-fire is conitantly maintained there
in the winter nights, as a kind of beacon for ships to avoid it.
With this view a new tower, fixty-four feet high, was erected
in 1751, oppofite to this fand-bank, on the fpot where for-
merly itood a light-houfe, which had been demolifhed by the
violence of the fea; 18 miles N. of Fladftrand. N. lat.
57° 46’. E.long. 10° 33!. :

ScAGEN, acape on the north coaft of North Jutland.
N. lat: 57° 46. E. long. 10° 31!.

SCAGLIOLA is an imitation of marble of any fort,
with ref{peét to which the artift fucceeds in an aftonifhing de-
gree with the moft beautiful marbles, fuch as Sienna, jafper,
brocatello, and porphyry : it is hard, and when fintfhed,
bears a very fine polifh. It 1s laid on brick in the manner
of ftucco, and worked off with iron tools. The Pantheon,
in Oxford-{treet, had all its columns formed of this material,
and, when firft done, they appeared as well as the original
marble, and, without accident, laft for a great number of
years, without any material diminution of their beauty. °

SCALA, in Anatomy. The cochlea, or inner cavity of
the ear, is divided by a feptum into two canals, called /cale:
of which the one, looking towards the tympanum, is called
the feala tympani ; the other, having a communication with
the veitibulum, is called the /cala veftibuli. See CocHLEA,
Ear, Tyt1panum, and VesTIsuLuM.

Scaxa, in the Ancient Archite@ure, denotes what in the
modern we call a flair-ca/e.

Scata, Barrotommeo, in Biography, an Italian man
of letters, was fon of a miller at Colle, in the Florentine terri-
tory ; he was born about the year 1436, and coming to Flo-
rence ina itate of indigence, he applied himfelf to learning
with fo much fuccefs, that he attra¢ted the notice of Cofmo
de Medici, who took him into his fervice, and brought him
afterwards into public life. In the courfe of time he attain-
ed the important offices of chancellor and gonfalonier of
the republic, and was enrolled in the fenatorian and equettrian
orders. In 1484 he was fent ambaflador to pope Inno-
cent VIII., who gave him the title of knighthood, and
made him apottolic fecretary. Upon his return, for fome
caufe that is not known, he was excommunicated, which
rendered it neceflary for him to go again to Rome for abfo-
lution. His offices in the {tate were a fource of great wealth,
which he expended in a moft oftentatious manner, having a
fuperb palace in Florence, befidesa magnificent villa near it,
and appearing in public with a numerous retinue. Though
he was never afhamed to acknowledge his mean parentage and
original poverty, he {poke of himfelf in a ae ftyle of con-
fequence, which was probably one caufe of a quarrel with
the celebrated fcholar Angelo Politiano ; though the chief
caufe of this was his jealoufy of the fuperior talents of Po-
litiano, who was frequently applied to by Lorenzo de Me-
dici to correé& the aipatches drawn up by Scala. A lite-
rary conteft was excited between them, which produced much
mutual abufe. ‘The reputation of Scala does not Pyrat to
have been injured by it, for he continued to live in pro perity
and held all his offices of profit, truft, and honour till his death,
in 1497. Asa literary chara¢ter, we have his “ Apologues,’”” *
which obtained the higheft commendations from Landino and
Ficino ; Poems,’’ both in Latin and Italian ; * Orations 3”
and “A General Hiltory of Florence,’ intended to confit of
twenty books, but of which he only finifhed four, with part
of a df, brought down to the time of Charles I, king of
Naples. ‘Thefe were firit printed at Rome in 1677. He
had a daughter, Aleflandra, equally celebrated for her learn.
ing and her beauty. She ftudied Greek under Lafearis and

, 4E Chalcon-

SCA

Chaleondyles. Some of her epigrams in that language
are extant, with a Latin letter of her own compolition.
She married MaruLtus, a famous Latin poet. See his
article.

Scata, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Cephalo-
nia; 16 mlles S.E. of Cephalonia.—Alfo, a town of Na-
ples, in Principato Citra, the fee of a bifhop, under the
pope ; celebrated for its wine and honey, and for lead-mines
in its vicinity ; 11 miles W.S.W. of Amalfi.—Alfo, a town
of Naples, in Calabria Citra; 3 miles S.W. of Cariati
Vecchia.—Alfo, a town of Poland, in Podolia; 15 miles
S.W. of Kaminiec.—Alfo, a town of Sicily, in the valley
of Demona; 12 miles S. of Mellina.

Scara, La, a fea-port on the N.E. coatt of the ifland
of Patmos, having one of the beit harbours in the Archipe-
lago. N. lat. 37°30'. E. long. 26° 23.

SCALADA, a town of Sicily, in the valley of De-
mona; 9 miles S. of Meffina.

SCALADO, or Scatape. See EscaLapeg, and Scaling-
Lappenrs.

SCALAE Gemonitz. See GEMONLA.

SCALANOVA, in Geography, a well-built, paved, and
handfome fea-port town of. Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia.
The Greeks have a church in the fuburbs, to which Chrif-
tians are confined. When Mr. Tournefort vifited the place,
it contained 1000 families of Turks, 600 of Greeks, 10 of
Jews, and 60 of Armenians. The trade, which is not con-
fiderable, confifts chiefly in wine, raifins, corn, and leather.
This was the ‘* Neapolis”” of the Milefians, and fome marble
monuments ftill remain ; 40 miles S.S.E. of Smyrna. N.
lat. 37° 52!._ E. long. 27° 20/.

SCALARE, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by Rum-
phins to a peculiar fpecies of turbo, or /erew /hell; the fe-
veral wreaths of which, having an opening between them,
form an open fpiral.

SCALD. See Burn.

Scan and burns, Liniment for. See LixiMent.

SCALDED Cream, in Rural Economy, fuch cream as
is raifed by means of heat, ufually denominated clotted or
clouted cream. The procefs is performed by putting the
ftrained milk in its natural warm {tate into large, fhallow,
brafs-tinned or earthen pans, which have a fmall quantity
of cold water in them, by which burning is fuppofed to be
prevented, and the cream more perfeétly feparated and
thrown up to the top. After ftanding a fhort time in this
way, the pans are to be carried to, and placed over a clear
flow fire, for which charcoal is the belt, or over a ftove, as in
this manner the cream is not fo liable to acquire a fmoky
tafte. The heat is to be fo regulated, as not to fuffer the
milk to Acave or boil, as the cream in that cafe would be
much injured, The {calding is fhewn to be fufficiently done
by the pans, in fome cafes, throwing up the forms of their
bottoms to the furface of the cream ; and in others by the
appearance and texture of it, the wrinkles becoming {maller,
and the furface more leathery. Inthe fummer the operation
fhould be performed more quickly than in the winter feafon,
as in the former, when the fire is too flow, the milk is apt to
run or curdle.

On the {calding being finifhed, the pans are placed, inthe
hot feafon, in fome cold fituation in the dairy, but in the
winter in a rather warm one, fo as to preferve the heat, as
too fudden cooling caufes the cream to be thin, See CREAM
and Dariryine.

SCALDERINGS, in Agriculture, the under-burnt core
of ftone-lime, the external parts of which peel or blifter off
in {cales or thells.

‘ 2
SCALDS, inthe Hiflory of Literature, aname given by
4

SCA

the ancient inhabitants of the northern countries to their
poets ; in whofe writings their hiftory is recorded.

They were called “ Scaldi,” or “ Scaldri,’’ as fome fay,
from the found Jral; often heard in their verfes and poems ;
and the dialet in which they wrote was called ‘* Afamal,””
thatis, the Afiatic dialect, becaufe it was brought by Wo-
den or Odin out of Afia, who is alfo faid to have brought
with him the Runic charaéters, and to have taught the
northern nations the art of poetry. The learned Torfzus, a
native of Iceland, and hiltoriographer of Norway, fuggetts
(Prefat. ad Orcades, fol.) that the word Scald fignified ori-
ginally, ¢* a {moother and polifher of language.”? What-
ever was the origin of their name, they were an order of
poets or fingers, who were imported into Europe by the
Goths, who migrated from the Ea{t with Odin, and were
difperfed among the northern nations, particularly in Scan-
dinavia. (See Opin and Scanpinavia.) Thefe men were
held in the highe!t veneration ; they were employed to com-
pofe odes or fogs, which related all the molt illuftrious ex-
ploits of the ancient Scandinavians, and fometimes the whole
hiftory of their lives. They attended the feftivals of heroic

chiefs, accompanied them in battle, and celebrated their

victories. ‘Their fougs were propagated from one reciter to
another ; and there was no public folemnity in which they
were not fung or chanted. ‘The praifes which thefe poets
gave to valour, the warlike enthufiafm which animated their
verfes, the great care which men took to learn them from
their infancy, being all of them the natural effeéts of the
ruling paffion of thefe people, ferved in their turn to
ftrengthen and extend it. At a period when the ufe of let-.
ters was very limited, verfe was a neceflary medium of know-
ledge, and the poet was an effential officer of the ftate; and
as it required a peculiar and uncommon genius to excel in
this art, the profeflors of it would of courfe acquire a very
high degree of efteem and refpeé, and receive for their
verfes the moft liberal rewards. All the hiltorical monu-
ments of the North teftify in the moft ample manner the
honours that were paid to this order of men both by princes
and people ; nor can the annals of poetry produce any a
or country which refleéts more glory and luitre upon it. The
ancient chronicles reprefent the kings of Denmark, Norway,
and Sweden, as attended by one or more Scalds. They
were more efpecially honoured and earefled at the courts of
thofe princes who diftinguifhed themfelves by their great
aGtions and paffion for glory. Harold Harfagre, e. g.
placed them at his feafts above all the other officers of his
court. Many princes entrulted them, both in peace and
war, with commiflions of the higheft importance. They
never fet out on any confiderable expedition without fome of
them in their train. Hacon, earlof Norway, had five cele-
brated poets in the famous battle, when the warriors of
Jomsburg were defeated ; and hiltory records that each of
them fung an ode to animate the foldiers before they engaged.
Torfeus produces other inftances to the fame purpofe;
particularly that of Olave, king of Norway, who placed
three of his Scalds near him to be witnefles of his exploits ;
each of whom compofed a fong on the fpot, which Bartho-
lin has printed and accompanied with a Latin verfion.
Other fongs of the fame kind may be found preferved by
the fame author. They alfo enjoyed another advantage,
which would be more an objeét of envy to the poets of thefe
days. They were rewarded for the poems they compofed
in honour of the kings and heroes with magnificent prefents.
The Scald never fang his verfes at the courts of princes
without a recompence of golden rings, glittering arms, and
rich apparel. Their refpect for this order of men often ex-
tended fo far as to induce them to remit the punifhment of
crimes

SCALDS.

crimes which they had committed, on condition they fued
out their pardon in verfe ; and we have ttill extant an ode,
by which Egili, a celebrated poet, atoned for a murder of
which he had been guilty. Ina word, the poetic art was
held in fuch high eitimation, that at lords, and even
kings, did not themfelves difdain to cultivate it with the ut-
a pains. Rogvald, earl of the Orkney iflands, paffed for
avery able poet. King Regner was no lefs diftinguifhed for
his fkill in poetry than in war and navigation ; and itis well
‘Known that he died no lefs like a poet than a hero.

The refpeét, however, which the northern nations paid to
their Scalds was not owing to the nobility of their extraétion.
A people whole obje& was glory, could not fail of fhewing
a great deference to thofe who both publifhed it abroad, and
configned it to futurity, let their original be what it would.
A prince or illuftrious warrior ofteutimes expofed his life
with fo much intrepidity only to be praifed by his Scald, who
was both the witnefs and judge of hisbravery. It is affirmed
that this kind of men, although poets, were never guilty of
flattery, and never lavithed their praifes on heroes and kings
themfelves, unlefs their gallant exploits were quite incon-
teftible. Hence arofe the cuftom of always bringing them
into the fcene of a€tion: Olave, king of Norway, placing
three of them one day around him in battle, cried out with
{pirit, ** You fhall not relate what you have only heard, but
what you are eye-witnefles of yourlelves.”” The fame poets
ufually fung their verfes themfelves at folemn fettival3 and in
great aflemblies, to the found of the flute or harp. But the
fubje€t of thefe poems was not confined to one fingle event,
fuch as a vi€tory or fome generous a¢tion ; it was frequently
a genealogical hiftory of all the kings of the country, de-
duced down from the gods to the reigning prince, who
always derived his origin from them. Thefe poems were,
according to Tacitus, the only annals of the Germans: they
had t numbers of them, which were not wholly forgot-
ten in the eighth century; fince Eginhard relates, that
Charlemzgne caufed them to be committed to writing.—
«« And even learnt himfelf,’’ adds the hiftorian, * the rude
and ancient fongs in which the exploits and the wars of the
firft princes were celebrated.’”’ In poems of the fame kind
confilted for many ages all the hiftory of the Scandinavians.
A bard named Thiodolfe, celebrated im his verfes the ex-
ploits of Harold and thirty of his predeceflors ; another
called Eyvind, compofed an hiftorical poem which went back
as faras Odin. Such are the fources whence Saxo drew his
materials for the firft fix or feven books of his hiftory ; and
he might doubtlefs have derived great afliftance from them,
if he Rad not liappened to live in an age wholly deftitute of
that exaét {kill in criticifm, which knows how to feparate
faéts from the fictions with which they are blended.

The neceffity there was for pocts, the natural attra€tions
of the art itfelf, and thofe it derived from the manners of the
age, greatly mutiplied the number of Scalds. An ancient
Icelandic manufcript has preferved a lift of all fuch as dif-
tinguifhed themfelves in the three northern kingdoms, from
the reign of Regner Lodbrog to that of Valdemar II.
They are in number two hundred and thirty, among
whom we find more than one crowned head. But what 1s
not lefs remarkable is, that moft of them are natives of
Iceland.

The tile of thefe ancient poems is very enigmatical and
figurative, very remote from the common language, and for
that reafon, grand, but tumid; fublime, but obfeure. If
it be the cheratter of poetry to have nothing in common
with profe, if the language of the gods ought to be quite
different from that of men, if every thing fhould be ex-
preffed by imagery, figures, hyperboles, and allegories, the

Scandinavians may rank in the higheft clafs of poets: nor is
this unaccountable. The foaring flights of fancy may pof-
fibly more peculiarly belong to a rude and uncultivated,
than to a civilized people. The great obje&s of nature
ftrike more forcibly on rude imaginations. Their paffions
are not impaired by the conftraint of laws and education.
The paucity of their ideas, and the barrennefs of their lan-
guage, oblige them to borrow from all nature images fit to
clothe their conceptions in.

The moit affecting and moft ftriking paflages in the an-
cient northern poetry, were fuch as now {feem to us the moft
whimfical, unintelligible, and overftrained: fo different are
our modes of thinking from theirs. We can admit of no-
thing but what is accurate and perfpicuous. They only re-
quired bold and aitonifhing images, which appear to us hy-
perbolical and gigantic. What alfo contrtbutes to render
their poetry very obfcure at prefent, is, that the language of
it is borrowed from their mythology; a mythology not fo
familiar to us as that of the Greeks and Romans. When
they did not allude.to their own fables, they took their me-
taphors from other fubjeéts, which were commonly very far-
fetched and remote. Each of their deities might be ex-
preffed by an infinite variety of phrafes. In fhort, a pecu-
har ftudy of this kind of language was neceflary to conftitute
a poet ; for which reafon they early compofed a diGtionary
of it for the ufe as well of the Scalds as their readers. The
fame Rogvald, earl of the Orkneys, before fpoken of, is faid
to have compofed a work of this fort, which, according to
Wormius, is ftill extant, under the name of the Poetical
Key. Another is found at the end of the Icelandic Edda,
and is intitled Scalda, or the Art of Poetry. This is a col-
leétion of epithets and fynonimous words fele&ted from their
beft poets, very like thofe which are put into the hands of
young people when they firft apply themfelves to Latin
poetry.

Yet they fometimes compofed verfes in a more fimple
ftile, and nearer approaching to common language ; but this
only happened when in converfation a Scald, either to fhew
his happy talent, or to do more honour to the perfon with
whom he converfed, anfwered in extemporary metre. This
fingular mode of expreffing themfelves was very common
among the ancient Scandinavians, and proves in what de-
gree of efteem this people held the art of poetry. The chro-
nicles have preferved a great number of fuch converfations
in verfe ; and there is reafon to believe that thefe poems,
which might be fung at firit, and eafily committed to me-
mory, were oftentimes the text of which fucceeding chro-
nicles were nothing more than commentaries or expofitions.
There is no appearance that the verfes were compofed by
the authors of thofe hiftories : they are never afligned to any
but the Scalds by profeffion; and are quoted by the hifto-
rians as their proofs and vouchers: and befides, it is known
to have been ufual with the Scalds to interlard their dif-
courfe with extemporary verfes.

We are not to imagine that thefe poets were wholl
unconfined by rules, or that they were not fubje& to fuch
as were very fevere. It is an erroneous opinion, that rhyme
was wholly unknown to the northern Scalds, and by parity
of reafon to all the Gothic poets: whereas it was undoubt-
edly from thefe that this modern ornament of verfe derived
its origin and ufe.

The Scandinavian bards, of whom we have now given an
account, appear to have been elteemed and entertained in
other countries belides their own, and by thefe means to have
probably communicated their fiGtions to various parte of
Europe. The northern emigrants, who by théir emigrations
and invafions vifited England, Ireland, Scotland, and the

4E2 Orkney

s-C xz

Orkney iflands, were undoubtedly attended by their Scalds
or poets, And even in timeof peace thefe Scandinavian Sealds,
poffeffing a fpecious and pleafing talent, frequented the
courts = the Britifh, Scottifh, and Irith chieftains. They
were itinerants by their inititution, and made voyages out
of curiofity, or in queft of rewards, to thofe iflands or coatts
which lay within the circle of their maritime knowledge.
By thefe means they eftablifhed an intereft, rendered their
profeflion popular, propagated their art, and circulated their
fiGions in other countries, and at a diftance from home.
Torfzus (Pref. ad Orcad.) aflerts pofitively, that various
Icelandic odes now remain, which were fung by the Scandi-
navian bards, before the kings of England and Ireland, and
for which they received liberal gratuities. Wormius informs
us (Lit. Dan. p. 195. 4to.) that the northern Scalds, in
great numbers, conitantly refided in the courts of the kings
of Sweden, Denmark, and England; from which circum-
ftance it has been inferred, that Odin’s language. was origi-
nally ufed, not only in Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, but
even in England. From thefe fuggeftions it may be natu-
rally concluded, that the Scandinavian tongue became fami-
liar in the Britifh iflands by the fongs of the Scalds ; unlefs it
be rather prefumed that a previous knowledge of that tongue
in Britain was the means of facilitating the admiffion of thofe
poets, and of preparing the way for their reception. More-
over, the fi&ions of Odin and of bis Scandinavians mutt
have taken {till deeper root in the Britifh iflands, at leaft in
England, from the Saxon and Danifh invafions. That the
tales of the Scandinavian Scalds flourifhed among the Saxons,
who fucceeded to the Britons, and became pofleflurs of
England in the fixth century, may be juttly prefumed ; for
the Saxons were a branch of the Scandinavian tribes, and
boafted of the defcent of their princes from Odin. They
imported with them into England the old Runic language
and letters. And even after the converfion of the Saxons
to Chriftianity, when they became a more mild and polifhed
people, their poems were chiefly moral rhapfodies, {criptural
hiftories, or religious invocations, in which occur frequent
allufions to the old Scaldic fables and herves.

As literature, together with true religion and civilization,
gained ground among the Saxons, poetry was no longer
regarded as a feparate {cience, and the profeffion of bard,
under the appropriated charaéteriitics and peculiar appoint-
ment which he fuftained'among the Scandinavian Pagans,
declined ; and inftead of the old Scaldic a new ak 4 of
poets arofe, called Gleemen (correfponding to Joculatores), or
harpers ; and thefe probably gave rife to the order of Englifh
minftrels, who flourifhed till the fixteenth century.

The fongs of the Irifh bards are conceived by fome per-
fons to be ftrongly marked with the traces of Scaldic ima-
gination, which are believed itll to eas a fpecies of
poetical hiftorians called « tale-tellers,” fuppofed to be de-
{cendants of the original Irifh bards. Nor is it improbable,
that the Welfh bards might have been acquainted with the
Scandinavian Scalds. We may alfo ob(erve, that the Scandi-
navians had conquered many countries bordering tpon
France in the fourth century ; and hence the Franks mutt
have been in fome meafure ufed to their language, well ac-
quainted with their manners, and converfant in their poetry.
We have reafon alfo to believe, that many of the Scaldic
imaginations might have been blended with the Arabian :
fo that the Gothic Scalds enriched their vein of fabling from
this new and fruitful fource of fiction opened by the Ara-
bians in Spain, and afterwards propagated by the crufades.
The earlieft Scald now on record is not before the year 750 ;
from which time the Scalds flourifhed in the northern countries
till below the year 1157. We fhall clofe this article with

, -
g 2 Soe

obferving, as a circesntiantes foupewnte hat remarkable, that
in the earlier Scaldic odes, we find but few dragons, giants,
and fairies: thefe were introduced at a later period, and are
the progeny of Arabian fancy : the abfence of giants and
dragons has been ag as a itriking proof of the antiquity
of the poems 6f Offian, by the advocates of their authen-
ticity : mor are thefe fancies found in the Welth odes of
Talieflin or Aneuric, who flourifhed about the year 570.
There is alfo the ftrongeft reafon to fufpeét, that even the
Gothic “ Edda,” (which fee, ) or fyftem of poetic mythology
of the northern nations, is enriched with thofe higher ftrokes
of Oriental imagination, which the Arabians had communi-
cated to the Europeans. Mallet’s North. Ant. vol. i.
Warton’s Eng. Poet. Difl. I. :

Seatps, in Agriculture, a provincial term ufed to fignify
fuch patches of land as are more apt to be burnt up.in hot
feafons, than other parts of the fame land. : i

SCALE, a mathematical inftrument, confifting of one or
more lines drawn on wood, metal, or other matter, divided
into equal or unequal parts, of great ufe inJaying down
diftances in proportion, or in meafuring diftances already’
laid down.

There are feales of feveral kinds, accommodated to the
feveral ufes; the principal are, the plain feale, the diagonal
feale, Gunter’s feale, and the plotting fcale.

Scare, Plain or Plane, a mathematical inftrument of
very extenfive application and ufe. The lines generally
drawn upon it are the following ; viz.

marked

1. Lines of Equal Parts 1 A ee

a Chords "'* Chios

3. —— Rhumbs Ru.

4. — Sines Sin.

5. —— ‘Tangents Tan. :
6. —_ Secants Seg.

7. —— Half-Tangents| S. T.

8. —— Longitude Long.

9. —— Latitude at.
10. —— Hours Ho.
11. —— _ Inclinations In. Mer.

1. The lines of equal parts are of two forts, viz. fim
divided, and diagonally divided. The firft of thefe are
formed by drawing three lines parallel to one another, at
unequal diltances (fee Plate XIII. Geometry, fig. 1.), and of
any convenient length. Divide this length into any number
of equal parts that may be thought neceflary, allowing a
certain number of thefe parts to an inch, fuch as 2, 24,
35 34) 45 44, &c. which divifions are diftinguifhed by lines,
crofling the three parallels. Divide the left-hand divifion
into ten equal parts, diftinguifhed by lines crofling only the
lower parallels, but let the fifth divifion be fomewhat longer
than the others. And it may be convenient to divide the fame
left-hand divifion into twelve equal parts, laid down upon
the upper parallel line, having’ the third, fixth, and ninth
divifions diltinguifhed by longer ftrokes than the reft, of
which that at the fixth is longeft. There are, ufually,
feveral of thefe fimply divided fcales put on rulers one above
the other, with numbers on the left hand, fhewing, in each
{cale, into how many equal parts an inch is divided, fuch as
205.255 30, 35) 40, 45, &c. which are feverally ufed, as the
fize of the plan to be exprefled may require.

‘The ufe of thefe lines of equal parts is to lay down any
line expreffed by any number of two places or denomina-
tions, whether decimally, or duodecimally divided; as
leagues, miles, chains, poles, yards, feet, inches, &c.
their tenth or twelfth parts: thus, if each divifion » rec-

oned

* ecg

? 2»

-

will exprefs_;, refs:,th part thereof; and if eachof the large divifions
be called to, ea each {mall one will be 1 ; and if the large
divifions be 100, then each {mall one will be 10, &c. Con-
fequently, to lay off aline 8 %,4 87, or 870 parts, as leagues,
miles, &c. fet one point of the compaffes on the eighth of
the large divifions, counting from the left hand towards the
right, and extend the other point to the feventh of the fmall
divifions, counting from the right hand towards the left, then
are the compaffes open to exprefs a line of 87, 87, or 870
leagues, miles, &c. bearing fuch a proportion in the plan, as
the line meafured does to the thing reprefented. —

If a length of feet and inches were to be exprefled, the
fame large divifions may reprefent the feet, but the inches
mutt be taken from the upper part of the firft divifion, which
is divided into twelve equal parts; e. gr. for a line of 7
feet 5 inches, fet one point of the compailes on the fifth
divifion among the 12, counting from the right hand to the
left, and extend the other to fever among the large divi-
fions ; and that diftance laid down in the plan fhall exprefs
a line of 7 feet 5 inches.

The fecond or diagonal divifions are formed by drawing
eleven lines parallel and at equal diftances (fg. 2.): divide
the upper of thefe lines into fuch a number of equal parts,
as the {cale to be exprefied is defigned to contain, and from
each of thefe divifions draw perpendiculars through the
eleven parallels ; fubdivide the firft of thefe divifions into
ten equal parts, both in the upper and lower lines; then
each of thefe fubdivilions may be alfo fubdivided into ten
equal parts, by drawing diagonal lines, viz. from the tenth
below to the ninth above, from the ninth below to the
eighth above, from the eighth below to the feventh above,
&c. till from the firft below to the oth above: fo that by.
thefe means one of the primary divifions on the fcale will be
divided into a hundred equal parts.

There are generally two diagonal {cales laid on the fame

lane or face of the ruler, one being commonly half the
other. The ufe of the diagonal f{cale is much the fame with
the fimple fcale, except that in this a line may be taken of
three denominations. From the conftruction it is plain,
that, if each of the primary divifions reprefents 1, each of
the firft fubdivifions will exprefs ,,th of 1; and each of the
fecond fubdivifions (taken on the diagonal lines, counting
from the top dowawards) will eaiiele xeth of the former
fubdivifions, or a hundredth of the primary divifions ; and
if each of the primary divifions exprefs 10, then each
of the firft fubdivifions will exprefs 1, and each of the
fecond +, : and if each of the primary divifions reprefent
100, then each of the firft fubdivifions will be 10, and each
of the fecond will be 1, &c. Confequently, to lay down a
line, whofe length is exprefled by 347, 34170. OF 314%
es, miles, chains, &c. on the diagonal line, joined to
the fourth of the firft fubdivifions, count feven downwards,
reckoning the diftance of each parallel 1, and there fet one
point of the compafles, and extend the other till it falls on
the interfeétion of the third primary divifion with the fame
parallel in which the other foot refts, and the compafles
will then be opened to exprefa a line of 347, 34:7) or
3i¢e, Ke.

In order to deferibe the remaining lines of the plane f{eale,
defcribe a circumference with any convenient radius ( fig. 3-),
and draw the diameters A B, DE, at right angles to each
other ; continue BA at pleafure towards F ; through D
draw DG parallel to BF; and draw the chords BD, BE,
AD, AE. Circumferibe the circle with the fquare HM N,
whofe fides HM, MN, fhall be parallel to AB, ED.

2. For the line of chords, divide the are A D into ninety

P SCALE. |
koned 1, as 1 league, mile, &c. then each of the fubdivifions

equal parts; mark the tenth divifions with the figures 10, 20,
30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90; on D, as acentre, with the com-
pafles, transfer the feveral divifions of the quadrantal are to
the chord AD, which, marked with the corref{ponding
figures, will become a line of chords. One of the obvious
ae of the line of chords is to lay down a propofed angle, or
to meafure an angle already laid down.

3. For the line of rhumbs, divide the are B E into eight
equal parts, marking them with the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 83; and divide each of thofe parts into quarters; on B,
as acentre, transfer the divifions of the arc to the chord B E,
which, marked with the correfponding figures, will be a line
of rhumbs: the ufe of which is to delineate or meafure a
fhip’s courfe.

4. For the line of fines, through each of the divifions of
the are A D, draw right lines parallel to the radius AC;
and C D will be divided into 4a line of fines, which are ta be
numberec from C to D for the right fines, and. from D to
C for the verfed fines, which may be continued to 180° by
laying the divifions of the radius C D from C to E.

5. For the line of tangents, lay a ruler on C, and the feve-
ral divifions of the are A D, and it will interfe& the line
DG, which will become a line of tangents, and is to be
numbered from D to G with 10, 20, 30, 40, &c.

6. For the line of fecants, transfer the diltances from the
centre C to the divifions on the line of tangents to the line
AF, from the centre C, and thefe will give the divifions of
the line of fecants, which muft be numbered from A towards
F, with 10, 20, 30, &c.

7. For the line of half-tangents, lay a ruler on E, and the
feveral divifions of the are A D, which will interfeét the ra- .
dius.C A in the divifions of the half-tangents: mark thefe
with the correfponding figures of the are AD. The femi-
tangents on the plane fcale are generally continued as far
as the length of the ruler on which they are laid will
admit. The divifions beyond go° are found by dividing
the are AE like the arc AD, and laying a ruler by Ey
and thofe divifions of the are AE; and the divifions of
the femi-tangents above go® will be obtained on the line
CA continued. :

The ufes of the feales of fines, tangents, fecants, and half.
tangents, are to find the poles and centres of the feveral
circles reprefented in the orthographical and flereographical
projection of the f{phere.

8. For the line of longitude, divide A H into fixty equal
parts; through each of thefe divifions parallels to the radius
AC willinterfeét the are A E in as many points. From E,
as a centre, the divifions of the are E A, being transferred to
the chord E A, will give the divifions of the line of longitude.
If this line be put on the feale clofe to the line of chords,
both inverted, fo that 60° in the feale of longitude be againft
0° in the chords, &c. and any degree of latitude be counted
on the chords, we fhall have, oppofite to it, in the line of
longitude, the miles contained in one degree of longitude,
in that latitude ; the meafure of one degree under the equator
being fixty geographical miles. However, tables anfwer
this purpofe much better. See Derorer, and Parallel
SAILING. .

g. For the line of latitude, lay aruler on A, and the feve-
ral divifions of the fines on CD, and it will interfeét the are
B D in as many points; on B, as acentre, transfer the inter-
feétions of the are BD to the right line BD; number the
divifions from B to D with 10, 20, 30, &e. to go, and B D
will be a line of latitude.

10. For the line of hours, bifeét the quadrantal arcs B D,
BE, in a, 6; divide the quadrantal are ad into fix equal
parts, (giving 15° for each hour,) and each of thefe He

our

SCA

four others, which give the quarters. A ruler on C, and
the feveral divifions of the arc ab, will interfe& the line
MN in the hour, &c. points, which are to be marked as in
the figure.

11. For the line of inclinations of meridians, bifet the
arc EA inc; divide the quadrantal arc dc into ninety
equal parts ; lay a ruler on C, and the feveral divifions of the
arc dc, and the interfections of the line H M will be the di-
vifions of a line of inclinations of meridians. The lines of
latitude, hours, and inclinations of meridians, are applicable
to the practice of dialling, which fee. Robertfon’s De-
{cript. and Ufe of Math. Inftr. fe&. 8. ed. 2. See Prort-
TING fcale.

Scare, Decimal, Gunter’s, Plotting, Proportional, and
Reducing. See the feveral articles.

Scag, in Geography and Archite@ure, a line divided into
equal parts, placed at the bottom of a map or draught, to
ferve as 2 common meafure to all the parts of the building,
or all the diftances and places of the map.

In maps of large tra¢ts, as kingdoms and provinces, &c.
the fcale ufually confilts of miles ; whence it becomes deno-
minated a /eale of miles.

In more particular maps, as thofe of manors, &c. the f{cale
is ufually of chains, fubdivided into poles or links.

The ae ufed in draughts of buildings ufually confilt of
modules, feet, inches, palms, fathoms, or the like.

To find the diftance between two towns, &c. in a map,
the interval is taken in the compafles, and fet off in the
fcale ; and the number of divifions it includes gives the
diftance. ‘The fame method ferves to find the height of a
ftory, or other part in a defign.

Scacex, Front, in Per/pedive, is a right line in the draught
parallel to the horizontal line ; divided into equal parts, re-
prefenting feet, inches, &c.

Scate, Flying, is a right line in the draught, tending to
the point of view, and divided into unequal parts, reprefent-
ing feet, inches, &c.

Scaxe, Scala, Ital. in Mujic, is what the alphabet is in a
language, or a denomination given to the arrangement of the
fix fyllables, invented by Guido Aretino, ut re mi fa fol la;
called alfo gamut.

It bears the name /cale, g. d. ladder, becaufe it reprefents
a kind of ladder, by means of which the voice rifes’to acute,
or defcends to grave; each of the fix fyllables being, as it
were, one ftep of the ladder.

ScALe is alfo ufed for a feries of founds rifing or falling
towards acutenefs or gravity, from any given pitch of tone
to the greateft diftance that is fit or practicable, through
fuch intermediate degrees as to make the fucceflion mott
agreeable and perfect, and in which we have all the har-
monical intervals moft commodioufly divided.

The feale is otherwife called an univerfal /yflem, as in-
eluding all the particular fy{tems belonging to mufic. See
SysTEeM.

Sca.e, in the Mufic of the Ancients. See Greex Mujic.

Scate of the Chinefe. All the fpecimens which we have
been able to procure of genuine Chinefe mufic are without
femitones, and feem to confirm the idea of Pere Amiot, and
the abbé Rouffier, that it has been formed by a feries of per-
fe&t sths, produced by the triple progreffion of Pythagoras,
beginning at F, the Chinefe fundamental or lowef found.
And as the ancient Chinefe proceeded in this progreffion no
further than five sths, it furnifhes a cogent reafon for the
want of femitones in their melody,. After the following
feries of five sths, F,C, G, D, A, if we arrange thefe founds
diatonically, we fhall have the following feale; C, D, F, G,
A,c. And this will account for the con{tru€tion of their

SC A

mufical inflruments with fixed tones. One of thefe we met

with at Paris in the year 17703 it was in the pofleffion of the
learned abbé Arnaud of the French Academy, and was a
kind of fliccado, confilting of bars of wood of different lengths,
as fonorous as if they had been of metal: thefe were placed
acrofs a hollow veflel refembling the hulk of a fhip. The
compafs was two ottaves, and the intervals were arranged in
the following order :

Now no mufic can be compofed from fuch a feale that will
not remind us of the melody of Scotland, which we have long
thought of much higher antiquity than has generally been
imagined. .

We had long been trying to afcertain the fa& concerning
the want of femitones in the Chinefe mufic, and had fent
inquiries into different parts of the empire, among which one
was, whether the Chinefe had any femitones in their mufic ?
or whether their oétave only confilted of five tones inftead
of feven, with which the fcale of Guido is furnifhed ; which
queftion was anfwered by an Italian who had been thirty
years at Pekin, and was a good mufician, whofe anfwer was :
© La Cinefi nella loro mufica non hanno femituoni ;”’ the Chi-
nefe have no femitones in their mufic. This confirmed the
conjecture to which the melodies which we had feen gave
birth; but did not affign a reafon for the deficiency. eS
after perufing the 6th vol. of «* Memoires concernant l’Hif-
toire les Sciences, les Arts, les Mceurs, les Ufages, &c. des
Chinois,” by the miffionaries of Pekin, publifhed in 1780,
the Memoir concerning Chinefe mufic ancient and modern,
by pere Amiot, one of the Pekin miffionaries, of which
the abbé Rouffier was the editor, we faw no difficulty in
affigning a reafon for the deficiency in the Chinefe fcale
according to European ideas. For if, inftead of {topping
at A, the sth of D, they had proceeded two sths fur-
ther, they would have had an E and a B, which would
have furnifhed materials for completing the diatonic oc-
tave of five tones and two femitones: F,C,G,D,A,E, B;
which arranged diatonically, would furnifh every found in
the natural feptenary of CandA. C,D,E,F,G, A, B,c,

descending

A,G, F,E, D,C,B, A. See Cuinese Mufic.

Whoever hears Chinefe airs difeovers a fimilarity between
them and Scots tunes, from the omiflion of the 4th and 7th
of major keys, and, in defcendiag, ef minor keys ; which

renders them like melodies played in the fhort keys of a harp- -

fichord or piano forte.

Scate, Differential, is ufed for the {cale of relation fub-
trated from unity. See Series.

Sca.e of Relation, in Algebra, an expreffion denoting the
relation of the terms of recurring feries to each other. See
SERIES. :

Scatr, Hour. See Hour.

Scaces, in Natural Hiflory. What the naturalifts un~
derftand by fcales, are certain flat and femi-pellucid bodies,
common to the fifh, the ferpent, and the lizard kind; con-
fitting of a fubltance fomewhat analogous to that of the
horns and hoofs of other animals, as is found by cutting and
burning them, and by their fmell.

The fcales in fifhes are of fo many different kinds and
fhapes, that they afford, in many cafes, very good cha-
racters for the diftin&tion of the fpecies. The differences of
thefe parts of fith arife from their number, fituation, figure,

and

«
‘
.

SCA

and proportion, and fome other qualities peculiar to a few
of them.

Their differences, in regard\to number, are thefe: there
are none on feveral kinds of fifh, as on the petromyza, the
dolphin, and the whale. Upon fome other fifhes they are
but very few in number, as on the conger, the eel, the
clariz, &c.; and they are on others found in valtly great
numbers, and placed in clufters one over another, as in the
pearch, falmon, &c. ‘

In regard to their fituation, they differ in thefe particulars.
1. On fome fifh they are placed extremely thick and clofe
upon one another. 2. In others they ftand in imbricated
rows. ‘The efoces give us an example of the firft, and the
cyprini, in general, of the fecond kind. And, 3. In fome
they are fcattered, and at fuch diftances, that they do not
touch one another, as in the congers, the eels, the clariz,
&c. Their differences in figure are not lefs evident than
thofe in pofition. 1. Some are roundifh, as thofe of the
clupez and falmons. 2. Some are oval, or of an oblong
round figure, as thofe of the gadi. 3. In fome fifh they are
ftraight on one fide, and rounded on the others, as in the
pearch and mullet. The proper defcription of thefe is, that
they have a reétilinear bafe, and rounded fides.

Their differences in proportion are thefe: they are either

in regard to one another, or to the fcales of other fifhes, or
accordinz to our fenfes, in regard to the fize of the fifh,
either very large, great, {mall, middling, or extremely mi-
nute. Thefe are words, which give a fort of ufeful idea in
the defcription, though they are far from being determingte
or regular in their fignifications. As to the other peculiar
gual of the fcales of fifhes, they are in fome foft and
mooth, asin the falmon and cyprini; and in others hard
and rough, and, as it were, a little prickly: of this fort
are the feales of the pearch, the caprifcus, and fome of the
pleuroneéti. Arrtedi, Ichthyol.

Scales of fifhes make a fet of very curious objeéts for the
microfcope: thev are formed with a furprifing beauty and
regularity, and in the different kinds exhibit almolt an end-
lefs variety in their figure and contexture.

Thefe {cales are not f{uppofed to be fhed every year, nor
during the whole life of the fifh, but to have an annual ad-
dition of a new fcale growing over, and extending every
way beyond the edges of the former, in proportion to the
fith’s growth, fomewhat in the manner as the wood of trees
increafes annually, by the addition of a new circle next the
bark. And as the age of a tree may be known by the
number of ringlets its trunk is made up of ; fo in fifhes, the
number of plates compofing their fakes denotes to us their

e.

Mr. Leewenhoeck took fome fcales from an extremely
large carp, forty-two inches and a half long, Rhineland
meafure, which were as broad as a dollar; thefe he mace-
rated in water, to make them cut the eafier, and then cut-
ting obliquely through one of them, beginning with the
firft formed, or very little hell in the centre, he by his mi-
crofcope plainly diltinguifhed forty lamelle, or fecales,
glued, as it were, to one another, whence he concluded
the fith to be forty years old.

It is generally imagined that an eel has no {cales, but if
the flime be wiped clean away, and the {kin then examined
by a microfcope, it is found covered with extremely {mall
feales, ranged in a very orderly and pretty manner; and
probably very few fifhes, except fuch as fave fhells, are
entirely free jes fcales.

The way of preparing {cales for the microfcope is to take
them off carefully with a pair of nippers, wath them very
clean, and then place them between the leaves of a book to

SCA

make them dry flat; and when thoroughly dry, they are te
be put between two flips of talc. The {nake, viper, and
eft, afford alfo a very beautiful and very different feries of
feales from thofe of fifhes. Baker’s Microfcop. p. 237+
Leewenhoeck’s Arc. Nat. tom. ill. p. 214.

SCALEA, La, in Geography, a town of Naples, in
Calabria Citra, fituated near the fea. The inhabitants for-
merly cultivated fugar-canes ; but at prefent their attention
is dire&ted to cotton, olives, and vines. The vicinity af-
fords manna and honey ; 29 miles W. of Caflano. N. lat.

go st. E. long. 15° 59’.

SCALEDRAKE Bay, a bay of the German fea, on
the eaft coaft of Holy Ifland. ‘

SCALENE, or Scatenous Triangle, in Geometry, a tri-
angle, whofe fides and angles are all unequal. f

The word is formed from the Greek oxadnvo:, which
fignifies oblique, unequal, &c. : }

A cylinder, or cone, whofe axis is inclined to its bafe, is
alfo faid to be fcalenous. '

SCALENGHE, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Po; 11 miles S.S.W. of Turin.

SCALENUS, in dnzatomy, (trachelo-coftien,) a name
given to fome mufcles fituated at the root of the neck, and
reaching from the tran{verfe procefles of the cervical ver-
tebrz to the firlt and fecond ribs.

The fcalenus anterior is elongated, broader below and
narrower above, and placed on the lateral and inferior part
of the neck. It is fixed below to the anterior portion of
the upper furface of the firft rib by means of a tendon,
which is continued on the furface of the mufcular fibres.
The latter compofe a fafciculus direéted obliquely upwards
and inwards, and forming four {mall tendons inferted into
the anterior tubercles of the tranfverfe procefles of the third,
fourth, fifth, and fixth cervical vertebra.

This mufcle is covered by the fubclavian vein, the trunk
and branches of the inferior thyroid artery, the phrenic
nerve, the omo-hyoideus, and fterno-hyoideus. Between it
and the pofterior fcalenus a triangular {pace is left, bounded
below, where it is broadeft, by the firft rib, and giving
paflage to the fubclavian artery and the anterior branches
of the cervical nerves, fome of which pafs through the
mufcle, feparating its tendons. Towards the inner and
lower part a {pace occupied by the vertebral artery and vein
is left between it and the longus colli. -

The fealenus poflerior, very fimilar to the lalt, is rather
larger and thicker, and lies behind it at the fide of the neck.
It has two attachments below; an anterior one to the back
and upper part of the firft rib, and a potterior lefs con-
fiderable one to the upper edge of the fecond rib. The
latter, which is fometimes abfent, is the polterior {calenus
of fome writers, who call the former the middle fcalenus.
The two portions are firit diftin&, then foon united into
one, which is directed upwards and inwards towards the
vertebral columa, and terminates in fix {mall tendons in-
ferted into the pofterior tubereles of the tranfverfe procefles
of the fix lowelt cervical vertebra : fometimes a {mall fafci-
culus goes to the tranfverfe procefs of the atlas.

The pofterior fealenus correfponds externally to the fer-
ratus magnus, to the integuments, from which it is fepa-
rated by a large quantity of cellular tiffue, and to the fterno-
mattoideus, on the infide, to the vertebral column, the
intertranfverfales, and the firlt intercoftal mufcle ; behind,
to the facrolumbales, f{plenius, and levator feapulwe ; in
front, to the fealenus anterior, the cervical nerves, and the
fubclavian artery.

The aétion of the fealeni will affeét either the neck or the
ribs. Thefe mufcles incline the neck laterally on the one

the

SC «

the anterior, at the fame time, moving it a little forwards,
the pofterior a little backwards, and both together dire@ly

toone fide. The mufcles of the two fides, aéting together,.

fix the neck vertically on the cheft. They draw the two
upper ribs towards the neck, render them fixed points, to
which the others may be raifed by the contraétion of the
intercoftal mufcles, and thus aflift in infpiration, particularly
when breathing is laborious. Albinus defcribes four fca-
leni, viz. prior, lateralis, medius, and pofticus; of which
the fecond and fourth are attached to the fecond rib.
Sometimes there is another little flip, which he calls fca-
lenus minimus.
SCALIGER, Jutius Csar, in Biography, an eminent
fcholar, whofe hiitory is rendered obfcure by his own vanity
in maintaining what is now generally thought an impofture
refpeGting his origin. According to this fiCtion, if it be a
fiction, as publifhed by his fon Jofeph, in his epiftle « De
Splendore ac Vetuftate Gentis Scaligeri,”? he was a de-
{cendant of the illu{trious family of the Scaligers, princes of
Verona, and was born in 1484, in the caftle of Riva, near
the fource of lake Guarda, and was afterwards a page of
the emperor Maximilian, on whom he attended 17 years in
peace and war. He then became a penfioner of the duke of
Ferrara, ftudied at Bologna, commanded a troop of horfe
under the French viceroy at Turin, engaged in the ftudy of
phyfic, and in 1525 fixed his abode in France, under the
patronage of the bifhop of Agen. This tale obtained credit
with fome refpectable people, among whom was De Thou ;
but it was treated with marked contempt and ridicule by
others ; and it feems now to be generally admitted to be al-
moft, or altogether, fictitious. He was probably the fon
of Benedetto Bordone, a Paduan by origin, who praétifed
the art of an illuminator of books at Venice, and is fuppofed
to have acquired the furname of Della Scala, either from the
fign of his fhop, or the diftri& in which it was fituated. It is
faid that, till the year 1525, he pafled his time in obfcurity
at Venice or Padua, ftudying and praétifing medicine, and in
the mean time publifhed fome works under his true name,
Giulio Bordone ; and that fome hope of bettering his con-
dition then drew him to the diocefe of Agen, where he
paffed the remainder of his days.’ 1t appears that in 1528
he had not determined ta claim a‘defcent from the illuftrious
Scaligers, when he took out a patent of naturalization from
Francis I., under the name of “ Julius Cefar Della Scala
de Bordons, doétor of phyfic, a native of Verona in Italy.”
He was then probably of fome confideration, fince in 1529
he obtained for a wife a young woman of a noble and
opulent family ; and from this time he began to aflert his
princely origin, in which, however, he was not fupported
by any prince conneéted with the houfe of Verona. He
made his name more effectually known by various writings,
which have given him place among’ the principal literary
characters of his time. Notwithftanding his celebrity as a
writer, he continued to praétife phyfic, by which he accu-
mulated a large fortune: and he appears to have opened his
houfe to a great number of vifitors of all ranks, and to have
maintained a dignified flation in fociety. He died in 1558,
in the 75th year of hisage. He was unqueftionably a man
of great talents, and though it is generally fuppofed he
began to apply to literature late in Hie yet few have taken
a wider range in it than himfelf. He had a ftrong memory,
and a vigorous underftanding. He thought and wrote
freely, which, in one inftance, fubjeéted him to the fuf-
picion of the church. He wrote feveral books conne&ted
with his profeffion, and natural hiftory, particularly Com-
mentaries on Hippocrates ** De Infomniis;” on “ Theo-
phraflus and Ariitutle on Plants ;’? and on Ariftotle’s

SCA

“ Hiftory of Animals.’? But he was much more highly
applanded as a philologift: his elaborate work, entitled
* De Caufis Lingue Latine,”’ printed in 1540, is re-
garded as the tirft work on that fubje&, and it is written in
a truly philofophical method. His treatife, «De Arte
Poetica,” publifhed in 1561, gained him great reputation, -
and was unqueftionably the moit learned work that had ap-
peared. His own poems are not excellent, and his letters.
are obfcure, and rather bombattical. His orations againtt
the ‘ Ciceronianus” of Erafmus have not treated that
great f{cholar in the way becoming his charaéter ; fo that,
upon the whole, later critics have not agreed with Lipfius,
Cafaubon, Voflius, and others, in their very great praife of
Scaliger.

Scaricer, Joseru Justus, fon of the preceding, was
born at Agen in 1540. He was, when about eleven years
old, fent with his brothers to Bourdeaux, where he ftudied
the Latin language for three years. The p breaking
out in that town, obliged him to return to his father, who
made a praétice of requiring from him, daily, a Latin de-
clamation upon fome given {ubjeét, which foon familiarized
him to compofe in that language. On his father’s death
he went to Paris, being about 19 years of age, and took
leffons in Greek from Adrian Turnebe. He was, however,
his own mafter principally, and fhutting himfelf up in his
clofet, he began to read Homer, and the other Greek poets,
with fuch affiduity, that he had, in a few months, gone
through moft of them. When he had attained to a con-
fiderable degree of perfeétion in the Greek, he ftudied the
Hebrew ; at the fame time exercifing himfelf in poetical
compofition in the learned languages. He alfo laid in a vaft
ftore of obfervations on Greek and Latin authors, which
became the bafis of his philological labours. He became a
convert to the Proteftant religion, which probably impeded
his advancement in life. At length, however, he received
an invitation to a chair in the univerfity of Leyden; on
which occafion, he waited on Henry IV. to take leave.
He removed to Leyden in 1593, as honorary profeffor of
the belles lettres, and fpent there the remainder of his life.
His character was merely that of a {cholar, regardlefs of all
worldly concerns, fo that he fearcely ever rofe much above
indigence. He had, however, an independent fpirit, and
refufed affiftance in a variety of inftances, when money was
offered him. In pride and arrogance he was not at all in-
ferior to his father, and no fcholar has abounded more in
contemptuous and abufive language towards his adverfaries,
of which his extenfive acquaintance with words in various
tongues fupplied him with an inexhauttible ftore. He was
reckoned one-of the literary heroes of his age, and was
treated with extraordinary refpe€t at Leyden, where he
died in 1609, at the ageof 69. He is deferibed as a man of
immenfe reading, and fo addiéted to ftudy, that he would
fometimes pafs the whole day in his room without eating,
or feeling the flightelt want of food. He boatted his
knowledge of thirteen languages. Of his numerous works,
one of the moft important is a treatife «* De Emendatione
Temporum,”’ firft printed at Paris in 1583, but of which
the beft edition is faid to be that of Geneva, 1609. In this.
work he laid down a complete fyitem of chronology, formed
upon fixed principles ; on account of which, and his inven-
tion of the Julian period, he has merited the title of the
father of that fcience. Many errors, which efcaped. him
at firft, he correéted in a pofterior publication, entitled
“ Thefaurus Temporoum, compleétens Eufebii ee
Chronicon, cum Ifagogicis Chronologie Canonibus.”” 8
work was printed in 165%, in 2 vols. folio. His other
principal works are, ‘ Notes upon Seneca’s “

3 arro,

SC A

Varro, Aufonius, Feftus,” &c.; ‘ De tribus Seis Ju-
dzorum ;” ‘ Diflertationes ;”” ‘* Poemata ;” ‘ Epiftolz,”’
which laft are learned and valuable. Two collections of
“ Scaligeriana” were publifhed after his death, which did
not add to his reputation. He is thought to have had lefs
genius, but more learning, than his father ; and he has been
more ferviceable to literature.

SCALIN, or Escatty, in Commerce, a bafe filver coin
in the Netherlands. The efcalin, or chelling, at Antwerp
is equal to 6 ftivers of exchange, or 7 ftiyers current. It
weighs 3 dwt. 44 grs., contains in pure filver 44 grains,
and in fterling value is 6d.

SCALING of Guns, denotes the act of cleaning the in-
fide of a fhip’s cannon, by the explofion of a {mall quantity
of powder, which effe€tually blows out any dirt or fcales of
iron which may adhere to the interior furface.

ScatinG-Ladders. See LAppERs. :

SCALIS, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Stiria ;
6 miles S. or Windifch-Gratz.

SCALITZ, or Scata, atown of Hungary; 31 miles
W.N.W. of Topoltzan.

SCALLED Heap. See Porrico.

SCALLION, or Escar.ion, in Botany and Gardering,
a fort of onion which never forms any bulb at the root, but
is ufed green in fpring, before the other forts fown in July
are large enough. :

This is, however, very fcarce in London, the gardeners
ufually felling in its place the fhoots of fuch decayed common
onions as have fprouted in the houfe. Thefe they plant
in a bed early in the fpring, and they foon grow large
enough for ufe, when they pull them out ; and taking off
all the old outer coat of the roots, they lay them in bunches,
and fell them in the market for fcallions.

The true fcallion is eafily propagated by parting the
roots in autumn, and planting them three or four together
in a hole at fix inches diltance. Thefe will grow in any foil
or fituation, and will multiply very quickly, and in very

t abundance ; and their being hardy enough to endure
the fevereft winter, and fit for ufe fo early in {pring, makes
them worthy a place in all kitchen gardens. See ALLIUM.

SCALLOP, in Ichthyology, a fhell-fifh, whofe animal is
a tethys, grows to a large fize, is found in feparate beds,
dredged up, pickled and barrelled for fale. The anatomy
of this fith lets us greatly into the knowledge of the flruc-
ture of the parts AF otter bivalve fhell-fith.

The feallop is compofed of two hells, which, as in many
others, are one concave, and the other plane or flat. ‘The
cardo, or hinge, is lightly bent from the concave fhell, and
thence carried over a part of the plane fhell, in the middle,
and all the way between, it is firmly conneéted to a cartilage.
In the middle of the length of the cardo there is placed
another fhort, black, and very {trong cardo.

Tt is eafy to fee, from hence, to what is owing
matkable ftrong power, which this creature has of fhutting
and opening its hel ; and it is very poflible, that by means
of fo ttrong an apparatus of tendons or ligaments as it has
in thie part, it may be able to move the plane fhell in fo {wilt
and regular, a9 well as forcible and eafy a manner, that it may
ufe it in moving from place to place; and poffibly it niay
make a fort of wing of it, to beat againit the water, as the

inion of a bird does againit the air; and what the ancients

ave fo frequently faid of its moving about in a very {wift
manner, from place to place, may be true, though we have
been wanting in later obfervations to fee it.

For a more particular examination into the ftruéture of

b fith, fee Philof. Tranf. N° 299. p. 567. See Con-
cHoLocy and Osrnea.

VoL. XXXII.

that re-

sal G7

Scattop Tykes. See Tyxes.

SCALLOWAY, in Geography, a fea-port town, fitu-
ated on the fouthern coaft of the mainland of Shetland,
county of Orkney arid Shetland, and kingdom of Scotland,
was formerly diftinguifhed as the capital of the Shetland
ifles; but fince the rife of Lerwick, it has dwindled into
an infignificant village, confilting of about 30 fcattered
houfes furrounding a cattle. This ftru€ture was founded
by Patrick, earl of Orkney and Shetland, in the year 1600,
and gave occafion to fuch oppreflive exaétions of fervices
and contributions, that the memory of the founder is {till
held in deteitation by the natives. During the common-
wealth, it was occupied as barracks by a party of Crom-
well’s foldiers, to whom, it is faid, che inhabitants of the
neighbourhood were indebted for feveral improvements, par-
ticularly the culture of cabbages. Scalloway caftle, fays
Brand, in his New Defcription of Orkney, Zetland, &c.
«js three ftories high, befide kitchen and wardrobe, and
hath in it many excellent chambers and other apartments,
with their feveral conveniencies ; alfo there hath been much
good painting, fome of which is yet to be feen, though
much defaced. The chambers are high between the floors,
but efpecially the gallery or dining-room. In the kitchen
there is a well in the fide of the wall, the water whereof is
very good, though little ufed.”” The harbour of Scalloway
is both fafe and commodious, and the country along the
coatt is faid to be the moft delightful and fertile in Shet-
land. A New Defcription of Orkney and. Zetland, by
John Brand, 1z2mo. Edin. 1703.. A Tour through fome
of the Iflands of Orkney and Shetland, by Patrick Niell,
A.M., 8vo. 1806.

SCALMUS, among the Romans, a block or round
piece of wood in a boat, to which the oars were tied with a
thong of leather, called /rappus.

Scalmus was alfo ufed to denote the boat, a part being
taken for the whole.

SCALPA, in Geography, a village and fea-port in the
parifh of St. Ola, ifland of Pomona, and fhire of Orkney
and Shetland, Scotland, is fituated about two miles to the
fouth of the town of Kirkwall. It is chiefly worthy of
notice on account of the beauty of the bay, to which it gives
name, and its excellence as a fafe and commodious pe
for fhipping. Scalpa-Flow extends about 50 miles in cir-
cumference, refembling a fmall Mediterranean, being en-
vironed by twelve different iflands, between which are fe-
veral outlets to the Pentland Frith, and the Northern and
Atlantic oceans; but the principal entrances are through
Holm Sound on the ealt, and Hoy Mouth on the ses
This Flow abounds with fine road{teads and harbours, and
for that reafon is much reforted to by fhips coming north
about. All the fmacks employed in fifhing, and carrying
lobi{ters to the London market, rendezvous m one or other
of thefe harbours. Carlifle’s l’opographical Diétionary of
Scotland, 2 vols. gto. 1813.

Scapa, one of the Hebrides, or Weftern iflands of
Scotland, included in the parifh of Strath, and county of
Invernefs, is fituated between the Mainland and the ifle of
Skye, from which it is feparated by a narrow branch of the
fea, called the Sound of Scalpa. It extends about three
miles in length, and two in breadth, and is in general rocky
and barren, In the highett part of this ifand is a rock of
petrified mofs, in which various fea-fhells are imbedded ;
and at other {pots great quantities of fimilar fhells are to
be met with, feveral feet under ground. The Statiftical
Account of Scotland, by Sir John Sinclair, vol. xvi. Bvo.
17¢ 5.

SGA LPAY, one of the Hebrides, or Weltern iflands
4F of

SCA

of Scotland, in the parifh of Harris, and county of Inver-
cefs, is fituated‘in Eaft Loch Tarbet, which feparates
Harris from Lewis. Its furface is flat, and in great hae
covered with heath ; and from the numerous branches of the
fea, which penetrate it in every dire€tion, its form is un-
ufually irregular. Its two extreme points, from eaft to
weft, are about three miles diftant. On the eaftern point
is a light-houfe, ere&ted in 1788; and near the weftern
one are two of the beft natural harbours in the Hebrides.
The Statiftical Account of Scotland, by Sir John Sinclair,
vol. x. 8vo. 1794.

SCALPEL, aterm applied by furgeous to any common
kind of {mall flraight knife, for furgical and anatomical
purpofes.

SCALPING, in Military Hiflory, a barbarous cuftom
in praétice among the Indian warriors, of taking off the
tops of the fcalps of the enemies’ {kulls, with their hair on:
thefe are preferved as trophies of victory, and thofe who
bring them are rewarded by their chiefs, in proportion to
their number.

SCALPRA Denrania, inftruments ufed by the fur-
geons to take off thofe black, livid, or yellow crutts, which
infelt the teeth, and not only loofen and deftroy them, but
taint the breath.

According to the varieties of the occafion, the furgeon
has thefe inftruments of various fhapes and fizes: fome are
pointed and narrow at the end; others are broader pointed,
and have edges ; others are hooked, or falciform ; but thefe
are ufually, for the convenience of carriage, all adapted to
one handle. :

The manner of ufing them is to begin near the gums,
fupporting the blade with the left hand, and feraping all
along the tooth, till the cruft is taken off, taking care not
to wound the gums, or difplace the teeth. Heiter.

SCALPRUM, from fcalpro, to ra/p, an inftrument
termed a rafpatory, or rugine, ufed for feraping difeafed
portions of bone, removing the periciteum, &c. See the
preceding article.

SCALTERN, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Stiria ; 7 miles S.W. of Pettau.

SCALY Diseases, in Medicine, are thofe difeafes of
the fkin which are charaéterized by the de{quamation of the
cuticle in {mall, detached, white lamine.

Thefe hard, white, thickened, and opaque laminz of the
cuticle, which are called /cales, feem to originate from an
inflammation affecting the furface of the true fkin, in con-
fequence of which the cuticle is changed in its texture,
loofened, and undermined by the formation of a new cuticle,
by which it is at length thrown off. Sometimes, however,
fcales originate from indurated papule, or larger elevations
of the true fkin, which, by preffure or diftention, injure the
texture of the cuticle, and produce thickened irregular
layers of it. Occafionally, however, the cuticle alone, or
together with the rete mucofum, appears to be in a morbid
condition.

In the artificial claffification of difeafes of the fkin, deviled
by Dr. Willan, as well as in that invented by Dr. Plenck,
of Vienna, and founded upon the external appearances, one
of the orders includes the /caly difeafes. Of thefe, accord-
ing to the fyftem of Willan, there are four genera ; the
rey or leprofy of the Greeks; the p/oria/is, or {ealy tetter ;
the ptyriafis, or dandriff ; the ichthyofis, or fith-fkin difeafe ;
which fee refpetively. See alfo Willan, Defcription and
Treatment of Cutan. Dif.; and Bateman’s Praét. Synopfis of
his Claffification.

Scary Roots, in Botany, are of the bulbous kind, but con-
Gifting of imbricated fcales, inltead of uninterrupted con-

SCA

centric layers. Of this Lilium affords examples. See Ra-
dix bulbofa under the article Roor.

SCALZI, Canto, of Genoa, in Biography, a fecond
finger in Handel’s opera of “ Ariadne,” in which Careftini
was the firft. Handel feems to have had no {plendid ideas
of his abilities, as he gave him but little to do; yet, ac-
cording to Mancini (Penfieri fopra il canto figurato), he af-
terwards became fo eitimable a performer, that he ranked
among fingers of the firft clafs. '

SCAMACHIE, in Geography. Sce SCHAMACHT.

SCAMANDER, in Ancient Geography, one of the
rivers which watered Troas, or Phrygia Minor. According
to Homer’s account, it had its fources in mount Ida, towards
the eaftern part of that mountain, and having received within
its banks, not far from Troy, the Simois, difcharged ifelf
into the fEgean fea, over-againft the ifland of Tenedos.
Herodotus fays that it was drang up by the army of Xerxes.
Its original name was Scamander ; but it was afterwards
called Zanthus, becaufe it was thought to communicate a
yellowifh tinéture to the fheep that drank its waters.
Homer fays that it was called Xanthus by the gods, and Sca-
mander by men. It was a cultom among the Phrygian
brides to bathe themfelves before marriage in this river.
But this fuperflitious ceremony was abrogated, in confe-
quence of Cimon an Athenian’s having aflumed the difguife
of ariver god, and deflowering Calirrhoe, a noble virgin, at
that time betrothed. According to the account given of the
prefent Scamander by Olivier, it takes its rife at the extre-
mity of the plain of Troy, from five or fix fprings, one of
which is remarkable for its waters being fomewhat lukewarm.
After having traverfed a {pace of fix or feven miles, it dif-
charges itfelf into the Simois, a league from the fea. Con-
fined in its bed, it undergoes no perceptible variation ; its
banks are enamelled with flowers in almoft all feafons; and
in feveral places the lands are fo low, and the waters fill its
bed in fuch a manner, that they {pread themfelves, and form
feveral marfhes, producing reeds, rufhes, and various
aquatic plants. In the rainy feafon the Scamander is lefs
confiderable than the Simois, but it is fuperior to it in having
always nearly the fame quantity of water, and in carrying
fertility into the plain which it traverfes. Olivier continues
the name of Simois as far as the fea, but all the ancients
ceafed to give it that name on its junction with the Scaman-
der : but independently of the Simois having a larger bed
and a more extenfive ftream than the other, and indepen-
dently of its receiving in winter the waters of all the moun-
tains fituated to the eaft of Troas, the Scamander has at
this day taken another courfe. Under the reign of Abdul-
Hamed, Haflan, captain-pacha, wifhing to conftru& feveral
mills, and to water the lands which he poflefled towards the
cape of Troy, caufed a canal to be dug to the weftward of
the little village of Erkeffikeui, and poured into it the
waters of the Scamander ; from that time they have flowed
into the /Egean fea, near half a league to the S. of the
capeof Troy. The coaft is low and marfhy at the new
mouth of the Scamander ; but it rifes from the cape of
Troy to the village of Yeni-koui, and thence to cape Sigeum
itis fteep. See Simois. a

SCAMANDRIA, a {mall town of the Troas, on the
banks of the river Scamander ; 1500 paces from port Ilum,
according to Pliny.

SCAMBENA, atown of Afia, in Media, in the interior —

of thecountry. Ptolemy.

SCAMILLI Inparss, in the Ancient ArchiteBure, a
term much contended about among the critics, though, in
effect, it fignifies no more than certain zoccoes, or Mocks,
ferving to raife the reft of the members of an order, col

flatue,

|
:

ee

=e >) ota ete

SCA

ftatue, or the like, and to prevent their being loft to the
eye, which may chance to be placed below the level, or be-
low the projecture of fome of the ornaments of them.

The fcamilli are well enough reprefented by the pedeltals
of ftatues. See PEDESTAL.

SCAMINA, in Geegraphy, a town of European Tur-
key, in Livadia ; 20 miles N. of Athens.

SCAMMA, xeuu2, among the Greeks, the mark in
leaping, or throwing quoits; fo called from its being made
by digging up the earth.

SCAMMATHA, or SHEMATTA, NPD, in the
Jewifh Cuffoms, a kind of excommunication, and the moft
terrible of all in ufe among that people. Some pretend
that this was proclaimed by the found of four hundred
trumpets, and that a perfon fo excommunicated, was never
to be received again into the congregation, and that it was
even lawful to put him to death; and they derive the term
from [5y7’, there, and AP, death, to which they fuppofe
the expreffion of St. John to allude, there is afin unto death ;
others derive it from [5y?, name, RAN; comes, or approaches,
and fuppofe that it anfwers to the maranatha of St. Paul,
1 Cor. xvi. 22. and refer it to a tradition among the Jews,
derived from Enoch, and recorded Jude, v. 14.' See
Nipvvt.

SCAMMONIA Monspetiaca, Montpelier fcammony, a
name given by fome botanical writers to a {pecies of peri-
ploca, diftinguifhed by Mr. Tournefort by the name of peri-
ploca Monfpeliaca foliis rotundioribus. This, in the Linnzan
fyftem, is a {pecies of cynanchum; which fee.

SCAMMONY, Scammonivum, in Pharmacy, an infpif-
fated, gummy, refinous juice, of the root of a plant of the
fame name, growing in Syria, particularly on the moun-
tains between Aleppo and Latachia, and which being hardy,
will thrive in the open air in England on any foil. It isa
fpecies of bindweed. See Convotvutus.

This milky juice flows from an incifion made in the root,
and on ftanding concretes into folid maffes.

It is procured in the following manner by the peafants,
who colle& it in the beginning of June: “ Having
cleared away the earth from about the root, they cut
off the top, in an oblique direction, about two inches
below where the ftalks iprng from it. Under the moit

ing part of the flope they fix a fhell, or fome
convenient receptacle, into which the milky juice

ually flows. It is left there about twelve hours,
which time is fufficient for draining off the whole juice ;
this, however, is in {mall quantity, each root affording but
a very few drachms. ‘This juice from the feveral roots is
put together, often into the leg of an old boot, for want of
fome more proper veflel, where in a little time it grows hard,
and is the genuine feammony.”” The Jews make it their
bufinefs to go to the places where the fcammony is col-
le&ted, and there buying it while yet foft, have an opportu-
nity of mixing it with fuch things as beft anfwers their pur-
hy as wheat-flower, athes, fine fand, with all of which
Dr. Ruffel found it adulterated. The pureft fcanimony is
therefore the molt aGtive and moft foluble. It is brought
here from Aleppo, in what are called drums, which weigh
from 75 to 125 lbs. each; and from Smyrna in cakes, like
wax, packed in chefts. The bett is that which is brought
from Aleppo in light {pongy mafles, ecafily friable, glofly,
of different fthades of colour, from grey or yellowifh to
white, almoft to black; when reduced to powder, of a
brownifh-white colour. That fhould be chofen which crum-
bles moft cafily betwixt the fingers, becomes inftantly white
on the contaét of watery moilture, and leaves little or no
fates on being diffalved. Its colour in the mafs affords no

SE GNA

criterion of its purity or goodnefs.
is 1.235. :

The feammony of Smyrna, and that of the Eaft Indies,
are lefs valued; the firft as being more heavy, hard, and
black, full of fand and other impurities ; the latter, though
light, friable, &c. is in reality only a compofition of
common refin with fome other violent purgatives. Pomet
afferts, that both thefe kinds are rather poifons than
remedies.

Scammony has a flight unpleafant fmell, anda weak bitterifh
flightly acrid tafte. When triturated with water, nearly one-
fourth of it is diffolved, andthe folution appears flightly muci-
laginous, opaque, and of a greenifh-grey colour. This folu-
tion is not afleted by alcohol, folutions of fuperacetate, and
acetate of lead, or fulphate of iron, nor precipitated by the
acids; but with fulphuric acid it gives out the odour of
vinegar. Solution of ammonia does not alter it, but potafs
occafions a yellowihh precipitate, which is quickly rediflolved
on the addition of an acid. Ether takes up two parts in ten
of feammony, and, when evaporated, leaves a brownifh
femitranfparent refin. Alcohol diflolves two-thirds of its
weight ; but proof fpirit is its beft menftruum, taking up
the whole except the impurities. Scammony, therefore,
appears to contain chiefly refin, a peculiar extractive matter,
and gum.

This gummy refinis one of the ftrong {timulating cathar-
tics, operating, in general, quickly and powerfully. Scam-
mony appears to have been well known to the Greek and
Arabian phyficians, and was not only employed internally
as a purgative, but alfo as an external remedy for tumours,
{cabies, tinea, fixed pains, &c.—Although this drug was
feldom given alone, yet we find it was very generally ufed
as an ingredient in many compounds which were formerly
held in very great repute.—Hoffman, however, entertained
an opinion, that fcammony was a dangerous medicine. But
fince Boerhaave’s time it has been confidered as a fafe
though ftimulating cathartic, and frequently prefcribed un-
combined with any other fubftance, yet neither producing
tormina nor hypercatharfis. Like other refinous purgatives
it is uncertain in its operation, which may be occafioned by
the inteftines being more or lefs defended from the action of
thefe ftimulants, by the quantity of natural mucus with
which they are covered. The dofe is from grs. v to
grs. xvj, in powder, or a bolus, or in the form of mixture,
triturated with almonds, gum, or extraé of liquorice, and
water. Its officinal preparations are as follow: viz. “ Con-
fe&tio feammonie,”? for which the London Pharmacopeta
direéts to take of feammony powdered 14 o7., cloves bruifed,
ginger-root powdered, of each fix drachms, and a fufficient
quantity of fyrup of rofes, Rub the dry fubftance into a
very dry powder, then add gradually the fyrup, and rub
them again ; la{tly, after adding the oil of caraway, mix the
whole together. ‘The “eleétuary fcammony” of the Dublin
Pharmacopeia is prepared by taking ena and ginger-
root, of each reduced to powder, an ounce, oil of cloves, a
feruple, and a fufficient quantity of fyrup of orange ;
mixing the ginger in powder with the fyrup of orange, then
adding the Foci, and laltly the oil. ‘This is a ttimu-
lating cathartic, and may be given in a dofe of from f3fs to
£3); but it is feldom ordered. Another preparation 1s the
“ Com ound powder of feammony.” (See Pownrr.) For
the “ Extraétum Colocynthidis compofitum,”’ fee Coxo-
cyntiis; and for the * Compound powder of fenna,’’ fee
Pownpen.

Many ill qualities have been afcribed to it which it docs
not pollets, and many correétives have been devifed which
it does not need. Sce Diacnynium.

4F 2

Its {pecific gravity

In

SCA

In cold, indolent, ferous habits, {cammony itfelf pro-
cures generally a plentiful evacuation with great eafe and
fafety. Accordingly it is in general ufe as a purgative, in
the torpid ftate of the inteltines, of leucophlegmatic, hy-
pochondriacal, and maniacal fubjeéts ; in worm cales, and the
flimy ftate of the bowels to which children are fubje&t, and
as a hydragogue cathartic in dropfy ; but as it is apt to
gripe, it is generally united with an aromatic, or a drop or
two of fome effential oil: in inflammatory cafes, and with
the more irritable difpofitions, it is dangerous, but not
otherwife fo than the reft of the itrong purgatives. By the
f{mallnefs of the dofe of this medicine, its eafy folubility,
and its having little tafte, it 1s fitted for being commodioufly
taken in almoft any form.

Agreeable purging troches are prepared by grinding toge-
ther ae drachms of fcammony, four drachms of cryitals of
tartar, four drops of oil of cinnamon, and eight ounces of fine
fugar, and moiitening the mixture with as much rofe-water
as will render it of adue confiftence for being formed ; each
tablet is made to weigh about a drachm, and confequently con-
tains two grains and a half of fcammony. One of the mott ele-

nt liquid preparations is a folution of the feammony.in a
Pos infufion cr deco¢tion of liquorice, poured off from
the feces, and aromatifed with fome grateful dittilled water,
or aromatic tinéture, as thofe of cardamom feeds. The
dried root of the plant, as well as the juice, may deferve
notice; as Dr. Ruffel relates, that a deco€tion of half an
ounce of the root procured five ftools, without gripes, fick-
nefs, or any uneafinefs ; and that the decoétions are entirely
without fmell, and in tafte rather {weetifh than difagreeable.
Neither the ftalks, leaves, flowers, nor feeds feemed to have
any purgative virtue. Lewis’s Mat. Med. Med. Obferv.
vol. 1. p. 13, &c.

The fcammony now in ufe muft be very different from
that of the ancients, at leaft inthe preparation ; becaufe the
ancients gave it in much greater dofes : hence Fallopius con-
jeCtures the modern fcammony to be adulterated with juice
of tithymal.

Some give the name of American fcammony to me-
choacan.

SCAMNUM Hirrocratis, in Surgery, an ancient ma-
chine for reducing fra&tures and diflocations.

SCAMOZZI, Vincenzo, in Biography, a celebrated ar-
chite&t, was born at Vicenzain 1550. He was educated
under his father, Gian-Domenico, an able artift in the fame
branch, and at the age of feventeen made defigns for build-
ings that were very highly efteemed. He went to Venice
for improvement, where Palladio and others were then em-
ployed about works of magnitude and confideration, and he
made very rapid advances in his profeflion. At the age of
twenty-two he compofed a treatife in fix books, ** De Teatri
e delle Scene,’? which has never been publifhed. In a vifit
to Rome he was engaged in the diligent ftudy of the remains
of antiquity to be found in that city, and in the ttudy of
mathematics under the celebrated Clavio. After extending
his tour to Naples, he returned in 1583 to his native city, and
fettled at Venice, where, Palladio being dead, he became
the firft architeét, and was employed in various public and
private works, of which one of the moft remarkable was
the additions to the library of St. Mark. He was fent for
to Vicenza to finifh the famous Olympic theatre, by which
he gained credit. In 1588 duke Vefpafian Gonzaga engaged
him in the con{trution of a new theatre at his town of Sab-
bioneta. After this he vifited many of the chief places on
the continent ; and decorated feveral other cities in Italy, be-
fides Venice and Vicenza, and few artifts feem to have en-
joyeda more extenfive reputation. In 1615 he publifhed a

SCA

work entitled « L’Idea dell? Architettura univerfale,” in fix
books, which contains many ufeful obfervations and inftruc-
tions. The fixth book, which contains the five orders of
architeéture, is moft elteemed, and has been tranflated into
the French language. Scamozzidied in 1616. Betides the
writings aboye-mentioned, he publifhed a work of defcrip-
tions, of which three chapters contained the buildings and
topography of Rome.

SCAMP, in Ancient Geography, a town of Magaants.
on the route from Dyrrhacium to Byzantium, between
diana and Tres Tabernz, according tothe Itinerary of An-
tonine.

SCAMPF, in Geography, a town of Switzerland, in the
Upper Engadina; 3 miles N. of Zulz.

SCANDA, a town of Imiretta; 4o miles E. of
Cotatis.

SCANDAL, in the fopular language, is fome ation,
or opinion, contrary to good manners, or to the general
fenfe of a people. ‘-

Scandal alfo denotes a difadvantageous rumour or report,
or an aétion whereby one is affronted in public.

For the legal punifhment of feandal, fee ScanpALUM
Magnatum.

ScAnDAL, Stone of, Lapis fcandali, or vituperii, a {tone
raifed in the great portal of the Capitol in Rome, whereon
was engraven the figure of a lion, upon which bankrupts
or ceffionaries being feated bare-breeched, cried with a loud
voice, cedo bonis, I furrender my effeds ; when, fquatting
their breech violently three times on the ftone, they were
acquitted. :

It was called the ftone of feandal, becaufe thenceforward
the ceflionary became inteftable, and incapable of giving any
evidence. : ‘

Julius Cefar introduced this form of furrender, after
abrogating that article of the laws of the Twelve Tables,
which allowed their creditors to cut their infolvent debtors
in pieces, and take each his member, or at leaft to make a-
flave of him.

SCANDALEK, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in
Natangen ; 3 miles E. of Barten. j

SCANDALERA, a town of Italy, in the depactment
of the Upper Po; g miles N. of Cremona.

SCANDALUM Maenatum, in Law, denotes a fean-
dal or wrong done to any high peclonaes of the land, as
peers, prelates, judges, or other great officers, by falfe or
flanderous news or tales, whereby any debate or difcord be-
tween them and the commons, or any {candal to their perfons
might arife.

This offence has alfo giver name to a writ granted to re-
cover damages thereupon.

Slanders of this kind, though they be fuch as would not
be aétionable in the cafe of common perfons, amount to an
atrocious injury, which is redrefled by an action on the cafe
founded on many ancient ftatutes, viz. Weltm. 1. 3 Edw. I.
c. 34. 2 Rich. II.c. 5. 12 Rich. II. c. 11. as well on be-
half of the crown, to infliét the punifhment of imprifon-
ment on the flanderer, as on behalf of the party, to recover
damages for the injury fuftained. Words alfo tending to
{candalize a magiltrate, or perfon in a public trult, are re-
puted more highly injurious than when fpoken of a private
man. (Ld. Raym. 1369.) Itis faid that formerly no ac-
tions were brought for words, unlefs the flander was (uch, »
as, if true, would endanger the life of the object of it.
(2 Vent. 28.) But it is now held, that for feandalous
words, that may endanger a man in law, by impeaching him
of fome heinous crime, exclude him from fociety by charging
him with having an infectious difeafe, impair his trade, by

calling

au- —

Ee

SCA

calling a tradef{man a bankrupt, a phyfician a quack, or a
lawyer a knave, or affe&t a peer of the realm, a magittrate, or
one in public truift,. an aétion on the cafe may be had, with-
out proving any particular damage to have happened, but
merely upon the probability that it might happen. How-
ever, actions for words muit be brought within two years
after the injury committed. With regard to words not ap-
parently, and upon the face of ‘them injurious, the plaintiff
muft aver fome particular damage to have happened, which
is called laying his action with a fer quod. But mere fcurri-
lity, or opprobrious words, which neither in themf{elves im-
port, nor are in faét attended with any injurious effects, will
not fupport an aétion. Words of heat and paffion, as to
call a man a rogue and rafcal, if productive of no ill confe-
quence, and not of any of the dangerous fpecies before-
mentioned, are not actionable ; neither are words fpoken in
a friendly manner, as by way of advice, admonition, or
concern, without any tincture or circumftance of ill-will;
for in both thefe cafes they are not malicioufly fpoken, which
is part of the definition of flander (Finch. 1. 186. 1 Leo. 82.
Cro. Jac. 91.); neither are any refleGing words made ule of
in legal proceedings, and pertinent to the caufe in hand, a
fufficient ground of aétion for flander. (Dyer, 285. Cro.
Jac. go.) Alfo, if the defendant be able to juftify and
prove the words to be true, no aétion will lie, even though
fpecial damage hath enfued ; for then it is no flander or

alfe tale. In this cafe, though there may be damage {uffi-
cient accruing from it, yet if the fact be true, it is damnum
abfque injuria ; and where there is no injury the law gives no
remedy. Blackftone’s Comment. vol. iii.

SCANDARETTA, or ScanpEROoN, in Geography, a
village of Palettine, on the coaft of the Mediterranean,
founded by Alexander the Great when he laid fiege to
Tyre, from which it is diftant about fix miles. At prefent it
confifts only of a few houfes.

SCANDARIEH, a town of the Arabian Irak, on a
river or canal, which forms a communication between the
Tigris and the Euphrates ; 120 miles N.W. of Baflorah.

CANDENS, Cautis, in Botany, is a climbing ftem,
whether fupported by tendrils, as in the vine; by adhefive
fibres, as in the ivy ; or by its own circumyolutions, as in the
convolvulus and honeyfuckle. See CAutts.

SCANDERBERG, in Biography, prince of Albania,
whofe proper name was Caftriot, fon of John, prince of that
country, was born in 1404. He was fent by his father asa
hoftage to fultan Amurath II., and was educated in the
Mahometan religion, and when he was only eighteen years
old he was placed at the head of a body of troops with the
title of fanjiak. After the death of his father, in 1432, he
formed the defign of poflefling himfelf of his principality,
and having accompanied the Turkifh army to Hungary, he
made a fecret alliance with the famous Huniades, promifing
to defert to the Chriftians during the firft battle that fhould
occur. This he put in execution, and having défeated the
Turks with great lofs, he compelled Amurath’s {ecretary to
fign an order for the governor of Croia, the capital of

bania, to deliver that place and its citadel to its bearer.
The ftratagem fucceeded, he afcended the throne of his
father, and renounced the Mahometan religion. Amurath
made many attempts to recover Albania, but without effect.
A courfe of warfare was continued for eleven years under
Mahomet II., Amurath’s fucceflor, who, by ‘be conquett
of Conftantinople, was become very formidable to all Europe.
Scanderberg met with various fortune, but was generally
faccefsful, hb that the fultan, in 1461, propofed terms of

to him, which were accepted. Scanderberg then, at
the defire of the pope, came into Italy to the j Pot of
Ferdinand II., king of Naples, befieged in Bari, and

SC A

having caufed the fiege to be raifed, contributed greatly to
the fubfequent victory over the count of Anjou. The
Venetians having entered into a war with Mahomet, induced
Scanderberg to renounce his treaty with the fultan, and make
an inroad into his dominions. He obtained feveral im-
portant victories, and faved his own capital, which was in-
veited by a great army under Mahomet himfelf. He died
in 1457, at the age of 63, and his death was confidered by
the fultan as relieving him from the moil formidable enemy
he had to contend with, and it was foon followed by the
fubmiffion of Albania to the Turkifh dominion. Scander-
berg was undoubtedly one of the greateft warriors of his
time. By many of his biographers he has been reprefented
as a hero of romance, while his enterprize and military {kill
placed him among the ablett and moft fuccefsful of generals.
The Turks gave a fingular proof of their admiration of his
valour, for when they took Liffa, the place at which he had
been interred, they dug up his bones with great ref{pect, and
made ufe of them as relics, fet in gold and filver, to be worn
about their perfons as amulets.

SCANDEROON, in Geography. See ALEXANDRETTA.

SCANDIACA, in Botany, a name given by fome
authors to the white-flowered lamium, called archangel by
others.

SCANDIANO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
duchy of Modena; g miles W. of Modena.

SCANDINAVIA, a name not unfrequently given to
that part of Europe, which comprehends Denmark, Sweden,
and Norway, and fometimes applied more extenfively to
adjacent countries and iflands. Scandinavia, confidered as
comprifing the prefent Sweden, Norway, Lapland, and
Finmark, was formerly thought to have been an ifland, but
isnow well knownto be a peninfula. Pliny calls it Scandi-
nuvia, and according to the orthography of Voffius and
Gronoyius, it is written Scandinovia; by Xenophon Lamp-
facenus, it is named Baltia; by Timeus, Bafilea; and by
Pytheas, fometimes Bafilea, and at other times Abalus.
The writers of the middle ages denominate it Scanza,
Scanzia, Scantia, and Scandia, which fome derive from the
German or Gothic word Scanzen, lignifying caltles, allegin
that the firft inhabitants made caitles of the fteep rocks with
which the country abounds; and hence they fay came the
word Scandinavia, denoting ‘ acountry filled with caftles.”’
Others again write Scandinavia, Scanzia, &c. from the word
Seckanten, importing the fea-coalt or fhore. The Greek
word Ballia fignifies the breaking in of the fea. ‘Tacitus
places in Scandinavia two diftinét nations, the Suiones and

e Sittones, the former inhabiting the prefent Sweden, and
the latter Norway ; for they were feparated by mount Sevo,
now Seager, the ridge that feparates Norway from Sweden.
However it is certain, that eee the time of Tacitus, Scan-
dinavia was inhabited by the Goths; as we have already
{tated under the article Gorus. It has been an opinion
very generally maintained, that a few years before the com-
mencement of the Chriftian era, a nation of Afiatic Goths,
under Odin, fettled in the Scandinavian territory, as we have
already mentioned under the article Runic. But the hiltory
of Odin, and of his appearance among the Scandinavians, is
involved in confiderable obfcurity. (See Opin.) M.
Mallet, in his “* Northern Antiquities,” acknowledges that
he can difcover nothing very certain concerning Odin, but
only this, that he wag the founder of a new religion before
unknown to the rude and artlefs inhabitants of Scandinavia.
For other particulars refpeéting him we refer to his bio-
graphical article. In invefligating the religion of the Sean-
dinavians, he begins with that of the ancient Scythians, from
whom they are fuppofed to have originated. T'he religion
of the Scythiano, = fays, was, in the firlt ages, extremely

fimple,

>

SCANDINAVIA.

fimple, confifting of a few plain ealy do€rines, which feem
to have comprized the whole of religion known to the firlt
inhabitants of Europe. Thefe were preferved, in the North,
without any material alteration. In procefs of time, how-
ever, the Scythian nations fuffered their religion to be cor-
rupted by an intermixture of ceremonies, fome of them
ridiculous, others cruel ; in which, by little and little, as it
commonly happens, they placed’the whole of their religion.
Accordingly our author diftinguifhes two. different epochs
or ages in the religion of this people; and in each
of thefe he thinks it of importance not. to confound
the opinions of the fages with fables or mythology of
the poets. The Scythian religion, in its primeval purity,
taught the being of a fupreme God, matter of the univerfe,
to whom all things were fubmiffive and obedient. (See
Tacitus, de Mor. Germ. c. xxxv.) It attributed to their
deity, an infinite power, a boundlefs knowledge, an incor-
ruptible juftice. It forbad the reprefentation of this divinity
under any corporeal form, or the confinement of him within
the inclofure of walls; but taught that it was only within
woods and confecrated forefts that they could ferve him
properly. (Id. c. ix.) From this fupreme God were
{prung, as it were emanations of his divinity, an infinite
number of fubaltern deities and genii, of which every part of
the world was the feat and temple. Thefe intelligences
dire&ted the operations of nature; and each element was
under the guidance of fome being peculiar to it. The
earth, the water, the fire, the air, the fun, moon, and {tars
had each their re{peGtive divinity. The trees, forefts, rivers,
mountains, rocks, winds, thunder and tempetts had the fame ;
and merited on that {core a religious worfhip, which, at firft,
could not be direéted to the vifible obje&t, but to the in-
telligence with which it was animated. The motive of this
worfhip was the fear of a deity irritated by the fins of men,
but who, at the fame time, was merciful, and capable of being
appeafed by prayer and repentance. They looked up to
him as to the attive principle, which, by uniting with the
earth or paffive principle, had produced men, animals, plants,
and all vifible beings; they even believed that he was the
only agent in nature who preferves the feveral beings, and
difpofes of all events. T'o ferve this divinity with facrifices
and prayers, to do no wrong to others, and to be brave and
intrepid themfelves, were all the moral confequences they
drew from thefe doétrines. Lattly, the belief of a future
ftate cemented and completed the whole building. Cruel
tortures were there referved for fuch as defpifed thefe three
fundamental precepts of morality, and joys without number
and without end awaited every religious, juft, and valiant
man.

Thefe aré the principal heads of that ancient religion,
which probably prevailed for many ages through the greateft
part of the north of Europe, and doubtlefs among feveral
nations of Afia. It was preferved tolerably pure in the
North till towards the decline of the Roman republic ; one
may judge at leaft by the teltimony of feveral authors, that
the Germans had maintained till that time the chief of thefe
doétrines, whilft the inhabitants of Spain, Gaul and Britain,
half fubdued by the arms and luxury of the Romans, adopted
by degrees new gods, at the fame time that they received
new matters. It is probable then, that it was not till the
arrival of Odin in the North, that the Scythian religion among
the ancient Danes and other Scandinavians began to lofe the
moft beautiful traits of its original purity. Though the
fa&t itfelf is probable, it is not fo me to affign the caufes
of it.

The moft ftriking alteration in the doétrines of the pri-
mitive religion regarded the number of the gods who were
to be worthipped. A capital point among the Scythians

was the pre-eminence of one all-powerful and perfec being
over all the other intelligences with which univerfal nature
was peopled. But their defcendants, abandoning this fim-
plicity of religion, affociated to the fupreme God many of
thofe genii or fubaltern divinities, who had been always
fubordinate to him; and by degrees they feleGied, as the
object of their peculiar veneration, that divinity, whofe
dominion extended over fuch things as were molt dear to
them, or which appeared moft worthy of admiration. This
happened in Scandinavia. Accordingly, that fupreme being,
the idea of whom comprehends all exiftence, was reftrained to
one particular province, and pafled among the genetality of
inhabitants for the god of war. This was the character
afcribed to Odin. The principal deity after Odin was
Frigga or Frea, his wife, denoting the Earth. She is fup-
pofed to have been the fame with the Venus of the Greeks
and Romans ; and the fixth day of the week, which was
confecrated to her under the name of Freytag, Friday, or
Frea’s day, was rendered into Latin Dies Veneris, or
Venus?s day. The third principal deity of the Scandinavians
was Thor, whofe authority extended over the winds and
feafons, and particularly over thunder and lightning. Such
a deity is mentioned by Cxfar under the name of Jupiter.
He is fuppofed to have {prung from the union of Odin or
the fupreme being, and the Earth.

The three deities now mentioned formed the court or
fupreme council of the gods, and were the principal objects
of the worfhip and veneration of all the Scandinavians.
‘There were other deities of the fecond order, of whom the
Edda reckons twelve, befides twelve goddefles, to whom
divine honours were due. Loke was regarded by the
ancient Scandinavians as their evil angehe and ranked
among the gods. To their gods they attributed the creation
and government of the world; and they confidered all nature
as animated and moved by one or more intelligent caufes,
which was, in their fyftem, nothing more than the inftru-
ment or organ of the divinity, and a kind of book in which
they could read the will and defign of their deity. Hence
they were led to regard various phenomena, of an indifferent
and of the moft trivial kind, as intimations which the deity
gave of his will to mankind. Hence proceeded oracles,
divinations, aufpices, prefages, and lots, and alfo magic in
all its different degrees and forms. Every man, in their
fyftem, had his peculiar deftiny, who affifted at the moment
of his birth, and marked before-hand the period of his days ;
but Odin, or the fupreme god, they probably regarded as
the author and arbiter of the deftinies. The effect of this
principle was to produce in thofe who were fond of war, a
blind temerity which difrezarded danger. They had alfo
another principle, the influence of which was no Iefs
barbarous ; and this was, that the term of a man’s life might
be prolonged, if any one would put himfelf in his place and
die in his itead. This was often praCtifed when a prince or
illuftrious warrior was ready to perifh by fome accident.
Odin was appeafed by fuch a facrifice, and confented to re-
voke the dettinies and to lengthen the thread of the life that
was to be faved. The other precepts of this religion pro-
bably extended no farther than to be brave and intrepid in
war, to ferve the gods, and to appeafe them by facrifices ;
not to be unjuit, to fhew hofpitality to {trangers, to keep
their words inviolably, and to be faithful to the marriage-
bed.

The Scandinavians adopted, as a principle of their religion,
Pp P P 8}
’

the belief of the immortality of the foul, and of a future
{tate, which would be happy or miferable according to
men’s prefent condu&. Upon this principle they founded
the obligation of ferving the gods, and of being valiant in
battle. After this concife ftatement of their principles, it

18

SCANDINAVIA.

is no wonder that the Scandinavians fhould carry their valour
to the utmoft excefles of fanaticifm.

Although the Scandinavians had at firft no inclofed
temples for worhip, they formed by degrees new con-
neGtions and intercourfe with the other nations of Europe,
either by their expeditions, or by foreign colonies which
were eftablifhed among themfelves, and thus admitted a
change in their religion, which tolerated temples and idols,
and ia procefs of time adopted them without referve. The
three principal nations of Scandinavia, viz. Sweden, Den-
mark, and Norway, vied with each other in erecting temples,
but none were more famous than that of Upfal in Sweden,
which glittered with gold. A chain: of the fame metal, or
at leaft one that was gilt, ran round the roof, although the
circumference was‘not lefs than goo ells. Hacon, earl of
Norway, built another near Drontheim, which was not in-
ferior to that of Upfal.
and idols. The great temple of Upfal was particularly con-

fecrated to the three fuperior deities, each of whom was

charaGterized by fome peculiar fymbol. They had alfo
three great feftivals in the year, which were celebrated in
honour of their gods, and on thefe occafions, facritices,
feafting, dances, noéturnal aflemblies, and all the demon-
ftratians of a moit diflolute joy, were authorized by general
ufage. Thefe correfponded to the faturnalia of the Romans.
Is the earlieft ages the offerings were fimple, fuch as fhepherds
and ruftics could prefent : they loaded the altars of their

s with the firit-fruits of their crops, and the choiceft
produéts of the earth. Afterwards they facrificed animals.
At length they proceeded to fhed the blood of men, nor
was this barbarous practice, which was ancient and almoft
univerfal, entirely abolifhed among the northern nations till
towards the ninth century, becaufe before that time they had
not received the light of the gofpel, and were ignorant of
thofe arts which had foftened the ferocity of the Romans and
Greekseven whilft they were {till pagans.

In every ninth month this bloody ceremony was renewed ;
it lafted nine days, and every day they offered up nine living
victims, whether men or animals. But the moft folemn
facrifices were thofe which were offered at Upfal in Sweden
every ninth year. Then the king, fenate, and all the citizens
of any diftinétion, were obliged to appear in perfon, and to
bring offerings, which were placed in the great temple above-
mentioned. Strangers alfo flocked in crowds from all parts,
and none were Eetleded but thofe whofe honour had been
{tained, and efpecially fuch as had been accufed of cowardice.
Then they chofe among the captives in time of war, and
among the flaves in time of peace, nine perfons to be facri-
ficed. In t calamities, fuch as an urgent famine, they
facrificed the king, as the highelt price with which they
could purchafe the divine favour. Thefe abominable facri-
fices were accompanied with various ceremonies. When the
viGtim was chofen, they conducted him towards the altar,
where the facred fire was kept burning night and day, and
the nine were killed at the ot of the altar. When men
were facrificed, they were laid upon a large ftone, and in-
ftantly ing or knocked on the head. The body was
opened by the priefts, who read in the entrails, and efpe-
erally in the heart, the will of the gods, and the good or ill
fortune that was impending. The bodies were afterwards
burnt, or fufpended in a facred grove near the temple.
Part of the blood was {prinkled upon the people, and part
upon the facred grove; and with part they bedewed the
images of the gods, the altars, and the temple. Sometimes

facrifices were differently performed: in the neigh-
bourliood of the temple was a deep well ; the chofen etion
was thrown headlong into it. Tie whole ceremony was

Iceland alfo had its temples, altars, -

concluded with magnificent feaftings, at which they drank
immoderately, and indulged in licentious pra@tices, which
fhocked the wifeft men among them, and caufed them to re-
fufe giving their affiftance at them.

Tacitus fupphes us with an account of the moft prominent
and diftinguifhing circumftances that charaGterize the an-
cient Gothic form of government. In his hiftory we fee
kings, who owe their advancement to an illuitrious ex-
traction, prefiding, rather than ruling, over a free people.
Here we fee the nation affembling at certain ftated times,
and making refolutions in their own perfons on all affairs of
importance, as to ena¢t laws, to choofe peace or war, to
conclude alliances, to ditribute juttice in the lait refort, and
to elect magiftrates. Here alfo we diftinguifh a body of the
grandees or chiefs of the nation, who prepare and propofe
the important matters, the decifion of which is referved for
the general aflembly of all the free men: that is, we trace
here the firft lineaments, as it were, of what was after-
wards named in different countries, “ the council of the
nation,” ‘‘the fenate,” ‘the houfe of peers,” &c. Here
we difcover the origin of that fingular cuftom, of having an
elective general under an hereditary king ; a cuftom received
among moft of the nations of German extra€tion, who had
either mayors of the palace, or grand marthals, or con-
itables, or counts: for all thefe different names only expreffed
the fame thing in different countries. Laftly, if we examine
with attention the words of Tacitus, we cannot doubt but
vaflalage and the feudal tenure had already taken footing
among this people before ever they left their native forefts.
For although perhaps they did not in thofe early times give
lands in fee, and although their fees or fiefs were then perhaps
nothing but arms, war-horfes, and banqucts; what we read
of the reciprocal engagements between the princes or chiefs
and their followers, evidently contains whatever was eflential
to the nature of vaffalage, and all the changes which were
afterwards made in it were only flight and accidental, occa-
fioned by the conquefts and new eftablifhments which fol-
lowed from it.

If weconfider after this, the charaGter of thefe nations, as
it is fetched out by Tacitus, we fhall not be furprized to
fee them wedded to inftitutions which they found fo fuitable
to their fituation and temper; for being the moft free and
warlike people upon earth, they muit have had a natural
averfion to the authority of a fingle perfon; and if they
placed themfelves under leaders, it was only becaufe war
cannot be conduéted in any other form. As free men, they
would only obey from choice, and be lefs influenced by per-
fonal authority than by reafon ; as warriors, they conceived
no other duty to be owing to a prince, than to be ready to
fhed their blood for his caufe. If we inquire how thefe men
acquired and preferved fo great a degree of liberty; M.
Mallet replies, they were free, becaufe they inhabited an un-
cultivated country, rude forefts and mountains; and liberty
is the fole treafure of an indigent people ; for a poor country
excites no avidity, and he who polleffes little, defends it
eafily. They were free, becaufe they were ignorant of
thofe pleafures, often fo dearly bought, which render
the protection of a powerful matter neceflary. They were
free, becaufe hunters and fhepherds, who wander about
in woods through inclination or neceflity, are not fo
eafily opprefled as the timorous inhabitants of inclofed
towns, who are there chained down to the fate of their
houfes; and becaufe a wandering people, if deprived of
their liberty in one place, eafily find it in another, as well
as their fubfiftence. Laftly, they were free, becaufe know-
ing not the ufe of money, there could not be employed
againft them that inftrument of flavery and corruption, which

enables

SCANDINAVIA.

enables the ambitious to colle@’and diftribute at will the figns
of riches.

Further, that fpirit of liberty, arifing from their climate,
and from their ruftic and military life, had received new
ftrength from the opinions it had produced ; as a_ fucker
which fhoots forth from the root of a tree, ftrengthens by
embracing it. In effect, thefe people, efteeming beyond all
things, the right of revenging an affront, the glory of
defpifing death and perifhing {word in hand, were always
ready to attack tyranny in the firft who dared to attempt it,
and in whatever formidable -fhape it appeared.

By thefe means was liberty preferved among the inhabit-
ants of Germany and the North, as it were in the bud, ready
to bloflom and expand through all Europe, there to flourith
in their feveral colonies. It is remarked by the author of
the <‘ Spirit of Laws,’’ that in proportion as any people
love liberty, the milder are their punifhments. The ancient
Germans and Scandinavians, the moft brave and ffee race of
men that perhaps ever exifted, knew fcarcely any other than
pecuniary penalties. They carried this fpirit with them
through all parts of Europe, as appears from the codes of
the Vifigoths, the Burgundians, &c. But the governments
which they eftablifhed in the more fouthern countries could
not fubfit with fo much lenity. The diftribution of the
people into different communities fubordinate to one another,
the right of being judged every one by the members of his
own community, the care of watching over each citizen com-
mitted to the community of which he was a member, the
general aflemblies of the whole nation, with which alone the
legiflative power was depofited, &c. were inftitutions that
exifted among the Germans in the time of Tacitus, and with-
out doubt long before. They prevailed in Denmark and
Sweden ; they were carried into Iceland, where they were
perfected ; they followed the Saxons into England ; and al-
though in times of confufion they were almoft funk into
oblivion, the great Alfred immortalized his name by re-
viving them. ‘Traces of them might be eafily fhewn in the
firft eftablifhments of the Franks in Gaul, of the Goths in
Spain, and of the fame in feveral parts of Germany. With
regard to the laws which prevailed in Scandinavia during
the times of paganifm, all that we can fay for certain about
them may be reduced within very {mall compafs. Tradition,
cuftom, maxims learnt by heart, and above all, fimplicity of
manners, ferved this people in the firft ages inftead of laws.
They had maxims, which from time immemorial had been in
the mouths of their fages, and which were thought to have
been delivered to the firlt men by the gods themfelves. The
laws of the Scandinaviaus refembled thofe of the Angles
and Jutes, who fhared with the Saxons in the honour of
being conqnerors of Great Britain; and for a {ketch of
thefe we refer to the article SAxons.

From the whole hiftory of the ancient Scandinavians “it
appears that they breathed nothing bnt war, which was at
once with them the fource of honour, riches, and fafety.
Their education, laws, prejudices, morality, and religion, all
concurred to make that their ruling paflion and only obje&.
From their molt tender age they applied themfelves to learn
the military art ; they hardened their bodies, and accultomed
themfelves to cold, fatigue, and hunger. They exercifed
themfelves in running, in the chace, in fwimming acrofs the
greatelt rivers, and in handling their arms. The very {ports
of childhood itfelf, and of early youth, were directed all to-
wards thisend: dangers were sind intermingled with their
play. For it confifled in taking friglitful leaps, in climbing
up the fleepeft rocks, in fighting naked with offenfive wea-
pons, in wreflling with the utmoft fury: it was therefore
common to fee them at the age of fifteen years already grown

robuft men, and able to make themfelves feared in combat.
It was alfo at this age that their young men became their
own matters, which they did by receiving a fword, a buckler,
and a lance. This ceremony was performed in fome public
meeting. One of the principal perfons of the aflembly
armed the youth in public. «“ This (we are told by Taci-
tus) was his foga virilis, his entrance upon dignities. Before
this he made only part of a family, now he became a member
of the ftate.”” After this he was obliged to provide for his
own fubfiftence, and was either now to live by hunting, or by
joining in fome excurfion againft an enemy. Particular care
was taken to prevent thefe young foldiers from enjoying too
early an acquaintance with the oppolite fex, till their limbs
had acquired all the vigour of which they were capable,
Indeed they couid have no hope to be acceptable to the wo-
men, but in proportion to the courage and addrefs they had
fhewn in war and in their military exercifes.

Their children were generally born in the midft of camps
and armies. Their eyes, from the moment they were firft
opened, faw nothing but military fpeCtacles, arms, effufion
of blood, and combats either real or in fport: thus as they
grew up from their infancy, their fouls were early difpofed
to imbibe the cruel prejudices of their fathers.

Their laws for the moit part (like thofe of the ancient
Lacedemonians) feemed to know no other virtues than thofe
of a military nature, and no other crimes but cowardice.
They inflicted the greateft penalties on fuch as fled the firft
in battle. The laws of the ancient Danes, according to
Saxo, excluded them from fociety and declared them infa-
mous. Among the Germans this was fometimes carried fo
far as to fuffocate cowards in mud; after which, they co-
vered them over with hurdles: to fhew, fays Tacitus, that
though the punifhment of crimes fhould be public, there are
certain degrees of cowardice and infamy which ought to be
buried in eternal filence. ‘The moft flattering diltinétions
were referved for fuch as had performed fome figaal exploit ;
and the laws themfelves diftributed men into different ranks
according to their different degrees of courage.

Religion, by annexing eternal happinefs to the military
virtues, had given the latt degree of activity to the ardour
and propenfity thefe people had for war. ‘Their contempt
of death was proverbial, and charatterifed the chief war-
rior and the private foldier. ‘To die with his arms in his
hand was the vow of every free man, and the pleafing idea
they had of this kind of death naturally led them to dread
fuch as proceeded from difeafe and old age. Among thefe
people none were found who were guilty of cowardice, and
the bare fufpicion of that vice was always attended with uni-
verfal contempt. A man who had loft his buckler, or who
had received a wound behind, durit never more appear in
public. In order to acquire glory, the ancient Scandinavians
employed various means fuited to the groflnefs ps rudenefs
of the times. One method which they praétifed with this
view, was that of burying their heroes under little hills,
which they raifed in the middle of fome plain, and of givin
to thefe hillocks, and fometimes to the plains themfelves, the
names of the perfon who was there interred. (See BarRRow.)
They alfo availed themfelves of the art of poetry to immor-
talize their kings or great captains. See Scaup.

A people who nourifhed fo {trong a paffion for war as
the Scandinavians would feek occafions for it: and fo de-
termined and prepared were they for aéts of woop that
they were accultomed every {pring to hold a general aflembly,
at which every free man appeared completely armed, and
ready to go upon any expedition. © When they had deter-
mined on war, and fettled the plan of the ek ie th
immediately began their march, furnifhed each of them wi

2 a proper

ee

ee

af

_refearches.

q

SCANDINAVIA.

a proper quantity of provifions; and almoft every grown
man in the country made haite to join the army thus tumul-
tuoufly aflembled. We are not to wonder after this, that
there fhould iffue from the North fwarms of foldiers, as for-
midable for their numbers as their valour: and we ought not
haftily to conclude from hence, that Scandinavia formerly
contained more people than it does at prefent. We have had
many reports of the incredible multitudes of men, which that
country is faid to have poured forth: but on the other hand,
who does not know how much nations and hiftorians have
been, in all ages, inclined to exaggeration in this re{pect ;
fome being defirous to enhance the power of their country,
and others, when it has been conquered, being willing to fave
its credit by making it yield only to fuperior numbers? But
the greateft part have been guilty of enlargement from no
other motive than a blind love of the marvellous, authorifed
by the difficulty of pronouncing with certainty on a fubje@,
in which men often commit great miitakes even after long
Befides this, it is very probable that many par-
ticular circumftances of thofe famous expeditions made by the
Scandinavians, have contributed to countenance that name of
Vagina gentium, which an hiftorian (Jornandes) gives their
country. For when thefe emigrations were made by fea, the
promptitude and celerity with which they could carry their
ravages from one coaft to another, might eafily multiply armies
in the eyes of the people they attacked, and who heard many
different irruptions fpoken of almoit at the fame time. If,
on the contrary, they iffued forth by land, they found every
where on their march nations as greedy of fame and plunder
as themfelves, who joining with them, afterwards pafled for
people of the fame original with the firft {warm which put
itfelf in motion. It fhould alfo be confidered, that thefe
emigrations did not all of them take place at the fame time ;
and that after a nation was thus exhautted, it probably re-
mained inactive until it had been able to recruit its numbers.
The vaft extent of Scandinavia being in thofe times divided
among many different people who were little known, and
only defcribed by fome one general name, as that of Goths,
forinftance, or Normans { that is Northern men), it could
not exa@tly be afcertained from what country each troop
ee came, and ftill lefs to what degree of depopulation
each country was reduced after lofing fo great a quantity of its
inhabitants. But what, in Mallet’s opinion, beft accounts for
thofe numerous and frequent inundations of northern people,
is that we have reafon to believe, entire nations often engaged
in enterprifes of this fort: even the women and children
fometimes marched in the rear of the armies, when a people,
either by inconftancy, by indigence, or the attraction of
a milder climate, refolved to change their place of abode.
Projeéts of this kind, it is true, appear very ftrange to us
at prefent ; but it is no lefs true, that our anceftors often
en in

rom the obferyations already made, and other circum-
ftances that might be adduced, we may fafely conclude, that
as all were foldiers among the ancient Scandinavians, they
could eafily fill all Europe with the noife of their arms, and
ravage for a long time different parts of it, although the fum
total of the inhabitants fhould have been much lefs than it is
at prefent. If it was otherwife, we muft acknowledge, that
this extreme population can be very ill reconciled, either with
what hiftory informs us of the manners, cuftoms, and principles
of the ancient Scandinavians, or with the foundeft notions of
pov & with refpect to what makes the true profperity of a
people. For we cannot allow them fuch a f{uperiority over
us in the number of inhabitants, without granting them at
the fame time a proportionable excellence in their cuftoms,
manners, civil regulations, and conftitution of government,

Vor. XXXII.

as fo many efficacious caufes of the good or bad ftate of all
focieties, and confequently of their greater or lefs degree of
population. But who can perfuade himfelf, that thofe favage
times.when men fowed and reaped but little, when they had
no other choice but that of the deftruGtive profeffion of arms,
or of a drowfy indolence no lefs deftruétive ; when every
petty nation was torn to pieces either by private revenge and
fations within, or by war with their neighbours from with-
out ; when they had no other fubfiftence but rapine, and no
other ramparts but wide frontiers laid wafte; who can
believe fuch a ftate as this to be more favourable to the
propagation of the human fpecies, than that wherein men’s
goods and perfons are in full fecurity ; wherein the fields are
covered with labourers, and their cities, rich and numerous,
flourifh in tranquillity ; wherein the people are left to breathe
during long intervals of peace, and there is never more than
a {mall part of the inhabitants to whom war is deftru@tive :
and laftly, wherein commerce, manufa€tures, and the arts
offer fo many refources, and fecond fo well that natural pro-
penfity to increafe and multiply, which nothing but the fear
of indigence can check and reftrain ?

As to the tactics of the Northern nations we may obferve,
that it appears to have been their cuftom to difpofe an army
in the form of a triangle or pyramid, the point of which was
direGted againft the centre of theenemy’s army. This body
was only compofed of infantry ; the cavalry being generally
upon a very inconfiderable footing in the North, whether
becaufe the country is fo divided there by mountains and
arms of the fea, or becaufe their principal forces were re-
ferved for the marine. They had only fome foldiers who
ferved both on foot and horfeback, like our dragoons at
prefent, and who were commonly placed in the flanks of their
armies. When they were going to join battle, they raifed
great fhouts, they clafhed their arms together, they invoked
with a great noife the name of Odin, and fometimes fung
hymns in his praife. They made an intrenchment with their
baggage round the camp, where the women and children
remained during the engagement. The conquered in vain
fled there for refuge if they happened to be routed. Moft
commonly the women only waited their coming back to cut
them iu pieces ; and if they could not oblige them to return
to battle, they chofe to bury themfelves and their children
in one common carnage with their hufbands, rather than fall
into the hands of a mercilefs conqueror. Such were the
dreadful effets of that inhumanity with which war was then
carried on. An aé& of rigour occafioned an a& of cruelty,
and this again produced a degree of barbarity {till greater.
The chains and punifhments which were referved for the van-
quifhed, only ferved to render the victory the more bloody,
and to make it coft the dearer to thofe who purchafed
the honour of deftroying their fellow-creatures without
neceflity.

Their offenfive weapons were commonly the bow and ar-
rows, the battle-axe, and the fword. The {word was fhort,
moft frequently crooked, in the manner of a {cimitar, and hung
to a little belt which pafled over the right fhoulder. Yet ner
fometimes made ufe of very long {words which went by a dit-
ferent name, ({pad or {pada,) and thefe were what the Cimbri
employed, according to Plutarch. Their champions or heroes
took particular care to procure very keen {words, which they
inferibed with my {terious charaéters, and called by fuch names
as might infpire terror. The battle-axe had two edges; when
it had a long handle it went by the name of an halberd, and was
particularly affected by the T'rabants, (or Drabants,) or thofe
who ftood upon guard in the caftles of their kings. The
Scandinavians were reckoned very {kilful at fhooting, and
accordingly made great ufe of the bow, as we learn from all

4G the

SCANDINAVIA.

the ancient chronicles. But befides thefe arms, fome war-
riors employed whatever others they judged moft proper to
fecond their valour. Thus we fometimes read of javelins,
flings, clubs ftuck round with points, lances, anda fort of
daggers. There was no lefs variety in their defenfive arms.
OF thefe the fhield or buckler was the chief. This moit
commonly was of wood, bark, or leather. The fhields be-
longing to warriors of diftinétion were of iron or brafs, orna-
mented with painting and. fculpture, often finely gilt, and
fometimes plated over with gold and filver. Of their
fhields they fometimes made a rampart, by locking them one
into another, in the form of a circle; and at the end of a
campaign, they fufpended them again{t the walls of their
houfes, as the fineft decoration with which they could adorn
them.

The cafque or helmet was known to the Scandinavians
from the moft early ages. The private foldiers had their
helmets frequently of leather: thofe of the officers were of
iron, and, if their rank or wealth permitted, of gilded brafs.
The coat of mail, the breaft-plate and back-piece, the armour
for the thighs, and other lefs effential pieces, were only for
fuch as were able to procure them. Thus, although the inven-
tion of all thefe was certainly owing to the Scythians and firft
inhabitants of Europe, few of their defcendants were for
many ages able to obtain them: a ftriking proof of their
indifference, or rather barbarous contempt for all the arts,
fince they cultivated fo ill even that which was fo neceflary
to them in battle. :

They did not carry to a much greater degree of perfec-
tion the art of fortifying or attacking places of defence.
Their fortreffes were only rude caftles fituate on the fum-
mits of rocks, and rendered inacceflible by thick mis-fhapen
walls. As thefe walls ran winding round the caftles, they
often called them by aname which fignified ferpents or dra-
gons, and in thefe they commonly fecured the women and
young maids of diftin@tion, who were feldom fafe at a time
when fo many bold warriors were rambling up and down in
fearch of adventures.

How formidable foever the ancient Scandinavians were by
land to moft of the inhabitants of Europe, it muft yet be
allowed that their maritime expeditions occafioned {till more
deftructive ravages, and greater terror. We cannot read
the hiltory of the eighth, the ninth, and tenth centuries,
without obferving with furprife, the fea covered with their
veflels, and from one end of Europe to the other, the coafts of
thofe countries, now the moft powerful, a prey to their de-
predations. During the fpace of two hundred years, they
almoft inceffantly ravaged England, and frequently fubdued
it. They often invaded Scotland and Ireland, and made in-
curfions on the coafts of Livonia, Courland, and Pomerania.
Already feared, before the time of Charlemagne, they be-
came [till more terrible as foon as this great monarch’s eyes
were clofed. He is known to have fhed tears on hearing
that thefe barbarians had, on fome occafion, defied his name,
and all the precautions he had taken to oppofe them. He
forefaw what his people would fuffer from their courage
under his feeble fucceflors. And never was prefage better
grounded. ‘They foon fpread, like a devouring flame, over
Lower Saxony, Friefland, Holland, Flanders and the banks
of the Rhine as far as Mentz. They penetrated into the
heart of France, having long before ravaged the coats ; from
various parts they found their way up the Somme, the Seine,
the Loire, the Garonne, and the Rhone. Within the {pace
of thirty years, they frequently pillaged and burnt Paris,
Amiens, Orleans, Poitiers, Bourdeaux, Touloufe, Saintes,
Angouléme, Nantes, and Tours. They fettled themfelves in
Camargue, at the mouth of the Rhone, from whence they

wafted Provence and Dauphiny as far as Valence. In fhort,
they ruined France, levied immenfe tribute on its monarchs,
burnt the palace of Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle, and, in
conclufion, caufed one of the fineft provinces of the kingdom
to be cededto them. They often carried their arms into
Spain, and even made themfelves dreaded in Italy and
Greece. In fine, they no lefs infetted the North than the
South with their incurfions, {preading every where defola-
tion and terror: fometimes as furioufly bent on their owa
mutual deftruction, as on the ruin of other nations; fome-
times, animated by a more pacific fpirit, they tranfported
colonies to unknown or uninhabited countries, as if they
were willing to repair in one place the horrid deftruétion
of the human kind occafioned by their furious ravages in
others.

1f we refle& on the interior ftate of Scandinavia, during
the time that its inhabitants were fo unfortunately famous,
we fhall foon fee the caufe of that amazing exterior power
which they poffefled. We have before obferyed, that the
negleéted agriculture, which, among a thoufand other oe
effects, extinguifhes in a rifing people the relifh for favage
life, and infpires them with the love of peace and jultice,
without which the cultivation of their lands is ufelefs. Their
flocks being almoft their only fubfiftence, they were neither
obliged to a conftant abode on the fame {pot, nor to wait for
the time of harveft, and confequently fuch a people, though
in faét but few, were able, on fhort notice, to levy numerous
armies. Mott of them brought up in a maritime country,
and inured to the fea from their childhood, had no fear of
the dangers, or rather knew not that there were dangers of
any kind attending fuch alife. What a boundlefs field for
conquefts was here opened by the fole advantage of naviga-
tion! Whiata free {cope was here afforded a warlike people
to {pread univerfally the terror of their arms! The profef-
fion of piracy was fo far from appearing difgraceful to them,
that it was in their eyes the certain road to honours and to
fortune: for it was wifely contrived that the word Aonour,
to which fo many different ideas are annexed, was among them
folely confined to a difregard of dangers.. Hence it is, that
in the ancient chronicles, more than one hero boatts of bein
the moft renowned pirate in the North ; and that often the
fons of the great lords and kings made cruifing voyages in
their youth, in order to render themfelves illuftrious, and to
become one day more worthy of command.

As foon asa prince had attained his eighteenth or twentieth
year, he commonly requefted of his father a {mall fleet com-
pletely fitted out, in order to achieve with his followers fome
adventure that might be productive of glory and {poil. The
father applauded fuch an inclination inthis fon, as indicating
a rifing courage and heroic mind. He gave him fhips, the
commander and crew of which mutually engaged not to re-
turn, unlefs adorned with laurels, and loaded with plunder.
That nation became the firft objeét of their refentment, from
which they had received any injury ; and frequently their
principal aim was to make reprifals on fome province which
ferved for the retreat of other corfairs. If the fleets of two
different nations met by chance in their voyage, this was alfo
an occafion of fighting which they never neglected.

The vanquifhed party was commonly put to death, though
fometimes the conquerors were contented to make them
flaves ; and often, by a fingular ftrain of generofity, which
the loye of glory was able to produce in minds in other re-
{pects fo ferocious, if the enemy that fell in their way had
fewer fhips than themfelves, they fet afide part of their own
veflels, fo that, engaging upon equal terms, the victory might
not be attributed to fuperiority of numbers.

While the attention of thefe people was engrofled by

6 their

aC) &

their paflion for arms, and the pleafures of the table, we may
conclude that love held no violent dominion over them. It is
befjdes well known, that the inhabitants of the North are not
of very quick fenfibility. The ideas and modes of thinking
_of the Scandinavians were in this refpe& very different from
thofe of the Afiatics and more fouthern nations; who by a
contraft as remarkable as it is common, have ever felt for the
female fex the warm paflion of love, devoid of any real efteem.
Being at the fame time tyrants and flaves ; laying afide their
ewn reafon, and requiring none in the object, they have ever
made a quick tranfition from adoration to contempt, and
from fentiments of the moit extravagant and violent love,
to thofe of the moft cruel jealoufy, or of an indifference {till
more infulting. We find the reverfe of all this among the
northern nations, who did not fo much confider the other
fex as made for their pleafure, as to be their equals and
companions, whofe efteem, as valuable as their other
favours, could only be obtained by conitant attentions, by
generous fervices, and by a proper exertion of virtue and
courage.

The matrimonial ceremonies were very fimple, and chiefly
confifted in feaiting. The bridegroom having obtained the
maiden’s confent, together with that of her parents and
guardians, appointed the day ; and having aflembled his own
relations and friends, fent fome of them to receive in his
name the bride and her portion from her father. The friends
were anfwerable for the charge that was committed to them,
and if they abufed their truft, the law amerced them in a fum
treble to what was paid for murder. The father or guardian
of the young woman attended her alfo to the hufband’s
houfe, and there gave her into his hands. After this, the
new-married pair fat down to table with their guefts, who
drank to their healths along with thofe of the gods and he-
roes. The bride’s friends then took her up and bore her on
their fhoulders, which was a mark of efteem among the Goths;
her father afterwards led her to the nuptial bed, a great
number of lights being carried before her ; a cuftom known
to the Greeks and Romans, and {till in ufe in fome parts of
the North. The marriage being confummated, the hufband
made his wife feveral prefents, {uch as a pair of oxen for the
plough, an harneffed horfe, a buckler, together with a lance
and a {word.

A numerous offspring was commonly produced from
thefe marriages ; but neither the rich nor the poor fcrupled
to expofe fuch of their children as they did not chufe to

bring up

‘The Scandinavians held all the arts in contempt. For
other particulars we muft refer to the articles Gorus, Onin,
Rusic, Saxons, Scaps, Scyrutans, and TArTARS, and
particularly to Mallet’s Northern Antiquities, vol. i. paflim.

SCANDIX, in Botany, an ancient Latin name, cxadik
of the Greeks, derived by De Theis from cxiw, to prich,
and alluding, as he fays, to the needle-like points of the
feeds, which are very remarkable in the original exit of
Diofcorides, our S. Pefen Veneris.— Linn. Gen. 142.
Schreb. 192. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1449. Mart. Mill.
Did. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 323. Prodr. Fl. Grac. Sibth.
v. 1. 196. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 151. Jufl. 220.
Gertn, t. 85. (Charophyllum; Lamarck Illuftr. t. 201.
f. 6. Myrrhis; Gaertn, t. 23.) —Clafs and order, Pen-
tandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Unmbellifere.

Gen. Ch. General umbel long, of few rays; partial of
more. General involucrum none ; partial of five leaves, the
length of the partial umbel. Perianth obfolete. Cor. Uni-
verfal irregular, radiant; flowers of the difk abortive ; par-
tial of five, inflexed-emarginate, petals, of which the inner-
molt are f{malleft, the outer one largeft. Sram. Filamento

SCA

five, capillary; anthers roundifh. Pi. Germen oblong,
inferior ; ftyles two, awl-fhaped, the length of the {malleit
petal, diftant, permanent ; itigmas of the radiating flowers
obtufe. Peric. Fruit very long, awl-fhaped, feparable into
two parts. Seeds two, awl-fhaped, convex and furrowed
on the outer fide, flat on the inner.

Obf. The flowers of the difk are, in fome f{pecies at leait,
abortive. In Peden Veneris the feeds are thread-fhaped,
the kernel being lodged at their bafe. In Cerefolium of
Rivinus they are ovate-awl-fhaped, ftriated; the involucrum
is green and permanent; the flowers all perfe&t. In S.
odorata the feeds are angular; the involucrum caducous.
Reichard obferves that the partial involucrum is liable to
vary in the number of its leayes.

Eff. Ch. Flowers radiant. Petals emarginate.
awl-fhaped. Flowers of the dif often male.

1. S. odorata. Sweet Cicely, or Great Chervil. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 368. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n..1.. Fl. Brit. n. 2.
Engl. Bot. t. 697. Jacq. Auitr. append. t. 37. (Cere-
folium magnum five Myrrhis; Ger. Em. 1039. Odorata ;
Riy. Peatap. Irr. t. 57.) —Seeds furrowed, with fharp
angles. — Native of mountainous umbrageous places, in the
north of Britain, as well as in France, Germany, Switzer-
land, and Afia Minor, flowering in the early part of fum-
mer. The root is perennial, long, tapering, white, aro-
matic. Whole herd fragrant, refembling hawthorn-blofloms,
but when bruifed more like fennel. Sfem an inch and a half
to three feet high, ftriated, leafy. Leaves large, triply
pinnate, cut, ferrated, rather hairy, light green. Flowers
copious, {mall, pure white, in large umbels; the middle
ones male only. Seeds large, an inch long, not beaked, but
crowned with the divaricated /y/es; the angles peculiarly
fharp ; the furface polifhed. In a green ftate thefe /eeds are
{weet and agreeably aromatic.

2. S. latifolia. Broad-leaved Chervil. Sm. Prodr. Fi.
Grec. Sibth. n. 685. Fl. Gree. t. 284, unpublithed.
(Cachrys cretica; Lamarck Diét. v. 1. 259. Willd. Sp.
Pl. v. 1. 1410. C. cretica, angelic folio, aiphodeli radice ;-
Tourn. Cor. 23.)—Seeds elliptical, hifpid. Leaves twice
ternate, ovate, cut; their fheaths, as well as the item,
fmooth.—Native of Crete, Cyprus, and fome parts of
Greece, apparently in marfhy places. The /eaves confilt of
larger, lefs finely cut, /eaffets than the foregoing, and are
nearly {mooth. Flowers {mall, white; the middle ones
male. J*ruit about half an inch long, very rough, not
beaked.

3. S. Peden Veneris. Needle Chervil. Venus’s Comb,
or Shepherd’s Needle. Linn. Sp. Pl. 368. Willd. n. 2.
Ait. n.2. Fi. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 1397. Curt.
Lond. fafc. 5. t.21. Mart. Ruit. t. 38. Fl. Dan, t. 844.
Jacq. Auttr. t. 263. (Scandix; Riv. Pent. Irr. t. 38.
Peéten Veneris, five Scandix; Ger. Em. 1040.)-—Seeds
roughifh, with very long beaks. Leaflets in many linear
fegments.—Common in cultivated fields, throughout Eu-
rope, flowering early in fummer. Roof annual, f{mall.
Stems weak and fpreading. Leaves {moothith, thrice pin-
nate, with narrow alternate fegments. General umbel of
only two or three rays ; Partial ones of more, with a notched
involuerum. Flowers pure white. Seeds remarkable for
their very long beaks. ‘I'his plant is not pleafantly aro-
matic, yet the Greeks appear to haye ufed it as an ordinary
kind Of pot herb.

4. S. "og Chili Chervil. Willd. n. 3.—* Seeds
with a very long beak. Leaflets ovato-lanceolate, undy
vided,’”’—Obferved by Molina in Chili. The above cha-
racter befpeaks a yery diltiné& {pecies.

5. S. Cerefolium. Garden Chervil.

4G 2

Fruit

Linn. Sp. PL. 368,
; Wil

SCA

Willd. n. 4. Ait. n.3. Engl. Bot. t. 1268. Jacq.
Auftr. t. 390. (Cerefolium volgire fativum; Ger. Em.
1038. Cerefolium; Riv. Pent. Irr. t. 43-)—Seeds po-
lifhed, ovate, awl-fhaped. Umbels feffile, lateral.—Native
of cultivated ground in the fouth of Europe. This is much
ufed for foups and fallads in France, and fometimes in other
parts of Europe. Hence it has probably efcaped from
kitchen gardens, and occurs now and then apparently wild
in England, flowering in June. It is a pale-green, annual,
{weet-fcented herb, with lateral umbels of {mall white
flowers, having fharp involucral leaves. Fruit very fmooth,
{carcely beaked.

6. S. auftralis. Radiated Chervil. Linn. Sp. Pl. 360.
Willd. n. 6. Ait. n. 5. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. t. 285,
unpublifhed. (Anifomarathrum ; Column. Ecphr. v. 1. 89.
t. 90.) —Seeds awl-fhaped, with a very long beak, hifpid.
Flowers ftrongly radiant. Stem {mooth and even.—Native
of Italy, Greece,.Afia Minor, Cyprus, and Crete. An
annual herb, much like S. Peden Veneris, but the flem is
{mooth and polifhed; the beak of the feeds rather rougher
and more linear ; and the flowers more remarkably radiant.
The involucral leaves are ovate, concave, fimply cloven at
the end.

7. S. Anthrifcus. Rough Chervil. Linn. Sp. Pl. 368.
Willd. n. 5. Ait. n.4. Fl. Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 818.
Curt. Lond. fafe. 1. t. 19. Mart. Ruft. t. 75. Jacq.
Auftr. t. 154. (Caucalis fcandicina ; Wiggers Holfat. 23.
Fl. Dan. t. 863. C. folio cerefolii; Riv. Pent. Irr. t. 35.)
—Seeds ovate, hifpid. Corolla nearly uniform. Stem {mooth
and even.— Common in waite ground, and the borders of
fields, throughout Europe, flowering in the fpring. Root
annual. Stem two or three feet high, with polifhed tumid
joints. Leaves bright green, triply pinnate, hairy, with
ovate lobed /eaflets. Umbels lateral and terminal, white.
Seeds rough with afcending prickles, their beaks very fhort,
and {mooth.

8. S. nodofa. Knotty Sicilian Chervil. Linn. Sp. Pl.
369. Mant. 356. Willd. n.7. Ait. n.6. Jacq. Hort.
Vind. v. 3. 16. t. 25. (Cerefolium annuum nodofum, fe-
mine afpero oblongo; Morif. feét. 9. t. 10. f. 4.)—Seeds
nearly cylindrical, hifpid. Stem clothed with deflexed
briftles, and fwelled below its joints.—Native of Sicily.
Said to have been known in the Britifh botanic gardens
about the middle of the feventeenth century. The roof is
annual, not perennial. Stem erect, about a foot and half
high, leafy, branched, hollow, glaucous, ftriated, hifpid ;
tumid juft below each fubdivifion. Leaves bipinnate and
cut, hifpid; the briftles on their footftalks pointing back-
wards. Umbel generally of three rough principal rays ;
partial umbels of feveral fhort ones. Flowers white, all
regular and. perfect. General involucrum mottly wanting,
rarely of one leaf; partial of feveral awl-fhaped leaves.
Seeds rough with afcending briftles ; their beaks very fhort.

9: S. trichofperma. Hairy-feeded Chervil. Linn. Mant. 57.
Willd. n. 8.—Seeds clothed with copious hairs twice their
own length.—Native of Egypt. Sent to Linneus, with a
drawing, by his friend Anthony Turra, of Vicenza. The
root is annual, flender and tapering. Stem branched from
the bafe, a {pan high, flender, pale, roughith, leafy. Leaves
bipinnate, pinnatifid, with narrow fegments ; paler and hairy
beneath. Briflles of the footftalks, as well as of the ttem,
{mall, deflexed. Rays of the general umbel three or four,
unequal ; of the partial ones ten or twelve, fhort, flender.
Partial involucrum of feven awl-fhaped leaves. /Yowers
{mall, regular, uniform, white or flefl-coloured, all perfect.
Seeds fhort, oblong, invefted ‘with long, pale, {preading
hairs.

SCA

10. S. grandiflora. Large-flowered Chervil. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 369. Willd. n. 10. (S. orientalis, flore maximo ;
Tourn. Cor. 23.)—* Seeds fhorter than the villous flower-
ftalks.””—Gathered by Tournefort in the Levant. We
have feen no fpecimen.

11. S. procumbens. Procumbent Chervil. Linn. Sp. Pl.
369. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. 7. (Cherophyllum procumbens ;
Purfh v. 1. 195. Cerefolium virginianum minus, fumarie
foliis; Morif. fe&. 9. t. 11. f. ult.) —* Seeds ovate-awl-
fhaped, polifhed. Leaves twice compound.”’—On fhad:
wet hills, at the foot of mountains, in Virginia. Antal
flowering in May. A {mall and {carce plant, obferved near
Hager’s town, Maryland. Purfh. That author follows
Perfoon, in referring the prefent fpecies to Cherophyllum.
By Morifon’s plate, our only guide, the eaves much re-
femble thofe of Scandix trichofperma. The general and par-
tial umbels, at lealt when in feed, are each of three rays.
The partial involucrum has certainly the afpe& of a Chero-
phyllum. ‘ *

We exclude from our lift of fpecies S. infefla, Lian. Syft
Nat. ed. 12. v. 3. 732. Willd. n.g; which is Caucalis hel-
vetica of Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 3. 12, t. 16, and C. infefla
of Curtis, Fl. Lond. fafc. 6. t. 23; as well as of Fl. Brit.
299, and Engl. Bot. t. 1314. See CaucALis, n. 10.

There is great ambiguity between the genera of Scandix
and Charophylium, the flowers of the former not being
always evidently radiant or irregular, nor the fruit more
awl-fhaped than in many fpecies of the latter.

Scanprx, in Gardening, contains plants of the hardy, her-
baceous, annual and perennial kinds, of which the fpecies
cultivated is the garden chervil (S. cerefolium).

This is a plant that was formerly much more cultivated
than at prefent. It is ufed as a culinary plant in winter and
fpring, in foups and fallads, and isa native of the Levant.

Method of Culture.—This plant may be raifed from feed
by fowing at different times in the early fpring, as from
February to March, and alfo in Auguft for winter ufe, in
beds of common earth, raking the feed in: it afterwards
only requires to be kept clean from weeds.

The leaves are ufed in their young {tate while green and
tender.

SCANDULA, in Ancient Houfe-building, fhingles, or
flat pieces of wood, ufed by the Romans inftead of tiles to
cover houfes. This, according to Cornelius Nepos, was
the only covering ufed in Rome till the war with Pyrrhus, or
470th year of the city.

SCANDULARII, among the Romans, mechanics who
prepared the fcandule ufed in covering houfes, who were
exempted from all public fervices.

SCANELLO, Ital. a bank; in Mujfic, a bridge of a
violin, &c. the fame as ponticello.

SCANGERO, or Icus, in Geography, an ifland in the
Grecian Archipelago. N. lat. 39°20’. E. long. 24° 15!

SCANIA. See ScHONEN.

SCANNING, Scawsto, formed of /candere, to climb, in
Poetry, the meafuring of a verfe, to fee what number of
feet and fyllables it contains, and whether or no the quan-
tities, that is, the long and fhort fyllables, be duly obferved.

The term is chiefly ufed with regard to Greek and Latin
verfes ; the quantities not being well fettled and obferved in
the verfes of the modern languages.

Hexameters are /canned one way,
phics another.

SCANNO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Abruzzo
Citra; 9 miles $.S.W. of Sulmona.

SCANSOR, in Ichthyology, a name given by Gefner to
the fifh called by the generality of writers /upus pi/cis.

SCANTING,

-
iambics another, fap-

SCA
SCANTING, in Sea Language, the variation of the

wind, by which it becomes unfavourable to a fhip’s courfe,
after having been fair or /arge. It is diftinguifhed from a
foul wind, as in the former a fhip is ftill enabled to fail on
her courfe, although her progrefs is confiderably retarded ;
but in the latter the is obliged to alter from the line of her
courfe, as explained in the article Tackinc.

SCANTLING, a meafure, fize, or ftandard, by which
the dimenfions, &c. of things are to be determined.

The word is formed from the French, ¢/thantillon, a pat-
tern or {pecimen.

The term fcantling is particularly applied to the dimen-
fions of any piece of timber, with regard to its breadth

and thicknefs. Likewife all quartering under five inches
fquare is termed fcantling ; all above that fize is called
carling. ‘

SCAPE-Goar, in the Jéwifh Antiquities, the goat which
was fet at liberty on the day of folemn expiation. For the
ceremonies on this occafion, fee Levit. xvi. 5, 6, &c.

Some fay that a piece of f{carlet cloth, in form of a
tongue, was tied on the forehead of the fcape-goat. Hofm.
Lex. univ. in voc. Lingua.

Many have been the difputes among the interpreters con-
cerning the meaning of the word fcape-goat, or rather of
Stary, dzaxel, for which fcape-goat is put in our verfion
of the Bible.

Spencer, who is followed by Witfius, Cocceius, Altin-
gius, Meyer, and others, is of opinion that 4zaze/ is a pro-
per name, fignifying the devil, or evil demon, who was
worthipped by the heathens, particularly by the Egyptians,
under the form of a goat. _(Sce his reafons in his book De
Leg. Hebr. Ritual. Differt. viii.) Among other things he
obferves, that the ancient Jews ufed to fubititute the name
Samael for Azazel, and many of them have ventured to
affirm, that at the feaft of expiation they were obliged to
offer a gift to Samael to obtain his favour. Thus alfo the
goat fent into the wildernefs to Azazel, was underftood to
be a gift or oblation. Some Chriftians have been of the
fame opinion. But Spencer thinks that the genuine reafons
of the ceremony were, 1. That the goat loaded with the
fins of the people, and fent to Azazel, might be a fym-
bolical reprefentation of the miferable condition of finners.
z. God fent the goat thus loaded to the evil demons, to
fhew that they were impure, thereby to deter the people
from any converfation or familiarity with them. 3. That
the goat fent to Azazel fufficiently expiating all evils, the
Ifraelites might the more willingly abftain from the expia-

facrifices of the Gentiles.

owever, though it be allowed with Spencer, that the
goat, which, he fays, was fent to Azazel, or the devil, was
not to be confidered as a proper facrifice to him, but merel
as being delivered into his power, and given up to his ait
pofal; yet this feems to have been a rite, which might fo
eafily have been interpreted into an encouragement of de-
mon worfhip, that we can {carce admit it tu have been a di-
vine inftitution.

Le Clere is of opinion, that Azazel was the name -of a
place, either a mountain or cliff, to which the goat was led,
and from thence, as the rabbies fay, it was calt down and
killed ; but no fuch place has been Crecified, except a moun
tain near Mount Sinai, mentioned by an anonymous writer
of very little credit, which mutt have been too far dillant
for the fcape-goat to have been conducted thither from
Jerusfalem.

The imoft common opinion is, that Azaze is a name
given to the goat itfelf, on account of his being let go, as
being derived from Ty, gnez or az, goat, and 57K, axel, he

12

SCA

hath gone away.. Thus it was underftood by our tranfla-
ters, who render it fcape-goat; the Septuagint likewife
render it azorourasoc, and the Vulgate emiffarius. Thofe
who adopt this opinion obferve, that as the facrifice-goat
was typical of the expiation of fin by the facrifice of Chrift ;
the {cape-goat, which was to have the fins of the people
confefled over him, and as it were put upon him, and then
to be fent away alive into fome defart place, where they
would fee him no more, was intended to fignify the effe&
of the expiation, namely, the removing of guilt, infomuch
that it fhould never more be charged on the once pardoned
finner.

It has been alleged, that the ceremony of the im-
pofition of hands upon the head of the viétim, has been
ufually confidered, in the cafe of piacular facrifices, as a
fymbolical tranflation of the fins of the offender upon the
head of the facrifice ; and as a mode of deprecating the evil
due to his tranfgreflions. Thus it is faid to be reprefented
by Abarbinel, in the introduction to his Commentary upon
Leviticus ; and this, it is faid, the ceremony of the fcape-
goat, in Lev. xvi. 21, feems dire¢tly to affert. This inter-
pretation of the ceremony of the impofition of hands, in
the Mofaic facrifice, is however ftrongly contefted by feveral
writers, particularly by Sykes (¢ Eff. on Sacrifices’), and
the author of the ‘ Scripture‘Account of Sacrifices ;?? who
maintain, that this ceremony was not confined to piacular
facrifices, but was alfo ufed in thofe which were eucharifti-
cal, on which commemoration was made, not of fins, but
of mercies. It was not, therefore, always accompanied with
confeflion of fins, but with praife or thankfgiving, or fuch
concomitant as fuited the nature and intention of the piacu-
lar facrifice. On the other hand it is argued, that the
Jewifh doétors, in all cafes, combine confeflion of fins with
impofition of hands. (See Outram de Sacr. lib. i. c. 15.
§. 8.) That this impofition of hands, joined to the con-
feffion of fins, was intended fymbolically to transfer the fins
of the offerer on the head of the vitim; and confe-
quently to point it out as the fubftitute for the offender,
and as the accepted medium of expiation, appears, fay the
advocates of this opinion, from the ceremony, as prefented
on the day of expiation. (See Lev. xvi. 21, 22.) The fins
of the people being thus transferred to the animal, it is af-
terwards reprefented to be polluted, or to pollute the per-
fon who carried it away (Lev. xvi. 26.), and by the entire
ceremony expiation is made for the fins of the people. But
Dr. Sykes fays (ubi fupra) that the goat was fo polluted,
that it was not facrificed, but fent away; it was not then to
transfer fins upon the facrifice, that hands were laid upon
the head of the viétim, or men would not offer unto God
what they knew to be polluted. In this notion of the pol-
lution of the feape-goat rendering it unfit to be offered in
facrifice, Mr. H. Taylor (Ben Mord. pp. 827, 828.) con-
curs with Dr. Sykes. For the further difcuflion of this
fubje&, fee Magee on Atonement, vol. i. and Jenn. Jew.
Autiq. vol. ii. p. 268, &c.

SCAPEMENT, in Horology. See Escarement.

SCAPHA, in Anatomy, one of the {mall hollows of the
external car. See Ear.

Scarna, in Surgery, fometimes denotes a double-headed
roller,

SCAPHEPHORL, YxaPnPopo, among the Athenians, an

appellation yiven to the ftrangers refiding among them, be-
caufe they were obliged, at the fellival Panathenw, to carr
little thips, called /eapha, oxafas, which were a fign of their

foreign extraction.
SCAPHISM, Scarmismus, formed of cxxe®, digging,
Of cxamrw, I dig, hollow, in Antiquity, a kind of torture or

punifh-

SOA

punifhment formerly in ufe among the Perfians. It con-
fitted in locking the criminal clofe up within the trunk of a
tree bored to the dimenfions of his body, only with five holes
for his head, arms, and legs to come through. — In this ftate
he was expofed to the fun, and the parts thus appearing
were anointed with honey and milk, to invite the wafps and
flies.

To increafe the torment, they forced the criminal alfo to
eat abundantly, till his excrements, clofe pent up in the
wood, rotted his body. Some authors obferve, that perfons
ordinarily lived forty days in this condition.

The invention is afcribed to Parifatis, queen of Perfia,
and mother of Artaxerxes Mnemon, and the young Cyrus.
It is added, the firit ordered it to be practifed on the perfon
who brought the tidings of the death of Cyrus.

SCAPHIUM, among the Romans, a cup of an oblong
form, fomewhat refembling that of a boat, whence alfo it
had its name.

Scaphium likewife fignifies a kind of dial, which, befide
the hours, fhewed alfo the folltices and equinoxes.

SCAPHOIDES, in Anatomy, (from cxxdx, a boat, and
soc, form,) boat-like ; the name of a bone of the carpus, and
of the tarfus. See Extremities.

SCAPOLITE, in Mineralogy, Paranthine of Haity.
This mineral has only been found near Arendal in Norway.
Its colour is a greyifh, greenifh, or yellowifh-white. It
is commonly cryftallized in fingle or laterally aggregated
needles ; the form either long four-fided or eight-fided
prilms. The cryitals are often decompofed; fometimes they
are tranflucent, and have a metallic or nacry {fplendour. In
the latt flate they are fufficiently hard to fcratch glafs, in
the former ftate they are foft and even friable. Before the
blowpipe it intumefces, and forms a fhining white enamel.
The cryftals are not ele&tric by heat, and do not gelatinize
with acids. The f{pecific gravity of fcapolite 1s 3.712.
The primitive form of the cry{tal, according to Haiiy, is a
reGtangular prifm, terminated by fquare planes, which di-
vide diftinctly in the direétion of the diagonal. Scapolite
contains,

According to Langier. According to Simon.

Silex 45 - - 53
Alumine 33 - 15
Lime 17.6 - - 13.25
Magnefia - - - 7
Oxydofiron 1 - - 6.5
Soda Las Sve if 3-5
Potafh 0.5

SCAPULA, Joun, in Biography, the reputed author
of a Greek Lexicon, that has long been efteemed a work of
fuperior merit, {tudied at Laufanne. His name is recorded
in the annals of literature, fays his biographer, neither on
account of his talents, nor indultry, but for a grofs act of
difingenuity and fraud, which he committed againft an emi-
nent literary charaéter of the fixteenth century. Being em-
ployed by Henry Stephens as the corrector to his prefs,
while he was printing his ‘* Thefaurus Lingue Grece,”
Scapula extracted thofe words, with their explications, &c.
which he reckoned moft ufeful, comprifed them in one vo-
lume, and publifhed them as an original work, with his own
name. See Errenne, Henry.

ScapPuLa, in Anatomy, the fhoulder-blade.
MITIES.

ScaruLa, in Surgery. For an account of the fractures
to which this bone is liable, fee Fractures.

SCAPULAR, or ScaruLary, denotes part of the
habit of feveral orders of religious, worn over the gown,
as a badge of peculiar veneration for the Virgin.

See Extre-

SCA

The word is formed from the French, /capulaire, which-
fignifies the fame; and that from the Latin JSeapula, the
fhoulder-blade.

The {capular confifts of two narrow breadths, or flips, of
cloth, covering the back and the breafts, and hanging down
to the feet of the profeffed religious, and to the knees of
the lay-brothers, &c. P

There is alfo a Friery, or Fraternity of the Scapular, con-—
fitting of lay-brothers, who profefs a particular devotion to
the Virgin ; and who, in honour of her, wear a little feapu-
lar, in manner of a bracelet, or otherwife, for reprefenting
the great one. They are obliged to certain prayers, and to
obferve certain rules, in their manner of life.

SCAPULARIS, an epithet applied to arteries and
nerves about the {capula.

SCAPULARY, a bandage for the fhoulder;
SCAPUS, in Archite@ure, the fult, or fhaft, of a co-
umn.

Scarus, in Botany, is a flower-{talk fpringing immedi-
ately from the root, as in the primrofe, cowflip, {nowdrop,
daffodil, cyclamen, &c. It is defigned for the fupport of
the parts of fruétification only, and withers when they have
accomplifhed their dettination. Linnzus thought that no
plant could be increafed by its /eapus ; but we have raifed
plants of Lachenalia tricolor from bulbs formed on a flower-
ftalk laid between papers to dry. See PepuNcULUs.

SCAR. See Escuar.

Scar of the Seed, in Botany. See Hitum.

Scar, Green, in Geography, rocks in the German fea,
near the coa{t of Northumberland; 2 miles N. of Blythe.
—WNorth Scar, a rock in the fame fea, near the fame coatt ;
g miles N.N.W. from Coquet ifland.—South Scar, a rock
half a mile S. from the North Scar.—Nofe Scar, a cape of
Scotland, oa the N. coalt of the county of Bamff. N. lat.
57° 40!. W. long. 2° 46'.

SCARA, or Ciara, a town of South America, in the
jurifdiGtion of Maranhoa.

SCARABEUS, or Beerce, in Entomology, a genus
of infeéts of the order Coleoptera, of which the generic
character is as follows: the antenne are clavate; the club
is lamellate: the infeéts of the genus have four feelers, and
the fore-fhanks are generally toothed.

The larve or grubs of beetles have fix feet: they are
annulate, hairy, veficular at the end of the abdomen, and
furnifhed with a horny head. They live quietly under
ground ; molt of them delight in, and feed upon, dung : the
tribes of the cetonie live on decayed woods, and of the melo- -
lonthe on the roots of plants: the nymphz lie dormant
under the earth. There have been about 600 fpecies of
this genus enumerated by Gmelin, which are feparated into
four divifions, viz. thofe which have filiform feelers; thofe
whofe feelers are capitate, and jaws bifid ; thofe which have
cylindric feelers, and the club of the antenne tunicate ;
and thofe whole feelers are unequal, the fore ones fub-
clavate, the hind ones filiform. Of the laft three there are
but few {pecies; the great mafs is to be found in the firft
divifion, We fhall not attempt to enumerate every {pecies,
but fhall deferibe thofe which are moft interefting and de.
ferving of notice.

Divifion A. Feelers uniform.
a. Mandible arched.
Species.
Henrcuces. Horn of the thorax incurved, very large,
bifid at the end, bearded beneath, and one-toothed; t
horn of the head is recurved, with feveral teeth above.

This

SCARABZEUS.

This is one of the molt remarkable fpecies; it meafures
fometimes five or fix inches in length; the wing-fhells are
of a {mooth furface, of a blueifh or brownifh-grey colour,
fometimes nearly black, and commonly marked with feveral
fmall, round, deep black f{pots, of different fizes ; the head
and limbs are coal-black. From the upper part of the
breaft or thorax proceeds a horn or procefs of enormous
length, in proportion to that of the body ; it is fharp at the
tip, where it curves flightly downwards, and is marked be-
neath by two or three denticulations, and furnifhed through-
out its whole length with a fine, fhort, velvet-like pile, of
a brownifh-orange colour: from the front of the head pro-
ceeds alfo a ftrong horn, about two-thirds the length of
the former. This fpecies is a native of feveral parts of
South America, where great numbers are faid to be fome-
times feen on the tree called the mammza, or mammee-tree,
rafping off the rind of the flender branches by working
nimbly round them with the horns, till they caufe the
juice to flow, which they are faid to drink to intoxication,
and then fall fenfelefs from the tree. This fact has been
doubted by naturalifts, fince the thoracic horn, being
bearded on its lower furface, would be made bare by the
operation. The Hercules, from the largenefs of the fize
of all its parts, affords an admirable example of the charac-
ters of the genus. It varies, however, in fize; and it may
even be doubted, whether fome of the {maller {pecimens
have not occafionally been regarded as diftiné& {pecies. The
female is deftitute both of the frontal and thoracic horn,
but in other points fhe refembles the male.

Acciwes. Horn of the thorax incurved, bearded be-
neath, and one-toothed; the horn of the head is recurved,
and unarmed. This is an Indian infect, and is not more
than half the fize of the laft: the horn of the thorax is not
bifid at the end.

Gipzon. The horn of the thorax of this {pecies is in-
curved, very large and {mooth; it is bifid at the end; the
horn of the head is recurved, and one-toothed above. It
inhabits South America and India, as does the next.

Orxomepos. Horn of the thorax fhort, emarginate ;
horn of the head recurved and bifid.

Czustaurus. The horn of the thorax of this is in-
curved ; it is two-toothed at the bafe, bifid at the end: the
horn of the head is recurved, and one-toothed. ‘This is
found in India and Africa.

Dispar. In the male, the horn of the thorax is fubu-
late, and projeéting; the horn of the head is fubulate,
lightly recurved ; the {cutel is heart-fhaped. This infec is
found in many parts of fouthern Ruffia. It is black. The
female has two ereét denticles in the middle of the head
before; the thorax has two elevated prominent teeth
before.

Hasratus. Horn of the thorax fhort, arched, {pear-
thaped, rough beneath; horn of the head recurved. It is
found in divers parts of South America; it is black and
the thells are teltaceous; the fhield of the head is reflected,
toothed, with a large, fharp, arched, unarmed horn; tho-
rax punctured, with an incumbent fhort horn in the middle,
fpear-thaped or three-lobed at the end; the fhells are punc-
tured, with a fingle flripe at the future.

Pan. The horn of the thorax is incurved, very thick
at the bafe, bifid at the end; the horn of the head re-
curved, one-toothed. It inhabits South America and India:
large, black. The thorax is rough at the fides, {mooth
in the middle, very thick, ending in an incurved bifid
horn.

Danarvus. Thorax arched, excavate before, with a
very fhort horn; the horn of the head is flat, imprefled on

each fide. It inhabits India. The horn is longer than
the head, and covering the whole head; it is ftraight and
broad, with an imprefled puncture at the bafe on each fide,
one-toothed at the edge ; the thorax has a tran{verfe dorfal
elevated line; fhells fcarcely ftriate; the legs and body be-
neath ferruginous ; hind-thighs clavate ; hind-fhanks thick,
truncate; female, thorax unarmed; horn of the head fhorter,
notched.

Act=on. Smooth; thorax two-horned; the horn of
the head is one-toothed, bifid at the end; the fhells are
fmooth. It inhabits South America. It is the largett of
all known infeGts, excepting crabs and monoculi. Its fhells
are black, or glaucous {potted with black.

Exeruas. Downy; thorax gibbous, two-horned ; the
horn of the head is one-toothed, and bifid at the end. It
inhabits Guinea. The body is covered with rufty-grey
hairs; the fhells are irregularly pun&tured.

Boas. Thorax retufe, excavate, two-toothed; the horn
of the head is recurved, and fimple. It inhabits Sierra
Leona. The fhield.of the head is emarginate ; the thorax
is black, with ere&t ferruginous hairs ; the fhells are pitchy,
with a fingle line at the future.

CorypH=us. ‘Thorax two-horned; the body ferrugi-
nous. It is found at the Cape of Good Hope. The fhield
of the head is two-horned before, the horns are recurved
and tipt with black. It has an elevated fhort black {pine
behind; the thorax has two fhort approximate horns tipt
with black, and an obtufe gibbofity behind; the fhells are
flightly ftriate.

Orton. Brown; thorax two-horned, the horns are
comprefled; the head is three-horned; the middle one is
very fhort. It is a native of Senegal, and is {mall. The
horns of the head are elevated, thick, comprefied, ending
in two lateral, diftant, recurved horns, with a denticle in
the middle ; the thorax is deeply imprefled; the horns are
ftrong ; the fhells are f{mooth and highly polifhed.

Atxas. Thorax three-horned, the middle one is very
fhort; the horn of the head is recurved. It inhabits
America. The horn of the head is fometimes three-
toothed.

Typnon. Thorax three-horned, the middle one isnotched ;
the horn of the thorax is recurved, one-toothed at the bafe,
bifid at the end. A fpecimen is in the Britifh Mufeum.
The fhield of the head is two-toothed ; the horn is project-
ing, recurved, witha {trong dorfal tooth at the bafe, {mooth,
black; the thorax is covered with a cinereous down; the
horns are black, fubequal, the middle one with fulvous
down beneath; the fhells are brown, and nearly {mooth.

Vu tcanus. Thorax three-horned, the lateral ones fhorter,
comprefled, dilated near the tip; the head is unarmed ; the
fhells with ftriate punétures. It is an inhabitant of the
ifland of Guadaloupe.

* 'Typnavus; Bull-comber. Thorax three-horned, the
middle one lefs, lateral ones projecting, as long as the head,
which is unarmed. It is found in this country, and other
parts of Europe, chiefly under cow-dung, where it buries
itfelf to depofit its eggs. The head is depreffed, villous
at the fides, narrow ; ye of the antenne greyifh ; thorax
fmooth; the horns fometimes as long as the head, and
fometimes twice as long; in the female they are fearcely
vifible ; the thells are ftriate ; the thanks downy ; the body
black.

Nasiconsis. Thorax with a triple prominence; horn
of the head recurved; fhells {mooth. This is an European
infect. The larva is grey; the head, the legs, and {piracles

rufous: the female has soe the rudiment of a horn.
Lazanvus. The thorax of this infeét has three it
cies;

SCARABAUS.

cles; the horn of the head is fhort, emarginate. It in-
habits North America, and is very {mall. The fhield of
the head is emarginate; the thorax is brown, caniculate,
the middle tubercle tranfverfe; the fhells are itriate and
rufous.

Quaprimens. Thorax four-toothed ; horn of the head
elevated, fimple ; body ferruginous. It inhabits India; is
{mall, gibbous, and ferruginous. In the male the fhield
has a fhort ere& horn; in the female it is two-toothed ; the
fhells ftriate.

* Mositicornis. Thorax four-toothed; horn of the
head recurved and moveable. It is found in this country
and many parts of Germany: it is black; the fhells are
ftriate.

* Cyctors. The thorax is four-horned, the lateral ones
larger ; the head is two-toothed, and the body ferruginous.
This is an Indian infe&

Viotaceus. Thorax fix-fpined; jaws prominent ; the
front is floping; the body entirely violet. It inhabits
Siberia, under ftones, and is very imall. The shells are
marked with hollow punétures.

(Epirus. Horn of the thorax flat, toothed beneath ;
the horn of the head is truncate, three-toothed. It inhabits
the Cape of Good Hope, and is middle-fized. The fhield
is rounded, emarginate ; thorax rounded behind, with an
impreffed punéture at the fides; the fhells are ftriate.

Ruapamistus. Thorax deeply excavate, with a re-
curved horn before; head unarmed; fhell rufous, with a
black future and two fpots. This is a {mall infeét, and is
found at Coromandel. The fhield is rounded, brafly, whitifh
before ; the thorax is longer than the fhells, brafly, pale at
the fides, with a brafly dot ; the fhells are ftriate.

Nemestrinus. Thorax with two proje€ting fharp horns ;
horn of the head ere&, fubulate. The body of this infect
is hairy ; the fhield is rounded and entire; the thorax with
an impreffed punéture on each fide; the fhells are ftriate.
This is found at the Cape of Good Hope.

Jacuus. Thorax prominent, two-lobed; the horn of
the head recurved and fimple. It inhabits the Cape of
Good Hope. The fhield is rounded, notched at the tip ;
the horn is long, ere&, recurved at the end; thorax flightly
puntured ; there are two elevated lines on each fide near
the edge.

Saszus. Thorax with a double prominence; the horn
of the head ere&t, fimple, as long as the thorax. This is
found at Coromandel. Shield projeting, rounded, fcarcely
emarginate; the thorax is black, polifhed, with an im-
preffed lateral point on each fide; the fhells are ftriate,
black, polifhed.

Nanus. Thorax with a double prominence; the horn
of the head is ereét, fimple, as long as the head. This is
found at Tranquebar.

SpLenpiputus. Thorax braffy, with two comprefled
black horns; horn of the head ereét, comprefled at the tip.
This is feen in divers parts of South America. The fhield
is rounded, flightly emarginate ; horn obtufe; thorax an-

ular, with two fubarched obtufe horns in the middle; the
fhells are grooved, green, obfcure; legs black; thighs
brafiy.

Festivus. Thorax gibbous, two-horned ; horn of the
head ereét ; fhells red-brafly. ‘It inhabits America.

Pacro.us. Thorax two-toothed; horn of the head
long, recurved, two-toothed in the middle. It is of a
trafty: een colour, and is found in Brafil. The thield is
rounded, entire; the horn is black, with two fharp teeth
in the middle; thorax channelled on the fore-part, paler
at the fides; fhells teftaceous, with a brafly future.

Gutneensis. Thorax two-toothed, brafly ; horn of the
head elevated, fhort. This inhabits Guinea, from whence
it derives its name. The antennz are teftaceous ; the fhield
is rounded, a little refle@ed at the edge; thorax rounded,
brafly, with two {mall teeth before ; fhells fubftriate, black,
crofled with an interrupted teftaceous ftreak at the bafe, and
teftaceous at the tip.

Pycmzus. Thorax two-toothed, brafly; fhield unarmed,
emarginate; fhells teftaceous, fpotted black. Found at
Tranquebar.

Ammon. Thorax three-toothed; horn of the head re-
curved; fhells itriate. It is an American infe&t ; the fhield
is rounded, emarginate, with a projecting, fharp, recurved
horn; the thorax is fmooth, with three teeth, the middle
one is the larger ; the fhells with crenate ftripes.

Minas. Thorax three-horned ; fhield projecting, wrinkled,
with a broad hollow in the middle ; it has two horns, which
are fhort and ere&t, and two denticles in the middle; the
thorax is punctured, rough, with ferruginous hairs; the
horns are deprefled, crenate at the fides; the middle ones
are broader, emarginate ; fhells itriate. ;

* Luwanis is an Englifh infe@&, and found likewife in
other parts of Europe. It has been defcribed by Mr.
Donovan ; its thorax is three-horned; the middle one ob-
tufe, bifid; the horn of the head is ere& ; the thield emar-

inate. In each fex the fhield is horned ; the thorax of the
emale is unarmed.

Czratus. Thorax three-horned, the middle one three-
toothed ; the horn of the head is recurved, long, one-toothed
within. It is lefs than the lunaris. The fhield is rounded,
the horn comprefied, with a {trong incumbent tooth in the
middle within; thorax elevated, retufe each fide; fhells
hardly ftriate.

Betzesus. The thorax has a triple prominence; the
head is three-horned, the middle one is the largeft. The
fhield is rounded, fearcely emarginated; the horn of the
head is fhort, with two {maller horns at the bafe; the fhells
are [triate; the middle fhanks clavate and toothed.

Taranpus. Thorax four-horned; head with two com-
prefled horns. It inhabits the Eaft Indies, and is a {mall
and black infe&. The fhield is flightly angular, black,
with an elevated line behind, which is terminated on each
fide by a fhort horn; the thorax is black, with four equal
horns, the middle ones conneéted at the bafe; the thells are
teftaceous, black at the future; the legs are teftaceous.

Lemur. The thorax is four-horned, coppery; fhield
tran{fverfe, carinate behind; fhells teitaceous. It is found
in divers parts of Germany. The fhells are fometimes
marked with a band compofed of five brown dots.

Cametus. Thorax tour-horned ; the fhield is flightly
two-horned behind; the body is black. This alfo is a
German infe&. The female is marked with a double tranf-
verfe carinate line on the fhield ; the hind one larger.

Unieasciatus. This curious infe& has a five-horned
thorax: it is black, but the fhells are teftaceous, with
a black band. It inhabits Tranquebar. The fhield is
rounded, unarmed, black; the thorax is gibbous, black,
with five tubercles; the two lateral ones larger, the three
middle ones difpofed in a triangle ; the thells, with a diftin&
{pot at the bafe, a broad indented band in the middle, and
blotch at the tip, all black ; the knob of the antennz is
ferruginous.

Ruinoceros. The thorax of this fpecies is retufe; the
horn of the head is fimple; the fhield is bifid; fhells punc-
tuate. It inhabits Afia. The body is pitchy, beneath it
is hairy ; the thorax of the female is excavate.

BarsarossA. Thorax rough on the fore-part ; the er

°.

>

SCARABAUS.

of the headisrecurved, fhort. This is found in New Hol-
Jand. The fhield is elongated, fub-emarginate ; the horn is
fubulate, as long as the head; the thorax is rounded; the
fhells are pitchy, punCtured, and ftriate; the fore-fhanks
are four-toothed.

Satyrvus. ‘Thorax truncate before; the horn of the
head is recurved, as long asthe head. It inhabits America.
In this the fhield is widely emarginate ; the horns three times
as long as the fhield; the fhells are ftriate; the body be-
neath is ferruginous, hairy; the fhanks are toothed.

Jamaicensis. This, as its name imports, is a Jamaica
infe&t ; the thorax is retufe before; the horn of the head is
recurved ; the fhells are very {mooth.

Stmzenus. The thorax of this is excavate before; the
horn of the head recurved ; the fhells are very {mooth. It
inhabits fouthern Europe.

Apetres. Horn of the head very fhort; fhells cine-
reous, with black raifed dots; it has no fore tarfi. It in-
habits the Cape of Good Hope. The body of this infe&
is fmall; the fhield rounded, entire, with raifed futures ;
thorax is unequal, grey-brown, the margin and two {pots
yellow ; the fhells are of a grey-brown, itriate, with raifed
lines ; the legs are yellow, {potted with black.

Hyzax. Horn of the head emarginate; hind-fhanks
very fhort, fpinous at the tip. This is found in many parts
of Africa.

Coronatus. Shield of the head emarginate behind.
It inhabits Java. The fhield is raifed on each fide; the
thorax is punctured ; the fhells are {mooth ; the hind-thighs
fhort, thick, and the body pitchy.

Dionysius. Thorax excavate; horn of the head re-
curved, deprefled, thicker at the tip. It inhabits Tran-
quebar.

Metiszus. Thorax uneven before; horn of the head

very fhort and truncate; the fhells ftriate. This is found
in North America. The antennz are thick, pitchy; the
head, thorax, and legs black; the fhells are marked with
crenate ftripes ; they are dull and pitchy.

Divymus. Depreffed; thorax with a groove; head
three-{pined ; fhells itriate. It inhabits America. The fe-
male has a {mall elevated {pine on the thorax.

Gurttutatus. The thorax of this is punétured; the
fhield is entire, with two elevated obtufe horns. It is
found in Italy. The fhield is rounded, with a tranfverfe
carinate line in the middle; the thorax ia rounded, black,
peers fhells punétured, ftriate, black; the body is

SupterraAneus. Head with three tubercles; fhells with
crenate ftripes. It is found in feveral parts of Europe. It
refembles ts S. foffor, fhortly to be mentioned, but is not
more than half its fize.

Sonex. Head with three tubercles, the middle one
flightly horned; the fhells are ftriate, prey, edged with
black. It inhabits China and the Eaft Indies, and is the
fize of the next. The hhield is reflected, emarginate, black,
immaculate.

*Fosson. Thorax retufe; head with three tubercles,
the middle one is flightly horned. This, as the afterifc
fhews, is found in our own country.

Scnautaton. Head with three tubercles; the hells and
abdomen rufous. The thield is rounded; thorax punc-
tured, black, polifhed, with a broad rufous margin; thells
ftriate, with a raifed dot at the tip and at the bafe; the
legs are black.

Anais. Head with three equal tubercles ;
fhells ferruginous at the ends,
is the fize of the §. foffor.

Vor. XXXII.

black ;
It is an Indian infe&, and

* Terrestris. Head with three equal tubercles; fhells
ftriate. ‘This isan Englifh infe&t. It is not more than
half the fize of the S. foffor; the tubercles of the head are
fhort and obtufe.

Oxzscurior. Dull black; head with three obfolete tu-
bercles; the fhells ftriate. Itinhabits Germany. It is the
fize of the terreftris.

Aten. Head with three tubercles, the middle one
flichtly horned; fhells itriate, very {mooth. Inhabits Keil.
The fhield is rounded, flightly emarginate; thorax fub-
punctured, black, polifhed; fhells black, polifthed, and
ftriate, but not erenate; the body is black, and the legs are
pitchy. The thorax is fometimes marked with a f{mall, la-
teral, rufous fpot.

* CoNFLAGRANS. Head with three tubercles; fhield
and feutel polifhed black. It is found in divers parts of
Germany, as well as in this country. The hells are grooved,
with hollow dots.

* Testaceus. Teftaceous; its head has two tubercles ;
the fhells are punétured and ftriate. This likewife, as well
as the two following, are inhabitants of England. The
thorax is punétured; the body hairy.

*Fiverarivs. Black; head tuberculate; fhells red.
It feeds on cow-dung.

* ConFLAGRATus. The thorax of this infe& is imma-
culate; the fhells are ftriate, teftaceous, with a black {pot.
This is defcribed in Donovan’s Englifh Infeé&ts. The {cutel
and body are black ; the legs are pitchy.

Inquivatus. The head has three tubercles; the fhells
are grey, {potted with brown. It inhabits Saxony. The
head is black ; thorax {mooth, black, polifhed, with a pale
rufous edge; the fhells are ftriate and polifhed.

Sururatis. This is of a blackifh hue ; the head has three
tubercles ; the fhells are teftaceous, with a deep black fu-
ture: hence its f{pecific name. It is found in the Weft In-
dian iflands, and is a {mall infe&. The thorax is black,
with a teftaceous edge, and {mall black dots; the fhells are
{triate ; body dufky ; legs yellowith.

*Sorpipus. Head tuberculate; thorax black, with a
pale edge and black dot ; the fhells are grey. This and the
next are natives of England. The fhield is entire, black,
with a pale fpot on each fide; the thorax is {mooth; the
fhells are ftriate ; the future more dufky ; the body beneath
variegated with black and grey ; the leys are pale.

od dai Head tuberculate; body black; hells

rey, {triate with black. Head and thorax black, polifhed ;
fhells with black lines and {pots, fometimes entirely black.

Grananius. Black; the fhield is marked with a fingle
tubercle; the fhells are teftaceous behind. ‘This is an
European infeé, and is of the fize of a grain of wheat.

Sonpens. Black; head tuberculate; the middle pro-
minent ; the fhells are dull teflaceous; the future and edges
of a dull brown.

Nerucosus. Brown; thorax {mooth, the outer mar-
gins livid; the head obfcurely tuberculate ; fhells ftriate,
clouded with brown; the legs are teftaceous. It is found
in different European countries.

Sutruratus. Black, polifhed; head with a fingle mi-
nute tubercle ; fhells of a dirty yellow colour, {triate, punc~
tured ; outer edge at the bafe ee the feutel and future black.
It is found chiefly at and in the neighbourhood of Saltfburg,
on horfe-dung.

Mantanus. Head tuberculate ; thells {mooth, glaucous,
dotted with brown. It inhabits America, and is a
to be the female of S. hercules; abdomen and thighs fer-
ruginous.

Bowasus. Thorax with a double prominence, the head

4H \ us

SCARABAUS.

is three-horned, the lateral ones arched. ‘This is an Indian
infe&. The thorax is brafly; the fhells dufky, and the
body black. i

Sacitranrius. Thorax mucronate before; head with a
fingle ere& horn. It is found at the Cape of Good Hope.
The fhield is rounded, entire, black: the horn is as long
as the head; the thorax is black, with a pale edge; hells
ftriate-grey ; fore-legs black, with a golden {pot at the
bafe ; the others are variegated.

Caroiixus. Thorax retufe, with two knobs; horn of
the head ereét, and very fhort; the fhield is entire; the
fhells are grooved. It is anative of Carolina. It is black,
obtufe, gibbeus, and half an inch thick. ‘

Spumyx. Thorax with four impreffed points; head
flightly horned ; it has no fore tarfi. It inhabits America,
and is found in the fouthern parts of Europe.

Taurus. Hind-head with two reclined arched horns.
It inhabits France and Germany.

Capra. Hiad-head with two fubarched horns; the
body is black and opaque. It is a native of Saxony, and is
thought to be a variety of the taurus.

Isex. Head with two very fhort horns; the body is
black, flightly fpotted with yellow. It inhabits India.
The fhield is rounded and entire; the horns are fubcom-
preffed ;. the antenne are teftaceous; thorax rounded be-
hind; the fhells are ftriate; the body beneath is black, and
the thighs yellow.

Acces. The thorax is doubly retufe; the fhield of the
head is flightly two-horned, with a raifed tranfverfe line ;
the body is {mooth and black. It inhabits Hungary, and is
the fize of the S. taurus. The fhield is rounded and entire ;
the thorax is rounded, with two obfolete {mall teeth.

'. Gazriia. The thorax of this infe& is brafly; the
hind-head has two arched horns; the fhells are teftaceous.
It inhabits Guinea, and is of the fame fize as the laft.

Carnirex. Thorax angular and rough; the horn of
the head is infle&ted; the body is brafly. It inhabits
America. Like the dung-beetle, it forms round balls of
excrement to depolit eggs in.

Hispanus. The fhield of this infeét is horned, emar-
ginate; fhells ftriate; fecond pair of thighs very remote.
It inhabits fouthern Europe.

Spinirex. Thorax rounded; the hind-head with a re-
curved fpine. It inhabits Coromandel. The fhield is
rounded and entire ; the {pine is as long as the thorax ; the
thorax is {mooth, black; the fhells are ftriate and black,
with a green glofs.

* Nucutcornis. Thorax rounded; hind-head with an
ere& {pine; fhield emarginate. This is defcribed among
Mr. Donovan’s Infeéts.

Xipuras. The thorax is flightly pointed before ; hind-
head with an ere& {pine ; the fhield is entire. It mhabits
Saxony, and is a lefs infe& than the laft.

* Nutans. Thorax imprefled before; the hind-head
has an ere& fpine, nodding at the tip; the body is black.
The fhield is rounded and entire.

fExrus. Thorax brafly; horn of the head ere&, trun-
cate. It inhabits Tranquebar. The female has two tu-
bercles on the thorax.

Recticornis. Black; head with two ereét horns;
fhield rounded. It is found in various parts of Europe.

*Verticornis. Thorax grey, dotted with black; the
horn of the head is ereét, and very fhort. It is an Englifh
infe&t, and is lefs than the tiedehictoerin The thorax is
round ; the fhells are {mooth, and the legs are pale.

Sutcator. This infeét is black ; the head has a fingle
tubercle ; the fhells are ftriate. ©

Cristatus. Black ; thorax crenate ; fhield tuberculate,
four-toothed. It is found in Egypt. The thorax is
rounded, crenate at the edges; the fhells are fmooth; the
legs hairy. :

* Srercorarius; Clock-beetle. The body is black
and fmooth ; the elytra furrowed ; the head is of a rhom-

boidal figure ; the forehead is prominent. It is a native of -

many parts of Europe, as well as of England, and is to be
met withindung. It is much infetted with fome fpecies of
the acarus and ichneumon, and hence it has frequently been
named the loufy beetle. It flies about in the evening with
a loud noife, and is faid'to foretell a fine day. It was held
in the utmoft reverence by the Egyptians, and confecrated
by them to the fun. It is fometimes of a greenifh-blue
colour, and fometimes yellowifh below, with dufky red
elytra. This is the fhard-borne beetle of Shak{peare. The
female digs a hole, and kneads a lump of frefh dung, of a
cylindrical fhape, on which fhe depolits one egg, and then
covers it with more dung, attaching it to the root of fome
grafs. Ina few days the larva breaks the egg, and feeds
on the frefh dung. During the autumn it changes its fkin
four times.

* Vexnaris. Shells without ftreaks or pun@ures ; fhield
rhombic ; crown a little prominent. It inhabits other parts
of Europe, befides this country. It {mells of mufk, and,
like the laft, has an oval-ferruginous downy {pot at the bafe
of the fore-thighs.

Corpauts. Black; thorax heart-fhaped before, im-
prefled, mucronate; head with two tubercles. It inhabits
Guadaloupe, and is larger than the ftercorarius.

“Tatpa. Thorax mucronate before; fhield with an ele-
vated tranfverfe line, the tip reflected, emarginate. In-
habits St. Bartholomew’s ifland.

SpLenvipus. Shining green; ‘hells ftriate. - It inhabits
America. The fhield is emarginate ; thorax rounded with
a lateral imprefled point each fide ; hells with crenate ftripes ;
thighs tocthed. a

Guiopator. Thorax and fhells dufky black, pun€tured.
It inhabits the Cape of Good Hope. Beneath it is hairy.

Rurives. Black; thorax glabrous, polifhed; fhells
ftriate ; legs rufous. It inhabits divers parts of Europe,
but is not found in this country.

Gacarers. This is black; thorax flightly pun&tured ;
fhells itriate ; legs black.

* Quapri-macuLatus. Oblong, black; the fpots on
the outer corners ef the fhells and legs red. This is de-
{cribed in Donovan’s Englifh Infe&ts. Thorax glabrous,
polifhed, dull rufous or black ; fhells ob{curely ftriate; legs
often black.

Sus. Oblong; dull rufous; fhells teftaceous, fpotted
with black. It is found in feveral parts of Germany. The
body is polifhed ; fhells with minute dots.

Evevatus. Gibbous, black; fhells ftriate and pune-
tured; the fhield emarginate. It inhabits Provence.

Nicerrus. Black; thells ftriate, the edge and band on
the hind-part ferruginous. It inhabits Kamt{chatka.

* Testuprvarius. Black; fhells pitchy, grooved, with
ferruginous dots. his is an Englifh infeét, and has been
defcribed by Mr. Donovan. ‘The fhield is rounded, emar-
ginate ; thorax rough, black ; dots on the fhells difpofed in
pairs ; the legs are pitchy. ;

Depressus. Black, polifhed; hells ftriate, rufous ;
legs black. It is a native of Germany.

Arcuatus. Black, polifhed; thield rufous before ;
fhells punétured, ftriate; the future, marginal dot at the
bafe, and abbreviated band, infle&ted towards the future,
seddith, T'his is found at and near Salt{burg.

PorcaTes.

-

Pees” the pe ee

SCARABAUS.

Porcatus- Brown; {hells with longitudinal raifed
lines. This is a native of Saxony: It is a fmall infe&t, of
a dull brown colour; the fhells are deeply grooved, and
the grooves are tranf{verfely ftriate.

Interrunctatus. Black; fhells dirty yellow, with
black grooves ; the intermediate {pace varied with alternate,
black, oblong fpots. This and the two next are found
chiefly at and near Berlin, among cow-dung.

Varius. Black; hells half yellow: probably a variety
of the laft.

Mixutvus. Black, ftriate; fhells and legs tawny.

Sacer. The fhield of the head.marked with fix denti-
culations; the thorax notched ; the fhanks of the hind-legs

fringed ; top of the head marked with two flight projec- ~

tions. It is a native of the fouthern parts of the old con-
tinent. It is frequent in dry fituations, even in the fouthern
parts of Ruffia. Its figure is carved by the Egyptians on
the ancient pillars, by whom it was held facred: from which
circumftance it derived its {pecific names ’

. Variotosus. The fhield of this is fix-toothed; the
fhells are black, with variolous impreffed dots. It inhabits
Auftria. ;

Minraris. Shield fix-toothed; the fhells are black,
with raifed blacker dots. It inhabits India.

Proranus. Shield fix-toothed ; body black-blue; fhells
fmooth. It is a native of Guinea.

Baccuus. Shield four-toothed, gibbous; thorax and
fhells glabrous; the fhanks on all fides are ferrate. It in-
habits the Cape of Good Hope.

Gresosus. Shield four-toothed ; fhells witha gibbofity
at the bafe. It inhabits America.

Horranpix. Shield four-toothed ; hells grooved. An
inhabitant of New Holland.

Grasvuratus. Body covered with cinereous down;
thorax and fhells with raifed black dots; fhield emarginate.
It is thought to be only a variety of the lait.

Cupreus. Black-coppery; thield emarginate; thorax
gibbous. It inhabits Africa. ;

Fracetiatus. Black; fhield emarginate; thorax and
fhells rough. It is a native of the Cape, and is found fre-
quent in the fouthern parts of Europe.

Scn#rvert. Thorax rounded ; fhield emarginate ; fhells
triangular ; hind-thighs long and toothed. It inhabits the
warm banks of Germany ; depofits its eggs in round balls
of cow-dung, which it rolls up with its hind-feet, and
buries.

Pirtutarivs. Black, opaque, fmooth; fhield fub-
marginate, with two raifed oblique lines. This is a native
of the fouthern parts of Europe, about the fize of the loufy
beetle. It rolls up a ball made of excrement, feven times
the bulk of its own body.

Sqvarevs. Black; thield emarginate; hells ftriate.
It inhabits Brafil. The head and thorax are {mooth, po-
lithed ; thield emarginate ; the lobes rounded.

Carcaratus. Head thielded, emarginate ; hind-thighs
toothed. It inhabits Egypt. :

Brerusturata. Black; thells with a rufous {pot at the
bafe. It inhabits New Holland.

Tataxoutanis. Black ; edge of the thorax and thighs
pale; thield emarginate. It is found chiefly in Surinam.

Cixerus. Black; margin of the fhello pale ¢ the thield
isemarginate. It is a native of China. ,

Smaraoputus. Braffy, polifhed; shield two-toothed.
Tt is a native of America.

Mixon. Black ; fhield fix-toothed; the hind-legs are
long. It inhabits the Cape. It is lefo than the ovatus,
about to be noticed, and the body is totally black.

*Ovartus. Black; thorax rounded, fix-toothed ; fhells
abbreviated. It inhabits Europe.

Amazonus. . Teftaceous; thorax with two black
blotches ; the fhells are marked with a brown callus on the
outer edge. It inhabits Surinam.

Crucirer. Thorax a little downy, greenifh; the fhells
are of a pale yellow; they are fhorter than the body, and
marked with a double beamed black crofs. It is a native
of Siberia. ;

Gurratvus. Black; thorax rounded, with fmooth raifed
dots ; the fhield is impreffed, bifid at the tip; the fhells are
deeply crenate, itriate, with oblong {pots compofed of yel-
low hairs. :

b. Mandible arched, flightly toothed; abdomen naked at the

end, obliquely truncate.

Stiema. Rufty brown; fhells with an oblong fnowy
mark near the tip. It inhabits Java. The body is very
large; the fhield hardly refleGted ; the legs are black. ,

*Futio. Teftaceous, fpotted with white; {cutel with
a double white {pot ; antennz divided into feven leaves. It
inhabits the fandy fituations in Europe and Barbary, living
very much on the oak, Elymus arenaria and Arundo arenaria.
It 1s hairy below ; the hooks at the ends of their legs are
furnifhed at their bafe’ with a crooked branch. This is the
largeft coleopterous infe& ever feen in this country, except
the Lucanus cervus, or ftag-beetle. It is by no means com-
mon here.

* MeLo.tonrua ; Tree-beetle-Cockchaffer.. Teftaceous ;
thorax hairy ; tail inflected; a triangular white {pot at each
incifure of the abdomen. This infect is extremely familiar
in our ifland. The larva inhabits the ploughed lands, and
feeds on the roots of corn: the complete infect makes its
appearance in the beginning of fummer. It has fometimes
been feen in fuch prodigious quantities as almoft to {trip
the trees of their foliage, and to produce mifchiefs ap-
proaching to the devaitations occafioned by the locuit tribe.
There is an interefting account of their ravages in Ireland,
by Mr. Molineux, in the Philofophical TranfaGtions for
the year 1697, of which the following is an extract.

«“ Thefe infects were firlt noticed in this kingdom in 1688.
They appeared on the fouth-welt coaft of Galway, brought
thither by a fouth-welt wind, one of the moft common, I
might almoft fay trade-winds, of this country. From
thence they penetrated into the inland parts towards Hedd-
ford, about twelve miles north of the town of Galway; here
and there in the adjacent country, multitudes of them ap-
peared among the trees and hedges in the day-time, hanging
by the boughs in clufters, like bees when they fwarm, In
this pofture they continued, with little or no motion, during
the heat of the fun; but towards evening, or funfet, they
would all difperfe and fly about with a flrange aT
noife, like the beating of diftant drums, and in fuch va
numbers that they darkened the air for the {pace of two or
three miles fquare. Perfons travelling on the roads, or
abroad in the fields, found it very uneafy to make their
way through them, they would fo beat and knock them.
felves againit their faces in their flight, and with fuch a
force as to make the place fmart, eat leave a flight mark
behind them. In a fhort time after their coming, they had
fo entirely eat up and deftroyed all the leaves of the trees
for fome miles round, that the whole country, though in
the middle of fummer, was left as‘bare as in the depth of
winter; and the noife they made in gnawing the leaves
made a found much refembling the fawing of timber. ‘They
alfo came into the gardens, and deftroyed the buds, blof-
foms, and leaves of all the fruit-trees, fo that they were left

4H 2 perfeétly

SCARABEUS.

perfectly naked: nay, many, that were more delicate than
the reft, loft their fap as well as leaves, and quite withered
away, fo that they never recovered again. Their multi-
tudes fpread fo exceedingly, that they infefted houfes, and
became extremely offenfive and troublefome. Their nu-
merous young, hatched from the eggs which they had
lodged under ground, near the furface of-the earth, did ttill
more harm in that clofe retirement than all the flying fwarms
of their parents had done abroad ; for this deftructive brood,
lying under ground, eat up the roots of corn and grafs, and
thus confumed the fupport both of man and beait. This
plague was happily checked feveral ways. High winds and
wet mifling weather deftroyed many millions of them in a
day ; and when this conftitution of the air prevailed, they
were fo enfeebled that they would let go their hold, and
drop to the ground from the branches; and fo little a fall
as this was fufficient quite to difable, and fometimes per-
fe&tly kill them. Nay, it was obfervable that, even when
they were mott vigorous, a flight blow would for fome time
itun them, if not deprive them of life. During thefe un-
favourable feafons of the weather, the {wine and poultry of
the country would- watch under the trees for their falling,
and feed and fatten upon them; and even the poorer fort of
the country people, the country then labouring under a
fearcity of provifion, had a way of dreffing them, and lived
upon them as food. Ina little time it was found that {moke
was another thing very offenfive to them}; and by burning
heath, fern, &c. the gardens were fecured, or if the infects
had already entered, they were thus driven out again. To-
wards the latter end of f{ummer they returned of themfelves,
and fo totally difappeared, that in a few days you could not
fee one left. A year or two ago, all along the fouth-welt
coaft of the county of Galway, for fome miles together,
there were found dead on the fhore fuch infinite multitudes
of them, and in fuch vaft heaps, that, by a moderate elti-
mate, it was computed there could not be lefs than forty or
fifty horfe-loads in all; which was a new colony, or a fu-
pernumerary fwarm from the fame place whence the firtt
itock came, in 1688, driven by the wind from their native
land, which I conclude to be Normandy or Britany in
France; it being a country much infefted with this infec,
and from whence England heretofore has been peitered in a
fimilar manner with fwarms of this vermin: but thefe, meet-
ing with a contrary wind, before they could land, were
ftopped, and, tired with the voyage, were all driven into
the fea, which, by the motion of its waves and tides, cait
their floating bodies in heaps on the fhore. It is obferved
that they feldom keep above a year together ina place, and
their ufual ftages or marches are computed to be about fix
miles ina year. Hitherto their progrefs has been welterly,
following the courfe of that wind which blows moft com-
monly in this country.”

In Mouffet’s Hiftory of Infeéts, it is faid that early in
the year 1574, fo great a quantity of thefe infects were
driven into the river Severn, that they totally prevented the
mills from working, and were with the utmoit difficulty
extirpated by the united efforts of the people, and the va-
rious kinds of hawks, ducks, and other birds, which preyed
upon them with great avidity. In Normandy, it is faid,
they generally make their appearance every third year. In
this country, the county of Norfolk has fultained more
than any other from the ravages of the cockchaffer. In the
year 1751 many crops of corn were ruined by it.

The larva, according to fome well-informed naturalifts,
ig two, and fometimes three, years in pafling from its firft
{tate into that of the perfec infect. The eggs are laid in
{mall detached heaps, beneath the furface of fome clod;

7

and the young, when firft hatched, are fcarcely more than
the eighth of an inch in length, gradually advancing in their
growth, and occafionally fhifting their fkins till they arrive
at the fize of two inches, or more. Att this period they

begin to prepare for their change in a chryfalis or pupa,

fele¢ting for the purpofe fome {mall clod of earth, in which
they form an oval cavity, and, after a certain {pace, diveft
themfelves of their lait fkin, and immediately appear in the
chryfalis form, in which they continue till the fucceeding
fummer, when the beetle emerges from its retirement, and
commits its depredations on the leaves of trees, and other
things that it feleéts for its food, breeds and depofits its
eggs in a favourable fituation ; after which, its life is of a
very fhort duration, The cockchaffer is eagerly fought
after and devoured by fwine, bats, crows, and many kinds
of poultry. It varies annually, in having the thorax rufous
and black; the male is diltinguifhed from the female by a
pointed infleSted tail.

Pitosus. Downy, blackifh; fhield refle@ed, flightly
emarginate ; antenne ferruginous. It is found ae in
Hungary. The fcutel is broad, and flightly emarginate.

Occipentatis. Teltaceous; thorax downy; fhells
with four fnowy lines. Tt inhabits different parts of Eu-
rope.

Atorrex. Body covered with tawny down; fhield re-
flected, emarginate ; fhells fmooth, black. Found at the
Cape. Shield rounded, {mooth; fhells immaculate.

* SorstiTiALis. Teftaceous; thorax downy; {hells
pale yellow, with three paler parallel lines. It inhabits
Europe, and appears later than the cockchaffer, generall
about the fummer folftice. It is furnifhed with a fcutel,
and is without horns; the thorax is hairy; the elytra are
of a pale yellow colour, marked with three white parallel
lines. It is generally met with among trees. The claws
at the end of the legs have one little proje¢tion, like a tooth,
at their bafe.

Canvivvus. Shield rounded; body downy white. It
is an Eaft Indian infe&. The fhells are marked with a
fnowy dot near the tip: hence its fpecific name.

JEquinocTiaLis. Downy teftaceous; fhield flightly re-
fleted. It is a native of Hungary. The body is covered
with afh-coloured down; the antenne are rufous.

Pint. Black; fhield, fides of the thorax, fhells, and
legs, pale. It inhabits Barbary ; as does the

Arriruicis. Oblong, downy, pale; future and tip of
the fhells black; the fhield is rounded and refleé&ted; the
thorax immaculate ; the fhells are nearly fmooth; the legs
are pale; the tarfi brown. _

Lanicerus. Beneath woolly ; head and thorax golden ;
the fhells are of a pale yellow. ‘T’his is found in India.

Loncicornus. Above fmooth, black; the fhells are
ferruginous ; the club of the antenne elongated. Itis found
at the Cape.

Puncratus. Teftaceous; the fhells are marked with
three brown diftant {pots. This isan American infe&t. The
claws are curved, and very fharp.

Sutura. Green; future of the fhells yellowifh. It in-
habits New Zealand. The edges of the thorax are a little
yellowifh, obtufely angled behind; the fhells are fmooth,
fubltriate ; breaft and abdomen covered with white down ;
the {ternum projected and pointed; the legs are green and
the tarfi ferruginous.

Barsatus. Smooth, black, polifhed ; laft fegment of
the abdomen bearded, a little prominent.

Gtaciais. Thisinfe& is fmooth, pitchy ; antenne and
legs teftaceous. It inhabits America. :
Srriatus. Smooth, brafly ; hells ftriate, the future and

four

a

SCARABEUS.

four lines arecoppery.. It ishabits America. The thell has
ten grooves; the body beneath and legs are black.

Hiaricortis. Hairy, black ; fhells punétured, fmooth,
rufous. It inhzbits Africa. The fhield of this is rounded.

Ruricotiis. Smooth, punétured, ferruginous;_ fhells
teftaceous. It inhabits Coromandel.

= Brunxevus. Smooth; teftaceous ; fhells ftriate ; tho-
rax with a dot on each fide. It inhabits Europe. The larva
is foft, whitifh, with teftaceous head and legs.

MetanocerHatus. Smooth, reddifh, black ; fhells pale.

EryrurocepHatus. Smooth, pale; head rufous, black
at the bafe. The body is {mooth and immaculate.

Rurus. Smooth, reddifh ; hells teftaceous ; fhield five-
teothed. Itinhabitsthe Cape. The fhield is refleGted ; the
body beneath is marked with whitifh hairs.

Festivus. Above fmooth, green; dorfal line on the
thorax and future of the fhells dark brown. It inhabits New
Zealand.

Hotysericeus. This is a beautiful infe@ ; the upper part
is green, filky, beneath coppery ; fhells with four raifed lines;
it inhabits the fouthern parts of Ruffia.

Jantuinus. Pale violet; outer edge of the thorax,
fhells, abdomen, and legs teftaceous; tail violet-brown ;
thighs violet before.

Coriarius. Violet-brown ; thorax yellow-brown ; fhield
refleGed at the tip; the fhells are teftaceous.

Nicritus. Smooth, black ; fhield reflefted ; fhells ob-
fcurely ftriate. This is an American infeét.- The fhield is
rounded, black and immaculate ; the body is black.

Friscuu. This is of a brafly-black colour, and polifhed ;
the fhells are teltaceous. It is a nativeof Germany. The
fhells are teftaceous, with a braffy future. It varies in having
the fhells brafly, but fometimes blue.

* Vitis. This is green, but the fides of the thorax are
yellow. It inhabits Europe and America, and is found on
the vine, whence it derives its {pecific name. Its hells vary
in colour; the thorax is edged with yellow.

* Errans. Teltaceous ; thorax with black fpots; the
legs are rufous. It is an inhabitant of this country, and is
of the fize of the 5. horticola ; it varies in having the tho-
rax fometimes teftaceous, immaculate ; rarely black, with
a teltactous edge; the thells are fometimes edged with
black.

Umerosus. Subteftaceous, with grey down ; the legs are
teftaceous. It inhabits Guinea. The fhield is rounded and
entire ; the edge a little reflected,

Ruricora. Downy, greenifh; head black. It is found
at the Cape; the body 1s fmall, and beneath it is cine-
reous.

Raucus. Shield refleéted ; thorax and fhells punétured,
brafly-black. It is a native of Coromandel. ‘The fhield is
ee aga black; fhells with an elevated line or two; the

dy is black.

Sprexpipus. Black; the thells are marked with an ab-
breviated golden band. ‘This is found at the Cape of Good
Hope. It is a fmall infect ; the thield is punéured, black,
emarginate at the tip ; the thorax is punétured, immaculate ;
fhells punétured, with an oblong oval {pot or band.

* Horticora. Head and thorax blue, hairy ; the thells
are teftaceous, and the legs black. It is found chiefly in
gardens and orchards in this country, and other parts of Eu-
rope, being extremely deftructive to the roots of cabbages,
and the beetle itfelf is equally fo to the apple-tree.

Aspomisatiss Head and thorax blue, hairy; thells
teftaceous; abdomen covered with white down. This is
=e found in Italy. It very much refembles the hor-
ticola.

- bricius.

Froricota. Black-blue, {mooth; thells rufous; abdo-
men with fafciculate white dots; fhield refle&ted. It in-
habits A frica.

Arvicota. Hairy; fhield refle&ted; thorax blueifh ;
body black. It inhabits Ruflia, and refembles the horticola.
The fhells are black. <

Praticota. Thorax a little hairy, varied with yellow
and black ; the fhells are teltaceous. This is a native of
Siberia.

Fruricota. Head and thorax covered with blue down;
the fhells are livid, and the fhield reflected at the tip.

* Ruricota. Black, filky; fhells rufous, furrounded
witha black edge. It is an inhabitant of this country. The
fhells are dufky, with a darker edge.

Aromanrits. Minutely fpeckled with white; thorax
caniculate, black; the fhells are brown; abdomen white,
with lateral black dots. It inhabits the Cape. The fhells
are powdered, with white fpecks; the abdomen is fnowy, with
a line of black dots on each fide.

Fartinosus. Black, covered with blue feales ; fhells ab-
breviated ; fhield entire. Inhabits various parts of Europe.
The body above is blue and polifhed ; thorax broad ; when
put into hot water, the blue changes to a vivid green.

* Arcentrus. Black, beneath filvery, polifhed ; hells
teftaceous. This is a native of England. The fhells are
fhorter than the body, gibbous behind ; legs teftaceous ;
the hind ones elongated.

Cixctus. Braily-black, polifhed; fhells brown, edged
with black. It inhabits Guadaloupe. Small ; head and
thorax immaculate ; the legs are fpinous and black.

Spinives. Black, immaculate; hind-legs elongated,
thighs one-{pined at the bafe. It inhabits the Cape. The
fhield is elevated at the tip, dufky ; thorax and thells opaque ;
hind-thighs with a itrong fharp fpine at the bafe.

Dentirrs. Black; hells teftaceous; fhield four-toothed ;
hind-thighs and fhanks fpinous. This isa native of the Cape.
The head and thorax black, downy ; the hind-thighs one-
fpined ; the fhanks are two-{pined.

Crassipes. Black, {potted with white ; hind-legs long
and very thick. This alfo is a native of the Cape, as are
the next three.

GonaAGER.
unarmed.

Cancroipes. Black, minutely fpeckled with white ; the
hind-thighs long, very thick, {pinous at the tip. In this the
fhield is widely emarginate ; the thorax is a little fpeckled
with white at the edge ; abdomen white, the lait fegment
prominent, with a broad black band.

Marco. Thorax black, edged with white ; fhells tefta-
ceous. The head is black, immaculate ; thorax rounded ;
fhells fhort ; fcutel cinereous ; body beneath covered with
white down; the legs are black, the hind-ones a little
elongated.

PULVERULENTUS.
bran; fhells and legs teltaceous.

Grey ; legs rufous; hind-thighs thick, and

Body covered with a greenifh-filvery
This is a native of Ger-

many.

7 Hairy, black ; fhield reflected. This is an
inhabitant of Barbary; it is the Melolontha morio of Fa-
The body is immaculate ; fhield very much re-
flected.

Sunsprxosus. Yellowith; the legs are rufous; the
thorax fubfpinous. This is an inhabitant of America.

Minurtus. Black; thells grey ; legs teltaceous, hind-
thighs tharply toothed. A native of the Cape. It isa very
{mall infect ; head and thorax hairy; fthells fmooth, im-
maculate ; hind-thighs with a {trong recurved tooth at
the bafe.

Mu abiLis.

SCARABZEUS.

Murasitis. Black, rough, with cinereous down. It
is a native of Tranquebar. -

Variasitis. Blackifh; fhells with a cinereous glofs ; the
antennz and legs teftaceous. It inhabits Germany, and fome
parts of America, and fubfifts on rotten wood. The
head and thorax are black and immaculate ; the fhells are
ftriate.

Aranoipes. The hhield of this infe@ is a little refle&ed ;
the body is yellowifh ; the fhells are ferruginous, flightly
barred with brown. This is a native of the Cape.

Livneatus. This is of a dull greenifh hue; the fhells
are marked with rufous lines.- It is found in Sierra Leone.
It is {mall and gibbous ; the mouth is marked with black ;
the body beneath is black, but the legs are pitchy.

Monticota. Shield entire, refleted; body {mooth;
teftaceous ; the head is black. It is a native of New Hol-
Jand. It is a very {mall infec.

Houmerauis. Black; hells at the bafe, and {pot in the
middle, pale. It inhabits New Holland.

Ursus. Black, covered with long and thick hair; the
four legs are teftaceous. It is found at the Cape. The
fhield is projeGting, emarginate at the tip; the thighs are
black ; fometimes all the legs are black.

Lywx. Hairy, black ; edge of the fhells are golden.
It is found at the Cape.

Vutrrs. Golden, with tawny hairs; abdomen ferru-
ginous. This {pecies is found in Siberia. The head is fhort
and entire ; itis golden, with a blackifh edge; the abdomen
is black at the bafe ;. the tip of the male is inflected, two-
toothed ; the legs are golden.

Bomeytivus. Black, with cinereous hairs ; the fhells are
teftaceous, with three whitifh lines at the tip. It inhabits
Africa. The fhells of this fpecies are {mooth, with three
lateral lines, from the middle to the tip.

Vittatus. Blue, hairy ; fhells teftaceous, with three
whitifh lines. It inhabits India. This infe& is more oblong
than molt others of the genus; the fhield is truncate; the
fhells fhorter than the body, with three lines compofed of
whitifh down ; the body beneath is hairy.

Unicotor. This fpecies is entirely tawny, fmooth ; the
fhells are imprefled with dots. It inhabits India.

Petiucipus. Silky, dufky, clouded with white ; fhells
ribbed. This is a native of Germany.

Fuscescens. This is brownifh; the fcutel is marked
with a double tranfverfe line; the hind-fhanks are four-
toothed. It is found at Milan, and very common iy the corn-
fields, and in the fummer-time on trees. The body above is
bay, beneath it is rough, with long red down.

Sepicota. Scutellate; head and thorax with green
down ; fhells hairy, ciliate. This is an Indian infec, as is
the next.

Syrracus. Scutellate; head and thorax with green

down ; the ‘hells are hairy.

c. Mandible fraizht.

Goutatuus. The Goliath beetle is very remarkable both
in point of fize and colour ; it is larger than the Hercules,
and has a rofe-coloured thorax, marked with longitudinal
black ftripes or variegations, and purple-brown wing-fheaths ;
the head is divided in front into two forked proceffes; the
limbs are black and very ftrong. It is a native of fome parts
of Africa. There is 2 fup ofed variety that fometimes oc-
curs, in which both the thorax and wing-fheaths are of a
pale yellowifh-brown initead of rofe-colour, and they are
marked with black variegations. ;

Birrons. This is of a dull braffy colour; the hells
are brown, f{peckled with white; the fhield is project.

os

ing and bifid, the crown is haftate. It inhabits
America. :
Potypuemus. Green, with white lines; the head is
three-horned ; the middle horn is projeéting and bifid.
Micans. Green, polifhed; fhield projeGing, recurved,
bifid ; the fore-fhanks are ferrate.. It is found in divers
parts of Africa.
each fide between the eyes; the fhield has two denticles in
the middle, and two at the tip; the fhells are abbreviated,
pointed, and polifhed ; the fternum is projeéting, broad and

bd *
South:

obtufe, with a fine longitudinal ferruginous line; the ab- _

domen. with an imprefled point on each fide the laft feg-
ment.

* Auratus. This {pecies is of great beauty : it is about
the fize of the common garden-beetle, but of a flatter fhape,
and of the moft brilliant, varnifhed golden-green colour, with
the wing-fhells varied towards the lower part by a few flight,
tran{verfe, white {treaks. This very beautiful fpecies is not
uncommon during the hotteit part of fummer, frequenting
plants and flowers; its larva or caterpillar is commonly found
in the hollows of old trees, or among the loofe dry foil at
their roots, and fometimes in the earth of ant-hills. It re-
mains three years before it changes to a pupa or chryfalis,
out of which the infect emerges in a fhort time afterwards.
When touched it emits a moilture from the tail.

JErvcinosus. Gilt ; above green. This is an inhabitant
of Calabria.

Meraxtinus. Brafly, opaque, immaculate ; beneath cop-
pery- It inhabits Italy, and is the Cetonia metallica of Fa-
bricius. The fhell is thickened at the edge. i

Pusescens. Dull brafly ; edge of the thorax and feg-
ments, and two {pots on the tail, white. It inhabits the Cape.
The front is cinereous, downy 5 thighs above with a large
white fpot.

Eryturopus. Black; fhield proje€ting, finuate at the
bafe on each fide; border of the thorax and edge of the
fhells cinereous. It inhabits theCape. Between the.antenne
are frequently two cinereous dots; antenne of three long
leaves ; the laft fegment of the abdomen prominent, with two
cinereous dots.

Corpatus. Black, polifhed ; fhield heart-fhaped. This
alfo is an inhabitant of the Cape. The antenne are made
up of three fhort leaves ; thorax immaculate; fhells hardly
{triate, black ; fore-fhanks very much toothed.

AvnopuncTans. Black; thorax with white fpots. Found
in divers parts of Italy.

Surinamus. Thorax lobate behind ; body black, filky;
fhells with yellow marginal {pots. . It is found, as its {pecific
name denotes, at Surinam.’

Nitipus. ‘Thorax lobate behind; head with an incum-
bent fpire; fternum horned. It is found in Carolina.

Logzarus. Black, polifhed ; thorax lobed behind ; fhield
emarginate ; fternum horned. It inhabits America, The
thorax punctured, projecting behind ; fhells with two raifed
lines meeting before the tip. ,

Capucuinus. Pitchy ; thorax yellowifh at the edge;
{ternum projecting. It inhabits India. The hind-thighs
are much compretied.

Gracvtus. This is excutellate, dull livid; thorax and
fhells fpotted with black. A {pecimen of this is in the mu-
feum of fir Jofeph Banks. In this the fhells are gibbous
behind; fternum proje¢ting and hardly horned.

Cornutus. Black, opaque, immaculate ; fore-edge of
the thorax flightly horacd. It is found at the Cape.

SmaracpuLus. Yellowifh, ferruginous ; thells nith ;
fternum horned. It inhabits America. The body is yel-
lowifh ; the hind-fhanks are pun&tured.

Fasct-

The head is carinate, with a {mall {pine on _

¢

SCARAB AUS.

FascicuLaris. "Thorax with four white lines; the thells
are of a greenifh hue ; the abdomen bearded. It is found in
Africa.

-Auuicus. Green, polifhed; edge of the thorax and
fhells with white fpots. This fpecies is found at the Cape of
Good Hope. The head is marked with two fmall white
{pots before the eyes; the fhield is emarginate ; fhells ob-
tule, green, with a white fpot at the bafe, five fpots on the
edges, two on the back and one at the tip ; the abdomen has
four lines of white dots, the latt fegment prominent, with
eye white {pots ; the hind-thighs are marked with a white
pot.

Sienatus. Thorax black, edged with white ; the fhells
are teftaceous ; the future and edge black. This is found
at the Cape.

Mareryatus. Smooth, black ; thorax and fhells edged
with rufous. It is a native of Guinea, as is thenext. The
fhield is emarginate ; the thorax on the fore and lateral edge
rufous. :

Ornatus. Smooth, dull purplifh ; thorax and fhells with
a finuate teftaceous edge.

Srriatus. Smooth, black, polifhed ; edge of the tho-

rax teitaceous, with a black {pot ; fhield emarginate. In-
habits Guadaloupe.
Fasciatus, This fpecies is black; the edge of the

thorax is teftaceous; the hells are teftaceous, with a black
future and indented band. It inhabits Alexandria; as
does the

Tuoracicus. This is black ; thorax ferruginous ; the
fhells are black, with a purplifh fhade.

Pictus. Black ; thorax with five white lines ; the hells
are pointed and fpotted with white. This inhabits the Eaft.
It is charaéterized by its black head ; two lines, and an ocu-
lar {pot on each fide, are white; the {cutel is triangular,
black with a white line; the laft fegment of the abdomen is
prominent, and white with a black line ; the body beneath
is white, with a black line down the middle.

Exatvus. Black; the thorax is marked with three white
lines ; fhells olive, the edge is black dotted with white. It
inhabits Guinea.

ArromacuLatus. Dark brown, polifhed ; fhells with
black filky {pots, and a white one behind. It inhabits T'ran-
quebar. The fhield of this infect is reflected, lightly emar-
ginate ; the fhells are ttriate ; and the abdomen is marked
with lateral white dots.

Exzoans. Green, highly polifhed; the future of the
thells and dot at the tip white. It is a native of Coroman-
del. The hield is fliyhtly refle&ed, with a {mall recumbent
{pine ; the firft fegment of the abdomen is marked with a
teflaceous edge ; the fternumis prominent, flightly recurved
and obtufe.

Veweneus. Coppery, polithed ; thorax, fcutel, and thells
green. It inhabits Surinam and Jamaica.

Zewra. This is hairy, brafly-green; hells tefaceous,
with a brafly future, and black ftripe in the middle. It is
an African infeét, of which the fhield is emarginate, and the
thorax downy.

Inus. Green, finely pelifhed, with a brown fhade. It
inhabits Surinam.

Cravatus. Green, coppery, polifhed; thells tefta-
ceows; fkernum horned on the fore part. This isa native of
America.

Sonpens. Brafly-black ; thells with two raifed lines, and
fpotted with white. It inhabits Brazil.

Nitiputus. Green-teltaceous, polifhed; fhield emar-
ginated ; thells pointed. This is a Fall infe&t, and found
in America.

Puinippensis. Brafly, polifhed ; thorax edged and {pot-
ted with white, fhells pointed, {potted with white. This is
found in feveral of the Philippine ifles. The thorax is
rounded with two white dorfal fpots.

Macurarus. Braily, polifhed ; the thorax has a white
{pot on each fide ; the fhells are marked with numerous white
fpots. It isanative of Coromandel, The body beneath is
copper ;° the breaft with a large {pot on each fide ; the ab-
domen is marked with four lines of white dots.

Areatus. Black, downy ; fhells rufous on the difk ;
thefe are gibbous behind, with a fingle raifed line. This

“fpecies is a native of Virginia.

Froratis. Smocth, black, edges of the thorax, fhells,
and abdomen white. It inhabits Africa; on compofite
flowers. The head is black, with two white dots between
the eyes: the fhield is flightly emarginate ; the tail is pro-
minent, and white ; the edge of the abdomen is {potted with
white. :

Versicotor. Black; thorax rufous, fpotted with black ;
fhells black, fpotted with white, and a large rufous one on
the difk. It is found in Egypt. The fcutelis black, witha

swhite dot at the tip ; abdomen black, the edges and tail are

{potted with white. ;

JEquinocriALis. Black; thorax edged with white ;
the fhells are teftaceous, with a white fpot near the {cutel
and tip.

Hisrrio. This is teftaceous ; the head and two lines on
the thorax, future, and three {pots on the fhells, are black.

Groriosus. Teltaceous, polifhed, with abbreviated black
lines. It inhabits St. Domingo. ;

Cxruteus. Smooth, glaucous; fhells ttriate and punc-
tured, fteel-blue, with five white fpots.

Metatticus. Green-gilt, beneath violet ; there are four
rings of the abdomen marked with a white fpot.

d. Mandible frraight, obtufe.

* Noss. Thisis defcribed by Mr. Donovan; it is of a
fhining green ; the abdomen behind is dotted with white ; the
fhells are rugged. The larva is found on decayed wood,
and the perfeét infeét on umbellate flowers. The larva is
grey, the legs are yellowifh, and the head ferruginous.

* Fascratus. Black, clothed with yellow down; the
fhells with three abbreviated black bands. It is a native of
this country, and of other parts of the north of Europe, and
feeds on the flowers of the fyringa, and on fome umbelli-
ferous plants.

* Hemiprerus. This f{pecies is furnifhed with a feutel-
lum; the thorax is downy, edged with two longitudinal
wrinkles; the elytra are fhortened. This is a native of
England. The larva is found in wood, and the perfeét
infeé&t on flowers. The female is armed with a {tiff fhort
fting.

Ein buaie This is fmooth, blue ; thells with two white
lunules. It inhabits Carolina. The fhield is emarginate ;
the fhells are very fhort.

Dextta. Thorax black, with a white triangle ; the fhells
are teftaceous, with a brown fpot. It inhabits America.

Futvus. Downy; thorax fulvous, with three black
lines; the thells are teftaceous, witha fulvous future. It is
a native of the Cape. ‘The antenna are pitchy, with a tuft
of black hair in the middle; the fcutel is triangular, with a
fulvous {pot in the middle ; the tail is fulvous; the legs are
pale teftaceous.

Canwonanius. This isentirely black, hairy ; the fhield
is narrow, grooved, bifid at the tip. This is not an Euro-
pean infed. :

Unauicuratus. Grey, downy ; thorax brown ; fhield

narrow,
t

SCARABADS.

narrow, grooved, bifid at the tip; fhells rufous, the edge is
black and hairy ; the hind-legs are long and clawed.

B. Feelers capitate; jaw bifid.
Species.

Gemmatus. Cinereous, thorax unequal ; fhell ftriate, and
marked with raifed black dots. It inhabits Senegal. The
antennz are pitchy, the firft joint is hairy; the fhells are
marked with crenate {tripes.

* Sasutosus. The thorax and fhells of this {pecies are
paged 5 the thorax is very entire ; antenne hairy at the
bafe. It inhabits this country and other parts of Europe.
It is to be met with on fandy hills which are expofed to the
fun-fhine. _

Cornutus. Thorax aad fhells fpinous and ferrate ; head
with two projecting arched horns. It inhabits Ceylon.

Morticinut. Shield unequal, fringed ; fhells {triate, con-
vexly punétured, roughifh. It is a native of Tartary, and
found under dead carcafes, which have been dried in the fun.
It makes a certain noife by rubbing its fhells together ; the
body is black and opaque.

Loneires. Head and thorax black ; the fhells are pale
teftaceous, with a common black lunule ; the hind-legs are
very long. It is found at the Cape of Good Hope.

C. Feelers cylindrical ; the club of the antenna tunicate.
Species.

CepHatotes. The body of this is roundifh and black.
It inhabits the drieft deferts of Europe, under ground. The
body is {mooth, black, fub-opaque, without wings ; the tho-
rax Is convex and margined ; it has no fcutel ; the fhells are
fcarcely longer than the thorax ; the legs are formed for dig-
ging ; the mandible is falcate, toothed within.

Banxsui. Body oblong, and of a grafly-green colour.
It is a native of Norfolk ifland. The antennz are fhort,
black, perforated at the tip; the head has a raifed triangle
in the middle ; the mandible is large, recurved, truncate,
emarginate, hairy and ferruginous within ; the thorax is fub-
punctured, the edge is defleéted on each fide at the angle ;
the fhells are a little rugged, not joined ; the legs are brafly ;
the fhanks are toothed.

D. Feelers unequal ; the fore ones fubclavate ; the hind ones
Jiiform.

Reticutatus. Black; fhells reticulate and grey. It
is a native of Madagafcar. Head and thorax are black,
immaculate ; the abdomen is ferruginous.

Unrrormis. Black, immaculate ; this alfo inhabits Ma-
dagafcar.

We have now given an account of the chief {pecies of this
very extenfive genus ; and fo great is the fingularity of ap-
pearance in many kinds, that fcarcely can any imagination
conceive a {tructure of horn, or procefs which is not exem-
plified in fome of the tribes.

ScaraBzus Tardipes, the Slow beetle. We have a very
fingular account of the longevity of this animal, given by
Mr. Baker from his own obfervation ; which lived two
years and a half without any vifible food or drink. It feems
probable that it received fufficient nourifhment from the
particles floating in the air; and it is poffible that lizards,
fnakes, &c. when they live fo long without any vifible food,
are {upplied in the fame manner.

We know that the Egyptians had a very high veneration
for the beetle. This appears not only by the account hif-

torians give of its being one of their deities, but by the
many images we find of it among their antiquities. As
thefe were a wife and learned people, we cannot fuppofe
they would, without fome reafon, pay fo much regard to fo
contemptible an animal as this appears to be ; and it is very
poffible they might have difcovered this property of its
living in this manner without food, and thence efteem ita
fymbol of the deity. It is not known how long Mr. Baker’s
beetle would have lived in this manner with him; for it at
length got away, while a carelefs fervant took up the glafs
to wipe it. Phil. Tranf. N° 457, p. 447.

Scarapxus Vorax, the cankerworm. The laft term is
ufed in the tranflation of our bibles to fignify a very de-
ftructive infeét, of the nature of the locuft, and ufually
mentioned as its companion. The Septuagint gives it the
name Sexx0-, bruchus, a name fignifying an animal which
makes a great noife, as this infect does both in eating and
in flying. We generally underftand by this-word a reptile,
but it certainly means no other than that fort of beetle
which we call the cockchaffer, or dor ; 2 flying infe&, very
remarkable for the humming noife it makes with its wings
when in motion, and which, when it is found in fwarms
fitting upon the hedges, makes a continual noife in eating,
like the fawing of wood. This creature deferves very well
to be placed with the locuft, as a deftroyer of the fruits of
the earth.

In another part of the Old Teftament, the fame word
bruchus is tranflated /ocuft, or beetle ; and this explains the
rationale of that odd claufe in the Jewifh law, where Mofes
tells the Ifraelites, “ thefe ye may eat of: every flying
creeping thing that goeth upon all four, which have le
above their feet to leap withal upon the earth; even thefe
of them ye may eat: the locuit after his kind, and the bald
locuft after his kind, and the beetle after his kind, and the
grafshopper after his kind.”

It has appeared very ftrange to many, that among the
pure and clean foods, the beetle, and fuch other dry and
nalty reptiles, fhould be recommended in {cripture as
wholefome food for man; but there appears reafon on the
fide of this when thoroughly confidered. It is very evident
that neither the Jews, nor any other people, would eat fuch
infe&s as thefe, while any thing better was to be had ; but
as they had lived in a country often vifited by locuits and
thefe cockchaffers, which might at fome time eat up all the
fruits of the earth, then in the want of thefe the prophet
tells them they might eat up the devourers themfelves, and
yet be clean. So alfo it appears that we are to underftand
what we are told of St. John the Baptift, that he fed on
locufts and wild honey ; for it was in the defert that he eat
thefe, where no other food was to be had.

The poor people of Ireland have tangs us, that the
prophet advifed his people to a wholefome food in this text ;
for fome years ago, when the county of Galway, and other
neighbouring parts, were fo infefted with this vermin, that
the whole face of the country was deftroyed by them, and
the trees {tripped of their leaves and fruits, as much as in
the depth of winter; the poor people, wanting other food,
eat the vermin themfelves that had done the mifchief; and
the cockchaffers, which are doubtlefs what is meant by
Mofes under the name of the beetle, as they are truly of
the beetle kind, were found to be a very good and whole-
fome food. See the preceding article.

It is very probable alfo that this kind of beetle, fo
famous for devouring the fruits of the earth, is that kind
to which the Egyptians paid divine honours, and for which
they had fuch Tigh veneration, that they frequently en-
graved its figure on their obelifks; though the antiquaries

give

i

SCA

ive a very different account of it, fuppofing that the
beetle was held facred by them, as being an hieroglyphical
zeprefentation of the fun. This feems a very forced con-
jecture ; whereas nothing can be fuppofed more natural than
that a nation, addicted to polytheifm, as the Egyptians
were, and in a country frequently fufferg great mif-
chief and fearcity from {warms of devouring infects,
fhould, from a ftrong fenfe and fear of evil to come, give
facred worfhip to the vifible authors of their fufferings, in
hopes to render them more propitious for the future. The
fame Egyptians, we very well know, worfhipped the other
great deitroyer of their country, the crocodile ; and the
Romans, a much more civilized people, built a temple to
the difeafe which raged moft among them, the fever.

The ignorant people among the Irifh, when the vait
{warms of thefe beetles firft appeared among them, were of
the fame turn, and rather reverenced than deltroyed them ;
faying, that they were the ghofts of their dead friends
killed at the battle of Achrim, who were come in this
form to’ pefter and annoy their heretical enemies, the
Englifh Proteitants. They even thought that the Englith
families fuffered more by them than the Irifh; but this was
only becaufe tke grounds of the former were better im-
proved, and the creatures found plenty of better food
there. Phil. Tranf. N° 234.

Scaragzus, in Conchology. See Heix and Concuo-
LOGY.

Scaranzus, ia Ichthyology, a name given by Gaza to that
fpecies of f{parus, which is called by others the cantharus.

SCARAWAY, in Geography, one of the {maller He-
brides. N. lat. 57° 30/. W. long. 7° 1!

SCARBA, or Sxarpa, one of the Hebrides, or Weftern
iflands of Scotland, comprehended in the parifh of Jura
and Colenfay, and county of Argyle, is fituated at the
northern extremity of the ifle of Jura. It isa very rugged
and mountainous ifland, about three miles in diameter in
pas Rl Saran Between it and Jura lies the famous Corry-
vreckan, or gulf of Breacan, which is no lefs an object of
terror to mo navigators, than were Scilla and Charybdis
to thofe of antiquity. It is occafioned by the concuffion
of oppofing tides, and in ftormy weather affumes an afpect
of terrible ndeur. The Statiftical Account of Scot-
land, by fir John Sinclair, 8vo. vol. xii. 1794.

SCARBOROUGH, Sir Cuantes, in Biography, an
eminent phyfician and mathematician, was born about the
year 1616. After the ufual claflical education he was ad-
mitted of Cains college, Cambridge, in 1632, and took
his firft degree in arts in 1636. He was then elected toa
fellowfhip, and commencing A.M. in 1639, he took pupils.
In the mean time, intending to purfue medicine as his pro-
feffion, he applied himfelf to all the preparatory ftudies
neceflary for that art. Mathematics Eaeatel, one of
thefe ftudies: and the profecution of this fcience having
obtained him the acquaintance of Mr. (afterwards bithop)
Seth Ward, then of Emanuel college, they mutually affifted
each other in their refearches. Havin met with fome dif-
ficulties in Mr. Oughtred’s «« Clavis MatHemstica,” which
appeared to them infuperable, they made a joint vifit to the
author, then at his living of Aldbury, in Surry. Mr.
Oughtred treated them with great politenefs, being much
gratified to fee thefe ingenious young men apply fo zealoufly
to thefe ftudies, and in a fhort time fully refolved all their
queftions. They returned to Cambridge complete matters
of that excellent treatife, and were the firlt that read lec-
tures upon it there. In the enfuing civil wars, Mr. Scar-
borough became likewife a joiat fufferer with his fellow-
ftudent for the royal caufe, being ejeéted from his fellow-
fhip at Cains. Upon this reverfe of fortune he withdrew

Vou. XXXI.

SCA

to Oxford, and entering himfelf at Merton college, was in-
corporated A.M. of that univerfity, 23d of June, 1646.
The celebrated Dr. Harvey was then warden of that col-
lege, and being employed in writing his treatife « De Gene-
ratione Animalium,” gladly accepted the affiftance of Mr.
Scarborough. The latter alfo became acquainted with
fir Chriftopher Wren, then a gentleman commoner of Wad-
ham college, and engaged him to tranflate “ Oughtred’s Geo-
metrical Dialling” into Latin, which was printed in 1649.

Upon leaving Oxford, and taking the degree of do¢tor
of phyfic, Dr. Scarborough fettled in the metropolis, where
he practifed his profeflion with great reputation. In the
College of Phyficians, of which he was a fellow, he was
particularly refpe€ted as a man of uncommon talents; and,
in 1658, by the fpecial appointment of the prefident, he
introduced, with an elegant Latin fpeech, the marquis of
Dorchefter for his admiflion into the college that year. In
the mean time Dr. Scarborough began to read his highly
celebrated anatomical le€tures at Surgeons’ Hall, which he
continued for fixteen or feventeen years, and was the firft
who introduced geometrical and mechanical reafonings upon
the mufcles. : ‘

Such extraordinary merit did not efcape the notice of
king Charles II., who conferred on him the order of knight-
hood in 1669, and at the fame time appointed him his
principal phyfician. He was nominated to the fame honour-
able office by his majefty’s brother, which he held both be-
fore and after his acceflion to the throne; and he alfo
ferved king William in the fame capacity. He was like-
wife appointed phyfician to the Tower of London, and held
that office till his death, which occurred in the latter part
of the reign of king William, or in the beginning of that
of queen Anne. Sir Charles Scarborough was married and
left a fon, who was created door of civil law at Oxford,
in Auguft, 1702. In 1705, this gentleman printed in folio,
from his father’s manufcript, “* An Englifh Tranflation of
Euclid’s Elements, with excellent explanatory Notes.” Sir
Charles alfo wrote “ A Treatife upon Trigonometry ;”
« A Compendium of Lily’s Grammar ;”” and * An Elegy
on Mr. Abraham Cowley.” WHutchinfon, Biographia
Medica. ;

ScARBOROUGH, in Geography, a borough and market-
town in the eaft divifion of the wapentake of Pickering-
Lythe, North Riding of Yorkfhire, England, is fituated on
the coaft of the Northern or German ocean, at the diltance
of 40 miles north-eaft from York, and 218 north from Lon-
don. It is conjectured by Hinderwell, from the etymo-
logy of its ancient name, Scearburgh, to have been “ a
Saxon town on a Roman foundation.’ If, however, a
town really did exift previous to the Norman conquett, it
muft have fuffered total deftruétion during the inroads of
the Danes, as no mention is made of it in Domefday
book. ‘The firft authentic record in which it is noticed,
is a charter by Henry IJ., which grants unto the burgefles
of Efcardeburgh all the fame “ cuftoms, liberties, and ace

uittances, which the citizens of York enjoyed through all
the land in the time of Henry I.”” ‘This charter was con-
firmed by king John, and alfo by his fucceflor, Henry III.,
who added many new privileges. The fame was done by
Edwards II. and I11., Richard II., and every fucceeding
fovereign down to James I.: and under a charter from the
latter, the town is now governed by a corporation, con-
filling of two bailiffs, two coroners, yur chamberlains, and
thirty-fix common council-men, clafled into three benches, or
twelyes; befides a recorder, deputy recorder, town-clerk,
and inferior officers. Scarborough firlt fent members to
parliament in the reiyn of Edward I. and has done fo, with
{carcely any interruption, ever fince. ‘The bailiffe are the
4 I returning

SCARBOROUGH.

returning officers. The market-days are Thurfday and
Saturday, weekly ; and there are two annual fairs, on Holy
Thurfday, and the 22d of November.

The old town of Scarborough appears to have occupied
much lefs extenfive limits than the modern town, and to
have been built clofe to the fhore. The reafon of this
is obvious: the former owed its importance to its trade and
fitheries, while the latter is fupported almoft entirely by
the celebrity of its mineral waters, and the falubrity of its
fituation. The earlieft defcription we have of this town is
in the Itinerary of Leland, vol. i. fol. 66. His words are:
“ Scardeburg toune, though it be privilegid, yet it femith
to be yn Pibering. Lithe, for the caitle of Scardeburgh is
countid of the jurifdi€tion of Pikering, and the fhore from
Scardeburgh to the very point of Philaw bridge by the fe
about a yj miles from Scardeburgh toward Bridlington is of
Pikering-Lith jurifdiétion. Scardeburgh, wher it is not
defendid by a warth and the fe, is waullid a litle with fton,
but moft with diches and waulles of yerth. Newburgh

ate meately good, and Aldegate very bafe. The toune
Rondith hole on a flaty clife ; and fhoith very fair to the
fe fide. Ther is but one paroche chirch in the. town of
our Lady joyning almoft to the caftelle. It is very faire
and is ifled on the fides and crofs iflid, and hath 3 aun-
cient towres for bells, with Pyramides of them; wherof
2 toures be at the weft end of the chirch, and one yn the
midle of the crofs ifle. Ther is a great chapelle by fide of
the Newborow Gate. Ther were yn the toun three howfis
of Freres, Gray, Blake, and White.”

The town of Scarborough itands in the recefs of a fine
bay, and rifes from the fhore in the form of an amphi-
theatre. In the upper town the ftreets are {pacious and
well paved, and have the advantage of excellent flagged
footways on each fide. The Rettee particularly thofe in
Queen’s-ftreet, Newborough, and Long-Room-ttreet, have
a handfome appearance. The new buildings on the cliff alfo
lay claim to the fame praife, and according to Hinderwell
are ‘¢ unrivalled in beauty of fituation.”? Thefe buildings,
which are chiefly appropriated as lodging-houfes, have in
front a fine terrace, elevated nearly a hundred feet above
the level of the fands, and command a variety of delightful
profpe&ts. The fhops are numerous, and well ftored with
every article of luxury or ufe. In the vicinity are feveral
gardens with public walks, which for a trifling fub{cription
afford a pleafant and healthful amufement. There is alfo
an aflembly room and a theatre, which are open during the
fummer on alternate evenings.

Scarborough, as we are informed by Hinderwell, an-
ciently contained four churches, dedicated refpectively to
St. Nicholas, St. Thomas, St. Sepulchre, and St. Mary.
All of them, however, are now demolifhed, except the latt,
and even of it a fmall part only remains, and is chiefly of
modern ereétion ; but the extent of the old church may yet
be traced by an inquifitive fpectator. From the defcrip-
tion of Leland, before quoted, it appears to have beena
fpacious and magnificent ftructure. The abbot of the
Ciftercian monaltery here was retor of it, and the vicar
was appointed by him and removable at his pleafure. There
are feveral marble nonuments in this church, but none of
them commemorate perfons of particular note. ‘The dif-
fenting places of worship in Scarborough are, a chapel for
Independents, a Baptift, and a Roman Catholic chapel, a
mecting-houfe for Quakers, and another for Methodilts.

The aggregate amount of the tonnage of fhipping be-
longing to the port is eftimated at 30,000 tons. ‘The ex-
ports are corn, butter, hams, bacon, and falt-fifh ; the im-
ports, coals from Newcaltle and Sunderland, timber, deals,

hemp, flax, and iron from the Baltic; brandy and geneva,

from Holland; wine from Portugal; and groceries and <
variety of drefs articles from London. The harbour is
extenfive, and is capable of receiving veffels of the largeft
tonnage; but its fituation unfortunately expofes it to be
warped up with fand. As it is the only haven of confe-
quence between the Humber and Tynemouth, it is much
reforted to by veffels navigating this coaft in ftormy weather.
Fifth of different kinds are abundant here, and might be
rendered a profitable branch of trade. The monattic efta-
blifhments in Scarborough were four priories and two hof-
pitals. The firft of thefe priories was founded in the reign

of Henry I1I., for monks of the Ciftercian order, and

continued to fubfift till the general fuppreffion of alien
houfes, when it was granted to the monattery at Bridlington.
The fecond priory, for Francifcan, or Grey friars, was
founded in the fame reign; as was likewife the convent for
Dominican, or Black friars. The former was much en-
larged by the munificence of Edward II.; and the latter
is faid to have owed its origin to Henry Percy, earl of
Northumberland. The fourth priory was of the Carmelite
order, and was founded by the monarch laft mentioned.
The hofpitals were dedicated to St. Thomas and St.

Nicholas, and were both of them built and endowed Da

the burgefles of Scarborough. That of St. Thomas fti
remains, and is appropriated as an afylum for aged and in-
firm perfons. The other charitable inftitutions in Scar-
borough are an amicable fociety, which clothes and educates
about feventy boys and girls; a feaman’s hofpital, erected
in 1752, and fupported by a contribution of fixpence per
month paid by the owner of every fhip belonging to the
port, for each perfon on board during the time the fhip is
at fea, or in a¢tual fervice ; a {pinning {chool, inftituted in
1788, which maintains about twenty girls; alfo feveral
friendly focieties and Sunday fchools.

The mineral Spa of Scarborough, to which its prefent
profperity is chiefly owing, is fituated on the iea-fhore,
clofe to the fouthern extremity of the town. It was firft
difcovered by a Mrs. Farrow in 1620, but no ciftern for
collecting the waters was ere¢ted till 1698. After that,
however, it rapidly rofe into celebrity, and {till continues to
maintain its high character for the cure of all forts of chro-
nic and cutaneous difeafes. There are two wells, one called
the fouth and the other the north well, the waters of which,
upon analyfis, have been found to contain the following in-
gredients.

The fouth well, or purging water:

Grains.
Vitriolated magnefia - - 128
Muriated magnetia - - 16
Carbonate of lime - = - 28
Carbonate of iron - - ~ 2.6
Vitriolated lime - - - 58.4
Muriated natron . - - 4

237

Carbonie acid gas 98 ounces fer gallon.
The north well, or chalybeate water :

Vitriolated magnefia “ ~ 98
Muriated magnefia - =) Linea
Carbonate a " = 61.5
Carbonate of iron - Fe _ 3
Vitriolated lime “ . . 54.4
Muriated natron - - - 2.1
233

Carbonic acid gas 100 ounces per gallon.
The

SCARBOROUGH.

The water of the fouth well has a gentle aperient property ;
that of the north does not affe&t the bowels, but paffes off
generally by urine. The latter is confequently more bracing,
and is preferred in all cafes of general weaknefs and relaxation.
The Spa is under the management of a fuperintendant, ufually
called the governor, who is appointed by the corporation,
and whofe duties are to receive fub{criptions, and to preferve
order. A certain number of poor widows are likewife
conftantly in waiting to prefent the water.

The caftle of Scarborough, the ruins of which occupy
the fummit of a lofty promontory on the eatt fide of the
town, was built about’ the year 1136, by William le Gros,
earl of Albemarle and Holderneffe, a nobleman of Norman
extraction, who poffeffed large eftates in this vicinity. In
the time of Henry II., however, it was feized by the
monarch, and ever after continued to be a royal fortrefs.
Its government was efteemed an office of fuch diftinGion,
that the appointment was folicited by the higheft nobility and
prelates. It was firft held by Roger, archbifhop of York;
but nothing of importance occurs in its hiftory till the
reign of Edward II., when we find that that monarch’s
favourite, Piers de Gavefton, fought refuge here from the
perfecution of the rebellious barons. The earl of Pembroke
was difpatched by the confederates to befiege the cattle,
which Gavefton defended for fome time with great bravery ;
but he was ultimately compelled to furrender from the want
of provifions, and thus fell into the hands of his enemies,
by whom he was beheaded, in contravention of the articles
of capitulation, and in defiance of the laws of the kingdom,
and of the refpe¢t due to the fovereign. About fix years
later, Scarborough caftle was befieged by the Scots under lord
Douglas, who had fignalized himfelf in many rencounters,
but particularly at the battle of Bannockburn. In 1377
Mercer, a daring Scotch pirate, was committed prifoner to
this fortrefs, but contrived to effeé his releafe for a trifling
ranfom. His fon, in revenge for the infult of his father’s
imprifonment, entered Scarborough harbour, and carried off
feveral fhips in triumph.

In the time of the rebellion, ufually denominated the
Pilgrimage of Grace, inthe year 1536, Scarborough caftle
was befieged by a part of the fanatical army under Robert
Athe, but their efforts to reduce it were rendered unavailing
by the gallantry of its governor fir Ralph Eure, or Evers.
During Wyatt’s rebellion againft queen Mary, one of his
partizans, Mr. Thomas Stafford, fon of lord Stafford,
contrived to make himfelf mafter of this fortrefs by ftra-
tagem, but he retained poffeflion of it only for three
days, when it was retaken by the earl of Weftmoreland,
who conveyed the chief prifoners to London, where they
were fhortly after tried and executed for treafon. Subfe-
quent to this event there are no memorable incidents upon
record relative to the caftle, till the breaking out of the civil
war between king Charles 1. and his parliament. Duriag that
unfortunate period, however, it was twice befieged and taken
by the parliamentary forces. The firlt of thefe fieges was be-
gun by fir John Meldrum, on February 18, 1644, and, ac-
cording to Hinderwell, lafted till July 22, 1645, when the

ifon furrendered upon honourable terms to fir Matthew
Rim: fir John Meldrum having been killed in an affault
on the 17th of May previous. Sir Matthew was appointed
overnor for the parliament, and on his death, in 1647, was
ucceeded by colonel Boynton, who afterwards declared for
the co 4 fn confequence of this the caftle fultained another
fiege of nearly three months, at the end of which the go-
vernor was forced to furrender, chiefly in confequence of
the mutinous conduét of the garrifon.
In the year 1745 Scarborough caftle underwent fome

flight repairs, anda confiderable quantity of military ftores
was depofited therein. Atthe fame time, the ditches which
protected the town were cleared out, and nearly 100 pieces
of cannon were mounted on different batteries, manned
chiefly by feamen. At prefent there are two batteries for
the protection of the harbour and fhipping, one on the
northern and the other on the fouthern fide of the caftle«
ard.

The lofty promontory on which the ruins of the ancient
caftle are fituated, is bounded on the north, eaft, and fouth
fides by the ocean, and rifes nearly three hundred feet, in
perpendicular height, above its level. Its weftern fide is
likewife bold and lofty, and completely commands the town
and bay by its fuperior elevation. On this fide is the only
entrance to the area of the ca{tle, which contains in all about
r5acres. The firft approach is through a gateway, within
which are the remains of an outwork, anciently called the
Barbican. Interior to this outwork is a bridge, thrown
over a deep and broad fofle, and condu@ting by an eafy afcent
to the keep tower, a very lofty fquare building, with an em-
battled parapet. The walls are twelve feet thick, and cafed
with f{quared {tones ; and the mortar, having been applied in a
fluid ftate, has acquired a confiftency by age, which renders
it as impenetrable and durable as ftoneitfelf. The different
{tories in this ftruéture have been vaulted ; and private paf-
fages are vifible in fome of the intervals of the cafing of the
walls. The windows are formed by femi-circular arches,
fupported by round pillars. «The area of the ballium,?’
fays Hinderwell, ‘« where the tower is fituated, contains more
than half an acre of ground. It is feparated from the in-
ternal part of the caltle-yard by a ditch, and a mound fur-
mounted witha wall. Near to the weftern wall, on plough-
ing out this ground in the year 1783, a pavement of neat
{quare brick was difcovered, and a fire-place of grit-ftone.
Here was alfo a deep well; but whence it was fupplied with
water cannot at prefent be afcertained. In the ballium were
moft of the habitable buildings belonging to the caftle, and
adjoining it were the towers mentioned by Leland, contain-
ing the queen’s lodging. ‘The embattled wall, which has
defended and adorned the fummit of the hill on the weftern
fide, continues hence to the fouthern extremity of the caftle-
yard. It is flanked with numerous femi-circular turrets, with
chinks and openings, whence they difcharged their arrows
and other miffiles. Thefe are haftening to decay, and ex-
hibit a {cene of venerable ruin.”

According to the parliamentary returns of 1811, Scar-
borough contains 1712 houfes, and a population of 7067
perfons, befides about 500 failors.

The vicinity of Scarborough, fays Hinderwell, is agreeably
diverfified with hill and dale, exhibiting a variety of romantic
profpe&s. To the weftward the country is highly culti-
vated, and forms a ftriking contraft to the bleak and
barren hills an the fouthand north. The rides in the imme-
diate neighbourhood of the town are truly delightful, parti-
cularly that to the weftward, whence the road gradually
afcends to a terrace elevated 500 feet above the level of the
fea, and commanding views over a va{t extent of country.
From this fituation the ancient village of Walfgrave, or
Falfgrave, is very confpicuous. It ftands at the diftance of
about a mile to the welt of Scarborough, and ee a
jult claim to high antiquity, being mentioned in Domefda
book as having belonged to Totti, earl of Norlin berlidd,
previous to the conquelt. It is alfo ftated in the fame work
to have had afoke or jurifdiction of very confiderable extent.
It is vow atownbhip, containing about 500 inhabitants.
Seamer, a village fituated three miles to the fouth-welt of
the town, formerly enjoyed the privileges of a weekly market

4:2 and

SCA

and fairs, but the market has been abandoned for many
years. Filey isa {mall fifhing town on the coatt, eight miles
fouth of Scarborough, where the herring fifhery is profe-
cuted with great {pirit. Two miles inland thence is Hun-
manby, anciently the head of a barony, and a market-town,
though now only a village. Inthe parifh church is a monu-
ment, or cenotaph, in honour of various members of the
Ofbaldefton family, fome of whom were interred here. It
exhibits a full-length figure of Piety, with a palm-branch
in her right hand, refting her foot upon a fkull, and leaning
penfively over an urn,—The Hiftory and Antiquities of
Scarborough and the Vicinity, by Thomas Hinderwell,
4to. York, 1798. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xvi.,
by John Bigland, 8vo. 1813.

ScARBORUUGH, a poft-town of America, in the ftate of
Maine, and county of Cumberland, fituated on the fea-coatt,
between Pepperel-borough and cape Elizabeth ; incorporated
in 1658, and containing 2094 inhabitants; 123 miles N. of
Botton, and 8 miles S.W. of Portland.—Alfo, a townfhip
in the E. riding of the county of York, in Upper Canada,
fronting lake Ontario.

ScaRBOROUGH, a town and fort in the ifland of Tobago.

ScarzorouGH Gove, a harbour in Chebuéto bay, on the
fouthern coaft of Nova Scotia, on the middle of the W.
fide of Cornwallis ifland, five or fix furlongs broad.

ScarporouGH Shoal, a fhoalin the Chinefe fea, about 18
miles long from N. to S. and fix broad. N. lat. 15° g!.
E. long. 117° 51!. ;

ScarnorouGu Water. (SeeScarporouGH.) The water
of this medicinal {pring has been the fubject of great contefts
and difputes among medical men ; all allowing it confider-
able virtues, but fome attributing them to one ingredient,
others to another. -Dr. Witty alleges that its material princi-
ples are alum, nitre, and vitriol of iron; but though this au-
thor declares, that thefe principles are all to be feparated out
of it, Dr. Tonftall, on the other hand, affirms, that it has no
vitriol of iroa in it, but a ftone powder and a clay, leaving
{and at the bottom of the veffel ; and therefore that it is apt
to breed the ftone, and is bad in the gout, jaundice, and all
other difeafes, where indurations of the parts, or {tony
concretions in the body, are the caufe; and this author
feems to {peak very experimentally, when he alleges that
he never had any fymptoms of the ftone till he drank the
Scarborough water, but acquired that difeafe during the
courfe of it.

Alum-ftone diffolved in water is always found to yield
a purple tinéture with galls, and therefore the colouring an
infufion of this or other vegetable fubitances by the Scar-
borough water, which is by all allowed to contain this ftone,
is no proof of any vitriol of iron being contained in it,
other than fuch a {mall portion of it as is always found in
this alum-ftone. All waters, which have diflolved iron,
will yield vitriol as a falt from that metal, on evaporation.
The cliffs about Scarborough yield abundance of falt in
fhoots and effervefcences, plainly owing to the waters of
the {pring ; yet all thefe are. nitro-aluminous, none of
them at all vitriolic, If the Scarborough water is fet
by fome days, after it is taken freth from the f{pring, it
precipitates a fediment ; which being examined 1s found
aot to be of a ferruginous nature, but a mere glebe of
alum.

Upon the whole, the virtues of alum and vitriol are fo far
different, that it muft be eafy to fee which of the two falts
the water partakes molt of, by its virtues; but as to the
ftony matter, which the one of thefe difputants calls an
infipid clay, and the other a fandy ftone, itis no other than
fpar, which is contained in all water ; and which has been

S$ CA

in general fo far from being accufed of breeding the ftone in
the bladder, that the general confent of mankind has feemed
to efteem it acure for that diforder. The fpar, in the form
of the lapis Judaicus and oftracites, and the very waters
which are fo impregnated with it as to encruft every thing
with it that is put into them, are given for the cure of this
difeafe. Phil. Tranf. N° 85. ;

The waters of Scarborough are chalybeate and purging.
Of thefe there are two wells, both impregnated with the
fame principles, in different proportions; though the purging
well is the moft celebrated, and the water of this is ufually
called the Scarborough water. When thefe waters are
poured out of one glafs into another, they throw up a
number of air-bubbles; and if they are fhook for fome
time ina phial clofe ftopped, and the phial be fuddenly
opened before the commotion ceafes, they difplode an elaitic
vapour, with an audible noife, which fhews that they abound
in fixed air. At the fountain they have a brifk, pungent,
chalybeate taite; but the purging water taites bitterifh, which
is not ufually the cafe with the chalybeate one. They lofe
their chalybeate virtues by expofure, and by keeping ; but
the purging water the fooneft. They both putrefy by keep-
ing ; but in time recover their fweetnefs. Four or five half
pints-of the purging water drank within an hour, give two
or three eafy motions, and raife the fpirits. The like quan-
tity of the chalybeate purges lefs, but exhilarates more, and
palles off chiefly by urine. Thefe waters have been found
beneficial in heétic fevers, weaknefles of the ftomach, and
indigeftion ; in relaxations of the fyftem ; in nervous, hyt-
teric, and hypoghondriacal diforders ; in the green-fickneis,
{curvy, rheumati{m, and afthmatic complaints ; in gleets, the
fluor albus, and other preternatural evacuations, and in ha-
bitual coftivenefs. Elliot on Mineral Waters, p. 187.

SCARCELLINO, Lo, in Biography, the cognomen of
a painter, whofe real name was Ippolito Scarfella. He
was born at Ferrara about the year 1560. He obtained
the firft rudiments of his art from his father, Sigifmondo
Scarfella, and afterwards went to Venice and ftudied Paolo
Veronefe principally, though he did not negleé& Baflano.
From thence he vifited Bologna and Parma, to view the great
works of the Lombard {chool. The improvement he de-
rived from thefe careful refearches, led him to great fkilful-
nefs and efteem; and he was employed, on his return to
Ferrara, in painting numerous pictures for the churches
and convents there. In the church of Sta. Maria Novella,
there are three fine pi€tures, reprefenting the Annunciation,
the Vifitation to St. Elizabeth, and the Affumption. One
of his largeft works is in the Benedictine convent in Fer-
rara, viz. the Miracle at Cana.

The pidures of this ingenious painter are diltinguifhed
by their fulnefs, freedom, and clearnefs: they were duly
appreciated, and, as he was rapid, are numerous throu hout
Lombardy. He painted a few admirable portraits of emi-
nent perfons; though it was but rarely he could be pre-
vailed upon to prattife that branch of the art. He died in
1621, aged about 61. :

SCARCEMENT, in Agriculture, a term fignifying the
{mall pedettal, or off-fet, left in conftructing earth fences,
at the bafis of them. They fhould con(tantly have a good
projection, fo that the fence may not flip. See Fence.

SCARDA, in Geography, an ifland in the gulf of Venice.
N. lat. 44° 35’. EE. long. 14° 48!.

SCARDAMULA, a town of European Turkey, in
the Morea, near the gulf of Coron.

SCARDONA, a'town of European Turkey, in Dal-
matia, the fee of a Greek bifhop, furrounded with walls,
and defended by two forts. It was formerly the oat 2

whic

———— eee

Pe Eee

SCA

which the eftates of Liburnia aflembled, and the moft cele-
brated town of Liburnia, fituated on the left of the mouth
of the Tiluris. It was bought by the Venetians in 1411,
and taken from them by the Turks in 1522; 28 miles N.
of Trau. N. lat. 44° 28’. E. long. 16° 20/.

SCARDUS Mons, in Ancient Geography, the name of a
mountain which feparated Illyria from Dalmatia and Meefia,
according to Strabo.

SCARE, Great and Littl, in Geography, two rocks
near the coait of Scotland, at the entrance into Luce bay ;
6 miles E.N.E. from the Mull of Galloway. N. lat. 54° 44'.

Scare, The, a harbour of the county of Wexford, Ire-
and, near the entrance of which formerly ftood the town
of Bannow, and on the northern part of it the abbey of
Tintern. It is now completely choaked by fand, being
fordable at low water, and is fcarcely acceffible to fifhing-
boats. Near this earl Strongbow landed on coming to
fubdue Ireland.

Scare-Crow, in Ornithology, the name of a bird of ‘the
jarus, or fea-gull kind, called by authors /arus niger, or the
black gull, and by the Germars brandvogel and meyvogel.
Thisis the Sterna fifipes of Linnzus. It isa very long-winged
bird, and of the fize of the common blackbird; the head,
neck, breaft, and belly, as far as the vent, are black ; be-
yond it white ; the male has a white {pot under its chin ;
the back and wings are of a deep afh-colour; the tail is
fhort and forked; its legs are fhort and red. It is common
about the fea-coalts, and feeds on infeGis and {mall fifth. It
is a well-tafted bird.

Thefe birds frequent frefh waters ; breed on their banks,
and lay three {mall eggs of a deep olive colour, much
{potted with black. They are found, during {pring and
fummer, in vafl numbers, in the fens of Lincolnfhire, where
they make an inceflant noife. Birds of this fpecies are alfo
feen very remote fromland. Pennant.

SCARENA,, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Maritime Alps, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftri& of Nice. The place contains 1177,
and the canton 7232 inhabitants, on a territory of 70 kilio-
metres, in 10 communes; 6 miles N.E. of Nice.

SCAREWALSH Brinez, a village of the county of
Wexford, Ireland, which gives name to one of the baronies.
It has a bridge over the river Slaney; 4 miles S.W. from
Ferns.

SCARFED, in the Sea a pee Language, is the fame
as pieced, or faftened, or joined in, and denotes a particular
method of uniting two pieces of timber together by the
extremitics.

When two pieces of timber are joined together, fo that
the end of one goes over the end of the other, being tapered
fo that the one may be let into the other, and become even,
they are faid to be Pe il fuch are the heel-pieces. But
when the ends of the two pieces are cut fyuare, and put
together, they are faid to butt to one another; and when
another piece is laid upon and faftened to both, as is the
cafe in all the frame-timbers, this is called /carfing the
timber; and half the piece which fa{tens the two timbers
t her, is reckoned the length of the fcarf. .Murray on
Ship-Building, p. 192.

SCARL, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Lycia,
with a fountain of the fame name.

SCARIFF, in Geography, a pott-town of Ireland, in the
county of Clare, fituate on a {mall river, which falls into
Lough Deirgeart, an expanfe of the river Shannon, two
or three miles below this town. It is 934 miles W. by S.
from Dublin, and about 10 miles N. by W. from Killaloe.

Scanivr, or Scarav, the largelt of the Hog Ifands, in

SO A

the Atlantic ocean, W. of Lamb’s-Head, in the county of
Kerry, Ireland. It is a high mountain in the ocean, and
has one family refident on it, who take care of fome cows,
and make a confiderable quantity of butter. On the top
of the higheit ground is a ruined hermitage.

SCARIFICATION, in Surgery, the operation of
making little cuts or punctures, in parts, for the purpofe
of taking away blood topically ; dividing enlarged veffels
tending to an inflamed part; letting fluid out of the cel-
lular membrane ‘in dropfical cafes ; or air, in examples of
emphylfema.

SCARIFICATOR, a chirurgical inftrument, ufed in
f{earification.

The {carificator is made in form of a box, in which are
fitted ten, twelve, or fixteen lancets, all perfeGily in the
fame plane ; which being, as it were, cocked, by means of
a fpring, are all difcharged at the fame time, by pulling a
kind of trigger, and driven equally within the {kin. ‘Tull
of late they ufed little fharp cutting wheels, inflead of
lancets.

The ufe of the fearificator is to evacuate the blood, and
other humours, fpread under the ikin, by making a great
number of apertures, or outlets, in it; which, being all
ftruck at once, give much lefs pain than when ftruck
fucceflively." See Cupprne. :

ScariricaTor, in Agriculture, a name fometimes applied
to a tool of the {carifying kind. See the next article.

SCARIFIER, an implement fomewhat of the hoe kind,
made ufe of both on lands in the ftate of tillage and thofe
under grafs, when intended for the latter, being fomewhat
differently conftruéted, and having frequently the names of
fward-cutters or dreflers applied to them. See Swarp-
Dreffer. :

Thefe forts of implements in the cultivation of tilla
land, have lately been found of confiderable advantaie tok
the purpofe of working over, cutting up, breaking the
earth, and clearing it to a good ‘depth. They are made
in different forms and conftructions to fuit different ufes,
and have from feven to thirteen or more teeth fixed into
wooden bulls, and which are fometimes furnifhed with a
fort of triangular feet formed of thin iron, fo as to be
fteeled, and kept quite fharp on the edges, which are five
er fix inches in length on each fide ; they are likewife, in
fome cafes, provided with low wheels, but in others are
wholly without them, and are of courfe lefs expenfive in
the conftruétion. They have in general a pair of handles
fixed on behind, by which they are direted in their work-
ing, being raifed or depreiled by the preffure of the hand.
It is proper to have them fo formed as to work to a good
depth, without being eafily thrown out of the ground by
fuch obitruéting fubftances as they may meet with. It was
formerly fuppofed that a great number of teeth were neceflary,
but it has been found by later experience that they work
better where their teeth or hoes are fewer. The number
fhould, however, perhaps be proportioned in fome meafure
to the flate of the land in refpeét to cleannefs, cultivation,
and tenacity. The author of the * Experienced Farmer’’
has advited, that where the land is foul from couch fods,
or any other caufe, the number of teeth or hoes fhould be
reduced to five or feven, two or three being placed in the
fore-bull, and four in the hindermott, increafing them to
nine as the land becomes in a fine condition.

An implement of this fort, which has been lately much
recommended, has the convenience of a chain and hook to
draw it by, with a wheel or roller to fteady it, and give
it any depth that may be required. The claws or teeth

have ferews and nuts to faften them in witb, that they may
c

SCA

be taken out with eafe if it be neceflary to repair them, or
to increafe or diminifl their number. The handles by which
the {carifier is worked are made firm and ftrong. The bolts
paffing through the two crofs-bars to let the roller up and
down are alfo ttrong. A hammer and wrench are neceflary,
in order to {crew the nuts on the claws or teeth. In the
three bulls which form the machine, the fore one has plates
at each corner to ftrengthen them, and the two hinder ones
have iron plates at the top and bottom for itrength alfo,
and to keep the claws from wearing the holes wider than
they ought to be. There are two caps to keep the bulls
together in a tight manner. There Fre crofs-bars alfo to
ftrengthen the bulls and fix the roller in its place. It is
obferved, that the chain by which this fcarifier is drawn,
enables the perfon that holds it to work it better, than if
it were drawn by a beam like a plough, and occafions alfo
lefs draught by the power being nearer to the claws: the
machine goes more freely than it would if fome of the claws
were in the fore-bull, the fole ufe of that bull being to
draw by. When this fcarifier was made in a triangular
form, and with the fame number of claws, it was apt to go
on its head; or by raifing the hindmott claws out of the
ground, to work frequently at one corner only. The claws
are formed at the bottom with a point, fo as to pufh a ftone
out of the way before the broad part can meet with any
obftruétion, which makes the machine cut with much greater
eafe. As to their width at the foot, they may be made to
cut all the land more clearly than a plough, if required, where
thiftles, fern, &c. grow, and the claw is fo formed by its
crooked direétion as to raife every obftru€tion to the top,
rock excepted,

Sometimes another implement of the fame kind is formed
purpofely to fearify and hoe wheat on four-furrow work.
It is made from a double mould-boarded foot hoe-plough,
and was the invention of the Rev. Mr. Prieft, of Scarning
in Norfolk. Uponthe beam of this hoe-plough are fixed two
fearifiers, or hoes, as they are wanted. ‘There is likewife a
{mall iron bolt, with a nut and {crew at one end, fixed into
a cap upon the beam, to be taken out at pleafure. At each
end of this bolt is fixed a chain two feet long, and hooked
to plates of iron. Thefe plates are flat, and eight and a
half inches long, two and a half broad, and moveable
upon ftaples faltened into the beam. Upon the ends of
thefe flat plates of iron are fixed two pieces of wood, of a
parallelepiped form, two feet three inches long, two
and a half broad, and two and a’ half thick, which
are moveable by means of hooks (upon the wood of the
fame breadth as the iron-plates), and eyes upon the iron-
plates; the points of which mark the diftances to which
the expanding mould-boards are opened, viz. abdut ten
inches from one to the other. At the proper diftanées
beyond thefe points are cut grooves through the paral-
lelepiped pieces of wood for the fcarifier and hoes to be
fixed in: and there are two flat pieces of iron three feet
long, two inches broad, and half an inch thick, pafling
through grooves in each parallelepiped, and in the grooves
through which they pafs are {crews to faften them. Thefe
irons do not communicate with the beam of the plough.
At two points, on each fide of the beam, are hung weights,
fuch ag may be neceflary to make the fecarifiers or hoes
to do their work properly. ' It may be noticed, that the
fcarifiers and hoes are nearly the fame as thofe ufed upon
all implements ot this kind. But there are many other
implements ot this nature. Mr. Cook has invented a til-
lage fearifier, which confifts of a diagonal beam, in which
are fixed a number of narrow fhares or hoes. ‘This tool is
capable of being wrought with broad triangular fhares,

SCA

when it has the title of a /cuffer ; and when the whole is
complete with the different fhares, it is denominated a
cultivator.

An ufeful tool of this kind has been defcribed, with
a figure, in the Agricultural Report for the County of
Suffolk, by the Rev. Mr. Lewis of Thorndon, who ob-
ferves, that a Mr. Hayward, of Stoke-Afh, in that neigh-
bourhood, has invented a machine for dettroying weeds,
and clearing ploughed lands for feed, which, by the expe-
rience of four years, is found more effectual than any other
inftrument hitherto ufed for that purpofe. Haying lately the
opportunity of {peaking to Mr. Hayward concerning it, he
inquired whether he would apply for a patent, or take any
method to make it public? Upon his replying in the
negative, he requefted his permiffion to take a plan and
deicription of it ; which he has inclofed, and begs leave to
fubmit it to the infpeCtion of the Agricultural Society of
that diftriét, as the fpeedieft mode of introducing to univerfal
practice an inftrument fo eflentially ferviceable to farmers.
The extirpator, or the fcalp-plough, as it is generally
termed, is drawn by two or three horfes, according to the
quality of the foil, and the depth you put it to. The land
fhould be once ploughed over before this inftrument be
ufed. If it has laid a fummer fallow, the ufual way is to
work it twice over with the extirpator, about two inches
deep at the firft, and about four inches deep, and crofs-ways
at the fecond time, which, with running a harrow once
over, will not only effectually deftroy all weeds; but alfo
render it very fine, and ready for the drill or fowing.
Lands being ploughed in autumn, and intended for {pring
crops, are by this inftrument prepared for feed, it is faid,
better than by any other method ever tried in this country.
It will work in all lands, and may be handled by any perfon
that knows how to manage a plough. — It will eafily fearify
or plough one acre per hour, and not in the leaft diftrels
the horfes. A farmer aflured him that he could with three
horfes work up fixty acres per week with it; and that a
perfon having the extirpator, may, with only three horfes,
farm as much land as would, without it, require fix horfes.
It is not cuftomary in this part of the country to work
oxen, but he is confident it will anfwer the fame purpofe
where oxen are ufed. It is advifeable to work all lands that
are over-run with weeds, twice over: Some lands may
poflibly require three times drefling. Some time fhould
elapfe, for the weeds that are cut to die, before it is {earified
or ploughed a fecond time. It is now adopted, he fays,
by molt farmers in that neighbourhood; and its great
utility will be attelted by every perfon that -has ufed it.
Many, whofe prejudices again{t every novelty induced them
at firft to ridicule the idea, are now as warm in praifing it,
and acknowledge it to be the greateit improvement in
agriculture they have ever witnefled,

Befides thefe, a great number of fcarifiers of other kinds
have been invented and contrived fo as to fuit different
praétical purpofes and applications in the bufinefs of tillage,
as may be feen in various works on agriculture lately
publifhed.

SCARIFYING, the operation of working lands by
means of {carifiers. In this way the ground, when under
tillage, is broken down and reduced into fine order, as well
as freed from roots and other weeds, and the ufe of the
plough rendered lefs neceflary. It is an ufeful [peowas in
cafes of the heavier fort of turnip foils, in rendering the
furface, which has been acted upon by frofts in winter, fine
and mellow in the {pring for the fowing of barley or other
grain crops, without having recourfe to the plough, which,
in fuch cafes, is apt to turn down the fine pulverized furface-

9 mould,

SCA

mould, and bring up the fterile clung bottom, and thereby
afford a lefs favourable bed for the reception of the feed
than was previoufly provided. The improved fyftem in
fuch inftances is therefore to apply this pra¢tice in the place
ef ploughing. In this bufinefs the implements muit be
fuited to the nature ef the work and ridges. That of
Mr. Cook with a caft-iron beam, or any other that is
heavy enough, may be employed, the horfes walking only
in the furrows, without any trampling of the land. In this
operation the earth fhould always be ftirred to the full
depth that the plough has gone, whether it be four, five,
or more inches. The mould is of courfe well loofened and
broken. And in order to effe& the work in a perfect manner,
in fome cafes the operation may be required two or three
times, efpecially where the land is of the more tenacious
kind. Where the teeth or hoes are fo fixed in the bulls of
the tool that is made ufe of in the procefs, as to cut at
certain diftances in every direétion, almoft the whole of the
foil may be ftirred in the execution of the work.

And in various cafes, where lands have undergone one
ploughing, they may be rendered afterwards perfectly fine
and clean, by having recourfe to proper fearifying. Thisis
a fort of tillage which has lately gained much ground in dif-
ferent arable diftri@s, and which in various inftances may
fave much in rendering the more expenfive practice of
ploughing unneceflary. It may likewife be obferved, that
the procefs of {carifying, or cutting over the furface of grafs-
lands, has been afferted to be a prattice of confiderable
utility in the improvement of the fward of fuch forts of
land, particularly where they have manure applied imme-
diately afterwards. See Swanp-drefer.

ScariryinG Machine, an implement made ufe of for the

urpofe of fcarifying land. See Scaririer.

SCARLATINA Fesris. See Scarlet Fever.

SCARLATTI, Atessanpro, Ir CAVALIERE, in Bio-
graphy, born at Naples in 1650, but ftudied at Rome
under Cariflimi. He was, however, the founder and fup-
port of the Neapolitan fchool of counterpoint. ‘The firit
dramatic compofition of this elegant, profound, and original
compofer, was ‘“ L’Onefta negl’? Amore,” 1680. This

reat ma{ter has many titles to a durable fame, not only for
Fis numerous operas and exquifite cantatas, which are fill
as much fought by the curious, as, during his life, they
were by the public at large, but for eftablifhing the fame of
the Neapolitan fchool of counterpoint, which has fince been
fo fertile in great muficians, among whom his admirable fon,
Domenico Scarlatti, and his elegant fcholar, Adolfo Hatte,
detto il Saffone, are diftinguifhed by all the lovers of mufic,
who are able to feparate original genius from froth and
bombaft; and tafte, propriety, and exquifite fenfibility,
from noife and Gothic barbarifm. The early produétion
of Scarlatti was performed in the palace of Chriltina, queen
of Sweden, who, after her abdication in 1654, had chofen
Rome for the place of her refidence, where fhe died 1688.

We found in the archives of la Chiefa Nuova at Rome,
a manufeript oratorio, compofed by Aleffandro Scarlatti,
to which there is an admirable overture, in a ftyle totally
different from that of Lulli, which, at this time, was the

eneral model for all Europe. The modulation and expref-

ion of the recitatives, many of which are accompanied with
interftitial fymphonies, are admirable, and fuch as might
be expected from a man of his original, bold, and cultivated
genius, who always difdained infipidity, and the common
pallages of the times. ‘The airs are almott all pathetic, as
the fubjeét required, and richly accompanied.

He was the moft voluminous and molt original compofer
of cantatas that has ever exilted in any country to which

S“@A

our inguiries have extended: indeed this mafter’s genius
was truly creative ; aud we find part of his property among
the ftolen goods of all the beft compofers of the firft forty
or fifty years of the lait century. Of this fertile mufician’s
cantatas we were fo fortunate, when at Rome, as to pur-
chafe an original manufcript, containing thirty-five in his
own hand-writing, that were chiefly compofed at Tivoli,
during a vifit to Andrea Adami, maeftro di cappella to the
pope, and author of “ Offervazioni per ben regolare il Coro
de i Cantori della Cap. Pontif.,”? publifhed at Rome, 1711.
Each of thefe cantatas is dated ; by which we learn that he
frequently produced one every day for feveral days together,
and that the whole number was compofed between the
month of OGober, 1704, and March, 1705.

The violoncello or viol di gamba parts of many of his
cantatas were fo excellent, that whoever was able to do
them juftice was thought a fupernatural being. Geminiani
ufed to relate, that Francefchelli, a celebrated performer on
the violoncello at the beginning of the lait century, accom-
panied one of thefe cantatas at Rome fo admirably, while
Scarlatti was at the harpfichord, that the company, being
good Catholics, and living in a country where miraculous
powers have not yet ceafed, were firmly perfuaded it was
not Francefchelli who had played the violoncello, but an
angel that had defcended and aflumed his fhape.

Durante, his difciple, after his deceafe, formed feveral
of his cantatas into duets of the moft learned, expreffive,
and curious kind, which the greateft ma{ters now livin
continue to [tudy, and teach to their favourite and mot
accomplifhed fcholars. y

Of more than three thoufand cantatas, which Aleffandro
Scarlatti compofed, and of which he was himfelf author of
the words to a great number, none have ever, to our know-
ledge, been printed, except one book mentioned by Wal-
ther, that was publifhed at Amfterdam, under the title of
«« Cantate a una e due Voci;”? nor of his other vocal pro-
duétions, except a book of ‘* Motetti a una, due, tre, e
quattro Voci con Violini,’’ printed likewife at Amfterdam :
but thefe are now become more fearce than manufcripts.

There is a madrigal of the elder Scarlatti’s compofition
for four fopranos, and a contralto for bafe, inferted in the
fecond part of Padre Martini’s ‘* Saggio di Contrappunto,”’
which furpafles in art and ingenuity all the compofitions of
that kind which we have feen. The expreflion of the words
and paflages of imitation are {hill elegant and new.

The opera of « Pyrrhus and Demetrius,’’ performed at
our lyric theatre in 1708, the firlt in which Nicolini fung
in England, was compofed by Aleffandro Scarlatti; and
fix concertos for the church were printed in London, by
Benjamin Cook, in. New-{treet, Covent-Garden, early in
the latt century: but when they were compofed, it is not
eafy to difcover. They were too grave, perhaps, for fe-
cular ufe; but the fugues, harmony, and modulation, are
very fine. He compofed 109 operas, befides mafles and
oratorios ; and it was the opinion of Hafle and Jomelli,
that his compofitions for the church, though but little
known, were the belt of his produétions, and perhaps the
beft of the kind. He was the firlt who accompanied re-
citative with two violins and a tenor, befides the violoncello
and harpfichord ; but the interflitial fymphonies, or ritor-
nelli, in feenes of great interelt, were fir introduced by
Rinaldo di Capua.

He continued writing for the ftage to the lait year of his
life. In 19707, “ Tl Trionfo della Liberta,” for Venice ;
1712, “ Ciro,” for Rome; 1713, “ Mitridate Eupatore,”
for Reggio; 1716, “ Carlo Re d’Allemagna,”’ for Naples;
1718, © T’elemaco,’’ for Rome; 1720, * Turno ales

or

SCA

for Rome; and in 1724, ‘ Marco Attilio Regolo,” for
Bologna. ;

He died at Rome the latter end of 1725. He was ap-
pointed maeftro di cappella, and knighted, by Chriftina,
queen of Sweden. One of his fons, whom we found out at
Rome, but in great iy bea obferving that we were very
curious concerning his father and brother Domenico, gave
us the patent of his father’s knighthood.

ScarLatt1, Domenico, fon of the Cayaliero Aleffandro,
the moft illuftrious, original, fanciful, and powerful per-
former on the harpfichord in Europe, during the early part
of the lait century. After ftudying fome time with his fa-
ther at Naples, he was placed under Gafparini at Rome;
and after compofing feveral fuccefsful operas for that city,
his fame as a harpfichord-player having extended to Lifbon,
he was invited thither to inftruG the infanta; with whom,
when that princefs was married to the prince of Afturias,
he went into Spain, where he continued in great favour
during the reft of his life. His two firft books of Leflons
were compofed for his patronefs, the princefs of Adturias,
afterwards queen of Spain, and firit printed in large folio
at Venice, and dedicated to his royal patronefs. Rofein-
grave was the editor of the Englith edition, who having
met with him in Italy, was enthufiaftically attached to him
and his works. See RoskInGRAVE.

On his return to England, he brought over his opera of
« Narciflus,’’ had it executed at the Opera-houfe, and con-
duéted the performance.

The Leffonz of M. Scarlatti were in a ftyle fo new and
brilliant, that no great or promifing player acquired notice
of the public fo effectually by the performance of any other
mufic. Kelway kept them in conftant praétice; Worgan
played no other mufic, except his own. In fhort, every
one played, or tried to play, Scarlatti’s.

From fir Benjamin Keene and M. l’ Augier, the imperial
phyfician at Vienna, we obtained much information con-
cerning Scarlatti and Farinelli, during their refidence in
Spain. M.lAugier, an excellent judge of every {pecies
of mufic, was intimately acquainted with Scarlatti, who,
at 73, compofed exprefsly for him a great number of harp-
fichord leffons, among which there were feveral flow move-
ments, of which kind there was not one in the two volumes
publifhed by Rofeingrave. They were compofed in 1756,
when Scarlatti was too corpulent to crofs his hands as he
ufed to do; fo that thefe are not fo difficult as his more
juvenile works, which were compofed for the queen of
Spain, when infanta of Portugal, and princefs of Atturias.
Scarlatti ftequently told M. ’Augier, that he was fenfible
he had broke through all the ales of compofition in his
leffons ; but afked if his deviations from thefe rules offended
the ear? and, upon being anfwered in the negative, he faid,
that he thought there was fearce any other rule, worth the
attention of a man of genius, than that of not difpleafing
the only fenfe of which mufic is the objeé.

There are many paflages in Scarkatti’s pieces, in which
he imitated the melody of tunes fung by carriers, muleteers,
and common people. He ufed to fay, that the mufic of
Alberti, and of feveral other modern compofers, did not in
the execution want a harpfichord, as it might be equally
well, or perhaps better, expreffed by any other inftrument ;
but as nature had given him ten fingers, andas his inftru-
ment had employment for them all, he faw no reafon why
he fhould not ufe them. See 1’ Averer.

Farinelli informed us, that Domenico Scarlatti, an agree-
able man in fociety, was fo much addiéted to play, that he
was frequently ruined, and as frequently relieved in his dif-
trefles by his royal patronefs, the queen of Spain, who,was

S.CA

conftant in her admiration of his original genius and incom-
parable talents. He died in 1758, at 76, in very bad cir-
cumftances, leaving a wife and two daughters totally un-
provided of a fubfiftence;. but the queen extended her
liberality to the family of her old mafter, and fettled a pen-
fion upon them, nearly equal to Scarlatti’s own court ap-
pointment. He had been knighted in Portugal before he
went to Spain, where he was always in great favour with
Ferdinand VI.

ScarLaTtTi, Gruszrpr, grandfon of Aleflandro Sear-
latti, born at Naples in 1748, and brought up to mufic.
He went at.an early age to Vienna, where he gained a great
name by his compofitions for the theatre, as well as for the
harpfichord. He died in that city in 1776. His works
are diftinguifhed bya light and pleafing ftyle, peculiar to
the Scarlatti family. He fet, in 1747, “ Pompeo in Ar-
menia ;” in 1752, ‘ Adriano in Siria;’? in 1754, ‘ Ezio ;”
and for: Venice, the fame year, “ L’Effetti della gran
Madre Natura;”? in 1756, “ De Guttibus non eft dif-
putandum ;”’ for the fame place, and in the fame year,
« Chitutto abbraccia nulla Stringe ;”’ in 1757, ‘ Il Mer-
cato di Malmantile,” which was. much applauded; fame
year, * L’Ifola difabitata,”’? for Vienna; « Icipile;??
“ Narcifo ;”? in 1759, ‘ La Serva fcaltra;” and in 1760,
« La Clemenza di Tito.”

SCARLET, in Dyeing, one of the fix kinds of good
reds. See Rep, Cotour, and Dyerine.

Menage derives the word from the barbarous Latin /ear-
leta, or fearletum ; which he deduces farther from the-Ger-
man /charlach, or the Flemith /carlaken ; whence the Englifh
have. formed /carlet, the Italians fearlate, and the French
their eftarlate. Others derive it from the Celtic /cuarlera.
Dalechampius will have it called /carlatum, by corruptien,
for cafeuliatum, a barbarous word introduced into Spain ;
others fetch it from the Arabic yxquerlate.

There are two kinds of fcarlet; the one given with
kermes, or fearlet-grain; the other with cechineal. See
Bow-Dye.

Scarter Bean, in Gardening, the common name of a
plant of the kidney bean kind. See PuasroLus.

Scarver Cardinal Flower. See LoBeLta. ©

Scarvet Convolvulus. See lpomma.

Scartet Horfe Chefnut. See Pavia.

Scarvet Ja/min. See Bienonia.

ScarLet Lupin. See Latruyrus.

‘Scarvet Lychnis. See Lycunis.

Scarzet Oak. See QuERcus.

Scartet° Sparrow, in Ornithology. See TANAGRA

Rubra.
SCARLINO, in Geography, a town of Etruria; 9 miles.
S. of Mafla. >

SCARNAFIGI, a town of France, in the department
of the Stura; 22 miles S. of Turin.

SCARO, a town and capital of the ifland of Santorin,
in the Grecian Archipelago. N. lat. 36° 28'.. E. long.
25°. 261.

SCAROON, a lake of Wafhington county, New Jerfey ;
491 miles from Wathington. :

SCARP, one of the Hebrides, or Weftern iflands,
is fituated at the entrance of Loch Refort, which forms
part of the boundary between Harris and Lewis. It
confifts of one lofty compact mountain, whofe bafe mea-
fures about nine miles in circumference. It is feparated
from Harris by the Sound of Scarp, which is nearly a mile
broad at high water. Sinclair’s Statiftical Account of
Scotland, vol. x. 8vo. 1794.

Scare, in Fortification, the interior flope of the ditch of

3 a place ;

lO Ee

SCA

a place; that is, the flope of that fide of a ditch which is
next to the place, and faces the champaign.

The fearp commences from the liziere, or foot of the
rampart. The fcarp is oppofite to the counterfcarp, which
is the other fide of the ditch. :

Scarp is alfo a term in Heraldry, probably derived from
the French efcharpe, fignifying the fearf which military
eommanders wear for ornament.

It is borne fomething like a battoon finifter; but is
broader, and is continued out to the edges of the field;
whereas the battoon is cut off at each end. He beareth
argent a {carp azure.

SCARPANTO, in Geography, an ifland in the Medi-
terranean, 18 miles long and 6 wide, anciently called Car-
pathos ; which fee. It is generally mountainous and rocky,
and has féveral quarries of marble. Its principal town on
the weft coaft has a good harbour. »The ifland is fubjeé& to
the Turks, and the principal inhabitants are Greek Chrif-
tians. N. lat. 35° 44/. E. long. 26° 50’.

SCARPE, a river of France, which rifes near Aubigny,
in the department of the Straits of Calais, pafles by Douay,
St. Amand, &c. and runs into the Scheldt at Mortagne;
7 miles §.S.E. of Tournay.

SCARPERIA, a town of Etruria, celebrated for its
manufacture of feel; 13 miles N. of Florence.

SCARPHE), in Ancient Geography, a town of Greece,
according to Paufanias, on the confines of the territory of
the Orchomenians.

SCARPONNA, or Scarpona, a fortified place in
Gallia Belgica, according to Diodorus Siculus. In the
Itinerary of Antonine, it is marked on the route from
Durocortorum to Divodurum, between Tullum and Divo-
durum. It is mentioned in hiltory, on occafion of the vic-
tory gained by Juftinus, general of cavalry, over the Ale-
manni, in the year 336. It is the prefent village of Char-

, on the Mofelle.

SCARRON, Paut, in Biography, was born at Paris
in 1611. His father obliged him, again{t his own inclina-
tion, to enter into the ecclefiattical ftate. At the age of 24
he vifited Italy, where he freely indulged in licentious plea-
fures. After his return to Paris he perfifted, notwith-
ftanding the habit which he wore, in a life of diffipation,
till 2 long and painful difeafe convinced him that his confti-
tution was completely undermined. In the year 1638 he
was attending the carnival at Mons, of which he was a
canon. Having one day put on the drefs and appearance
of a favage, he was followed by a troop of boys into a
morafs, ples he was kept fo long, that the cold penetrated
his debilitated limbs, which became contraéted in fuch a
manner, that he ufed to compare his body to the fhape of
2Z. Notwithftanding his lofs of the ufe of thofe legs that
had been accuftomed to dance fo gracefully, and of. thofe
hands that could formerly play the lute and paint fo well,
he continued gay and cheerful; and his turn for pleafantry
and wit not only fupported him under his calamities, but
drew to him the belt company of the French metropolis.
The lofs of his fortune by a law-fuit was added to his other
misfortunes, and he was under the neceffity to flatter car-
dinal Mazarin to obtain a penfion. He was alfo recom-
mended to the notice of the queen, of whom he requefted
the title of “ Valetudinarian”’ to her majecfty : the {miled at
the coriceit, and he ever afterwards affumed the title of
* Scarron, by the grace of God, unworthy valetudinarian
to the queen.’”” Some time after this he offended Mazarin,
and loft hie penfion. He then attached himfelf to the prince
of Condé, and celebrated his vidtorica. He at Coath
formed the refolution of marrying mademoifelle d’Aubigne,

Vor. XXXII.

SCA

afterwards the celebrated madame de Maintenon, who was
at that time only 16 years of age. It was then, fays Vol-
taire, confidered as a great acquifition for her to gain for
a hufband, a man disfigured by nature and difeafe, who had
rendered himfelf impotent by excefs, and who was almoft
deititute of fortune. On his marriage, the notary afked
what dowry he would fettle on his wife? he replied, <¢ Im-
mortality : the names of the wives of kings die with them,
but the name of Scarron’s wife fhall live for ever.” He
was in one refpeét a true prophet, but her immortality de-
pends on her later title of madame Maintenon, and not on
her relationfhip to Scarron. After marriage, Scarron be-
came a new man: he was more decent in his manners and
conyerfation ; and his gaiety, when tempered with modera-
tion, was ftill more agreeable. But, in the mean time, he
lived with fo little economy, that his income’ was foon re-
duced to a {mall annuity, and what is called his marquifate
of Quinet, by which he meant the revenue which he derived
from his publications, that were printed by a perfon of the
name of Quinet. He was accuftomed to talk to his fu-
periors with great freedom, and in a very jocular ftyle. In
a dedication to the king, he thus addreffed his majetty :
“I fhall endeavour to perfuade your majeity, that you
would do yourfelf no injury, were you to do mea {mall
favour ; for in that cafe I fhould become gay. If I fhould
become more gay, I fhould write {prightly comedies; and
if I fhould write {prightly comedies, your majefty would
be amufed, and thus your money would not be loft. All
this appears fo evident, that I fhould certainly be convinced
of it, if I were as great a king as I am now a poor unfor-
tunate man.”” The conftitution of Scarron was too much
broken to admit of a long life, and he feems to have been
pleafed in the profpeé of a releafe from his miferies. « My
children,” faid he to his friends who furrounded his dying
bed, «I fhall never make you weep fo much as I have made
you laugh ;”’ and juft before he expired, he faid, « I could
never have thought it was fo eafy to make a jeft of death.”
He died in 1660, at the age of 50. In his epitaph, made
by himfelf, he defires, in a mixture of the comic with the
pathetic, that the paflengers would not awaken, by their
noife, poor Scarron from the firft good fleep he had ever
enjoyed.

His works have been colleted and publifhed by Bruzen
de la Martiniere, in 10 vols. 12mo. 1737. Thefe are,
1. The Eneid, traveftied in eight books. 2. Typhon, or
the Gigantomachia. 3. Comedies. 4. A comic Romance
in profe, which is faid to be the only one of his works that
deferves attention. §. Spanifh novels tranflated into French.
6. A volume of letters. 7. Poems, confifting of fongs,
epiftles, itanzas, odes, and epigrams. Scarron took plea-
fure in reading his works to his friends, as he compofed
them ; he ufed to call it trying them. Segrais and another
perfon coming to him one day, “ Take a chair,’”’ he faid,
“ and fit down, that [ may examine my Comic Romance.”
When he faw them laugh very heartily, he faid he was fae
tisfied: “ my book will be well received, fince it makes
perfons of fuch delicate tafte laugh.’”? He was not dif-
appointed in his expectations: the Romance had a great
run.

SCARSDALE, in Geography, a townfhip of America,
in Weft Chetter county, New York, bounded wett by
Broux river, and fouth by North Rochelle.

SCARSOUGH, a mountain of Scotland, in the S.W.
part of the county of Aberdeen, on the borders of Perth.
fhire, faid to be 412 feet above the level of the fea,

SCARVAGHL or Scanvacu Pafi, in the county of
Dowa, Ireland, formerly an incumbered pafs through bogs,

4K Tome

SCA

woods, and morafly grounds; now a fmall, neat village, on
the Newry canal, where there is a large falt-work. It is
two miles N.W. from Loughbrickland, and is on the border
of the county of Armagh.

SCARUS, in Ichthyology, a genus of fifhes of the order
Thoracici, of which the generic chara@er is as follows : in-
ftead of teeth, it has {trong bony procefles, crenate at the
edges ; the gill-membrane is five-rayed, the covers are very
entire ; the lateral line is moftly branched. Gmelin has enu-
merated and defcribed eight {pecies, but Dr. Shaw has given
a larger number.

Species.

Rivuvatus. The jaws of this fifh are continuous,
{mooth, ferrate, with the mo{t minute teeth at the edges ;
the teeth are approximate, filiform, growing a little lefs
from the middle of the lip. It is defcribed by Dr. Shaw as
the bluetfh fcarus, {potted with black, and marked by lon-
gitudinal yellow undulations. It inhabits the Red fea, and is
faid to arrive at a great fize : the feales are fmall ; the dorfal
and anal fin occafionally recumbent in a channel ; the tail is
forked ; and it is fuppofed to feed principally on the different
kinds of fuci; it is confidered as an edible fifth, though the
{pines of the rays will occafion wounds that produce a tem-
porary inflammation. The firft and laft rays of the ventral
fins are fpinous: it has a {pine before the dorfal fin.

Sretiatus. The body of this fpecies is oval, ftellate,
with contiguous nearly hexagonal fpots. It inhabits Arabia,
among the banks of coral; is about fix inches long; it
feeds on herbs ; the feales are round and {mall. The fith is
edible. The crown is flattifh, with two longitudinal obtufe
ridges, converging on the fore part ; the eyes are more re-
mote, the iris yellow ; the noftrils on each fide are double ;
the lips are equal ; the gill-covers {caly, {triate behind; the
vent 1s covered with the ventral fins; the lateral line is not
confpicuous ; the pectoral fins are obtufe, yellowith, the reft
are black ; the dorfal and anal are obtufe behind ; the tail is
two-lobed, obtufe, with yellow blotches at the fide.

Guospan. The tail of this fith is even ; the jaws are
whitifh ; the head is marked with patches, and the outer edges
of the fins are of a greenifh-blue. It inhabits Arabia. The
body is whitifh ; the fcales have each a tranfverfe blueith
itripe in the middle, and one at the bafe, alfo with brown
longitudinal ftreaks.

The lips are yellowith at the edge, at the bafe they are of
a greenifh-blue ; the lateral line is double, one near the back,
and the other commencing before this finifhes, and running
ftraight through the middle of the tail; the peétoral fins are
obtufe and hyaline, the upper edge at the bafe only blue,
the reft are of a reddith-violet : the dorfal and anal fins have
a greenifh-blue longitudinal {tripe at the bafe; the tail is
truncate and greenifh behind.

FerruGineus. This, as its name denotes, is of a rutty
brown ; the jaws and outer edge of the fins are green; the
tail is even. The fhape of this fpecies is an oblong-oval.
The jaws are bifid in the middle, thin at the edge, and in
colour of a blue-green: the lateral line is double, one near
the back, the other in the middle, terminating at the end of
the firft : the peétoral fins are of a rufty-brown; the ven-
tral and anal violet, but the dorfal and caudal are yellowith,
the latter with long lanceolate fcales at the bafe. It is an
Arabian fith,

Sorpipus. This alfo is of a ferruginous brown colour,
but the jaws are reddifh ; fins very dusky, and the tail is
even. Like the laft, it inhabits Arabia. The body is nar-
rower and oblong ; the jaws are cleft, a little moveable,
not covered by the lips, and thia at the edge ; there are two

SCA

ftraight lateral lines, one beginning where the other ends;
the central fins are violet ; the dorfal brown, with nine fimple
rays; the anal fins have three fimple rays, and the pe€toral
with one, which, like the caudal, are yellowifh. It is found
in Arabia.

Harip. In this the tail is forked, but the bafe is covered
with feales in the middle. It inhabits Arabia. The body
beneath is of a pale violet; the fcales are large and lax.
The head and throat naked ; the jaws are eminent and cleft,
the crenate edges in the lower fometimes enlarging into two
fubulate teeth ; the upper lip is the longer of the two, with
a fort of canine-tooth on each fide ; the femal line is ftraight,
double, one near the back, beginning at the nape, and reach-
ing to the end of the dorfal fin, the other in the middle,
reaching from the middle of the fide to the tail; the peéto-
ral fins are yellowifh ; the dorfal and anal are of a pale
violet ; the tail alfo is lunate and violet.

Scutossert. This {pecies is of a golden colour, with
five brown {pots on each fide ; the back is brownifh ; the
tail isnearly even. This fifh is an inhabitant of Java; the
fize.of the Cyprinus rutilus ; the body is comprefled, broad,
covered entirely with large fcales. The head is thicker

than the body, and flattifh above; the eyes are large, and

the iris tawny ; the mouth is afcending ; the lower jaw is the
longer of the two; the palate is bony, rough, and the arch
carinate ; the tongue is flat, pointed, the tip loofe, the pec-
toral fins are pointed: the ventral triangular, joined to the
belly by a perpendicular membrane, with a lanceolate feale
on each fide; the dorfal finisa little flefhy at the bafe, ex-
tending half way down the back.

Viripis. This {pecies, as its name denotes, is of a green
colour, but the lateral line is interrupted. It is found in the
Japanefe feas, and is the fize of a carp; the head is ttraight,
the fcales large, and each bordered with deeper green than
the ground colour; the tail is flizhtly fublunated. Such
are the Linnean fpecies given by Gmelin: the following
are added by other naturalilts.

Crerensis, or Green Scarus, is yellowifh beneath, with
very large fcales, a ramified lateral line, and fublunated tail.
The general length of this fifh is about twelve inches ; the
body is broad and floping, the fcales are extremely large,
the lateral line is ramified on every fcale over which it pafles.
It is a native of the Mediterranean, and particularly about
the coaft of the ifland of Crete, whence it derives its {pecific
name: it is, however, found in the Indian feas.

Crorcensts, Rofe-red Scarus, with a filvery abdomen,
is mentioned by Bloch as about ten inches long ; it is fhaped
like a carp ; the colour is of a {trong rofe-red, with filvery
abdomen; in fome fpecimens there are two longitudinal
filvery ftripes on the body; the f-ales are large; the fins
pale ; the tail is flightly lunated. It is a native of the Indian
feas.

Psirtacus, Greenifh Scarus, marked with yellowifh
lines, and with the edges of the tins, abdominal band, and
variegations of the head, blue. The jaws of this {pecies are
blue; the fins purple, edged with blue; the back is
ftraighter in the outline than the abdomen; the tail rifing,
{potted with blue, and fubfurcated; the lateral line is
double and ramified; the eyes are {mall. It is a native of
the Arabian feas.

Purruratus, the Dull-green Scarus, is marked with
three longitudinal ferrated purple bands on each fide, aud
has a blue‘abdomen. It is called by Forfkal the purple
{carus. It isa very elegant fpecies, and much allied in its
habits to the labrus. ‘The body is abruptly lanceolate ;
the purple {tripes on the body are ferrated at their upper
edges ; the pectoral fins are green, and marked at the tip by

12 a large

SOAR:

a large lunated, marginal black {pot ; the dorfal and anal
fins are marked towards the bafe by a purple ftripe ; the
ventral fins are blue ; the tail is marked with longitudinal
purple fpots, and on each fide by a purple ftripe ; the fhape
is lightly rounded; the lateral line is ramified; the fcales
are lax, as in the mullet. It is a native of the Arabian feas,
and was firft obferved by Forfkal.

Nicer. This fpecies is ovate-oblong, and is called the
blackifh-brown fcarus with red lips, andthe margins of the
fins are of a greenifh-blue. It is foundin the Arabian feas.

Tritopatus, or Variegated Scarus, is charaéterifed by
its very diftin@ly trilobate tail ; the upper jaw is longer than
the lower ; the colours of the body are various; it has two
{piny rays, and fixteen foft on the dorfal fin. It is a native
of the American feas.

Rostratus. Scarus with elongated jaws, though rot
mentioned by naturalifts in general as of the fcarus tribe, and
though it differs from them in no other refpe&t, except in
having the jaws much elongated; the lower jaw is rather
longer than the upper ; the eyes are large ; the head without
feales ; the dorfal and anal fin are rather fhort ; the tail is
very large and lunated; and near it is a tranfverfe band of
a —- colour ; no lateral line could be perceived ; on the
dorfal fin are eight {piny rays. This fifk is named by Cepede,
Fleurieu, in honour of a gentleman of that name, a cele-
brated member of the National Inftitute of France.

Scarus, the name of a fea-fifh, being, in the Linnzan
fyftem, a fpecies of the labrus, (fee Lasrus Scarus,)
of which there have been feveral remarkable ‘things
afferted by the ancients, fome with and fome without any
foundation ; as that it ruminates, or chews the cud like our
oxen, &c. This Ariftotle, Pliny, Oppian, and others
affirm, but none of them of their own perfonal knowledge ;
they feém to have had it by hearfay, or elfe, as authors
often do, to have taken it from one another ; for the thing
is not true in fa&.

It has been faid alfo to be the only fifth which feeds on
herbs; and it is fo far true that it does feed on them, and
that few other fith do, but not that no others feed in the fame
manner. It has been reported alfo that this isthe only fith
that fleeps. Gefner would perfuade us, that not only this,
but many other fifh, alfo fleep. But this does not feem to
be the fa&t ; for this race of animals have no eye-brows, nor
any membrane to clofe and cover their eyes with, as other
creatures have, to which nature has allowed fleep.

The later naturalifts have defcribed three {pecies of this
fith: Rondeletius two, the /carus onias, and fcarus varius ;
and Bellonius one, which is different from both thefe, and
feems to have been the very fifh the ancients knew by this
name.

The fearus onias is a fea-fifh, found among rocks and
near the fhores. Its feales are large and very thin, and its
back of a blackifh-blue; its belly of a fine white, and is
of an oblong and rounded fhape ; its teeth are broad, not

' pointed, ax refemble thofe oF the human jaws; its eyes
alfo are large, and its head over the eyes of a fine ftrong and
clear blue.

The /carus varius is of the fhape and figure of the for-
mer, but its eyes and its belly are of a purple colour; its
tail is of a fine clear and ftrong has and the reft of its body
is of agreenifh or blucith-black; its {cales are {potted and
{peckled with dufky {pots ; its mouth is moderately large,
and its teeth broad in the upper jaw, and fomewhat pointed
inthe under: from the head to the tail, all along the ridge
of the back, there runs a row of fhort {pines, which are
conneéted at their bottoms by a membrane ; and in the mid-

» Gz

dle of the belly there are feveral purple fpots.
beautiful fifh. Randelet. de Pifc. lib. v. cap. 3.

The fcarus Bellonii, which differs from both thefe, and
feems to be the fame fifh which the ancients called by this
name, is of a mixed blueifh and red colour; its fcales are
broad and thin, andit has two tranfverfe protuberances near
the fides of the tail ; its body is rounded, but not very long ;
its teeth are {trong and obtufe, and well fitted for their office,
which is the tearing off the tough fea-herbs from the rocks,
and chewing them for food ; its mouth is but fmall, and it has
only one fin on the back, which is prickly ; its ufual fize is
about five or fix inches in length; it is accounted a very deli-
cate fifth, but is infipid, unlefs eaten with the guts, and all
that they contain. The liver and ftomach of this fifh, with
its contents, are cooked up by the Greeks into a very deli-
cate difh; the epicures among them not regarding the reft
of the fifh. Bellonius, de Pifc. p. 126.

SCARY, in Hu/bandry, a term ufed by the farmers for
a barren land, which has a poor. or thin {ward, or coat of

rafs upon it.

SCATALENS, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Upper Garonne; 25 miles N. of
Touloufe.

SCATARELLO, in Ornithology, the name of a {mall
bird of the ficedula kind, of a greyifh-brown on the back,
and a pale yellow on the breaft and belly ; its legs are black.
It feems nearly allied to the beccifago.

SCATARI, in Geography, a{mall uninhabited ifland on
the E. coaft of Cape Breton, about fix miles long, and two
broad; ferving as a fhelter to a bay from the E. and S.
called Menadou or Panadou bay; formerly called Little_
Cape Breton. N, lat. 46° 3'. W. long. 59° 35!.

SCATCH-MOUTH, inthe Manege, abit-mouth, dif-
fering from acanon-mouth in this, that the canon is round,
whereas a {catch is more upon the oval. That part of the
{catch-mouth that joins the bit-mouth to the branch, is like-
wife different ; a canon being ftayed upon the branch bya
fonceau, and a {catch by a Cadet which furrounds the
banquet. The effet of the fcatch-mouth is fomewhat
greater than that of the canon-mouth, and keeps the mouth
more in fubjeétion. Snaffles are commonly {catch-mouths.

SCATEA, a word ufed by Paracelfus for a fomewhat
hard fabulous concretion in the urine.

SCATECOKE, or Scuarecoxr, in Geography, a
townfhip of New York, in Renflelaer county; 4 miles N.
of Lanfinburg.

SCATES Corner, a cape of England, on the coaft of
Lincolnfhire, on the W. fide of the entrance into Crofs-Keys
Wahh.

SCATZACH, a river of Wurtemburg, which runs into
the Neckar, two miles above Heilbron.

SCAVAGE, Scuevaae, Schewage, or Shewage, in our
Ancient Cufloms, a kind of toll, or cuftom, exa&ed by
mayors, fheriffs, &c. of merchant-ftrangers, for wares
fhewed, or offered to fale, within their liberties. This cuf-
tom is prohibited by ftat. 19 Hen. VII. cap. 7. though the
city of London {till retains the benefit of it.

SCAVANT, Savant, a term purely French, figni-
fying learned. It is little ufed, except in the phrafe Journal
des Scavans, denoting a journal of the works of the learned,

ublifhed monthly at Paris ; being the firlt work of that
ind, and that from which all the reft have had their rife.

Menage derives the word from the Latin /apere, to be wife ;
and, on that footing, he will have it written /avant; others
from feire, to know ; and, for that reafon, write it /pepess
The latter etymology and orthography are followed by the

4K 2 Academy j

It isa very

SCE
Academy ; though all the ancient MSS. have it /evant, /a-

voir, &c.

SCAVEL Spirrter, denotes a {mall {pade, fhod only half
way, and ufed in digging clay.

SCAVENGERS, two officers chofen yearly in each
parifh in London, and the fuburbs, by the conftables,
ehurchwardens, and other inhabitants, whofe bulinefs it is
to hire perfons called ragers, with carts, to cleanfe the
ftreets, and carry away the dirt and filth thereof, under a
penalty of 4os.

The word is derived from the Saxon /caefda ; or Dutch
Jchaven, to ferape, or fave away.

All perfons within the weekly bills are to {weep the ftreets
before their doors every Wednefday and Saturday, on pain
of forfeiting 3s. 4d. and perfons laying dirt or afhes before
their houfes, incur a forfeiture of 5s. For defraying the
expences of fcavengers; con{tables, churchwardens, &c,
may make a tax, being allowed by. two juitices of the
peace, not exceeding 4d. inthe pound. Perfons' who refufe
to take upon them the office of fcavenger, forfeit 1o/.
(14 Car. I]. cap. 2. 2 W. & M. cc. 2.) _Perfons authorifed
by 22 & 23 Car. II. may order fuch parts of London
ftreets, &c. as lie before vacant houfes, to be paved and
amended, and impofe afleffments on the owners ; and fuch
authorifed perfuns may direét poits to be fet up in all paflages
within the city, to preferve foot-paths, and make affeffments
for that purpofe. (10 Geo. II. c. 22.) By 1 Geo. I. c. 48.
juitices of peace in their quarter-feffions may appoint fcaven-
gers, and order the repairing and cleanfing of {treets in any
city or market-town, and appoint perfons to make affefi-
ments, fo as not to exceed 6d. per pound per annum.

The fcavengers.are much the fame with what were anciently
called flreet-wards. The Germans call them dreckfimons,
from one Simon, a famed fcavenger of Marpurg.

SCAULEZ, in Ichthyology, the name of a fifh common
on the Mediterranean fhores, and called by authors Aep/etus
and anguel’a. ;

SCAUP Duck. See Ducx.

SCAURITSCH,, in Geography, a river of Stiria, which
runs into the Drave, two miles §.S.W. of Pettau.

SCAURUS, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Tri-
phylia, from which flowed the {mall river Jaon, E. of Sal-
mone. On the right of the Jaon, and near its mouth, were
two temples, one of Efculapius Demenetus, and the other
of Bacchus Leucyanitus, from the name of a {mall river in
its vicinity, which fprung from mount Pholoé, and ran into
the Alpheus a little above Jaon.

SCAUYACE, in Geography, a river of America, in
New York, which iffues from the N.E. corner of Seneca
lake, and feparating the townfhips of Romulus and Junius
on the N., difcharges itfelf into Cayuga lake.

SCAW, or ScAwL-HILL, a mountain of the county of
Antrim, Ireland, near its ealt coat, and a little north of
the town of Larne.

SCAZONE, in Ichthyology, aname given by Salvian and
others to the fith which we call the pricked-dog, or hound,
and the generality of authors the Galeus /pinax. It is’a {pe-
cies of faualud, diltinguifhed by the roundnefs of the body,
and having no pinnaani. See SQuates.

SCEAT, among the Saxons, a {mall coin equal to four
farthings. See Saxons.

SCEAUX, in Geography, a town of France, and prin-
cipal place of a diftri&t, in the department of the Seine; 3
miles S. of Paris. The place contains 1404, and the can-
ten 12,190 inhabitants, oa a territory of 464‘, kiliometres,
in 13 communes. q

SCE

SCELAZIUS, in Zoology, the name by which Dr. Hili
has called a genns of animalcules with vifible legs.

It is common in ditch-water, and is lefs quick in its mo-
tions than moft other animalcules. ;

SCELETON, in dnatomy. See SKELETON-

SCELLIERES, in Geography, atowa of France, in the
department of the Jura, and chiet place of a canton, in the
diftrict of Lons-le-Saulnier, 8 miles N. of it. The place
contains 1395, and the canton 7856 inhabitants, on aterri-
tory of 924 kiliometres, in 21 communes.

SCEL rYRBE, oHAoT UPS ny in Medicine, a difeafe de-
{cribed by the ancients, and charaéterifed principally by a
contraétion of the limbs ; quali cruris perturbatio.

There has been fome difference of opinion, however, a3
tothe nature of this contraétion ; fome writers fuppofing it
to be of a paralytic nature ; others deeming it a convulfive
affeGtion, refembling St. Vitus’s dance ; and others referring
it to fcurvy. Sauvages was of the fecond opinion, and has
treated of St. Vitus’s dance under the appellation of fcelo-
tyrba chorea Viti. (See Cuorea.) But the defcriptions
left by the ancients do not fupport that notion. Galen’s ac-
count would lead us to refer the difeafe to paraplegia, or palfy
of the lower extremities: for he faysthe patients are unable
to walk ina ftraight dire@tion, but move in a zig-zag line,
in confequence ab ickotiiig one foot over the other. The
learned Sennertus, however, has pointed out fome differences
between the fcelotyrbe and the proper palfy, and confiders
the f{celotyrbe as that rigidity or lofs of power in the lower
limbs, which accompanies the feurvy. He obferves, efpe-
cially, that the lofs of motion in common palfy is permia-
nent; whereas in the {corbutic paralyfis, the motion is loft
one day, and returns partially the next, and then again is
loft. Again, the common palfy attacks fuddenly, while
the latter comes on flowly, &c. (See Sennert. de Scorbuti
Signis.) This accords with the obfervation of Pliny, who
mentions the /celotyrbe as a difeafe occurring, together with
Jfiomacace (the {curvy ), among the Roman toldiers, when en-
camped on the Rhine. (Nat. Hilt. lib. xxv. cap. 3.)
There is little doubt, indeed, that this was a fymptom of
{curvy, which prevailed in low damp fituations, wherever
men were much crowded together, and ill fed ; and which
occurred alfo endemically, and even epidemically, in early
times, whenever a general dearth took place. The difeafe
was fometimes, indeed, called peffilentia ; fometimes ignis
facer ; and in later times, St. Anthony’s fire. It has alfo
been afcribed to particular articles of food, fuch as to dif-
eafed, or ergoted rye, when it was called ergot ; to the feeds
of the raphanus, fuppofed to. be mixed with corn, when it
was called raphania, &c. See Icnis Sacer, Ercor, and
Scurvy. It hasbeen alfo denominated mal des ardens, krie-
bel kranckheit, &c. from particular fymptoms.

SCEMI, in Botany, a name given by fome authors to the
carob, or {weet pipe-tree.

SCENA, Ital. ; a fcene in Mufe, is a detached portion of
an opera, fung at concerts public and private, as-a cantata.
It generally confifts of a recitative and an air, and fometimes
of two recitatives and two airs. It is, however, very infe-
rior in plan to acantata for concerts, which has a begining,
a middle, and an end. Whereas thefe unconnected fcenes
begin, and often end fo abruptly, that they convey no more
meaning to an audience than a folfeggio, or a poem would
do, if {une backwards.

SCENA, in Ancient Geography, atown of Afia, on the
confines of Babylonia, and in the fouthern part of Mefo-
potamia, in the country of the Scenite Arabs, according
to Strabo. :

Scen#&

a

h

Sy (eee eee

SCE

Scen Mandrorum, a town of Egypt, between Aphro-
iton and Babylonia, according to the Itinerary of An-
tonine. i

Scenz Veteranorum, a town of Egypt, 14 miles from
Heliopolis, according to the Itinerary of Antonine.

SCENE, Scena, in its primary fenfe, denoted a theatre,
er place where dramatic pieces, and other public fhows, were
reprefented. The word 1s originally Greek, cxnm fignify-
ing 2 éent, hut, booth, or the like, where dramatic pieces
were anciently performed.

The original fcene for aéting of plays was as fimple as the
reprefentations themfelves ; it confilted only of a plain plat
of ground, proper for the occafion, which was in fome de-
gree fhaded by the neighbouring trees, whofe branches were
made to meet together, and their vacancies fupplied with
boards, fticks, and the like, to complete the fhelter ; and
thefe were fometimes covered with fkins, fometimes only
with the branches of other trees, newly cut down, and full
of leaves.

Thus Virgil, in his Zneid :

«“ Tum fylvis {cena corufcis
Defuper horrentique atrum nemus imminet umbra.””

Upon which Servius remarks, “* Scena apud antiquos
parietem non habuit.”’

So Ovid:

« Primus follicitos fecifti, Romule, ludos
Cum juvit viduos rapta Sabina viros
Tunc neque marmoreo pendébant vela theatro
Nec fuerant liquido pulpitarubra croco.
Illic quas tulerant nemorofa palatia frondes
Simpliciter pofite {cena fine arte fuit.””

Thus alfo Caffiodorus derives the word {cene from the
elofe thade of the grove where, in the {pring-time, the an-
cient fhepherds ufed to fing aud play.

It does not appear that the ancient poets were at all ac-

uainted with the modern way of changing the fcenes, in re-
fee of the different parts of the play, but all was performed
in the fame place.

The firft things reprefented in thefe new theatres, were
what they called mimi. Thefe were a very coarfe fort of
poems, reprefenting, in ob{cene and indecent language, the
vices and indecent a¢tions of the principal people of the time.
Sophrones and Xenarchus feem to have been the firft writers
of this fort of comedy, and they ufed fometithes profe,
fometimes verfe, in thefe compofitions. After the licentious
things, thus reprefented, had given great offence to the ma-
giftracy, the poet’s hands were tied up from writing at all,
and the aétors in thefe {cenes were forbidden to fpeak. Hence
arofe a new way of entertaining the {peétators, which we {tll
continue, under the name pantomime, the fame by which they
exprefled it. In this all was reprefented in dumb fhow, and
the geftures and motions of the limbs were all they had to
reprefent the aétions of others by.

This fort of public diverfion Sas to have been in fafhion
in the days of Ariftotle, and to have been continued long
afterwards. Salmafius is of opinion, that Pylsdes was the
firft who feparated the pantomime and dancing from the

lays where the aétors {poke. But this feemy an error in

at great critic; for they feem, by the hiltorics we have
left of them, to have been reprefented fingly long before
that time, Pylades living in the time of Auguftus Cafar

Poetry and dancing were early {uppofed to have fome re-
lation to one another; the firlt was called a /peaking dance,
and the latter a dumb poem; a name afterwards, and not ull
long afterwards, given to a picture. Thus they were in-

| 688

troduced on the fame fcenes, as things naturally conneéted
together. :

Scene was afterwards more particularly ufed for the de-
corations of a ftage or theatre.

‘The ancients, we are informed by Vitruvius, had three
forts of fcenes, or fcenical decorations, in their theatres.
That in common ufe was a {paciou; front, or range of build-
ing, adorned with columns and ftatues; in which were three
large openings, through which other buildings appeared in
perf{pettive ; viz. a palace for tragedies ; houfes and ftreets
for comedies ; and foretts for paftorals.

Thefe decorations were either ver/atile, i.e. they turned
on pivots, as deferibed by Vitruvius ; or dudile, i. e. fliding
along grooves, as thofe in our theatres. And as this or that
fide, or reprefentation, was turned towards the fpeCtators,
the fcene was called a tragic, comic, or a pafloral {cene. See
feveral curious remarks on the ancient fcene, in M. Perrault’s
notes on Vitruvius, lib. v. cap. 6. See PLayHousE.

Scene isalfo ufed for the place reprefented, or that where
the action is conceived to have pafled.

One of the grand laws of the drama is, to obferve the
unity of the feene; which we more ufually call the unity of

lace.

In effe@, to keep clofe to nature and probability, the
fcene fhould never be fhifted from place to place, in the
courfe of the play. The ancients were pretty fevere in this
re{pect, particularly in Terence; in fome of his plays, the
{cene never fhifts at all, but the whole is tranfa@ed before
the door of an old mau’s houfe, whither, with inimitable
art, he brings all his actors occafionally.

‘The French, too, are very itrict in this refpe& ; but the
Englith plead for a difpenfation from the ‘rule ; which they
think confines them to too narrow bounds, and precludes
them from that variety of adventures and intrigues, without
which an Englifh audience will never be fatisfied.

However, the more judicious and accurate of our own
writers are very moderate in the ufe of this licence, and
take care not to deviate too far from probability, by fhifting
the {cene, between the acts, much farther than the perfons
ccncerned may be fuppofed to have gone in the interval.
Hence they feldom carry the fcene out of the fame town ;
though others, who owe fubjection to the ancient rules,
take larger liberties: with fome of thefe it is nothing when
a fancied fcene is in view, to fkip from Covent Garden to
Peru. The great Shak{peare is exceedingly faulty in this
refpe&, in almott all his plays.

Scene is alfo a part, or divifion, of a dramatic poem,
determined by a new aétor’s entering.

Plays are divided into a@s, and acts are fubdivided into
Sfeenes.

In moft of our printed plays a new fcene is never ex-
prefled to goat but when the place is fuppofed to be
changed, by fhifting or drawing the moveable fcene ; but
this mult be efteemed an overfight, fince, on our ftage, the
fcene 18, properly, the perfons prefent at, or concerned in,
the action on the ftage at fuch time. Whenever, therefore,
anew actor appears, or an old one difappears, the action is
changed into other hands; and, therefore, a new fcene then
commences.

It is one of the laws of the ftage, that the fcenes be well
conne&ted ; that is, that one fucceed another, in fuch man-
ner, a6 that the flage is never quite empty, till the end of
the aét,

The ancients did not allow of above three perfons on the
ftage at the fame time, excepting in the chorufes, where
the number was not limited ; but the moderns bave but little
regard to this reltriction.

SCENIC

SCE
SCENIC Games, Ludi Scenici, among the Ancients, were

entertainments exhibited on the /cena, or theatre ; including
what we now call playss of all kinds, with dancing, and
other theatrical performances.

The Romans were almott four hundred years without any
{cenic games at all. Livy obferves, that they were firft in-
ftituted in the year of Rome 392, under the confulate of
C. Sulpitius Peticus, and C. Licinius Stolo. But the
critics have obferved a miftake here in Livy; the confulate
of thofe perfons falling in the year 389, which, therefore,
is held the era of the introduétion of the fcenic games.

At firft, fome ators for thefe diverfions were fent for out
of Etruria; who, without reciting any ae danced
about to the found of in{ftruments; fo that thus far was no
more than a ball, or rather what the French call a dalled.
At length they began to rehearfe verfe ; and fatire was in-
troduced, adorned with compofitions of mufic, and accom-
panied with dances. At length, Livius Andronicus, about
the year of Rome 514, introduced the entertainments of
tragedy and comedy.

Thus, by degrees, growing more and more perfect, their

{cenical fhows were at laft reprefented with a juftnefs and
magnificence beyond any thing the world elfewhere ever faw.
The fathers, in their writings, cry out loudly again{ft the
{cenical games.
*' SCENOGRAPHY, formed from cxnvn, fcene, and yexOn,
defcription, in PerfpeGive, a reprefentation of a body ona
perfpective plane; or a defcription of it in all its dimen-
fions, fuch as it appears to the eye.

The ichnography of a building, &c. reprefents the plan,
or ground-work, of the building; the orthography the
front, or one of the fides; and the f{cenography the whole
building, front, fides, height, and all, raifed on the geome-
trical plan. For the principles and pra¢tice of fcenography,
fee PeRsPECTIVE.

ScenoGrapuy is the art of painting on feveral planes,
fo that all the different furfaces will only reprefent one obje&
or defign, and to have the fame effeé& upon the eye placed
in the point of view, as if the whole object were repre-
fented upon one plane.

This definition only fuppofes one point of view; but in
the theatre every fituation where a feat can be obtained is a
point of view ; it is therefore impoflible for the fcenery to
imprefs the fpe€tators with the fame ideas of the original
defign; and the impreffion will ¢xcite an idea of greater de-
formity, as the obferver is more remote from the true point
of view.

Such obje&ts as trees, though reprefented on detached
{cenes, may appear tolerably correét ; but as a ftraight line
cannot be made to appear as a ftraight line when reprefented
upon feyeral planes, except in one point of view ; {fo objects
that are compofed of ftraight lines cannot be reprefented on
feveral planes, fo as to appear continued, excepting from one
point Sisixw: for this reafon, a regular entablature continued
without breaks, and horizontal mouldings, is an improper
fubje& to be reprefented on feveral furfaces. A regular
budding is, therefore, an unfit obje& for the fide fcenery of
a theatre ; woods with hermitages, temples, or the like, are
proper fubjeéts, as the whole of a regular building may be
reprefented on the fame canvas; or if feveral regular parts
occur, they may be painted upon a feparate fcene, with
trees upon the margin, fo as to exhibit a good defign of
natural objects, in whatever point of view the f{pectator
may be placed.

If pieces of regular architeture are to be the objects of
satelertations buttrefles and broken entablatures ought to
be made choice of; for though fome of the intermediate

SCE

parts, fuch as cornices, battlements, &c. are continued in

{traight lines in the objeéts themfelves, and would appear to
a critical obferver placed out of the true point of view in as
many different continuations as there are feenes, yet the
errors might not be fo ftriking to the inattentive obferver,
though a competent judge, as to efcape unnoticed: unlefs
his attention was dire¢ted folely to the purpofe of difcover-
ing the defe€t, he may be as much deceived as thofe who
are unacquainted with the principles.

As to apertures, fuch as doors, windows, or other orna-
mental partsincompartments, they mutt be reprefented entire,
or two or more upon the fame {cene, and the cafe mutt be
fimilar with every fcene ; fo that the effect produced in dif-
ferent points of view, will be the expofure of a greater or
lefs portion of the intermediate parts.

And thus, by a proper choice of objeéts, the errors will
be the leaft poffible, and will be fo reduced, as not to
weaken the effe€&t of deception on the ordinary fpeétator.

Such are the difficulties that occur in modern theatres.
As to the ancient Greek and Roman theatres, they appear
to have had very little of what is now termed f{cenery ; for
that which the ancients called the fcene was a real part of
the building itfelf, which fronted the {pe€tators, and fepa-
rated that part of the theatre where the a€tors performed,
called the proicene, from that part behind the profcene to
which they retired when the performance was done, or when
a certain part was done.

' The building or fcene generally reprefented the front of
a palace, or of fome fumptuous edifice, decorated with mar-
ble columns, pilafters, itatues, and other ornaments. The
doors or paflages for the performers to enter and go off the ©
{tage were commonly three in number. Behind or within
the paflages were three triangular prifms, fixed perpendi-
cularly on their axes, fo as to be made to turn round and
fhew either of their faces to the fpe€tators. Upon the
faces of the prifms were painted fuch defigns as fuited the
fubje&t of the action, whether tragic, comic, fatirical, or
pattoral.

In this way it is evident there could be no great variety
made in the view: the principal f{cene always continued the
fame fo long as the theatre fubfifted, being a part of the
building itfelf; and all the diverfity of the profpe& being
only what could be feen through the three paflages of the
{cene, according as the different faces of the painted prifms
were turned towards the {pectators; and confidering the
{mall fkill in perfpective which the ancients had, it may
be prefumed, that the greatelt beauty of their theatres lay
more in the architecture of the building, than in the painted
or moveable {cenes.

In after-times, when perfpeétive began to be better under-
ftood, fcenery (as it is now called) was improved, and be-
came the principal ornament of the theatre, by which not
only a greater variety of profpects could be reprefented,
but alfo the great expence of erecting a real building to re-
prefent the ie was faved. f

However, at firit the difpofition of thefe painted fcenes
was very different from that, which a longer experience has
introduced ; the ftage, indeed, beyond the curtain was made
to rife gradually ; but the fide tcenes were fet parallel to
the fide walls of the houfe, only a little inclining inwards,
to lengthen the profpe&. Thefe were either one entire fcene
on sath fide, reaching from the front of the ftage to the back
of the fcene, reprefenting the fides of the fruftum of a
pyramid, or they were divided into two or more feenes upon
each fide, leaving paflages between for the ators to enter
at; but all of them on the fame fide were in one and the
fame plane; except that each of them had a return of

fome

SCENOGRAPHY.

fome breadth joined to the edge next the audience, which
return was parallel to the front of the ftage, fo as to make
each fcene have a confiderable apparent thicknefs, and re-
prefent the folid corners of houfes or buildings.

But even in this manner, there could be no variety of the
profpe&ts made with any conveniency during the time of
adting ; in regard that the fide {cenes, thus difpofed, could
not eafily be removed out of fight to make place for others :
fo that the chief alteration of the view mutt arife from the
change of the back fcene.

But as the art of perfpetive, within the lait century,
has been brought to much greater perfeGtion than formerly,
many new improvements have been made in the difpofition
of the fcenes for theatres, by which every variety may be
exhibited, fo as to make a total alteration of the profpe&
as often as is required; to the facilitating of which many

machines have been invented, as well for the eafy moving,

and fhifting of the fcenes, as for reprefenting flyings, fink-
ings, and rifings of objets; and in fome fort to make the
theatre appear as a moving pitiure: but as the machinery
is entirely diftin@ from the fcenery, and founded upon very
different principles, we fhall only confider what particularly
re the moft convenient difpofition of the fcenes, and
their conftru@ion according to the rules of peripeétive,
which is what is commonly called /cenography. E

In all dramatic entertainments the ftage 1s conftantly taken
to reprefent the floor, pavement, or ground, on which the
objects deferibed in the fcene are fuppofed to ftand, or to
which at leaft they have relation ; and this ground or floor
is always fuppofed parallel to the horizon. That part of
the ftage which lies before the curtain is generally horizon-
tal, but that part which lies beyond the curtain is made to
incline upwards.

The reafon of this is, that if the plane of that part of
the ftage which lies within the theatre were parallel to the
horizon, it could only then appear as any other floor or pave-
ment, and every object placed upon it being of its true tize
and fhape, the whole would only be a geometrical model of
what is intended to be reprefented without reference to the
rules, as there could be no apparent fore-fhortening in this
cafe, but what was the natural effeét of dire& vifion, and
thus nothing upon the ftage would appear of any larger
extent than what that floor or piece of ground might con-
tain, and the whole appearance of the theatre could be no
other than that of a room, wherein the real objects were
placed in their true dimenfions and fituations ; but the art
of conftruéting a theatre is in making it appear of greater
extent than it is in reality, and thus giving it a more
ample and extended profpect: the ftage or ground fhould
be made to appear enlarged, and the die between one
object and another increafed; not merely as a piure
painted on a flat wall, but as fomething more real and
folid ; and thus in a {pace which is only the fize of a room,
whole countries, towns, villages, &c. may be exhibited, and
the objeéts may be made to appear as remote as may be
conceived in nature.

For this purpofe, the part of the theatre which is employed
for the exhibition of {cenery, is a recefs from the great room
where the fpeétators fit, and is in the form of a truncated
pyramid, the bafe being what is called the curtain; and the
vertex, which is the remote end of the pyramid, is called the
point of contrafion. The aperture, being thus diminifhed as
it is more remote from the NeSuhen: isof infinite advantage
in reprefenting an extended {pace in a {mall compafs.

Andrea Pozzo, in a workentitled “ The Perfpeétive of
Painters and Architeéts,” who hastreated on this fubjedt, and
did himfelf fucceed very well in the a¢tual practice of it, gives

thefe rules for the conftruétion of a theatre :—that the room
in which it is to be ereéted fhould be divided, as to its length,
into two equal parts, the one for the {pectators, and the other
for the theatre: that the elevation of the ftage fhould be one
foot for every nine or ten feet of its depth, that is, of about
an angle of fix degrees, more or lefs; and as to the place of the
eye or point of fight, he makes its diftance from the curtain
to be equal to the depth of the theatre, that is, he places it
at one end of the houfe, and the centre of contraétion at the
other ; whence the height of the eye above the horizontal
plane will be about an eighteenth or twentieth part of the
whole length of the hovfe.

But as it is not neceflary that the place of the eye fhould
be confined to the extremity of the houfe, but be nearer to
the centre of that part which is allotted to the fpeétators, fo
that the inconveniency neceffarily arifing from different fitu-
ations out of the true point of fight may be more equally
diftributed among the company, and the effe& of the fcenery
be generally exhibited to more advantage; {fo neither is
it neceflary that the centre of contraction fhould fall exa@ly
on the oppofite wall, but rather at a diftance beyond it, to
prevent the too quick decreafe of the back fcenes; whereby
a confiderable part of the depth of the theatre might be
rendered ufelefs : it being evident, that the nearer the centre
of contraétion is to the curtain, the quicker is the decreafe
of the back fcenes, which become fo {mall, that the theatre
behind them is of no farther ufe for the {cenery.

The elevation of the ftage and place of the eye being
chofen at difcretion, the fize of the aperture of the theatre
muft be next determined, and this in part muft be governed
by the diftance between the eye and the curtain ; for as that
aperture may be confidered as the frame of a pic.ure, within
which the entire {cene. appears, the fize of that picture ought
to bear fuch a proportion to the diftance of the fpetator,
that his eye might not be too much diftraéted, or forced to
turn too much afide to fee its feveral parts, but rather that
he maybe able to comprehend the whole pro{pect at one eafy
view. This poffibly may be fufficiently effeted, by making
the length to the diitance of the eye in a given proportion 5
but in matters of this fort, although there be certain ex-
tremes on both fides to be avoided, yet no fuch determinate
proportion is aflignable, but that fome latitude may be
allowable ; experience, therefore, in fuch cafes is the beft

uide.

3 The height of the eye above the horizontal line admits alfo
of fome latitude ; but partly depends on the height of the
aperture of the theatre. Jt may, therefore, be fufficient to
remark on this. head, that the height of the eye ought not
to be fo great that its axis may meet the curtain higher than
the centre of the aperture, where its diagonals interfect ;
nor fhould it be fo {mall as to be much below the face of an
actor ftanding on the front of the ftage; but allowing that
the elevation of the {tage is once fixed, the height of the
eye and the centre of contraction will alfo be determined.

From what has been advanced, it appears that when the
elevation of the ftage, the aperture of the theatre, and the
height of the eye are fettled, the entire {cenographic pyramid
is thereby determined; but that this lalt is variable by in-
creafing or leflening the height of the eye, although the
aperture and elevation of the ftage remain the fame: the
enlarging of the height of the eye makes the centre of con-
traction more diltant as the lowering of the eye brings the
centre nearer: both will have correfponding effects with
refpe& to the apparent diftances of the feveral parts of the
flaze. This points out an eafy way of introducing great
variety of feenery, without the trouble of inaking any alter-
ation in the foet part of the theatre. But how far it may

be

SCENOGRAPHY.

be proper in the different fcenes to be reprefented at the fame
entertainment, to vary the height of the eye in one from
that in which it was in another, muft be left to experience
to decide ; it feems not to be ftriétly allowable, it being too
great a ftrain on a fpeétator’s imagination, to fancy him-

elf raifed higher, or fet lower, at every fhifting of the {cene,
while he is fenfible he {till keeps the fame place.

Having {aid fo much on the general conftruétion, the dif
polition of the fcenes, and their painting, remain to be con-

_fidered. ;

The {cenes commonly ufed in atheatre are the fide fcenes,
the hanging or top fcenes, and the back fcene, making all
together what is called a fet of fcenes, and exhibiting one en-
tire profpe& of all that is propofed to be reprefented at one
view, each {cene having its peculiar part defcribed on it.

The fide fcenes are ufually five or fix on each fide of the
theatre, and ferve to reprefent the fides of the profpeét to
the right and left. The hanging fcenes are generally the
fame in number with the pairs of fide fcenes, and ferve to
conneét the tops of each pair acrofs the theatre, and to re-
prefent the cieling or fky, according to the nature of the

inteaded profpe&. The back fcene-is placed beyond all
the reft, and fills up the {pace left open by the fide fcenes
and the hanging fcenes, and thus clofes the view.

All the fcenes are placed perpendicular to the horizon,
and parallel to the front of the ftage, and are moveable in
channels or grooves, made to receive their lower ends in the
floor, except the hanging fcenes, which are let down and
drawn up to the top of the houfe.

Pozzo mentions two different methods of placing the
fide fcenes, the one by placing them parallel to the front of
the ftage, and the other by making them incline inwards to
the back fcene : the firft is the German way, and the other
the Italian ; the laft of which is preferred by this author,
thinking it ferves to prevent the appearance of the prompter
and fervants employed to move the {cenes: but as other ways
are eafily found for avoiding that inconvenience, and as
painting on fcenes in an oblique fituation is more trouble-
fome than when they are parallel, the laft pofition will
therefore be the moft eligible.

In painting the fcenes, every fcene is to be confidered as
the plane of a pi€ture which is to receive upon it fuch part of
the defcription as falls within its bounds; and we have here
f{uppofed all of them to be parallel to the front of the ftage,
and perpendicular to the horizon. One thing important is
to determine what meafures are to be given to the objects
on each particular {cene, fo that the fize of the objects on all
the {cenes, when feen all together, may be in due proportion.

Now it is evident, that if every fcene ftood upon the
horizontal plane, the feétion of each fcene with that plane
would be the true interfe¢ting line ; and therefore, if the true
meafures of the objeéts were employed in working at the
proper diftance of the eye for that plane, the objeéts repre-
fented would be in due proportion; then all that is required
to be done is to apply the meafures on the proper interfect-
ing line; but not to reprefent any objeét, or part of an
object, in the fpace contained by the interfeéting line and
the interfeétion of the declining plane of the ftage, as all
that part is cut off; or to ufe the proportional meafures on
the interfe€tion of the floor with the plane of the ftage,
which will anfwer the fame purpofe.

When any object is to be reprefented nearer than the appa-
rent place of the back fcene, and occupying the middle parts
of the view to which the fcene do not extend, fuch as a
temple, a triumphal arch, a tree, or any other object, de-
tached from the reff of the defign, it becomes neceflary to
raife a feparate or ftandiag fcene on purpofe for it, and to

fhape the feeite to the outline of the figure reprefenting the
object, with proper openings in all the vacant intermediate
{paces, that it may obitract no more‘of the view of the fcenes
behind it than what is abfolutely neceffary for the object in-
tended to be repréfented. Thefe open or pierced fcenes
have an aitonifhing fine effeét, and add much to the beauty
of the profpeét, by making the whole appearance natural
and real, as in every motion of the {peétator he difcovers
new parts through the openings of more diftant objets,
thus giving an effect approaching to real nature. On this
principle even the fide {cenes are often made with ‘uneven
edges, anfwering to the outline of the objets reprefented
on them, which, however, ought not to be-carried too far,
fo as to prevent their being entirely hid whea drawn back.
It has already been obferved, in the firft part of this article,
that in the fide fcenes the painting mult be regulated by the
nature of the defign, fo that each fcene may, as near as
can be, contain the whole of fome entire objeét, and not to
let part of it fall on one fcene and part of it on another,
which would unavoidably occafion difagreeable breaks in
the view, when the fpectator was placed out of the proper
point, It will, therefore, be proper for the artift to regu-

‘late his defign accordingly, fo as to diftribute the parts on

the fcenes without breaking the reprefentations of the ob-
jects. The rule given by Pozzo for the declivity of the
{tage is too much, being’inconvenient for the a€tors, and
perhaps one foot in twelve is a much better proportion.

In conttruéting the fcenery, it will be neceffary to repre-
fent more than can be feen from the true point of view, fo
that the whole may appear complete to the fpectators on
the fides, who would fee a greater portion of the fcenes
upon the alternate fide than thofe in the centre, or in the
direét radial. f

As to landfcape f{cenery, it does not require much know-
ledge of perf{pective ; however, if regular buildings are to
be reprefented in the diltance, a knowledge of vanifhing-
points will be neceffary, in order to reprefent the objeét in
its true pofition: the artift ought alfo to be able to find
the fcale for reprefenting an objeét at a given diftance, ae-
cording to what he judges that diftance to be. For this
we fhall give rules at the conclufion of the article.

In reprefenting objeéts at a diftance, andin the horizon, or
nearly fo, the rules of orthographic drawing being applied
will be fufficient to determine the reprefestation of the
objeét; as even at only three or four hundred feet diltance, a
{mall houfe, fuch as a cottage, will have the vanifhing-points
of its fides at a valt diltance, and confequently the two lines
inclining to each vanifhing-point will form very nearly one
{traight line. For example, fuppofe the two fides of the
objeét to make equal angles with the picture, and to be
400 feet diftant, then the diftance of each vanifhing-point
from the centre of the picture will be goo feet diftant.
And let the two fides of the object make any given angles
with the piéture, fo as to be equal to a right angle, that is,
fo that the angle of the obje& itfelf may be wright angle ;
the diftance of the eye from the picture is always a mean
proportional between the diftances from the centre of the
pigture to each of the vanifhing-points. Now if fuch an
obje& ftand at equal angles with the piéture, and at 4oo
feet diflant from it, as before, one of the vanifhing-points
will be more than 400 feet diftant from the centre of the
picture, and the other lefs: and as the difference between
the angles is greater, fo will alfo the difference between the
centre of the ptéture and each vanifhing-point be greater.
Another thing to be confidered is, that the nearer the
vanifhing-point of a line is to the centre of the picture, the
fhorter a given portion of that line will be reprefented.

In

———

EP

SCENOGRAPHY.

In fiz. 1. let'Q RST W XZ Y denote the room or apart-
ment for the theatre, then S Y Z R denotes the whole floor ;
T WX Othe cieling; ABCDa plane parallel to the floor
SY ZR; the point I is the point of fight, or place of the eye
of the fpeétator ; I V isthe principal ray, being a horizontal
line parallel to the planes TW XQ, ABECD;:SYZR,
and perpendicular to the plane X Q RZ; the point V is the
centre of contraétion ; G H 4g is the inclined plane of the
flage ; the angle p Pv, or p PV, is its angle of inclination ;
1K is the height of the eye.

Fig. 2. reprefents a plan of the theatre and fcenery ;
ABCD is the outline of the walls ; in the line S V, which
reprefents the {tation line, S is the {tation point ; V repre-
fents the centre of contraction; EF, GH, are the front
fcenes of the wings; LM is the back fcene. In this con-
ftruction, and alfo in the general practice of conftruéting
theatres, E F and G H are in one plane parallel to the planes
reprefented by A B and BC, and the points F and G are
equally diftant from the line S V ; the ends of the fcenes are
terminated by the ftraight lines GI and F K, which tend
to the centre of contraction V: the fpaces, or inter{cenes,
may be divided as follows; draw HLV and EMV;
produce the fide B A to r, and let there be four {paces be-
tween the fcenes ; join S L, or fuppofe it to be joined, and
produce SL to r; divide Hr into four equal parts at
0, p> 73 drawoS, pS, gS, cutting HL ats,t,u; draw
sv, tw, and ux, parallel to BC, or A D, meeting GI, or
GV, at v, w,x, then the wings on the one fide are HG,
1, tw, ux: the wings onthe other fide are con{truéed in
the fame manner. In this, Y Z reprefents the place of the
curtain, which we fhall fuppofe to be the plane to which the
whole pidture is referred.

Fig. 3. reprefents a longitudinal vertical fection of the
fcenery, the fpaces between being the fame as in fiz. 2. In
this, E V isthe direG& radial ; V the centre of contraction, as
before ; E the place of the eye; S the ftation point; FG,
HI, KL, MN, OP, are the edges or feétions of the
fcenes, terminated by the lines RV and QV, which are
feétions of the inverted pyramid, of which V is the vertex, or
centre of contraétion.

Fig. 4. reprefents a tranfverfe feGtion of the theatre,
W XY Z being the outline of the walls ; the height O Q of
the eye is the fame as E S, fig. 3: the heights of the fcenes
are taken from the line RQ, fig. 3, as fhewn by the corre-
{ponding letters.

Fig. 5. is another fection of the fcenery, where the {paces
are divided into equal parts; the effect of this is feen in

Jig: 6, where the graduations are not near fo rapid as in fig. 4,
where the remote fcenes are more diminifhed.

The bufinefs of {cene-painting would be inuch facilitated
by the application of the centrolinead, an initrument lately
invented by the writer of this article, Mr. Peter Nicholfon,
who has been honoured with the filver medal voted by the
Society of Arts, for his invention and ready mode of appli-
cation in drawing lines tending to a remote point. It will
fave the trouble, and prevent the inaccuracy occafioned b
that tedious and unfcientific method of reticulation, which
is imperfeét, and only fit to be ufed by thofe who underltand
but little of perfpettive. This inftrument confifts of two
legs jointed together, fimilar to a carpenter’s rule; the
knuckle is pierced with a {mall hole through the centre or
axis of the rivet, to admit of a blade being fitted to it, in
order to draw lines as required. Each edge of the blade is
made quite f{traight, and may either be parallel to each
other, or tapered, to render it light. In conftruéting the in-
ftrument, the broad end of the Eiade (fhould there be any

Von. XXXI,

difference) mutt be placed next to the joint of the legs, and
upon the oppolite edges of the legs to thofe which fold or
fhut together ; and one of the edges mutt tend to the centre
of the joint: this edge is called. the drawing edge. The
blade being thus fixed upon the fide of the legs next to the
external angle, the:whole of the initrument is clamped, or
fattened together by means of a femicircular plate of brafs,
which has a circular flit or groove next to each edge. One
edge of the brafs plate is itraight, and forms a diameter to
the femicircle; from this diameter another femicircle pro-
jects in the fame plane, equal to or lefs in diameter than that
of the knuckle, fo that each of thele femicircles may have
the fame common centre, viz. the axis of the rivet. The
plane of thefe femicircles is extended beyond the circum-
ference of the greater, in order to attach the blade, and is
pierced with a {mall hole perpendicular to the common plane
of the brafs plate, through the common centre of the two
femicircles. A fteady pin is inferted in the hole, faftened
and made to project alike from each face of the brafs plate,
and each projeéting part of the fteady pin fo adjuited as to
fit the cylindric hole in the rivet, which holds the two legs
together, and thus either fide of the brafs plate may be fixed
to the fame fide of the legs. :

Each of the edges which fhut together is in the fame
plane with the axis of the joint, and thefe’ two edges are
called the fliding edges. Each of the flits next to the
larger femicircular part of the plate is the are of a circle,
concentric with the two femicircles. The brafs plate is
faitened to the legs by a {crew inferted through each flit, and
ferewed into each leg. The extended part of the brafs
plate, on the convex circumference of the greater femicircle,
is alfo pierced, and a {crew is pafled through the hole, and
{crewed into another rectangular plate, fattened upon the
top of the blade ; and, to keep the drawing or central edge
of the blade immoveable in refpeét of the legs, when the
inftrument is clamped by the fcrews, two metal fteady pins
are made faft to the lower plate, and the upper plate is
pierced to receive the projecting parts of the iteady pins,
which are made to fit exaétly. The fteady pins are placed
in a ftraight line, pafling longitudinally along the face of
the blade, dividing it into two equal and fimilar parts, Two
fides of the legs mutt be in the famg¢ plane with one fide of
the blade. Either fide of the brafs plate is made to adjoin
the upper face of the blade, and alfo the upper faces of the
legs, fo that the drawing edge may be reverfed, as the vanifh-
ing-point may be on the right or left. The drawing edge
of the blade muft be made to form any given angles with
the fliding edges of the legs, and either LP the angles mutt
be moveable, while the other is {tationary, and be made to
fix at pleafure.

The centrolinead may be provided with blades of feveral
lengths, in order to accommodate drawings of various fizes.
The two edges of each of the legs fhould be parallel to
each other, fo that either of the oppofite edges of the
fame leg and the drawing edge may form the fame angle, for
the convenience of fetting the inflrument. The method of
fetting the centrolinead is as follows.

Let there be given two converging lines, and a point be-
tween them, to draw a line through the given point that
fhall tend to the point of concourfe of the two given
lines,

Draw any ftraight line fo as to meet each converging line ;
let the two angles which each fliding edge makes with the
drawing edge be called the angles of the inflrument, as the
angle Bric by the fliding edges is regulated by them,
Unfcrew one of the legs of the inftrament, and fet the an-

4L gle

SCENOGRAPHY.

gle formed by the fliding edge of the unfcrewed leg and the
drawing edge to one of the angles formed by the tranfverfe
line, and one of the converging lines, then clamp the leg
thus fet ; unfcrew the other leg, and fet the angle formed by
the leg now unfcrewed, and the drawing edge, to the other
remaining angle formed by the tranfverfe line and the other
converging line, and clamp the leg now fet: fix a pin in
each of the angles formed by the two converging lines, and
the intercepted line, and place each fliding edge upon each

pin: then move the inftrument fo that the fliding edges may -

always reft upon the pins, until the drawing edge falls upon
the given point; in this pofition keep the inftrument ita-
tionary, and by the drawing edge of the blade draw a
ftraight line, and the line thus drawn will tend to the fame
point of concourfe with the two given lines.

It is often required to make the inftrument pafs over the
{pace included by the two given lines on each fide of that
{pace : for this purpofe, having fixed the pins on the outfide
of the two given lines in any two points taken at pleafure,
place the inftrument upon the pins, and flide it along them,
until the drawing edge either falls upon, or crofles one of
the given lines; then loofen the fcrew. next to the remote
pin, and move the angle more or lefs, preffing the legs
gently upon the pins, until the drawing edge coincides
with the line; then faften the fcrew, and flide the legs
upon the pins, until the drawing edge coincides with
the other given line, or crofs it: then, if the drawing
edge coincides, the inftrument is fet; but if not, the
{crew next to the pin, now the moft remote, muit be
loofened, and the inftrument fet as before. The centro-
linead muft then be returned to the firit line, and if it agrees
with it, it is fet; but if not, the fcrew which is between
the drawing edge and the remote pin mutt again be flackened,
and the angle moved as before, until the blade coincides with
the line; then make the ferew faft, and the initrument will
be fet.

In fome cafes the centrolinead may require to be returned
to the other pin; but, in general, four movements will be
fufficient. This method of fetting the inftrument by ap-
proximation is very ufeful in general cafes; as fuppofe the
vanifhing line of the horizon given, and another line tending
to a vanifhing point in the horizontal line; it will be very
convenient to fet the centrolinead fo as to draw lines without
the two given lines, as there is generally a part of the per-
fpeftive drawing below the vanifhing line of the horizon,
more or lefs depending on the height of the eye above the
level of the plane in which the object is fituate.

In order to fhew that the inftrument is founded upon
truth; let ABCD, fig. 7, be a circle, and let-A andC be
two fixed points, and let B be any intermediate point in the
fegment A BC, between A and C; join B A and BC;
produce B A to E, and BC to F: then the angle A BC,
ae contained in the fegment A BC, will always be
equal ; and confequently, if either of the angles, as A B D,
be invariable, it is evident that the other, C B D, will alfo be
invariable ; and it is fhewn, as follows, that the ftraight line
BD, which reprefents the drawing edge or blade of the in-
ftrument, will always pafs through the fixed point D, which
may reprefent a vanifhing point, or the point towards which
a number of lines may converge, and this point of con-
vergence is always in the circumference of the circle A BCD,
wherever the angular poiut B is fituated, the point B being
the concourfe of the two legs B E and B I, which flide
upon the pins, and of the drawing edge B D of the blade.
Draw A Dand C D; and becaufe the angles A BD and
ACD inthe fegment A B C D ftand upon the fame chord

A.D, they are equal to each other; for the fame reafon,
the angles CA D and CB D are equal to each other ; and
this equality cannot take place unlefs B D pafs through the
point D. 4

‘This demontftration fhews, that all lines drawn by the edge
BD mutt tend to the point C, while the edges of the legs
B E and B F move upon the pins A and C: but the manner
in which the inftrument is conftru€ted makes the lines di-
verge; by this means it performs its operation in much lefs
compafs than if the lines were made to converge: the. prin-
ciple is, however, exactly the fame, for what diverges on
the one hand converges on the other.

In the conftruétion of {cenes, or in perfpeGtive drawings,
where there are two vanifhing points, it would be very con-
venient to have two centrolineads in ufe at the fame time ; for
although the initrument may be made to change towards
either vanifhing point, if the changes are fequlide required,
much time will be loft in altering it.

With refpe& to the application of the centrolinead to the
painting of fcenery. As two projecting pins for the edges of
the legs to run upon cannot be fixed as upon paper, two
marks may be made, and the edges of the legs may be
always placed upon each mark, fo that the drawing edge
of the blade may pafs through the point given, and thereby
the line may be drawn as required.

The principle being underftood, the inftrument may be
fitted up with various modifications, as for inftance, one of
the angles may be at right angles to the blade, while the
other makes an oblique angle ; for whatever angles the blade
or legs make, whether equal or unequal, the lines will al-
ways tend toa fixed point, and this gives an opportunity for
making an immoveable centrolinead, which, as it can be made
at very little expence, will be very ufeful, as not being
liable to be altered. The immoveable centrolinead may be
conttruéted as follows: let LM and N O, fg. 8, be two
given ftraight lines, converging to a point at fome certain
diftance ; draw any ftraight line M O, and draw O P pa-
rallel to ML: lay the ftraight edge MQ of a ruler
upon the line MO; fix another ruler to the ruler M Q, fo
that the ftraight edge O S may be upon ON;; then fix
the brace, in order to keep it fteady ; fix the triangular
piece R O Q to the ftraight edge M Q, fo that the angle
R OQ may be equal to the angle PO N; and the whole
inftrument, thus conftructed, will be ready for ufe, by run-
ning the edges O M and O R upon the guides.

The angle M O R will be conftantly the fame, whatever
angles the itraight line O M makes with the two given
lines LM and N O, and from whatever place the line MO
is drawn, fo that the points M and O be taken in the lines
L Mand N O.

A common 'T-fquare, where the under fide of the blade
and the under fide of the ftock are in one plane, and where
the back, or outer edge of the ftock, is in a plane perpendicu-
lar to the plane now mentioned, may be thus converted into
a centrolinead, by adding the triangular piece ROQ to
the back or outer edge of the ftock, fo that the point O of
the angle may be ina ftraight line with che drawing edge of
the blade.

Fig. 9. fhews the application of the centrolinead, as in
the act of drawing converging lines.

By the ufe of an inftrument of this defcription, much
time will be faved, and much greater accuracy will be ob-
tained than by the ordinary methods of reticaiitiotl or b
any kind of fcales. G and I are the guides, G H and I
are the two given lines, /, m, n, o are intermediate points,
through which lines are to be drawn.

SCENO.-

———

ee ae OO ee

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SCENOPEGIA, cxmoraiiz, formed of cxreny foent, fa-
bernacle, tent, and <rjuus, figo, I fix, the third grand feftival
among the Jews, at which all their males were to attend at
the national altar, more ufually called feaf of tabernacles, in-
ftituted after the people of Ifrael were in pofleffion of the
land of Canaan, in memory of their having dwelt under tents
in the wildernefs.

The fcenopegia was held for fevem days fucceflively, com-
mencing on the fifteenth of September, i. ¢. on the fifteenth
day of the month Tifri, the firlt of thecivil, and feventh
of the ecclefiaftical year. To thefe feven days there was alfo
added an eighth day, which was much the moit folemn ;
both on account of the conflux of perfons, and of the ex-
traordinary tokens they all gave of their joy. This eighth
day was properly the feaft of ingathering, on which they
were to give thanks for their whole harvelt. However, the
feaft of tabernacles, and that of ingathering, though pro-
perly diftin&, are fometimes fpoken of as one feaft, andthe
name of either indifferently applied to the other.

It is of this eighth day St. John muft be underftood to
{peak, when he tells us, our Saviour was at the featt of ta-
bernacles on the laft and great day.

The rabbies inform us, that there pertained to this feaft a
peculiar ceremony of drawing water out of the pool of
Siloam, and pouring it, mixed with wine, on the facrifice, as
it lay on the altar. This they are faidto have done with fuch
expreflidns of joy, that it became a common proverb, “ He
that never faw the rejoicing of drawing water, never faw
rejoicing in all his life.” To this ceremony our Saviour is
fuppofed to refer, John, vii. 37, 38.

Itis the practice of the modern Jews to tie together one
branch of palm, three branches of myrtle, and one of wil-
low ; and with this in their right hands, and a branch of ci-
tron with its fruit in the left, to make a proceffion during
the feven days of the feaft, in their fynagogues, round their
reading-defks, as their anceftors did round the walls of Jeri-
cho, in token of the expe€ted downfall of their enemies.
They alfo turn about with thefe branches to the four cardinal
points, and fhake or pufh them every way, to drive the
devil from them. While they are making this proceffion,
they fing Hofannah; whence this feaft is called Hofannah.

When the holy fcripture fays abfolutely the fea/f, it is
ufually to be underftood of the fcenopegia.

SCENT. Some animal carcafes, buried with lime,
though ten feet under ground, have been obferved to give fo
ftrong a {cent, as to attraét dogs to the place.

To the Sport/man, the {cent or odour of animals of chace
is an obje¢t of great importance, though many circum-
{tances attend it which neither he nor the philofopher is able
fatisfattorily to explain. To the obfervations that occur
under the article Huntine, in reference to this fubje&, we
fhall here add the following, feleéted from the firft volume of
« Daniel’s Rural Sports.”’ Scent, fays this writer, cannot
be afcertained by the air only, it depends alfo on the foil ;
doubtlefs the fcent moft favourable to the hound, is when
the efluvia, conftantly perfpiring from the game as it runs, is
kept by the gravity of the air to the height of his brea/l, for
then it neither is above his reach, nor need he ftoop for it ;
this is what is meant when {cent is faid to lie breafl-high.
Experience tells us that difference of foil alters the fcent.
When the leaves begin to fall, and before they are rotted,
{cent lies ill in cover, a fufficient proof that it doos not de-
pendon the air only. Scent alfo varies by difference of mo-
tion ; the fafter the animal goes, the lefs {cent it leaves.
When game has been ridden after, and hurried on by impru-
dent fport{men, hounds: will with difficulty pick out the
fcent, and one reafon may be, that the particles of {cent are

SCE

then more diffipated ; but if the game fhould have been run
by adog not belonging to the pack, very feldom will any
{cent remain.

Scent frequentiy alters in the fame day; and without
afferting what {cent exaétly is, it may be faid to depend
chiefly on two things, the condition of the ground, and the
temperature of the air, which fhould be moift without being
wet ; when both are in this ftate, the {cent is then perfe&t,
and vice ver/e ; when the ground is hard, ard the air dry,
there feldom will be any fcent. It f{earcely ever lies with a
north, or aneaft wind; a foutherly wind without rain, and
a wefterly one that is not rough, are the beft. Storms ia
the air feldom fail to deftroy fcent. A fine fun-fhiny day is
not often good for hunting ; but a day warm without fun is
generally a perfe&t one: there are not many fuch in a whole
feafon. In fome fogs fcent lies high, in others not at all,
depending probably on the quarter the windisthen in. It
fometimes lies very high ina milt, when not too wet ; but if
the wet continues to hang upon the boughs and bufhes, it
will fall upon the feent and deaden it. When the dogs roll,
and alfo when cobwebs hang on the bufhes, there is feldom
much fcent. During a white froft the {cent lies high, as it
alfo does when the froft is quite gone; at the time of its
going off (which is a critical minute for hounds, in which
their game is frequently loft) fcent never lies. Ina hard
rain, with the air mild, {cent will fometimes be very good.
A wet night often produces the beft chaces, game not
then liking to run the cover or the roads. In heathy coun-
tries, where the game brufhes as it goes along, fcent feldom
fails; yet, from the inclofures of poor land furrounding
them, the fcent is at times very difficult for hounds: the
fudden change from a good to a bad {cent confufes their
nofes ; a {cent therefore which is lefs good but lefs unequal,
is more favourable to hounds. When the ground carries,
the {cent is bad for an obvious reafon, which hare-hunters,
who purfue their game over greafy fallows and dirty roads,
have great caufe to complain of. A remark has been gene-
rally made, that fcent lies beft in the richeft foils, and thofe
countries which are favourable to horfes are not fo to hounds ;
and it has likewife been obferved in fome particular fpots, in
almoit every country, let the temperature of the air be as it
may, that hounds can never carry a {cent acrofs them.

It is obferved, that at the going off of a white frott, the
{cent never lies. The fmell of the fox is proverbially offen-
five, and is fuppofed to proceed, as in many other quadru-
peds, from certain glands, fituated near the tail; yet there
is an obfervation in the Syftema Nature of Linnaeus, that
the fox diffufes an ambrofial odour from the upper part of
the bafe of its tail; and Mr. Schreber, in his Hiltory
of Quadrupeds, alfo remarks, ‘ that the fmell of the
fox is ftrong and unpleafant, but on the tail is a {pot
from which proceeds a violaceous fcent.’? ‘The rank or ge-
neral {mell of the fox fo exaétly refembles that of the root
of crown imperial, as not to be diftinguifhed.

The ingenious author of «* Obfervations on Hare-Hunt-
1nG’”’ (fee that article) contends, that the particles of {cent
evaporated muft be inconceivably {mall, as he has taken
many hares after a chace of two, three, four, or five hours,
without being able to perceive the leaft difference in weight
from thofe that have been killed on their forms; nor from
gentlemen who have hunted box-hares, could he learn, that
they difcovered any vilible wafte in their bodies, further than
might be fuppofed to arife from the effeét of difcharging
their groffer excrements. But admitting a lols of two
or three drachmo after fo long a fatigue, yet how minute mult
be the divifion of fo {mall a quantity of matter, when (de-
ducting the number of thofe particles that are loft upon the

4L2 ground,

SCENT.

ground, diffipated in the air, and extinguifhed or obfcured
by the fetid perfpirations of the dogs and other animals)
it affords a fhare to fo many couple of hounds for eight or
ten miles fucceflively. To a {port{man it is needlefs to ob-
ferye, that {cent depends on the ftate of the weather, and is
affected by its viciffitudes : a ftorm will in an inftant deftroy
it ; noris this to be wondered at, if we confider that thefe par-
ticles of {cent are of an exa@ly equal fpecific gravity with
thofe of the air, and which always fall and rife in juit pro-
portion to it. Huntfmen who are hafty, rate and curfe
thofe hounds, which yefterday were the beft in England,
for galloping with their nofes in the air, as if their game was
flown, when in faé it is in vain for them to feek the {cent in
any other place, the increafing weight of that fluid element
having wafted it over their heads. The molt terrible day for
the hare is, when the air is in its mean gravity, tolerably
moilt, but inclining to grow drier, witha mild breeze ; the
moderate gravity buoys up the fcent as high as the dog’s
breaft, the veficles of moiiture ferve as canals to carry the
efluvia into their nofes, and the gentle wind fo much helps
to fpread it, that every hound, even at eight or ten paces
diftance, efpecially with the wind, may havea due portion.

That the fame hare will, at divers times, emit finer or
grofler particles, is equally manifeft to every one obfervant
of the frequent changes in one fingle chace. The courfing
of acur dog is ever the occafion of a fault, and after fuch
an accident, the hounds muft be again and again put upon
the fcent, before they will acknowledge it for their game:
the reafon is, the change in the motion caufes one in the per-
{piring particles. The alterations of fcent in a yielding
hare are lefs frequently produétive of faults, becaufe they
are more gradual, and infenfibly grow {maller ; but that al-
terations there are, every dog-boy knows, by the old hounds
prefling forward with greater earneftnefs, as the hare is nearer
her end. Motion, continues this author, is the chief caufe
of difcharging thefe particles of fcent, becaufe a hare is very
feldom ee whilit quiet in her form, although the hounds
are fo near as eyen to run over her; fometimes, indeed, fhe
is chopped upon her feat, but this probably is the confequence
of her own curiofity, in moving and rifing up in it, to
watch the proceedings of herenemies. It is very plain, the
flower the hare moves, the {tronger and grofler are the par-
ticles of fcent fhe leaves, which is one reafon that the morn-
ing walk will yield fcent fo much longer than in flight when
hunted: however, it is remarkable, that thefe odorous par-
ticles gradually decay, and end with her life ; (this obferva-
tion is controverted by the author now cited 3) becaufe it
requires the fineft nofes to lead the cry when near her death ;
becaufe fhe is fo often loft at the laft fquat ; and becaufe, if
fhe is knocked on the head before them, there is hardly one
in the pack that will ftop or take any notice of her.

The greateft art is difcovered in hunting the foil, efpe-
cially if the hare immediately fteals back behind the dogs the
fame path fhe came; it then requires the utmoft fkill to diftin-
guifh the new fcent from the old, when both are mixed and
confounded with the ftrong perfpirations of fo many dogs
and horfes. It is a common praétice, when a hare runs in
this manner, to fet people in order to meet, and.oblige her
to take frefh ground; the confequence of which has often
been, that having met and hallooed her, the hare has re-
doubled back a few rods, then leaped inte fome hedge or
thick brake, and there {quatted, until the hounds (confufed
in the midit of two equal burning fcents) pafs, and very
frequently never hit upon her afterwards.

It is diverting to hear country fellows, on fight of ahare,
cry out fhe is all over in a /zeat; the molt indifferent {portf-
men know to the contrary, and that, on the niceit examina-

tion, no proof has ever been found, any more than of the
{weating of adog or cat. Another prevailing notion is, that
the longer the hare has been hunted, the weaker the fcent
grows. But, continues this author, I never found fuchan al-
teration ; and if any judgment is allowed to be formed fi
the ation of the hounds, the old ftaunch dogs will be found
to rate on, towards the conclufion of a chace, with addi-
tional vigour, furely not from decay of fcent, but the con-
trary, and from whence they become, every yard they go,
more fenfible of their near approach to tlie hare, than all the
hunters in the field. Yet, fhould it be ftill maintained that
the {cent does really decreafe the more a hare is prefled,
what can it be owing to? T'o lay it down as faét, without
offering fome reafon, is certainly a very arbitrary determina-
tion. Is it becaufe fhe is run out of wind? If that ‘is
allowed, thofe who infift that hounds hunt the foot, muft
give up the argument ; for what reafon can be afligned why
a hare’s feet, immediately preceding her death, do not leave
as ftrong and equal a {cent as at firft ftarting from her
feat. ;

Hares or other creatures, hard run, perform their infpi-
ration and expiration very quick, at lealt in the proportion
of ‘fix times to one, fuppofing them not urged beyond their
natural pace, or to remain perfeétly cool and quiet. If
therefore fix expirations, under fevere purfuit, are equal to
one when a hare is juft ftarted, what difference can there be
in the {cent ?

It may be alleged, the fcent lies {tronger at firfl, becaufe
it makes its return from a full ftomach, or that at ftarting,
the lungs having not fuffered much diftenfion, fhe breathes
freer, which by running low to the earth, intermixes better
with the herbage. On the other hand, that a hare long
hunted runs high, and of courfe emits her breath further .o
from the furface, therefore more liable to be fooner feparated
and overpowered by the wind.

To the firit part it is anfwered, the fafter a hare runs,
the longer fhe {tretches, therefore the lower fhe lies to the
ground ; bat the farther the hounds are behind, and her
breath (although expired ever fo free,) remains a long time,
in proportion to the diftance, before the dogs come up to
enjoy it.

In the fecond place, the hard-prefled hare makes her
{tretches fhorter, which brings her body naturally more up-
right and high from the furface, and the {cent is hereby more
likely to fuffer from wind and weather; but then as fhe
breathes quick in proportion, and fhortens her pace ina fen-
fible degree, the hounds fo much as fhe fhortens, fo much
do they hatten, being urged on by an increafing feent. The
only natural reafon why a hare, towards the end of a chace,
is often difficult to be killed, is, that fhe confines her works
in a much fhorter compafs, doubles here and there, over
and over, fhifts, redoubles, and tries all places for reft and
fecurity, making very much foiling in a little fpace, which
variety of equal /cent puzzles thé hounds exceedingly ; and
if the dogs are not thorough matters of their bufinefs, or
if the air be not in due pa ee the difficulty will be the
greater.

” Tt is alfo to beremembered, that there is no {mall acciden-
tal difference in the very particles of fcent, which are more
diftinguifhable at one time than at another : t there is a
different {cent in other animals of the fame fpecies is evident,
from the hounds formerly ufed for tracing and purfuing
thieves and deer-{tealers, and likewife from any common
eur or fpaniel, who will hunt out their mafter, or their
matter’s horfe, diltin&tly from all others; and that it is the
fame with the hare, is no lefs vilible from the old beagles,
which will not readily change for a frefh one, wnlefs he ftarts

in

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|
|
1

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%n view, or unlefs a long fault happens, which puts them in
confufion, and inclines them in defpair to take up with the
next fcent that prefents itfelf. _ ,

OF the influence which froft has upon fcent, this author
obferves, that he has been often difappointed in the hounds
hunting the trail of the hare up to her feat, and frequently
been able to hunt her walk in one part of a field, and not in
another ; that at ten or eleven o’clock, the fame walk which
gave the leaft {cent at feven in the morning, has afforded the
beft ; but what has been more perplexing, the hounds have
only been able to hunt it at the wrong end, or backwards,
and after many hours’ expeétation;.the fa€t is, that the
hounds are never fo far from their game, as when they hunt
it the warmeft. All thefe accidents are only the effe@ of the
hoar-froft, or very grofs dew, (for they never happen other-
wie,) and from thence muft the miracle be accounted for.
At the going off of afroft, the mercury is commonly falling,
and by confequence the {ceat finking into the ground. The
earth is naturally, on fuch occafions, fermenting, ftinking, and
very porous, fo that it is impoffible but that moft of the
particles of fcent mutt then be corrupted, buried, or de-
ftroyed by ftronger vapours: it is common to hear it faid,
the hare carries; but that is not all, for by what has been
alleged, it is plain the is not fo eagerly purfued by the fcent
ef her feet only. Thus, having afcertained that a thaw tendsto
corrupt the particles of icent, it leaves a fairreafon to maintain
that the froit fixes, covers, and preferves them. Whether this
is done by intercepting their afcent, and precipitating them to
the ground by the grofs particles of frozen dew, or whe-
ther by protecting them from the penetrating air, is not
profefled to be decided ; but the fa&s are certain, and con-
firmed by experience. What defervesto be noticed is, that
the hoar-froft is very often of fhort continuance, changeable,
and uncertain, both as to its time and place of falling, and
hence alithefe difficulties are eafily refolved; let the huntf-
man, when he leaves his bed, examine the windows, which
commonly difcover whether any hoar-froft has fallen, and in
what ftate of continuance, or going off, it is for the prefent.
If it appears to have fallen at two, three, or four in the
morning, ({uppofe in the month of OGober, and other times
of the year muft be judged of by proportion,) and to be
going off about break of day, it may then be expected that
there will be a great difficulty, or indeed impoffibility, of
trailing to the hare’s feat, becaufe her morning retreat being
on the top of the frozen dew, the {cent is either diflolved, or
corrupted and exhaled. ‘True it is, that after fuch a night
the dogs will find work in every field, and often hunt in full
ery, but it will generally be backward, and always in
vain; her midnight ramblings, which were covered by
the froft, being now open and fragrant. If the frolt begins
later in the morning, after the hare is feated, there is no-
thing to be done until that is gone off. If the froft began
early enough, and continues fteadily until the hounds are in
the field, <a fcent may be made good to her feat, as well as
at other times on naked ground; although from the forego-
ing obfervations it muft be expeéted to be checked at the

ing off of the froft. This author advifes thofe who delight
in hunting to be provided with a barometer, which inftru-
ment.isof great ufe to the obfervant fport{man, who, when
he rifes in the morning, and finds the air moift and tempe-
rate, the quicklfilver in his glafs moderately high, or gently
convex, may fairly prepare for his diverfion, with the expec-
tation of being fuccefeful. P

All hares, it is obferved, have more {cent going to avd
Jrom relief, and that all do not leave it in equal degree : the
fcent of down hares is the leaft; that of inclofures, wood-
land, and marth hares, the moit ; efpecially of one that forms

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in plafhy ground, or near a wet ditch, or river fide, fuch
hare being commonly diftempered and unhealthy.

The circumiftance of the low-land fmelling ftronger than
the down hares, proceeds from the fuperior ranknefs of their
food, not in quantity but quality: their confined circle for
exercife, and the effluvia in woods and inclofures, being far
better defended from wind and air, than when feated on the
bleak hills.

The firlt ring a hare takes is generally the foundation of
the enfuing paftime ; all the doubles fhe afterwards makes, ~
are ina great meafure like the firft: a hare will go over great
part of the trailed land, and vifit her works of the preceding
night and morning ; fometimes a buck will take endways
over frefh ground, without offering to return; the doe ufually
runs in a circle, unlefs with young, or having recently kin-
dled ; at fuch times fhe often runs forward, and {carcely ever
efcapes with life, being naturally unfit for fatigue ; however,
both fexes greatly regulate their conduét according to the
feafon and. weather. After a rainy, night, in a woody
country, neither buck nor doe will keep the cover, owing
to the drops of wet hanging on the {pray ; they therefore run
the highways or ftony lanes; for as the fcent naturally lies
itrong, they hold the roads which take the leaft, not that a
hare judges upon what foil the {cent lies weakeft ; fhe is
chiefly direfted by her ears, for the hounds being oftener at
fajilt on the hard paths than the turf, fhe finds herfelf not fo
clofely preffed, and is not fo much alarmed with the continued
cry of the dogs at her heels. The louder the cry, the more
fhe is terrified, and flies the fwifter ; the certain effect of
which is, a heart broken fooner, than with a pack equal in
number and geodnefs, but who {pend their tongues lefs freely.
The fame principle direéts the hare to run the covers in
autumn: when the ground is dry, and the wind cold at
north or eait, fhe then keeps the paths that are covered with
leaves, which are fo continually falling and blowing about,
that the beft hounds can carry no fcent ; her alarms are con-
fequently fhort, and fhe refts contented where fhe is leaft
dilturbed.

Scent-Bags, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by Tyfon
to thofe peculiar pouches, or bags, which certain animals,
as the civet-cat and mufk animal, have for the receiving the
matter of their perfume. Thefe bags are common to more
animals than is generally fuppofed, and in all have much the
fame qualities, the matter they contain being in molt of
them fetid and difagreeable, while contained in the bag, and
only becoming {weet and pleafant when dried, or taken at
leaft from the ahimal, and {melt in {mall quantities. ‘The
weafel and polecat, with us, have bags of this kind; and
the famous bag or pouch of the opoflum is of the nature of
thefe, though it ferves alfo to the other great purpofe of
receiving and fheltering the young in time of danger. It
contains, like the reft, a tough and vifcous matter, which
oozes out of the glands, and is of a very offenfive fmell
while the creature ess but as foon as it 1s taken out and
dried, the {mell changes into a fine perfume. The gland
of the aper mofchiferus, as Tyfon calls it, is of this kind,
containing a glutinous humour of a very offenfive finell when
frefh, but when dried becoming fweet and perfumed as
mufk. Philof. Tranf, N° 239. p. 125.

SCEPASTRA, the name of a kind of bandage for the
head, defcribed by Galen.

SCEPSIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, inthe

interior of Myfia Minor, according to Ptolemy. Strabo
exprefsly fays, that the firlt Scepfis was near the fummit of
mount Ida, and that afterward» another town of the fame
name was built at the diftance of 4o ftadia. AZneas had his
habitation for fome time near this town. It was the porbe!

0

SCE

of Demetrius the grammarian, and of other perfons eminent
for literature and philofophy. In this town there were
fome confiderable libraries.

SCEPTICISM, the do@trine and opinion of the Sceptics ;
called alfo Pyrrhoni/m, from the name of its author.

The term Sceptic, in its original Greek, cxexIxosy pro-
perly fignifies confiderative, and inquifitive ; or a man who is
ever weighing the reafons one fide and the other, without
ever deciding between them. It is formed from the verb
cxsxlouasy I confider, look about, deliberate.

The ancient fcepticifm confifted in doubting of every
thing, in affirming nothing at all, and in keeping the judg-
ment in fufpenfe on every fubjeét. Sextus Empiricus makes
{cepticifm to confift in a faculty of Sppcling all appearances ;
of making all, even contrary things, equally probable; and
of proceeding, firft to an exoxn, or fufpenfe of mind, and
then to entire undifturbednefs or tranquillity.

Hence, thefe great maxims of theirs: Ov parAoy Touro »
extivoy this no more than that ; Wavrs rAoyw Aoyos, &c. every
reafon has another againfi it;. and Oude ogsGwy I determine
nothing.

The proper charaGter, then, of fcepticifm is an axara-
AnLiay neutrality, or fuch a difpofition of mind as does not,
upon any occafion, incline to any thing more than the con-
trary thing.

This hefitancy of the Sceptics is well defcribed by Arif-
tocles, in Eufeb. de Prepar. Evan. All things are equally
indifferent, uncertain, and indeterminate: neither our fenfes,
nor our opinions, give us either truth or falfehood ; there-
fore, neither the one nor the other are to be credited, but
all things to be left on a level, without admitting any
opinion, inclination, or motion-of the mind at all. It is
added, that the Sceptics carried this fufpenfe of their’s fo
far, as even to deny that any thing is either good or evil,
juft or unjult, true or falfe ; or that any thing is this, more
than that.

It is from this acatalepfia of the Sceptics that Defcartes
feems to have borrowed his great principle of doubting of
all things ;.as is owned by many of his followers, It mutt
be confeffed, indeed, that there is fome difference between
the doubting of the Sceptics, and that of the Cartefians.
In phytical matters, it is true, there does not feem a great
deal of difference; and Defcartes, in that refpe&, may,
without much injuitice, be deemed a Sceptic. But this may
be faid in his favour, that the great Socrates was fo fara
Sceptic himfelf: phyfical and fenfible things, he held, were
all dubious, and at belt but probable.

The origin of {cepticifm is fomewhat obf{cure. Pyrrho,
who lived under Alexander the Great, and made the tour of
India in his retinue, is ufually reputed its author: whence

the words Pyrrhonians and Sceptics are ordinarily ufed in

differently. See Pyrruonians and Sceprics.

It mult be owned, however, that the great dogma of the
Sceptics had been countenanced, and even cultivated, before
Pyrrho, by Democritus, Heraclitus, &c. Sextus Em-
piricus fays exprefsly, that all that Pyrrho did was to im-
prove, illuftrate, and enforce the dogma, and form the re-
tainers of it into a feét.

Democritus’s philofophy was near akin to fcepticifm ;
for upon his Searing, that honey feemed {weet to fome
and bitter to others, he concluded, that it was neither {weet
nor bitter, and thereupon pronounced, ov watrov, non magisy
which is pure fcepticifm. Yet the fame Sextus adds, that
Democritus was no Sceptic.

Though Plato argues very ftrenuoufly againft the acata-
lepfy of the Sceptics; yet it is certain that dogma received
a great part of its encouragement from Socrates’s fchool,

1

SCE

and from Plato’s academy. Nay, it was a great contro-
yerfy among the ancients, whether Plato himfelf were a
Sceptic or a Dogmatift. Indeed Plato’s decifive way. of
fpeaking, in many cafes, feems to leave no great room for
fuch a doubt ; but it is certain, his followers, of the new
academy, founded by Arcefilaus, gave much into this way ;
and nihil fcitu was held by them a principle.

Plato refutes the great principle of the Sceptics thus:
when you fay, that all things are incomprehenfible, do
you comprehend or conceive that they are thus incompre-
henfible, or do you not? if yeu do, then fomething is
comprehenfible; if you do not, there is no reafon we
fhould believe you, fince you do not comprehend your
own affertion. a aes

Sextus Empiricus obferves, that Socrates himfelf had a
tincture of {cepticifm: fome even make him the author of
it, from that cuftomary fayinz of his, J know nothing but
this, that I know nothing. If this were the origin of icep-
ticifm, it mu{t be owned it was mightily improved after-
wards, before Metrodorus faid, know nothing, not even
this, that I know nothing: The {fame Sextus, however,
adds, that Plato, introducing his mafter in his gymnattic
dialogues, difputing with the Sophiits, makes him aé the

art of a Sceptic.

SCEPTICS, Sceprici, a fect of ancient philofophers,
founded or improved by Pyrrho. Their diftinguifhing tenet
was, that all things are uncertain and imcomprehentible ;
contraries equally true ; and that the mind 1s never to aflent
to any thing, but to keep up an abfolute hefitancy or in-
difference. ‘

Laertius notes, that the followers of Pyrrho had va-
rious denominations: from their mafter, they were called
Pyrrhonians ; from their dogma, Aporetici, that is doubters,
of azog:iv, to doubt; from their fufpenfion and hefitation,
Epheéticiy of exexev, to flay, to keep back; and from their
never getting beyond the fearch of truth, Zetetici, Seekers.

From Sextus Empiricus we derive the following fum-
mary of the dottrine of the Sceptics. The office of this
{pecies of philofophy is to compare external phenomena
with mental conceptions, and difcover their mconfiitency,
and the confequent uncertainty of all reafoning from ap-
pearances. Its end is to cure that reitlefsnefs which attends
the unfuccefsful fearch after truth, and, by means of an
univerfal fufpenfion of judgment, to eftablifh mental tran-
quillity. Its fundamental principle is, that to every argu-
ment, an argument of equal weight may, in all cafes, be
oppofed.

"Phe Sceptic admits no tenets, not becaufe he difcredits
the immediate teftimony of his fenfes, but becaufe he re-
fufes his aflent to thofe doubtful points which {cience under-
takes to determine. He does not deny that he can fee, hear,
or feel ; but he maintains, that the inferences which philo-
fophers have drawn from the reports of the fenfes are
doubtful; and that any general conclution deduced from
appearances may be overturned by reafonings equally plau-
fible with thofe by which it is fupported. Scepticifm allows
the exiftence of fenfible appearances, becaufe the impreflions
which external objects make upon the power of perception,
or the phantafy, produce an trefiftible conviction of their
reality; but it demurs upon the pofitions which are ad-
vanced concerning the phenomena of nature. As far as
concerns the offices of common life, the Sceptic acquiefces
in appearances; being neceflarily impelled to conform to
them by his natural appetites and paffions. Hence he liitens
to the calls of nature, conforms to ettablifhed cuftoms, and
practifes ufeful arts.

The manner in which a Sceptic arrives at an undifturbed

ftate

qe os &

SCEPTICS.

ftate ‘of mind is entirely cafual. At his entrance upon the
ftudy of philofophy, he hopes to be able to diitinguifh true
from falfe opinions, and thus to obtain tranquillity ; but
being held in fufpenfe-by contrary reafoning, he defpairs of
arriving at fatisfaction, and concludes, that no certain judg-
ment can be formed concerning good and evil. Hence he
is accidentally taught, that theré is no reafon for eagerly
purfuing any apparent good, or avoiding any apparent evil ;
and his mind, of courfe, fettles into a ftate of undifturbed
tranquillity. So Apelles, when in painting a horfe he had
fucceeded fo ill in drawing the foam, that, ‘in vexation, he
threw the fponge which he ufed for taking off colours at
the piture, by this accidental a€tion formed the reprefent-
ation which he had fo long in vain exerted his utmott
fkill to produce.

Ten diftin@ topics of argument were made ufe of in the
fchool of the Sceptics, with this precaution, that nothing
could be pofitively afferted, concerning either the number
or the force of the arguments which may be urged in fupport
of the doGtrine of uncertainty. 1. That on account of the
variety which takes place in the organization of different
animal bodies, it is probable that the fame external object
prefents different images to different animals; and man can
have no reafon for aflerting, that his perceptions are more
conformable to the real nature of things, than thofe of in-
ferior animals. 2. That even among men there is a great
diverfity both of mind and body, which neceflarily occations
a great variety of opinions ; every man judging according to
his particular apprehenfion, whilft no one is able to deter-
mine the real nature of things. 3. That the different fenfes
give different reports of the fame thing; whence, bodies
may have different properties from thofe which the fenfes
lead us to fuppofe. 4. That the fame thing appears dif-
ferently, according to the different difpofitions, or circum-
ftances, of the perfon who perceives it; whence it is im-
poffible for any one man to pronounce, that his judgment
concerning any object is agreeable to nature. 5. That
things aflume a different afpe&, according to their diftance,
pofition, or place; and no reafon can be afligned why one
of thefe afpeéts fhould agree with the real objeét, rather
than the reft. 6. That no obje& offers itfelf to the fenfes,
which is not fo conneéted and mixed with others, that it
cannot be diltin&tly feparated and examined. 7. That ob-
jets of fenfe appear exceedingly different, when viewed in
a compound, and in a decompofed {tate ; and it is impof-
fible to fay, which appearance moft truly expreffes their
real nature. 8. That every obje& being always viewed in
its relation to others, it is impoffible to determine what it is
fimply, in its own nature. 9. That our judgment is liable
to uncertainty, from the circumitance of frequent or rare
occurrence ; that which happens every day appearing to us
in a very different light from that in which the fame thing
would appear, if it were new. 10. That mankind are con-
tinually led into different conceptions concerning the fame
thing, through the influence of cuftom, law, fabulous tales,
and eftablifhed opinions. On all thefe accounts, every hu-
man judgment is liable to uncertainty ; and we can only
fay, concerning any thing, that it feems to be, not that 1
is what it feems.

Befides thefe topics, the later Sceptics made ufe of fome
others. They maintained that every propofition requires
fome _ propofition to fupport it, in infinitum, or fup-
pofes fome axiom, which cannot be proved, and is therefore
taken for granted without demonitration, that is, may be
denied; that in argument, the point affumed, and that
which is to be proved, may often be alternately ufed in each
ether’s place, both being equally uncertain; and, laltly,

that nothing can be underftood by itfelf, as appears from
the endlefs difputes of philofophers concerning the nature of
things; nor by means of fomething elfe, whilft itfelf re-
mains unknown.

On thefe and other fimilar grounds, the Sceptics not only
refufed their affent to propofitions of every kind, but
avoided as much as poflible every form of fpeech which ex-
preffes certainty. When they ufe the term is, or any equi-
valent mode of affertion, they confefs that the term /éems,
or fome other expreflion of doubt, fhould be fubitituted in
its ftead. Every thing, according to them, being uncertain
and incomprehentible, their language, in all cafes, was,
«© What you affert may be true, or it may not; I fufpend
my judgment; I determine nothing.’? They admitted the
exiftence of appearances, but maintained that nothing
could be affirmed with certainty concerning the nature of
things.

With regard to logic the Sceptics allege, that man can
have no certain criterion of truth, becaufe man, the being
who judges, is unknown to himfelf; becaufe he has no fa-
culties by which he can judge, befides thofe of fenfe and
intelle&, of which the former are uncertain and contradic-
tory in their reports, and the latter is doubtful of its own
exiftence and nature, and variable in its operations and con-
clufions ; and becaufe the inftrument which he makes ufe of
in judging, namely, the perception produced in his mind
by the impreffion of external objeéts, or the phantafy, is
itfelf wholly incomprehenfible, being a certain affe€tion or
ftate of the rational principle, whofe nature is unknown,
and which is effentially different from the external object by
which it is produced. If the underftanding judges from
any {uppofed perception, it judges according to that per-
ception, and not according to the external obje& ; and it is
impoffible that the underftanding fhould determine whether
the perception. produced by an external object be like the
object itfelf. A further caufe of logical uncertainty is,
that, except in cafes where the fenfes are immediately con-
cerned, as when we infer the prefence of fire from {moke,
we cannot reafon from that which is manifeft to that which
is concealed.

Syllogifms, fay the Sceptics, which eftablifh univerfal
from particular propofitions by duction, and demonttrate
the truth of particular from univerfal propofitions, are a
kind of circular reafoning which can produce no fatisfactory
proof. According to them, definitions are ufelefs ; fince,
before they can be applied, their accuracy muft be main-
tained, which is an occafion of endlefs difpute. Divifions
are equally ufelefs, and fo they pretend are the forms of
logic for the refutation of fophifms. Whilft the Sceptic
admits nothing certain in logic, he conceives that there may
be equal room for doubt in all philofophical difquifitions
concerning “ Nature.’? With refpe& to the Deity, he afks,
fince the Dapmatitts are not determined whether God be
corporeal or incorporeal; whether he be endued with a
human form or not y whether he be in place or not; or if he
be in place, whether he is in the world or beyond it ; what

an be certainly known concerning a being of whofe form,
ubfiftence, said plinie} we are ignorant? "That an efficient
caufe exifts, may be inferred with probability from the pro-
duétions and diffolutions which take place in nature; for
how can thefe chanjes happen without a caufe? On the
other fide it may be urged, that if any caufe be admitted,
fome caufe fools 4 be afligned for that caufe, and fo on in in-
Jinitum. Each opinion may be fupported by probable argu-
ments; whence the queftion mult remain doubtful.

The Sceptics allege that ‘ material principles”’ mult be
pronounced iscomptehediible, becaule philofophers are dif-

agreed

SCEPTICS.

agreed concerning their nature; and this difagreemént
fhews, that there are no common axioms on this fubjeét, in
which all are agreed, and which need no proof. Upon the
queition concerning ‘motion,’ the Sceptics, unable to
refute the arguments that have been urged againft its ex-
iftence, or to rejeét the phenomena by which its exiltence
becomes evident, fufpend their judgment. They alfo hefi-
tate concerning the poffibility of increafe or diminution,
tranfpofition or change of any kind. On the fubje& of
* morals,” the Sceptics fufpend their judgment concerning
the ground of the diftinétion admitted by the Stoics, and
other Dogmatifts, between things in their nature good,
evil, or indifferent. The arguments on which they infift
are fuch as thefe: The different opinions concerning good
fufficiently prove, that philofophers are ignorant of its na-
ture. Different men are differently affected by things which
are called good, and therefore thefe things in themfelves
_ cannot be good. — Defire itfelf is not good, elfe we fhould
be contented with it, and not endeavour to obtain its objeé ;
nor can the external objet of defire be good, becaufe it is
external: there appears therefore to be nothing really good,
and confequently nothing really evil. Since different men
judge and a& differently concerning thefe things, fome ap-
proving what others condemn, and fome avoiding what
others purfue, there can be nothing. in nature really good,
evil, or indifferent. Hence it follows that ethics can have
no foundation in nature. The art of living well is not in-
nate to man; for, if it were, all men would be virtuous:
hor can it be taught, for that which is to be taught is
doubtful; no one is himfelf fufficiently inftruéted to become
a teacher; nor are there any means of demonftration, or
teftimony, by which it can be taught; or if this art could
be taught, it would only prove the occafion of endlefs per-
turbation of mind, arifing from the eager defire and purfuit
of things fuppofed to be good. Tranquillity is belt ob-
tained, by giving up all expeétation of arriving at truth,
and fitting down in a ftate of total indifference with refpe&
to opinions.

Befides thefe chief grounds of {cepticifm, as detailed by
the hiftorian and admirer of the fe&, Sextus Empiricus,
there are others, neither lefs fubtle, nor more fatisfaétory,
than the idle quibbles of the Dialeétic fchools. We fhall
here clofe our general account of {cepticifm with remarking,
that the Sceptics have advanced nothing upon the important
queftion refpeéting the exiftence and providence of a Su-
preme Being, which may not, with the greatelt confidence,
be referred to mere verbal quibbling, or to the acknow-
ledged imperfeétion of the human intelleé&t, which, whilft it
embraces, on the clear and certain ground of final caufes in
nature, the doctrine of the exiftence of a Deity, mutt al-
ways confefs itfelf unequal to the full comprehenfion of his
nature and operations. It mult be added, that whilft the
Sceptics claffed the queftion concerning the exiftence of the
Deity among thofe {peculations, upon which they thought it
impoflible to decide with certainty either in the affirmative or
negative, they not only joined inthe popular worfhip of the
gods, but confefled that there appeared to be in the human
mind a natural inftinétive principle of religion: a concefliom
which fufficiently invalidates all their futile reafonings on
the fide of infidelit ,

The two fe&s of the Sceptics and Academics were nearly
allied ; but they differed in fome points, the chief of which
are thefe; the Academics laid it down as an axiom, that
nothing can be known with certainty ; the Pyrrhonitts per-
ceived the abfurdity of this pofition, and maintained that
even this ought not to be pofitively afferted. The Aca-
demics admitted the real exiftence of good and evil; the

Pyrrhonifts fufpended their judgment upon this point.. The
Academics, elpecially the Dilsvecke of Carneades, allowed
different degrees of probability in opinion; but the Sceptics
rejeted all fpeculative conclufions, drawn either from. the
te(timony of the fenfes, or from reafoning ; and contended,
that we can have no ground for affirming or denying any
propofition, or embracing any one opinion rather thar
another. Carneades admitted, that by the impreffions of ex-
ternal objeéts upon the fenfes, we are neceffarily inclined to
one opinion more than another; Pyrrho, whilft he acknow-
ledged that men are neceflarily impelled to aGion by their
feelings, denied that they are capable of forming any judg-
ment. In common life, the Academics followed proba-
bility ; the Sceptics, law, cuftom, and the natural impulfe
of appetite. After all, thefe two feéts differed more in ap-
pearance than in reality. Both invaded the {trong holds of
truth; but the Academics did it covertly and with modelty,
whilft the Sceptics aflaulted them with open violence, as if
they had forfworn all allegiance to reafon. See AcADEMICS
and PyRRHONIANS. “

Whatever may have been urged to the contrary by mo-
dern advocates for fcepticifm, it cannot be reafonably
doubted, that the true caufes of the continuance of this
feét, through every age, have been that indolence which is
inimical to every mental exertion; that kind of intelle€tual
imbecility which, in various degrees, incapacitates men for
difcerning the true nature and condition of things; sor,
laftly, that propenfity towards fubtile refinement, which
hinders the moit vigorous mind in eftimating different de-
grees of probability, and accurately diitinguifhing truth
from error.

Under the Roman emperors, Scepticif{m or Pyrrhonifm
funk into difrepute. Contradiétory in its firft principles
to the common notions of mankind, who are inclined to
credit their fenfes; difgraced by the extravagant practices
of fome of its profeflors; oppofed with violence by the
whole body of Platonifts and Stoics; and deftitute of
countenance among -the great; it was no wonder that
the fchool of Pyrrho was little frequented, and that

few perfons were found, who were willing to facrifice in-

tereft or fame to the empty profeffion of the {cience of w=
ing nothing. i
Pyrrhonifm, however, was not at this time entirely with-
out avowed advocates. Diogenes Laertius mentio a
tinued fucceflion of learned Sceptics from the time of Cicero,
when Oenefidemus reformed the Sceptic fchool at Alex-
andria: Zeuxippus, Zeuxis, Antiochus, Menodotus,
rodotus, Sextus, and Saturninus. Of thefe, as if
medical profeffion peculiarly difpofed the mind to {cepticifm,
feveral were phyficians. Befides thefe, other Sceptics are
mentioned by the ancients. So that when Seneca afks,
«« Who is there now, who teaches the doétrine of Pyrrho 2”?
he mutt be underftood either to {peak of the public pro-

feffors of Pyrrhonifm, or to reprefent this fchool as anni- .

hilated, in comparifon with thatof the Stoics.
Among the Sceptics of this period Sextus Empiricus
alone deferves particular notice ; but we have already
an abftra& of the principles of the {ceptical philofophy from
his {tatement of them. After the age of Sextus, there were
not wanting perfons, who fala the Sceptic method of
philofophifing, either under the name of Academics or
Pyrrhonitts: but the feét, through the fpread of the Alex-
andrian philofophy, and the Chrittian religion, by degrees
difappeared, and remained for many centuries wholly un-

noticed,
Modern {cepticifm differs in many refpects from ancient
Pyrrhonifm, and appears in feveral different forms. Some
9 writers

—_—

" SCEPTICS.

writers have wholly denied the power of the human under-
itanding to inveftigate truth; and, with the ancient Pyr-
rhonifts, have attempted to bring into difcredit both the
principles, and the method of reafoning, which have been
commonly employed in the purfuit of knowledge. Others
have bufied themfelves in itarting doubts and difficulties on
particular topics of inquiry, and endeavoured to involve
every fubje@ in uncertainty. Whilit others, more cautious
than the reit, have made ufe of the weapons of fcepticifm
againit the hypothetical method of inveitigating truth, for
the general purpofe of curbing the arrogance of dogmatifm,
or with the particular defign of turning the ftudy of nature
out of the channel of conje€ture into that of experiment.
In theclogy, icepticifm is fometimes labouring, on the one
hand, to overturn the facred edifice of divine revelation ; and
fometimes, on the other, to fupport the intereft of fuper-
ftition, or of fanaticiim, by declaiming on the imbecility of
human reafon.

Our limits will allow our only mentioning in this place
fome of the more celebrated Sceptics, who have appeared
fince the revival of letters; and we thall refer for a more
particular account of the principal of them to their refpec-
tive biographical articles. The firft perfon whofe name oc-
curs in this enumeration was Francis Sanchez; next to him
was Jerom Hernhaym, a learned abbot of Prague, who
wrote a book “ De Typho Generis Humani,” or, On the
Vain-glory of Human Nature, in which he attempts to ex-
pofe the prefumption, uncertainty, and falfehood of human
fcience. The fcepticifm of this writer, fays Brucker, ap-
pears to have been the effect of perverted piety, and may
ferve to prove, that religion itfelf is no fure guide to men,
who difclaim the ufe and authority of reafon. Scepticifm
found an abler advocate in Francis Vayer de la Mothe.
(See his article.) Among his difciples were Sorbiere, who
tranflated part of Sextus Empiricus into French; and
Fouchier, who wrote “ A Hillory of the Academic Philo-
fophy.”” Another celebrated defender of fcepticifm was
Peter Daniel Huet. (See Hurt.) Next to Huet we
may mention Peter Bayle, juftly reckoned one of the moft
powerful advocates for Pyrrhonifm. See BAyLe.

Upon a comparifon of the writings of modern Sceptics, it
will appear that they have adopted this method of philo-
fophifug upon very different grounds, aud for very different
purpofes: but in whatever form {cepticifm appears, or from
whatever caufe it {prings, it may be confidently pronounced
hoftile to true philofophy ; for its obvious tendency is to
invalidate every ee of human knowledge, to deftroy
every criterion of truth, and to undermine the foundations
of all {cience, human and divine.

We are fometimes apt, fays the acute and elegant author
of the “Elements of the Philofophy of the Human
Mind,” to afcribe a difpofition to unlimited {cepticifm to a
more than ordinary vigour of intelleét. Such a prejudice
was by no means unnatural at that period in the hiftory of
modern Europe, when reafon firft began to throw off the

‘oke of authority ; and when it unqueftionably required a
uperiority of underitanding, as well as of intrepidity, for
an individual to refift the contagion of prevailing fupertti-
tion, But in the prefent age, in which the tendency of
fafhionable opinions is direétly oppofite to thofe of the
vulgar; the philofophical creed, or the philofophical fcep-
ticiim of by far the greater number thofe who value
themfelves on an emancipation from ular errors, arifes
from the very fame weaknefs with the credulity of the mul-
titude: nor is it going too far to fay, with Roufleau, that
“he, who, in the end of the eighteenth century, has
brought himfelf to abandon all his early principles without
Vor. XXXI.

diferimination, would probably have been a bigot in the
days of the League.”” In the midit of thefe contrary 1m-
pulfes, of fafhionable and of vulgar prejudices, he alone
evinces the fuperiority and the ftrength of his mind, who is
able to difentangle truth from error ; and to oppofe the clear
conclufions of his own unbiatied faculties to the united cla-
mours of fuperftition, and of falfe philofophy. Such are
the men, whom nature marks out to be the lights of the
world ; to fix the wavering opinions of the multitude, and
to imprefs their own characters on that of their age.

For fecuring the mind completely from the weakneffes
that have now been defcribed, and enabling it to maintain a
fteady courfe of inquiry between implicit credulity and un-
limited fcepticifm, the moft important of all qualities is a
fincere and devoted attachment to truth; which feldom fails
to be accompanied with a manly confidence in the clear con-
clufions of human reafon. It is fuch a confidence, united,
as it generally is, with perfonal intrepidity, which forms
what the French writers call force of character ; one of the
rareft endowments, it muft be confefled, of our fpecies ; but
which, of all endowments, is the mo effential for rendering
a philofopher happy in himfelf, and a bleffing to mankind.

There is, our author conceives, good reafon for hoping,
that the {ceptical tendency of the prefent age will be only a
temporary evil. While it continues, however, it is an evil of
the moit alarming nature; and, as it extends, in general,
not only to religion and morality, but, in fome meafure, alfo
to politics and the condué of life, it is equally fatal to the
comfort of the individual, and to the improvement of fo-
ciety. Even in its moft inoffenfive form, when it happens
to be united with a peaceable difpofition and a benevolent
heart, it cannot fail to have the effect of damping every
a¢tive and patriotic exertion. Convinced that truth is
placed beyond the reach of human faculties; and doubtful
how far the prejudices we defpife may not be effential to the
well-being of fociety, we refolve to abandon completely all
fpeculative inquiries ; and fuffering ourfelves to be carried
quietly along with the ftream of popular opinions, and of
fafhionable manners, determine to amufe ourfelves, the beft
way we can, with bufinefs or pleafure, during our fhort
paflage through this fcene of illufions. But he who thinks
more favourably of the human powers, and who believes
that reafon was given to man to direét him to his duty and
happinefs, will defpife the fuggeltions of this timid philo-
fophy ; and while he is confcious that he is guided in his
inquiries only by the love of truth, will reft affured that
their refult will be equally favourable to his own comfort,
and to the beft interefls of mankind. What, indeed, will
be the particular effeéts in the firft inftance, of that general
diffufion of knowledge, which the art of printing muft
fooner or later produce ; and of that fpirit of reformation
with which it cannot fail to be accompanied, it is berone
the reach of human fagacity to conjecture ; but unlefs we
chufe to abandon ourfelves entirely to a pe panding {cep-
ticifm, we muft hope and believe that the progrefs of human
reafon can never be a fource of permanent diforder to the
world ; and that they alone have canfe to apprehend the
confequences, who are led, by the imperfeétion of our pre-
fent inftitutions, to feel themfelves interelted in perpetuating
the prejudices and follies of their {pecies. }

From the obfervations which have been made, it fuffi-
ciently appears, that, in order to fecure the mind, on the
one Ps from the influence of prejudice, and, on the
other, from a tendency to unlimite {cepticifm, it is necef-
fary that it fhould be able to diftinguith the original and
univerfal principles and laws of human nature from the ad-

ventitious effeéts of local fituation, See Brucker’s Hilt. of
4M Philofophy

SCH

Philofophy by Enfield, vol. i. and vol. it Stewart’s Ele-
ments, &c. p. 35, Xc. :

SCEPTRA, a town of Afia Minor, and one of the
feven prefented by Cyrus to his favourite Pythareus.

SCEPTRE, Screprrum, a royal ftaff, or baton, borne,
on folemn occafions, by kings, as a badge of their command
and authority.

Nicod derives the word from the Greek cxxxre«v, which
he fays originally fignified a javelin, which the ancient kings
ufually bore as a badge of their authority ; in regard that
inftrument was in very great veneration among the heathens.
But cxnzzgov does not properly fignify a javelin, but a flaf
t9 ref? upon, from cxn~lx, innitor, I lean upon. Accordingly,
in the fimplicity of the earlier ages of the world, the fceptres
of kings were no other than long walking-ftaves ; and Ovid,
in feeakitg of Jupiter, defcribes him as re(ting on his {ceptre.
Met. i. v. 178.

The fceptre is an enfign of royalty of greater antiquity
than the crown. The Greek tragic and other poets put
{ceptres in the hands of the moft ancient kings they ever in-
troduce.

Juftin obferves, that the {ceptre, in its original, was an
hafta, or {pear. He adds, that in the moft remote anti-
quity, men adored the halta, or {ceptres, as immortal gods ;
and that it was upon this account that, even in his time,
they itill furnifhed the gods with fceptres. Neptune’s
{ceptre is his trident.

Tarquin the Elder was the firft who affumed the fceptre
among the Romans.

Le Gendre tells us, that in the firft race of the French
kings, the fceptre was a golden rod, almott always of the
fame height with the king who bore it, and crooked at one
end, like acrozier, Frequently, inftead of a {ceptre, kings
are feen on medals with a palm in théir hand.

SCERAN, in Geography, a river of France, which runs
into the Sier; 8 miles W. of Annecy.

SCETTA, a province of the kingdom of Angola, in
Africa.

SCEY /ur Sadne, atown of France, in the department
ef the Upper Sadne, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Vefoul; 7 miles W. of Vefoul. The place
contains 1727, and the canton 11,111 inhabitants, on a
territory of 235 kiliometres, in 29 communes.

SCHAADEN, a town of Saxony, in the marquifate of
Meiffen, on the Elbe; 9 miles S.E. of Pirna.

SCHAAF, Cuartes, in Biography, a learned orientalitt,
born at Nuys, in the eleftorate of Cologne, in 1646, was
the fon of a major in the Heffian fervice. He was educated
for the church, and at the requeft of the ftudents in theo-
logy at that univerfity, he was nominated, in 1677, teacher
of the Oriental languages. Three years after this he oc-
cupied a fimilar pott at Leyden. He was afterwards ap-
pointed to the chair as Oriental profeffor. On the whole,
he taught in that department of literature, three years at
Duifburg, and fifty at Leyden. He died in 1729, at the
age of 83. He was author of “ Opus Arameum, com-
pleétens Grammaticam Chaldaico-Syriacam cum Verfione
Latina,”’ 8vo. 1686: “ Novum Teftamentum Syriacum
cum Verfione Latina,’’ 4to. 1708: * Lexicon Syriacum
concordantiale,” gto. 1717: ** Epitome Grammatices He-
bree,” 1716. He was engaged in the year 1711 by the
curators of the univerfity of Leyden to draw up a cata-
logue of Oriental books and manufcripts in its library.

SCHAAFSTADT, in Geography, a town of Saxony,
in the principality of Merfeburg ; 8 miles W. of Merfe-
burg. Ni lat. 51° go’. E. long. 11° §9/.
SCHAAGEN, a town of Pruffia, in the province of

7

we i +

Samland, with a caftle, fituated on a river, which runs inte
the Curifch Haff; 10 miles N. of Konigherg.

SCHABBIE, a town of Arabia, in Yemen; 6 miles
N.N.W. of Beit al Fakih.

SCHABRAN, or SHABRAN, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Schirvan; 30 miles N.N.E. of Schamachi.

SCHABUR. See Suasur.

SCHACADERO, a town on the ifthmus of Darien, on
the river St. Maria. N. lat. 7° so’. f

SCHADE, a river which rifes in the Schall See, in the
duchy of Lauenburg, and runs into the Elbe, oppofite to
Blekede.

SCHADECK, a town of Germany, in the county of
Linange, or Leinengen, on the Lahn; 14 miles W.S.W-
of Wetzlar.

SCHADENBECK, a town of Saxony, in the Vogt-
land; 1 mile E. of Oelfnitz.

SCHADERWITZ, a town of Silefia, in the princi-
pality of Grotkau; 10 miles N.E. of Neifle.

SCHADIDA Ca tty, in Botany, aname given by fome
authors to the plant, which affords the euphorbium of the
fhops.

§CHADRINO, in Geography, a town of Roffia, in
the government of Tobolik, on the Enifei; 68 miles N. of
Enifeifk.

SCHAFFERIA, in Botany, fo named by Jacquin,
in honour of the Rev. James Chriftian Scheffer, minifter
of the Lutheran church at Ratifbon, who died A.D.
1790, aged 72. This gentleman was the author of nume-
rous traéts in the feveral departments of natural hiftory,
but is more particularly celebrated in the botanical world
for his excellent ‘ Fungorum Icones,”? publifhed at Ratifbon
in 1762, in four volumes quarto.—Jacq. Amer. 259,

Schreb. 681. Willd. Sp. Pi. v. 4. 741. Mart. Mill.
Did. -v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 371. Swartz
Prodr. 38. Jufl. 426. Lamarck Di&. v. 6. 727. Il-

luftr. t. 809.—Clafs and order, Dioecia Tetrandria. Nat.
Ord. uncertain.

Gen. Ch. Male, Ca/. Perianth of four or five, ovate,
concave, {preading leaves. Cor. Petals four, lanceolate-_
ovate, fpreading, fometimes wanting. Neéary fquare,
convex, in the middle of the flower. Stam. Filaments
four, thread-fhaped, ereét; anthers roundifh, ere&t. Pit.
The rudiment of a germen, without ftyle or ftigma. ,

Female, Ca/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, divided into
four or five, obtufe, fpreading fegments. Cor. Petals
four, wider at the tip, deciduous. Neary a flefhy wee
round the germen. Pif, Germen fuperior, roundifh ;
{tyles two, very fhort, reflexed; {tigmas cloven or entire,
comprefled into a fort of head. Peric. Berry roundith,
two-celled. Seeds folitary, hemifpherical.

Eil. Ch. Male, Calyx of four leaves. Petals four, or
none. Female, Calyx four or five-cleft. Petals four, de-
ciduous. Berry of two cells. Seeds folitary.

1. S. completa. White-flowered Scheflerias Willd.
n.1. Swartz Ind. Oce. v. 1. 327. (Buxi folio majore
acuminato, arbor baccifera, fructu minore croceo dipyreno ;
Sloane Hilt. Jam. v. 2. 102. t. 209. f. 1.)—Flowers
axillary, with four petals.—Originally difcovered by Jac-
quin, about Carthagena, in New Spain. Frequent in the
Wett Indies, where, according to Swartz, it flowers in
January and June. A {mall tree or fhrub whofe trunk is
ereét, with afmooth, afh-coloured daré. Branches nearl
upright, irregular, rigid, fmooth. eaves on fhort ftalks,
alternately fmallery ovate, acute, almoft entire, or very
flightly notched, veined, rigid, fomewhat recurved at the
tip, green, fhining. J/ower-/lalks many together, a

ably

eC HB
ably fhorter than the leaves, fealy at the bafe; each bear-
ing a folitary, white fower.

2. S. lateriffora. Lateral-flowered Schefferia. Willd.
n.2. Swartz Ind. Occ. y. 1. 329.—Flowers lateral, de-
ftitute of petals.—Difcovered at St. Domingo by profeflor
Swartz, flowering in February. A {mall tree whofe truné
is fomewhat more than a fathom in height, upright and
fmooth. Branches round, afh-coloured. eaves alternate,
ftalked, ovate, pointed, membranous, a little rigid, brownith-
green, beautifully veined or reticulated. Flower-ftalks late-
ral, crowded together on the branches, below the leaves.
Flowers on very fhort {talks, whitifh-green#?
~ Swartz has hinted, that this fecond {pecies may probably
be of a different genus. ~

SCHAZHHARA, in Geography, a mountain of Arabia,
in the province of Yemen, which, with its 300 villages, is
fhared out among many fchiecks, moft of whom were re-
lated to the royal family before its elevation to the throne
of Sana.

SCH/EHHR, a town of Arabia, in the province of
‘Hadramaut and country of Jafa, from which incenfe, but
inferior to that of India, is exported; 18 miles N.E. of
Aden. N. lat. 14° 1o!. E. long. 47° 50’.

SCHZENANTH, Scuz#nanruvs, in Botany, the fame
with ifchemum. See SceNANTH.

SCH/ENICLOS, in Ornithology, the name of a bird,
which, by the defcription of Bellonius, feems to be the
fame with that called by the French alouette de mer, the fea-
lark, and by us the flint.

SCHAFA, in Geography, a town of Moravia, in the
circle of Znaym; 26 miles W.N.W. of Znaym.

SCHAFEI, the furname of Anu AxspattaH Mo-
HAMMED Ben Epris, in Biography, a celebrated Moham-
medan doétor, was born at Gaza A.D. 767. After vifit-
ing Bagdad and Mecca, he went to hear a famous Imam
in Egypt, where he died, in 819. He was the firlt of the
Mohammedans who wrote on jurifprudence, and he was
the author of a work entitled “ Offoul,’’ or the funda-
mentals of Iflamifm, in which was comprifed the whole
Moflem law, civil and canonical. He wrote two other
books on the law, entitled * Sonan’’? and “ Mefnad,’’
and his doétrine is regarded of {uch authority by the ortho-
dox Moflems, that the famous Saladin founded a college at
Cairo, in which it was forbidden to teach or profels any
other. The magnificent mofque and college at Herat, in
Khorafan, was appropriated to the doétors of the feé
Schafei.

SCHAFFERLEIT, in Geography, a town of Auftria ;
10 miles S.E. of Schwannaftatt.

SCHAFFHAUSEN, a tolerably well-built town of
Switzerland, and capital of a canton, fituated upon the
northern fhore of the Rhine, and owing its origin to the
interruption of the navigation of that river by the catara@
at Lauffen ; but being at firft conftruéted for the conveni-
ence of unloading the merchandize from the boats, by de-
grees increafed to a large town. Schaffhaufen was for-
merly an imperial city, and governed by an ariftocracy ; but
it was mortgaged in the year 1330, by the emperor Louis
of Bavaria, to the dukes of Auftria, and was releafed from
its dependency by the emperor Sigifmund, when Frederic,
duke of Auftria, was put under the ban of the empire.
In 1501 it was admitted a member of the Helvetic con-

; and is the twelfth canton in rank of all the can-
tons. It isthe leaft in fize, being only five leagues long
and three broad; and containing about 128 {quare miles :
its population is fuppofed to amount te 40,000 fouls, of
which the capital contains about. 6000. The whole number

SC)

of citizens, or burgeffes, with whom the fupreme authority
ultimately refides, confiits of about 1600, who are divided
into 12 tribes; and from thefe are eleGted 85 members,
who form the great and little council. To thefe two
councils the adminiftration of affairs is committed; the ex-
ecutive power being lodged in the fenate, or little council
of 25; and the great council, comprifing the fenate, finally
deciding all appeals, and regulating the more important
concerns of government. ‘The revenues of the ftate are
very inconfiderable, the falary of the burgomaiter barely
amounting to 150/. per annum. The reformation was intro-
duced here in 1529. The clergy are paid by the ftate, but
their income is fcarcely fufficient for their maintenance,
the beft living being only about 100/. and the worft 4o/.
per annum. The profeflors of literature, felected from the
clergy, are paid by government, anda {chool is fupported
at the public expence. Sumptuary laws are in force here.
The principal article of exportation 1s wine, as the country
abounds in vineyards, but corn is procured from Swabia in
exchange for wine. In the town there are a few manufac-
tures oF linen, cotton, and filk.

Although Schaffhaufen is a frontier-town, it has no
garrifon, and the fortifications are weak. The citizens
mount guard by turns; and the people of the canton are
divided into regular companies of militia, which are ex-
ercifed yearly, and are always prepared to act in defence of
their country. Of the famous bridge formerly fubfifting at
Schaffhaufen, and deftroyed by the French, we have giver
an account under the article Bripcz. About a league
from the town is the famous fall of the Rhine at Lauffen, a
{mall village in the canton of Zurich. Writers have given
different accounts of the perpendicular height of this cata.
ra&t, fome reckoning it 100 feet; but Mr. Coxe ftates it
about 50 or 60 feet. The magnificence of the whole fcenery
in this place exceeds defcription. The revolutionary govern-
ment under the influence of France was at an early period
adopted at Schaffhaufen. According to the conititution
of 1801, Schaffhaufen formed the 13th canton reunited
with Thurgovia, and fent fix deputies, as reprefentatives,
to the diet,

This is one of the handfomelt towns of Switzerland ;
it has fix gates, three fauxbourgs, four churches, and a
college called «* Collegium Humanitatis,’’ with eight pro-
feflors. Its arfenal is in a fortrefs, built on a hill, at the
extremity of the town. Yellels that pafs down the Rhine
pay atoll; 25 miles W. of Conftance, N. lat. 47° 4o!.
E. long. 8° 35'.

The canton is fituated on the N. fide of the Rhine, and
bounded on the N. by the Egau and county of Thengen,
on the E. by the landgraviate of Nellenburg, on the S. by
the Rhine, and on the W. by the countries of Baar and
Stuhlingen. It contains 27 parifhes and 10 bailiwicks, in
which are two towns, viz. Schaffhaufen and Neukirch,
The religion is Calvinifm.

SCHAFFILT, in Ornithology, the name of a very {mall
owl, not larger than the thrufh, called nodéua minor. by
authors.

Its eyes are very bright, and of a yellow colour ; its
ears very large ; its feet are feathered to the toes, and the
foles of its Get are yellow. It is caught in the woods in
Germany.

SCHAFFT, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Ghilan, fituated in a eouuiry fertile of rice,
and not far from the Cafpian fea; it abounds with black and
white fwans, herons, cormorants, and variety of water-fowl.

SCHAGEN, a town of Holland; 11 miles N. of Alc»
maer.
4M 2 SCHA-

SCH

SCHAHARA. See Sch #HHARA.

SCHAHI, a town of Perfia, in the province of Adir-
beitzan ; 30 miles S.W. of Tabris.

SCHAIDT, a town of France, in the department of
the Lower Rhine; 7 mile’ E.N.E. of Wiffemburg.

SCHAINFELD, or Mark Scnarnerecp, a town and
cattle of the country of Schwarzenberg ; 28 miles N. of
Anfpach. N. lat. 49° 44/. E. long. 10° 32’.

ScHAINFELD Ober, a town of Germany, in the lordthip
of Schwarzenberg ; 44 miles N. of Mark Schainfeld.

SCHAITANSKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the province
of Ekaterinburg, on the Tchufovaia; 72 miles N.W. of
Ekaterinburg.

SCHAKARILLA, or ScttAcaniLva, in the Materia
Medica, a name given by fome authors to the medicinal
bark called cortex thurts, and cortex eleutherti by others.
Montani, Exot. p. 8.

SCHAKKAU, in Geography, a town of Weltphalia,
in the bifhopric of Fulda; gmiles E. of Fulda.

SCHAKUNEN, a town of Pruffian Lithuania, on the
Ruffe; 14 miles N.E. of Tilfit.

SCHAKUNICHE, a town of Pruflia, in the province
of Samland, on the Rufle; 24 miles N.W. of Tilfit.

SCHALATZKOI, a cape on the N. coaft of Ruffia,
in the Frozen fea. N. lat. 68° 25/. E. long. 169° 14!.

SCHALESTEIN, a town of the duchy of Carinthia ;
5 miles N.E. of Wolffberg.

SCHALITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Konigingratz ; 12 miles N.E. of Konigingratz. N. lat.
50° 18. E. long. 15° 51'.

SCHALKAU, a town of Germany, in the principa-
lity of Coburg; 6 miles N. of Coburg. N. lat. 50° 23’.
E. long. 11° 8'.

SCHALKEN, Goprrey, in Bingraphys born at Dort
in 1643, wasa painter, who obtained celebrity by painting
{cenes of candle and torch light with exceeding great neat-
nefs and delicacy of pencil. He acquired the firft rudi-
ments of the art under Van Hoogitraten, but afterwards
improved himfelf in the {chool of Gerard Dow. On leav-
ing that mafter, he endeavoured to enlarge his ftyle, by
imitating Rembrandt ; but finding that tafte above his com-
prehenfion, he purfued his former courfe, and perfevered in
the high finifhed manner he had firft adopted. ;

Though it is impoffible not to admire the ingenuity with
which Schalken’s pitures are wrought, yet unfortunately
they are not in general of a true tone, but are too red and
yellow in the lights. He was led into this miltake by his
mode of ftudy. It was his cuftom to place the objects he
took for his models in a clofed room, illumined only by a
candle or lamp; and looking at them through a {mall aper-
ture, painted himfelf by day-light. The contralt of the two
lights naturally produced in the darkened chamber the red
and yellow tones to his eye, which are not obfervable fo
diftinétly at night.

The compofitions of this painter are agreeable, and his
well-managed chiaro-fcuro heightens that character ; and
notwithftanding the defeét we have obferved in his colour,
yet the general tones are managed with great dexterity and
truth of imitation.

He pafled fome time in England, and painted king
William, giving him a wax-candle to hold in his hand
while he imitated its effet. He afterwards returned to
Holland, and fettled at the Hague, where he died in 1706,
aged 63.

SCHALL, or Setar, Joun Anam, a celebrated mif-
fionary and mathematician, was-born at Cologne in the
year 1591. Heentered at an early age into the order of

2

SCH

the Jefuits, and having ftudied at Rome, went to China, .

where, in 1630, he was made prefident of the tribunal of
mathematics, and in 1644 was raifed to the dignity of
mandarin by the emperor Chun-Ti. On the death of that
prince, the enemies of the Chriftian religion took advan-
tage of the minority of his fucceffor, Can-Hi, to excite a
fevere perfecution againft the Jefuits. Schall was deprived
of his office, imprifoned, and condemned to a cruel death;
but this part of his fentence was not carried into execution.
He died a natural death in Augult 1666. He was the
author of « Hiftorica Narratio de Ortu et Progreflu Fidei
Orthodox in regno Chinenfi ab anno 1581 ad annum 1660
ex literis decem Adami Schall ;?? which was printed at
Vienna in 1665. He was author likewife of feveral works
written in the Chinefe language. ‘ -

Seuart, in Geography, a lake of Germany, in the duchy
of Saxe-Lauenburg, near the town of Ratzeburg.

SCHALLENBERG, a town of Bavaria, in the pro-
voltfhip of Berchtolgaden ; 4 miles N. of Berchtolgaden.

SCHALMAR, or Scuutmar, a town of Weltphalia,
in the county of Lippe; 2 miles S. of Salz-Uflen.

‘SCHALMEY, a German wind-inftrument, played .with
areed; it is a 12th below the common clarinet. But the
common clarinet is made a {chalmey by the performer quitting
the key under the thumb of the left hand.

The fchalmey makes the loweft twelve notes of every
clarinet, from E, third {pace in the bafe, to G, fecond line
in the treble. And the treble clarinet has all the notes
above that G to C in altiffimo, with all the {emi-tones.
The {chalmey is probably the /Laum mentioned in the facred
writings.

The inftrument named corno inglefi is a tenor clarinet
played with a reed. It is curved like a horn.

SCHALTEICK, a river of Pruffian Lithuania, which
runs into the Memel; 4 miles N.W. of Tilfit:

SCHAMACHI, or Scamacti, a rich and commer-
cial town of Perfia, the capital of the province of Schirvan,
under which name there are two cities, the old and the
new. New Schamachi is fituated in a plain on the river
Akfui, about 50 verfts from the Kur, and at the fame
diltance from the fea. Its form is quadrangular, each fide
being 800 paces in length. The walls are in tolerable re-
pair, built of unburnt brick, and furrounded with a very
deep and broad ditch. When this town was taken by the
Aga Mahomed Khan, in 1795, the inhabitants were fup-
pofed to amount to 6000 fouls ; but the city, as well as the
villages neareft the plain, were reduced to ruins by that
relentlefs tyrant, who did not retire till the month of
February of the following year. Thefe villages are in-
habited entirely by Armenians, feveral of whom are mer-
chants, who trade in filk ftuffs of an inferior quality.
Some of the country people in the more level parts lead a
nomadical life in moveable huts, con{ftruéted with wicker-
work, and covered with felt and mats, made of reed-grafs.
Haflem was eftablifhed as khan in 1796, under the pro-
teGtion of the Ruffians. The ruins of the old Schamachi,
once a large and populous city, are ftill extant; butt
are almott entirely hid from the view by thick brufh-wood,
This is the « Schamacha’”’ of the ancients, and is finely
fituated in an angle formed by the fouthern branch of
mount Caucafus. The inhabitants were wealthy; as the
place has beautiful mofchs, conftru&ted of hewn ftone,
with vaulted cupolas, and other mafflive public edifices,
again{t which time and the fury of barbarous conquerors
have hitherto produced but little effect.

SCHAMAGUR, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the
Roffofchina, N. lat. 97° 15’. E. long. 112° ne
SCHAMANS,

———————

SCH
SCHAMANS, in the hiftory of Literature and Mytho-

dogy, a denomination given in Siberia to the Sammanes or
Samaneans of India. (See SAMANEANS.) — Both the people
and the prieits of the Schaman religion are at prefent
illiterate ; but the old Sammanes are faid to have written
many books in philofophy and theology. Perfecuted by
the Bramins, and driven by them out of India Proper, they
are thought to have taken refuge in Pegu, Siam, and other
countries beyond the Ganges; and it is fuppofed that the
religion of thofe countries was derived from their principles.
The religion of the Lamas in Thibet is alfo faid to be a
reformed Schamanifm. As the followers of Budda were
likewife perfecuted by the Bramins, and they alfo fled to
the other fide of the Ganges, fome are of opinion that he
was worlhipped there under the appellation of Somono-
codom. But fince the term for God is in the language of
fome of the Tartars Kutai, or Gudai, and in the Perfian
Khoda, which very much refembles our word God, So-
monocodom may fignify the “ God of the Schamans.” As
to the word Schaman, Loubiere fays it fignifies a ‘ man
living in the woods,’ or a hermit, which is applicable
enough to one who is addicted to a life of contemplation.
The word Yalapoin is faid to have the fame fignification in
the language of fome of the neighbouring nations.

In the tenets and practices of the Schamans we may fee
a faint outline of the religion of the Hindoos. They be-
lieve in one God, the maker of all things; but they think
that he pays no attention to the affairs of men, leaving the
government of the world to inferior beings, to whom there-
fore all their devotions are addreffed. Like the Egyptians
and Hindoos, they reprefent the divine attributes by the
figure of both the fexes. Both the celeftial bodies, and all
terreltrial objets of confiderable magnitude, are objeéts of
worfhip to them, though fome of them only believe that
mountains, and great bodies of water, are the habitations
of the gods, and not themfelves animated. ‘They have,
however, a great variety of fubordinate deities, whom they
invoke for different purpofes, viz. one for health, another
for their cattle, another when they travel, another for the
women, another for their children, another for their rein-
deer, &c. &c. &c.; thinking that particular fpirits prefide
over ad have the care of them. But though they have
goddelfes, as well as pods they do not believe that they
are married. Thefe {pirits they fuppofe appear to their
prielts in the form of bears, ferpents, or owls; and on this
account they have a particular refpect for thofe animals.
See Sraenia.

SCHAMBE, in Geography,
which runs into the Peptsools
long. 87° 12!.

SCHAMBEK, atown of Hungary ; 14 miles N.N.W.
of Buda.

SCHAMEN, «a river of Bavaria, which rifes in the
territory of Ulm, and runs into the Aach; one mile $.S.E
of Languenan.

SCHAMENDORF, atown of Bavaria, in the bifhopric
of Bamberg ; 2 miles S. of Weifmain.

SCHAMER, a mountain of Arabia, between Nedsjed
apd Bagdad.

SCHAMERS, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Bechin ; 7 miles §.S.E. of Neuhaus.

SCHAMGAL, a diftri@ on the N. fide of Dagheftan, in
= Perlian empire, fo called from the title of the prince,
about 100 verits in length, and 50 or 6o in breadth,

SCHAMKOR, a town of Perfian Armenia; 20 miles
N. of Kanja.

SCHAMS, Valley of, a community of the Grey League

a river of Welt Florida,
bay, N. lat. 30° 28’. W.

SCH

in Switzerland, containing eight or nine inconfiderable
burghs or villages, fituated at {mall diftances upon each fide
of the Rhine; which is much lower and more fruitful than

“the Rheinwald.

SCHAMSEE. See Scuonsrz.

SCHANCOOK, a town of America, in New York; 9
miles N. of Lanfinburg. ss

SCHANDAU, a town of Saxony, in the marggravate
of Meiffen, on the Elbe; 4 miles E. of Konigttein.

SCHANIS, or Scuams, a town of Switzerland, in the
bailiwick of Gafter, having a celebrated abbey, founded in
the year 806; 10 miles N. of Glaris. '

SCHANNEN, a town of Pruffia, in the palatinate of
Culm ; 4 miles S.W. of Strafburg.

SCHANOWA, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Rakonitz ; 6 miles S.W. of Rakonitz.

SCHANTARSKIJA, three iflands of Ruffia, at the
weitern extremity of the fea of Ochotfk. N. lat. 55° 15!
to 55° 30'._ E. long. between 138° and 1397.

SCHAPHAN, in Jewifh Antiquity, the name of an
animal declared unclean by the law of Mofes.

Interpreters do not agree in their explanation of this
word.

SCHARA, or Osara, in Geography, a town of Syria,
near the W. coaft of the Euphrates; 160 miles E.S.E. of
Aleppo. .

SCHARAAZARGUNSKOI, a town of Ruffia, in
the government of Irkutfk, on the borders of China; 128
miles W.S.W. of Selenginfk.

SCHARDING. See Scuerpinc.

SCHAREDSJE, or Zaxa, an ifland in the gulf of
Perfia, near the coait of Arabia, about 30 miles in circum-
ference. N. lat. 25°. E. long. 54° 15'.

SCHARFEYN, a town of the duchy of Holftein;
miles S.W. of Lutkenburg.

SCHARFFENBERG, a town of Saxony, in the marg-
gravate of Meiffen, on the Elbe; 4 miles S.E. of Meiflen.

sc RKARSKOI, a town of Ruflia, in the govern-
ment of Tobolfk, on the Oby ; 72 miles S.S.W. of Berezov.

SCHARLA, Valley of, a valley of Lower Engadina,
in Switzerland, in which are filver mines belonging to the
houfe of Auftria, formerly rich, and yielding a confiderable
advantage, but now exhautted.

SCHARMAH, a town of Arabia Felix, in the pro-
vince of Hadramaut, fituated on the fea-coalt; 230 miles
E.N.E. of Aden.

SCHARMBECK, a town of the duchy of Bremen,
which has manufaétures of cloth, flannel, and other {tufts ;
13 miles N. of Bremen.

SCHARNITZ, a town of Tyrol, on the frontiers. of
Bavaria, fortified in the modern manner. Near it is a pafs
over the mountains, of confiderable importance; 8 miles
N.N.W. of [nnfpruck,

SCHARNSTEIN, a town of Aultria; 8 miles E. of
Gmunden.

SCHARPAW, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Pomerelia; 12 miles N. of Marienburg.

SCHAR-PENY, Scuarn-peny, or Schorn-peny. It ap-
pears, from our old books, that fome cultomary tenants
were obliged to pen up their cattle at night in the pounds
or yard of their lord, for the benefit of their dung, or
Jeearn, as the Saxons called it. In defect of this they were
to pay a fmall compenfation; which was hence called
{char-peny.

SCHARSE, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the
palatinate of Culm; 6 miles S$. of Culm.

SCHASJAH,

SCH

SCHASJAH, a town of Perfia, in Chorafan ; 30 miles
N. of Mefchid.

SCHASIS, a word ufed by fome of the writers in fur-
gery to exprefs f{carification.

SCHATECOKE, in Geography. See ScATECOKE.

SCHATESTEIN, a town of the duchy of Carinthia ;
5 miles N.E. of Wolfsberg.

SCHATSK, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Tambov; 96 miles N. of Tambov. N. lat. 54° 22'. E.
long. 41° 34/.

SCHATZLAR, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Konigingratz ; 6 miles N. of Trautenau.

SCHAVEN, a town of Farther Pomerania, on the
Wipper ; 4 miles S.E. of Rugenwalde. '

SCHAUEN, alordthip of Weftphalia, fituated between
the principality of Halberftadt, and the county of Werni-
gerode.

SCHAUENBURG, a town of Weftphalia, in the
county of Schauenburg ; 8 miles S.E. of Minden. The
county lies on the fides of the Wefer, about 11 leagues
long and four broad, {urrounded by the principalities of
Calenberg and Minden, and the counties of Lippe and Ra-
venfberg. It is mountainous, but contains a confiderable
quantity of fertile land, with fome excellent paftures. It
has alfo falt-{prings, quarries of lime-{tone and free-ftone,
mines of alum, coal, gold, filver, copper, and iron ; it is
well fupplied with wood, and abounds with game. The
inhabitants are Lutherans and Calvinifts. The whole coun-
try comprehends 10 towns and 167 villages.

SCHAUENSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the prin-
cipality of Culmbach; 18 miles N.E. of Culmbach.

SCHAUERS, a town of Auttria; 6 miles S.W. of
Lintz.

SCHAUMBURG, a lordfhip of Germany, in the
circle of the Lower Rhine; taking its name from a town
and caftle ; 25 miles W.S.W. of Wetzlar.

SCHAUM-EARTH, in Mineralogy, filvery chalk of
Kirwan ; a calcareous mineral found in the cavities of lime-
ftone in Thuringia and the north of Ireland. It has a
light yellowt1fh and nearly a filver white colour. It occurs
both in mafles and difleminated, and alfo in fine fealy par-
ticles. The luftre is fhining, fometimes inclining to femi-
metallic and pearly. The fraéture is curvedly foliated ; the
fragments blunt-edged. It fs opaque, foft, and friable.
Its conttituent parts, according to Bucholz, are

Lime - - = Gi
Carbonic acid - - 39
Silex - - - 5.7
Tron - - - 3:3
Water - - - I

SCHAUNSTAIN, in Geography, a town of Auttria ;
4 miles S.W. of Horn.

SCHAUT, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Upha; 104 miles W.S.W. of Upha.

SCHAYCH, a river of Wurtemberg, which runs into
the Neckar, near Nurtingen.

SCHEAT, or Sear, in Affronomy, a fixed ftar of the
fecond magnitude, in the junétion of the leg with the left
fhoulder oF Pebaiie

Some call it Scheat Alpheras, and fome Scheat Pegaft.

Scueat, or, aa it is fometimes written, Schead, or Sheart,
in Ichthyology, a name given by many to the jentling, a fith
of the chub kind, caught in the Danube, and moft of the
larger rivers in Germany, and called by Gefner and Al-
drovand capito caruleus.

This is the g/anus of Pliny, and the other old Roman

SCH

authors, and is diftinguifhed by Artedi by the name of the
Jfilurus with four beards, near the mouth. This is its cha-
ra¢ter in which it differs from the /aée, another fith of this
kind ; which, though a genuine f{pecies of filurus, has only
one beard. See Siturus.

SCHEBRAK, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in
the circle of Beraun; 8 miles S.S.W. of Beraun. |

SCHECH Suré, or Surdé, a {mall ifland in the Perfian
gulf. It is inhabited, and has a town on the S. coat:
veflels may obtain water and ftock. N. lat. 26°98’. E.

long. 54° 30!.

SCHECKENBACH, a town of Bavaria, in the terri-
tory of Rothenburg; 5 miles N. of Rothenburg.

SCHEDNITZ, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Ermeland ; 26 miles S.W. of Heilfberg.

SCHEDRIN, a fortrefs of Ruffia, on the Malka; 86
miles E.S.E. of Ekaterinogrod.

SCHEDUAN, an iffand, or rather a large rock, eight
miles in length and five in breadth, in the Red fea, at an
equal diftance between the coafts of Afia and Africa, which
has neither water nor plant. N. lat. 27° 35!.

SCHEDULE, Scueputa, a f{croll of paper, or parch-
ment annexed to a will, leafe, or other deed ; containing an -
inventory of goods, or fome other matter, omitted in
the body of the deed. It is ufed particularly for the ftate-
ment of effeéts delivered by a bankrupt to the commmffioners
who are appointed to invettigate his affairs.

The word is a diminutive of the Latin /cheda, or
Greek syndy a leaf, or piece of paper.

SCHEELIN Catcairg, in Mineralogy, a name given by
Hauy to the mineral called tungflen. See TuncsTEN.

ScHEELIN Ferruginé, a name given by the preceding
mineralogift to qwolfram. See WoLFRAM. ;

SCHEEPEL, in Commerce, a corn meafure in Holland :
the lait of corn contains 27 mudden, 36 facks, 108 fcheepels,
432 vierdevats, or 3456 koops; and contains 173,208
Dutch cubic inches, 147,120 French ditto, and 178,549
Englifh ditto: 104.28 {cheepels are equal to 10 Englith
quarters, and each {cheepel is equal to 1649 cubic inches.

SCHEER, in Geography, a town and lordthip of Ger-
many ; the territory is {mall, and the foil barren, fituated
on the fide of the Danube; 3 miles N.W. of Mengen.
N. lat. 48° 3!. E. long. 9° 20'-—Alfo, a river of France.
which runs into the Ille, one league N. of Eritein,

SCHEFFEL, in Commerce, a corn meafure in Germany -
at Berlin, a lalt of wheat contains three wifpels ; but a lait
of oats only 2 wifpels. A wifpel contains 2 malters, 24
{cheffels, 48 viertels, or 384 metzes. The fcheffel, holding
2621 French cubic inches, or 3189 Englifii ditto, is a
common meafure all over the country, and weighs, full of
rye, about 82lbs. of Berlin weight. Sixty {cheffels are
equal to 89 Englifh bufhels, or 20 wifpels, 89 Englifh
quarters. At Hamburgh, a laft of wheat or rye contains
3 wifpels, 30 {cheffels, 60 faffes, 120 himtens, or 480 {pints.
The ftandard meafure of the fafs is 212 inches in diameter,
and roz inches deep, Hamburgh meafure ; its contents are,
therefore, 3872 Hamburgh cubic inches, 2656 French ditto,
er 3213 Englih ditto. Hence, 1 fcheffel, or 2 fafles =
3 bufhels, Winchefter meafure nearly ; and 1 lait of Ham-
burgh = 89?ds Englifh buhtels, or 11,4,ths Englifh quarters.
A ftock of barley, or oats, contains 3 wifpels; a lait ditto,
2 wifpels, 20 fcheflels, 60 fafles, 120 himtens, or 480 {pints.

Scheffel is alfo ufed for a land meafure at Hamburgh.
A {cheffel of ‘corn land is the extent es fown with
a Hamburgh {cheffel of corn. It contains 200 {quare ruthes
of the longeft meafure, each 256 Hamburgh {quare feet,
which give 166 Englifh{quare perches, or 1 acre 6 perches.

SCHEFFER,

SCH

SCHEFFER, Joun, in Biography, a learned writer, was
born at Strafburgh in the year 1621. He had, while he was
young, made himfelf known by fome philological writings,
and at the age of 30 he went to Sweden by defire of the
queen Chriitina, the great patronefs of learning. He was
appointed to the chair of eloquence and politics in the uni-
verfity of Upfal, in which he gave fo much fatisfaGtion, that
her majefty fettled upon him a good penfion, which fhe con-
tinued after her abdication. _To his other employments were
added thofe of librarian to the univerfity, and honorary
profeffor of natural law ; and he was likewifea diftinguifhed
member of an academy inftituted for the inveftigation of
Swedifh antiquities. He died in the year 1679. Many of
the works of Scheffer relate to claflical antiquities, and have
been publifhed in the collections of Gronovius and Grevius.
Among thefe may be mentioned “ De Militia Navali Vete-
rum,” 4to. In Swedifh hiftory and antiquities he wrote
“ Upfalia Antiqua ;”? “ Memorabilium Suecice Gentis Ex-
emplorum Liber ;” “De Antiquis verifque Regni Sueccie
Infignibus ;”’ but the work by which he is chiefly known,
is entitled “* Lapponia, five Gentis Regionif{que Lapponum
Defcriptio accurata:”’ this has been tranflated into various
languages.

ScHerrer, Henry THEOPHILUS, a celebrated Swedifh
chemift, grandfon of the preceding, was born at Stockholm
int710. Having loft his parents very early, he was taken
under the protection of his uncle, and after going through
2 eourfe of fchool education, he was fent to the academy of
Upfal, where he profecuted his itudies from the year 1725 to
1733, and applied himfelf particularly to the mathematical
{ciences under the celebrated Celfius. In1731 he attended
the college of mines, and went through a courfe of natural
and experimental philofophy. He ftudied chemiftry under
Brandt, and eftablifhed a private laboratory of his own.
He vifited the principal mines, and was appointed affiftant
to Von Svab at the gold mine difcovered by that mineralogilt
about the year 1738. From this period he devoted his
whole attention to chemical purfuits, and particularly to the
art of dyeing, on which he made a great number of experi-
ments. He drew up and prefented to the board of manufac-
tures a long memoir on, the indigenous vegetables which
might be colle&ed in Sweden for the purpofes of dyeing :
and gave fome ftriking proofs that filks could be dyed with
Swedith vegetable produétions of a yellow colour, which
would not fade in the rays of the fun. He was appointed,
in the year 1740, affay-matter in the royal college of mines,
and in 1748 was invited to Stockholm im order to form fome
eftablifhments for dyeing. In 1756 he was ennobled, and he
died in Augult 1759. fie was a member of the Royal Aca-
demy of Tcistbes Stockholm, and furnifhed to its Tranf-
aGtions a great many papers on chemical and economical fub-
i among free were, “ A Treatife on chemical Ana-

yfis 5; “ Obfervations on dye-ftuffs ; on fal-ammoniac; on

afcertaining the fpecific gravity of tin; on potafh ; on coin,
&c.’”” The chemical leGtures of this author, which were
highly efteemed in their day, were publifhed by Bergmann in
the year 1776. Gen. Biog.

SCHEFFLERA, in Botany, named by Forfter in ho-
nour of Dr. John Peter Ernelt Schefller, a phyfician, who
was born and refided at Dantzic about the middle of the
laft century. Many new difcoveries of this botanift were
inferted in Reyger’s Flora Gedanenfis, publifhed in 1764.—
Forft. Gen. t. 23. Schreb, 209. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.
1568. Mart. Mill. Di@.v. 4. Juff. 429. Lamarck Di&.
v. 7.728. Ilullr. t. 221.—Clafe and order, Pentandria
Decagynia. Nat. Ord. uncertain.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth Superior, very {mall, permanent,

SCH

cloven inte five, awl-fhapedteeth. Cor. Petals five, oblong:
Stam. Filaments five, thread-fhaped, fcarcely longer than
the petals; anthers roundifh. Pi. Germen inferior, glo-
bular, flattifh; iftyles eight or ten, round, fhort, per-
manent ; ftigmas fimple. Peric. Capfule a flattened globe,
with eight or ten cells. Seeds folitary, femiorbicular, com-
preffed.

Eff. Ch. Calyx five-toothed, fuperior. Petals five.
Capiule eight or ten-celled, with a feed in each cell.

1. S. digitata. Willd. Forft. Prodr. n. 146.—Native of
New Zealand. We are unacquainted with any {pecimen,
figure, or even defcription of this fpecies, which was fuf-
pected, from the number of its ftyles and feeds, by Dr.
Solander and the younger Linnzus, to belong to the genus
Aralia. It may be prefumed from its {pecific name that the
leaves are digitate.

SCHEGARKA, in Geography, a river of Ruffia, which
runs into the Oby, N. lat. 57°20’. E. long. 83° 24!.

SCHEGINSKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Perm; 40 miles W.N.W. of Perm.

SCHEHREZUR. See SHerezur.

SCHEIBEN, Apvoreuus, chapel-mafter to the king
of Denmark, who, in 1737, began a periodical work called
Der Critifche Wukkus, or the Critical Mufician, which
he continued to the year 1741. This work, which was
colle&ed into one thick volume in o&tavo, 1745, and printed
at Leipfic, contains much mufical criticifm, as well as many
characters and anecdotes of the great muficians who had
then diftinguifhed themfelves throughout Europe.

SCHEIBENBERG, in Geography, atown of Saxony,
in the circle of Erzgebirg, near which are mines of filver
and iron; 4 miles N.E. of Schwarzenberg. N. lat. 50°
27'. E. long. 12° 49!.

SCHEIBS, atown of Auttria, on the river Erlebach; 20
miles S.W. of St. Polten.

SCHEICH. See Suiecu and Scuerx.

SCHEICK Aur, in Geography, the name of a ftation in
Arabia, where the caravans ftop in their journey from
Egypt to Mecca; 12 miles W. of Akaba.

SCHEIDEC, a mountain of Switzerland, in the canton
of Berne; 49 miles S.E. of Thun. It ftands at the foot
of the Wetterhorn, and it is traverfed in pafling from Grin-
delwald to Meyringen: it confifts entirely as black flate,
which flate compofes the chain that divides Grindelwald
from the plains of Hafli and the lake of Brientz. Scheidec
rifes from the banks of the Aar, and the afcent to it lies
through a beautiful foreft of beech, poplars, mountain-afh,
and pines. The river Reichenbach, which has its fource at
the foot of the Wetterhorn, rolls in numerous catara&s
down the fteep fides of mount Scheidec, until it joins the
Aar near Meyringen. The fall of this river and the pailage
near the Scheidec are particularly deferibed by Coxe in the
firlt volume of his Travels through Switzerland.

SCHEIDINGEN, a town of Saxony, in the principa-
lity of Querfurt ; 10 miles N.W. of Naumburg.

SCHEIDLACKEN, a town of Pruffia, in Samland,
on the Memel; 4 miles N.E. of Ragnitz. 1

SCHEIDT, Barruasan, in Biography, was born at
Strafburgh in 1614. He was educated forthe church, and
difplayed fo early a genius, that in his fourteenth year he
delivered a Greek oration, and in a year afterwards he
maintained a Hebrew thefis, after which he took the degree
of matter of arts, and then proceeded to Konigfberg, where
he read leétures for feveral years on the Hebrew and Greek
languages. Having made great progrefs in his theolo-
gical ftudies, he ftudied at Strafburgh, where he was made
profeflor of Greek in the year 1645. In 1650 he fess

ue

SCH

his doétor’s degree, and was appointed profeffor of the
Oriental languages. He died in 1670. Scheidt read
through the ik Mifchna and Gemara, marking, in every
inftance, fuch paflages as were calculated to illuitrate the
facred {criptures, and arranged them according to the order
of the bouks in the Old and New Teftament. The refult
of this almoit immenfe labour amounted to ten 4to. volumes,
all written by his own hand. The firft nine related to the
Old Teltament, and were entitled « Nucleus Talmudicus ;””
the tenth, which related to the New Teltament, was in-
{cribed « Preterita Preteritorum.”” This has been printed
by Meufchen in his « Nov. Teft. ex Talmude et Antiqui-
tatibus Ebrzorum illuftratum.’”? The others remain in
MS. Befides thefe, Scheidt was author of “ Herodiana
Hiltoria, cum Indice philologica ;”? « De Aftronomia He-
brzorum biblica;”’ «« De Hydrographia, cum commenta-
tione nautica ;’’ «* De Salomonis Mulieribus ;”? « De Anno
Jubilzo Hebrzorum.”’

_Scnemr, Curistran Lewis, known by the name Schei-
dius, member of the Academy of Sciences at Gottingen,
was born in 1709. He ftudied at the univerlity of Altdorf,
where he applied with great diligence to jurifprudence and
hiftory, which he purfued {till farther at Strafburgh. After
this he engaged as private tutor to fome perfons, and travelled
through different countries on the continent. In 17375 at
the dedication of the new univerfity of Gottingen, he
obtained the degree of doétor of laws: and inthe follow-
ing year he was appointed extraordinary profeffor of jurif-
prudence. In 1739 he was appointed profeffor in the
univerfity of Copenhagen. After this he was made pro-
feffor of the law of nature and nations, and in 1743 was
nominated a counfellor of juftice. He was now appointed
by Chriftian IV. preceptor to the crown-prince. In 1748
he was recalled to Hanover, to fill the place of Gruber, who
had been hiftorian and librarian to the houfe of Hanover,
and immediately upon entering on his office, he fet about
refcuing from oblivion the ufeful works of his predeceflors,
Leibnitz, Eccard, and Gruber. In 1749 he publithed
Leibnitz’s Differtation on the primitive State of the Earth;
and in the following year that of Eccard, on the oldeft
Hiftory of the Germans. To thefe, and to the ¢ Origines
Guelphice,” which ke publifhed about the fame time, he
prefixed long and learned prefaces, and he alfo took the op-
portunity of bringing forwards many original documents
never before printed. Befides his occupations in the royal
library, he carried on an extenfive corre{pondence, and was
confulted by almoft all the German literati who were em-
ployed on hiftorical works. In 1755 Scheidt removed to
Gottingen, where he ‘was involved in much trouble, owing
to the infidelity of his wife. He died in 1761. His works
were numerous, among which the following, as the moft
interefting, may be mentioned: “ Schediafma, ex jure pub-
lico Danico, de regii Vandalorum tituli Origine et Caufa ;”’
“‘ Juris publici et privati Convenientie et Differentie
Principes ;”’ “ T'raGtatio Generalis de ratione Belli, feu, ut a
Gallis dici folet, Raifon de Guerre.” Gen. Biog.

SCHEIFLING, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Stiria; 6 miles N.E. of Neumarck.

SCHEIK, a name given by the Turks to the prelates
of the Mahometan religion, who pretend to be the legi-
rimate fucceflors of Mahomet. Their chief refides at
Mecca.

SCHEINER, Curistornen, in Biography, a German
mathematician and altronomer, was born at Wald, near
Mindelheim, in Swabia. He entered, when he was twenty
years old, into the order of the Jefuits, and became teacher
of the mathematics and the Hebrew language at Ingolditadt,

SCH

Friburg, Brifac, and Rome. He afterwards was appointed
rector of the Jefuits’ college at Neifs in Silefia, and confeffor
to the archduke Charles. He died at Neifs in the year 1650:
he is thought to have been the firlt who obferved the {pots
in the fun, but this faét has been difputed by Galileo, Har-
riot, and fome other perfons. Harriot claims for himfelf the
precedence by a year: Galileo maintains that he had feen
them before Scheiner. There is however, apparently, no
doubt that Scheiner firft made them known to the public,
and he contributed, in no {mall degree, by his affiduity, to
eftablifh the theory of their motion, from which he inferred
that the fun turned about its axis once in a certain number
of days. (See Sun.) Scheiner afterwards continued his obfer-
vations on the folar phenomena at Rome with the utmoft
diligence, making drawings of them, defcriptive of their
places, figures, magnitudes, revolutions, and periods, fo
that Riccioli declared there was little reafon to hope for any
better obfervations on thefe fpots. The refult of thefe
obfervations was publifhed in a work dedicated to one of the
Orfini family, and thence entitled «* Rofa Urfina, five Sol,
ex admirando Facularum et Macularum fuaram Phenomeno
varius,” &c. Almoft every page of this curious work is
ornamented with an image of the fun, on which the different
pofitions of the {pots are reprefented. Scheiner likewife
wrote works on optics, and other mathematical and philofo-
phical fubjeéts, among which are, 1. “ Oculus, five Funda-
mentum Opticum ;’’ 2. ‘¢ Pantographice, five ars nova de-
lineandi res quaflibet per Parallelogrammum lineare :”’ this
laft is a treatife on the pantograph, an inftrument employed
for reducing or enlarging figures. é

SCHEINFELD, Upper, in Geography, a town of
Bavaria, in the bifhopric of Bamberg; 21 miles S.W. of
Bamberg. ;

SCHEK, in Geography. See SuHEK.

SCHEKI, a khanfhip of the province of Schirvan, in
the Perfian empire, fituated in the elevated ridge of mountains
onthe Kur, and bounded by Schamachi, Ganfka, Georgia,
and Lafgiftan. The name of the capital is Nuchi (Nughi,
likewife Scheki), which confifts of 300 houfes, and is defended
by a ftrong caftle, which refilled the victorious troops of
Nadir Shah. The population of the city and of the village
belonging to it amounts to about 2800 families. To theS.
of Nuchi, on the bank of the Kur, lies a large and flourifh-
ing market-town, called «¢ Akdafch,’’ and confifting of 300
houfes, to which all the neighbouring nations refort to trade
and to barter their commodities.

SCHEKSNA, a river of Ruffia, which rifes in lake
Bielo, and runs into the Volga, oppofite to Ribaoi, in the
government of Jaroflavl. :

SCHELD, or Scuretpr. See Escaur.

SCHELDAR, in Commerce, the name of a filver coin,
current in Denmark, and fome parts of Germany.

SCHELEBY, or Zetesy, in Geography, a town of
Syria, on the Euphrates; 48 miles E. of Racca.

SCHELENBURG, a town of Weltphalia, in the
bifhopric of Ofuabruck ; 7 miles E. of Ofnabruck.

SCHELESTON, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Farfiltan ; 66 miles W.N.W. of Schiras. ;

SCHELETAU, or Zererawa, a town of Moravia,
in the circle of Iglau ; 20 miles S. of Iglau. fiw

SCHELFE, or Neustapr, a town of the principality
of Schwerin, immediately connected with Schwerin, but
governed by its own magittrates.

SCHELHAMMERA, in Botany, named by Mr. R.
Brown, in honour of Gunther Chriftopher Schelhammer,
formerly profeflor of medicine at Helmftadt, afterwards at
Jena, and finally at Kiel, who died in 1716. He was “

author

My

SCH

author of feveral botanical differtations, and has firft de-
fcribed the peculiar change which, during germination, takes
place in the cotyledon of palms ; fee Dryander. Bibl. Banks.
vy. 5- 419, and Brown’s Prodr. Haller {peaks of him as a
man of talents, though not eminent as a-botanift.—Brown
Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1.273.—Clafs and order, Hexandria
Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Sarmentacee, Linn. Junct, Jul.
Melanthacez, Brown. y

Eff. Ch. Corolla bell-fhaped, equal, of fix petals; invo-
lute, and feparating the ftamens, before expanfion. Stamens
inferted into the claws of the petals. Anthers pofterior.
Stigmas three, recurved. Capfule fuperior, of three cells,

and three valves, with partitions from their centres. Seeds
feveral, tumid.
A genus of perennial herbs, with fibrous roots. Stem a

little fhrubby at the bafe, angular and leafy, either fimple
or. divided. Leaves broadifh, ribbed, either clafping the
ftem, or fomewhat ftalked. Flowers terminal, folitary or
aggregate, erect, purple or white. Stalks fingle-flowered,
without either a bra@ea, or a joint under the flower. An-
thers purple. Schelhammera is nearly akin to Uvularia ;
efpecially to U. chinenfis, Ker in Curt. Mag. t. 916, which
Mr. Brown thinks ought to conftitute a third genus, inter-
mediate between thefetwo. See Uvurarta hereafter.

1. S. undulata. Br. pn. 1.—‘* Leaves clafping, ovate,
waved. Flowers nearly folitary. Stem divided. Claws
of the petals concave.”—Found near port Jackfon, New
South Wales. ;

2. S. multiflora. Br. n. 2.—* Leaves with very fhort
fialks, reverfed, elliptical, pointed, flat: Flower-{talks
aggregate; recurved when in fruit. Stem fimple, zigzag.’’
Gathered by fir Jofeph Banks in the tropical part of New
Holland. Mr. Brown, who has only feen dried {pecimens
of this fpecies, fufpedts it may prove a diitin& genus.

SCHELKEN, Ket, in Geography, atown of Tranfil-
vania; 8 miles N.N.W. of Hermenttadt.

Scuerken, Mark, a town of Tranfilvania; 4 miles N.
of Stolzenburg.

SCHELKOVOIZAVOD, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Saratov, on the Volga; 20 miles N.E. of
T zaritzin.

SCHELLEN, a town of Pruffia, in Ermeland; 18
miles 5.E. of Heilfberg.

SCHELLENBACH, a town of Bavaria, in the territory
of Nuremberg ; 4 miles S. of Graffenburg.

SCHELLENBERG, a town of the duchy of Welt-
phalia; 17 miles W. of Brilon.—Alfo, a town of Saxony,
in the circle of Erzgebirg ; 6 miles E. of Chemnitz.—Alfo,
a town of Bavaria, inthe provolthhip of Berchtoldfgaden; 5
miles N.N.E. of Berchtoldf{gaden.

SCHELLENT, in Ornithology, the name of a {pecies of
duck, found about the fea-coalts, of the fize of the com-
mon duck, and differing from the capo roff in this, that it is
twice as large, and the eyes have yellow ines ; though agree-
ing with it in the colour of the head, which is of a reddifh-
brown. Its neck is grey, and its back is of a black-grey ;
its throat, brealt, and belly white, but near the anus there
is a tranfverfe brown line. ‘The long feathers of the wings
are black and white, and the tail of a blackith-grey.

SCHELLERAU, or Newnorp, in Geography, atown
of Saxony, in the circle of Erzgebirg; 6 miles W. of
Lauenftein.

SCHELLEY, in Ichthyology, a name given in fome
counties of England to the fi known among authors by
the name of ferra. See Guistan.

SCHELLIN, in Geography, atown of Hungary, onthe
right bank of the Waag; 20 miles N. of Comorn.

Vou. XXXII.

SCH

SCHELLING, an ifland in the North fea, belonging
to Holland, about five leagues long and one broad, iitu-
ated about 15 miles to the north of Harlingen, between
Amelandt and Vlielandt, taken by the Britifh in 1799.

SCHELLINGSHOEF, a town of Auftria; 4 miles
N.N.E. of Bohmifch Waidhoven.

SCHELLKLINGEN, atown of Bavaria, on the Aach;
8 miles W. of Ulm. N. lat. 48° 22!.. E. long. 9° 46’.

SCHELSTRAATE, Emanuzt, in Biography, a zea-
lous advocate for the authority of the fee of Rome, was
born at Antwerp in the year 1649. He became a canon
of his native city, and in 1678 he made himfelf known by a
Latin treatife on the antiquities of the church. In 1681
he publifhed a differtation on the council of Antioch, held
under pope Julius I. in 341. His reputation was now very
confiderable, and he was invited to Rome by pope Iano-
cent XI. and by him appointed keeper of the Vatican library.
He was employed by the pope on the following occafion:
the general aflembly of the French clergy, in 1682, drew up
four famous articles, containing an explicit declaration of the
doétrine of the Gallican church, refpeGting the temporal
and fpiritual power. In the fecond of thefe, it declared its
inviolable attachment to certain decrees of the council of
Conttance, in which the fuperiority of general councils to any
other {piritual power on earth is pofitively eftablifhed. Schel-
ftraate, thinking that he had found in the Vatican manu-
{cripts which proved that one of thefe decrees had been cor-
rupted by the fathers of the council of Bafil, printed in
1683, at the pope’s defire, a work, entitled « Acta Conftan-
tinenfis Concilii ad expofitionem decretorum ejus Seflio-
num IV et V facientia, nuric primum ex codicibus Manu-
{criptis in lucem eruta et Differtatione illuftrata.’? For
this he was rewarded, in 1687, by a canonry of St. Peter’s,
and another of St. John of Lateran. In the fame year
he publifhed a treatife on the patriarchal and metropolitan
authority. His great work was entitled ‘ Antiquitates
Ecclefiz illuttrate,”’ of which he printed the firft volume at
Rome in 1690. During the printing of the fecond, in 1692,
the author died.

SCHEMANAEVSKOI, in Geography, a fortrefs of
Ruffia, in the government of Kolivan. N. lat. 50° 28!
E. long. 82° 34!. :

SCHEMATISM, cxnyaiouG-. See Ficureand Trorpe.

SCHEMBERG, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the county of Hohenberg; 9 miles E.N.E. of Rothwell.

SCHEME, formed from cx, habitus, a draught, or
reprefentation, of any geometrical or altronomical figure,
or problem, by lines fenfible to the eye; or of the celettial
bodies in their proper places for any moment.

Scuremn, Schema, cxnua, in the Ancient Mufic, is ufed
for the varieties arifing from the different pofitions of tones
and femitones in a NS a

ScuemMe Arches. See Ancu.

SCHEMNITZ, in Geography, a large and populous
town of Hungary, lying between hills, in a long valley, with
its houfes fcattered on both fides of the accliyity. The
Proteftant inhabitants, being about two-thirds of the whole
number, amount to between fix and feven thoufand. Inthe
extent and number of its mine-works, it exceeds all the other
mine-towns in Hungary. It has two caftles, two churches,
two chapels, and a college, with a royal mine-office. The
gold and filver mines furnith a confiderable quantity of ore,
and employ above five thoufand workmen; but they have
fince the lofe of the feventeenth century much declined ; at
that time three or four thoufand marks of filver were made
here every week, whereas the aval at prefent fcarcely
reaches one hundred. ‘The ore here contains more and better

4N jrold

SCH

Yold than that at Cremnitz, but the profit is not large.
The yearly charges to the crown amount to above five hundred
thoufand guilders; 80 miles E. of Prefburg. N. lat 47°
30’. E. long. 19° 13":

SCHENAS, a town of Arabia, in the province of Oman,
on the coait. N. lat. 24° 29!.

SCHENAU, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg ; five
miles E. of Bifchoffsheim.

SCHENCK, Joun, in Biography, commonly called
Schenck of Graffenburg, was born at Friburg, in June 1531.
He received the degree of doctor of phyfic at Tubingen in
the year 1554, and foon after obtained a public appoint-
ment as phyfician to his native town, where he lived with
great reputation to the age of 67, and died on the 12th of
November 1598. He is principally known at prefent by a
large collection of cafes of rare and extraordinary difeates,
which he compiled partly from books, and partly from the
communications of his friends and contemporaries, and partly
from his own experience. From the period at which he
lived, it will fearcely be expected that his collection fhould
be void of a good deal of the marvellous, or that he fhould
not exhibit many proofs of credulity, and of want of difcri-
mination a3 to the authorities which he quotes. Never-
thelefs this colleétion itill remains a monument of extraordi-
nary indu(try and refearch, and a repofitory of much curious
matter. ‘he author publifhed the work in feven fucceffive
volumes, between the years 1584 and 1597, the firlt at
Bafle, and the others at Friburg ; fome of them in oftavo,
and fome in quarto. But they were collected together after
his death by his fon, John George Schenck, and publifhed
under the title of “ Obfervationum Medicarum, rararum,
novarum, admirabilium, et monftrofarum volumen, tomes
feptem de toto homine inftitutum ;’’ Franc. 1600. The
work has pafled through feveral fubfequent editions. See
Eloy Dict. Hilt. de la Méd.

Scnencx, or Schenkan Shans, in Geography, a ftrong
fortrefs of Guelderland, in an angle of the Betuwe, where
the Rhine divides it into two branches, one of which, pafling
by Nimmegen, is called Wahal, and the other, running to-
wards Aruheim, retains its own name. The fort fo completely
commands the two {tyeams, that nothing can pafs without
the governor’s permiffion, and it is confidered as the centre
of communication between Germany and Holland. It took
its name from Martin Schenck, of Guelderland, who quitted
the Spanifh fervice and entered into that of the States, and
by their order conftruéted it in the year 1586. It was taken
by the Spaniards in 1635, but in the following year befieged
and captured by the Dutch. In 1672 it was taken by
Louis XIV., king of France, and in 1673 ceded to the
ele€tor of Brandenburgh, who laid claim to it. In 168t it
was delivered up by treaty to fieur Cuyper, deputy of the
council of the States, who garrifoned it with four companies
of foldiers, and augmented the fortifications ; 3 miles N. of
Cleves.

SCHENECTADY, a county of New York, ere&ted
from that of Albany in 1809, bounded N. by Montgomery
and Saratoga counties, E. by Saratoga and Albany, S.
by Albany, and W. by Schoharie county. Its area may
be about 180 {quare miles, or 115,200 acres. Its popula-
tion by the cenfus of 1810 was 10,247. It fends two mem-
bers to the houfe of affembly.

Scuenecrapy, the capital of the above county, is
very agreeably fituated on the Mohawk flats, on the margin
of that river, and contains about 500 houfes and ftores, the
county buildings, Union college, four churches, and places
of public worlhip and a bank, * The inhabitants, amounting
to 5909, are principally Dutch, or their defcendants, inter.

7

SCH
mixed with emigrants from Europe and the United States ;
and the electors 622 ; 20 miles N.W. of Albany. N. lat.
42° 49!. W. long. 73° 28!.

SCHENFELD, atown of Auftria; 10 miles W.N.W-
of Drofendorf.

SCHENFELDT, a town of the duchy of Holftein;
7 miles N. of Itzehoa.

SCHENGRABEN, a town of Autftria; 8 miles
N.N.E. of Ebenfurth.

SCHENING, or Skeninc, a town of Sweden, in
Eaft Gothland, fituated in a fertile country, on the river
Skena; formerly large and opulent, having feveral churches
and convents, but now much declined. It has, however, an
annual fair on the 29th of July, which is the greatelt in the
whole kingdom ; 17 miles W. of Linkoping.

SCHENINGEN, a town of Weltphalia, in the prin-
cipality of Wolfenbuttle, which gives name to a diltriét;
16 miles N. of Halberftadt.

SCHENKAFELD, atown of Auttria; 3 miles W.N.W-
of Freuttadt.

SCHENKDENDORF, a town of Lufatia; 6 miles
S.of Guben. «

SCHENK IRCHEN, a town of Auttria; 8 miles
S.S.W. of Zilterfdorf.

SCHENKURSK, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Archangel, on the Waga; 140 miles S.S.E. of
Archangel. N. lat. 62° 30’. E. long. 42° 14/.

SCHENNIS. See Scuanis. |

SCHENNO, atown of Pruffia, in Ermeland; 10 miles
S.E. of Neidenburg.

SCHENSBURG, a town of New York, S. of lake
George ; 35 miles N.. of Albany.

SCHENUS, in Ancient Geography, a gulf of Afia
Minor, upon the coaft of Caria, between thofe of Thymnias
and Bubeffius, according to Mela, who places here the town
of Hyla.

SCHEPPENSTADT, in Geography, a town of Wett-
phalia, in the principality of Wolfenbuttel; 13 miles E. of
Wolfenbuttel.

SCHERA, in Ancient Geography, a town in the interior
of Sicily. Ptolemy.

SCHERAU, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Pilfen; 8 miles N.N.W. of Teinitz.

SCHERBRO, or CuersorouGn, or Serbora, a river
of Africa, which pafles through the country of Sierra
Leone, and runs into the fea, N. lat. 7° 25’. W. long.
10° 47/.

Scnersro, or Macapoye, an ifland of the Atlantic, near
the coalt of Africa, at the mouth of the river Scherbro,
with a fort of the fame name. N. lat. 7° 25'. W. long.
11° 50’.

SCHERDING, or SCHARDING, a town of Bavaria, on
the Inn, with a large fortified caftle, which had formerly
counts of its own; 6 miles S. of Paflau. N. lat. 48° 26’.
E. long. 13° 24'. :

SCHERDSJE, a town of Arabia, in the province of
Yemen; 40 miles N. of Mocha.

SCHERENBERG, a town of Saxony, in the county
of Schwartzburg ; 5 miles S.W. of Sonderfhaufen.

SCHEREZUR. Sce Suerezur.

SCHERITF, a mountain of Arabia, in the province of
Yemen: 20 miles W.S.W. of Chamir.

Scuenir, a title which the Arabians give to a Maho-
metan prince, who is the fovereign of Mecca, in fubordi-
nation to the fultan. See Suerir.

SCHERKL, in Genghyrap, a mountain of Arabia, in
the province of Yemen; 8 miles N.E. of Doran.
SCHERM,

SCH

SCH :

SCHERM, in Navigation, a kind of light boat ufed in fica facra, and other eftimable works.—Linn. Gen. 198.

Egypt, with a lateen-fail, which, beg without decks, is
very dangerous. A fudden guit of wind throws this boat
on its fide and finks it. The Bogaz, or Bogafs, as the bar
at the mouth of the Nile is called, is to boats of this kind
a formidable fhoal.

Scherm fignifies, fays Savary, the velocity with which
the boats cut the water. The failors of Provence, who are
the principal navigators in France, have corrupted this word
ito Germ; fee that article.

SCHERMBECK, or Scuernsoeck, in Geography, a
town of the duchy of Cleves; 27 miles E. of Cleves. N.
lat. 51° 46’. E. long. 6° 50’.

SCHERMER, a lake of Holland,
3 miles E. of Alcmaer.

SCHERMERNOERN, a town of Holland, E. of
Schermer lake; 6 miles E. of Alcmaer.

SCHERNEW, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Trac; 48 miles S.W. of Hamadan.

SCHERSTENTKOVA, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Irkutfk, on the Lena; 24 miles S. of
Orlenga.

SCHESBURG, or Secesvar, a town of Tranfil-
vania, built in 1196, and divided into the Upper and Lower
Town; 47 miles E.S.E. of Colofvar. N. lat. 46° 24/.
E. long. 24° 32".

SCHESCHMINSK, a town of Roffia, in the govern-
ment of Kazan; 60 miles S.E. of Kazan. N. lat. 55°.
E. long. 50° 34'.

SCHESCHUPPE, ariver of Pruffia, which runs into
the Memel, 5 miles E. of Ragnitz.

SCHESEL, a town of Germany, in the county of
Verden, on the Wumme; 10 miles N. of Rotenburg.

SCHESSLITZ, a town of Bavaria, in the bithopric
of Bamberg ; 8 miles N.E. of Bamberg.

SCHESTAKOV, a town of Ruflia, in the government
of Viatka; 68 miles E.N.E. of Viatka.

SCHESTAKOVA, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Irkutfk, on the Ilmin ; 12 miles S. of Ilminfk.

SCHESTEN, a town of Pruoffia, in the province of
Natangen; 54 miles S.S.E. of Konighberg.

SCHESTERN, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Ekaterinoflav, on the Inguletz; 72 miles S.W. of
Ekaterinoflav.

SCHETES was formerly a term for ufury ; and the
commons prayed that order might be taken again{t this hor-
rible vice, practifed by the clergy as well asthe laity. Rot.
Parl. 14 Ric. II.

SCHETIC Diseases, a term ufed by old writers in
medicine to expres {uch difeafes as were not deeply rooted
in the conftitution, but might be eafily removed.

SCHEVAGE. Sve Scavaaz.

SCHEUCHZERIA, in Botany, received that appella-
tion from Linnzus in his Flora Lapponica, in honour, as he
himfelf informs us in Critica Botanica, p. 79, “ of the two
célebrated brothers of the name of Scheuchzer; one of
whom excelled in the knowledge of graffes, the other of
alpine plants, the plant in or being of eget habit,

“and of alpine growth.” T’he former of thefe was John
Scheuchzer, profeflor of natural philofophy at Zurich,
who died in 1737, aged $3, and is known to all botanitts
by his laborious and learned Agroflographia, fo valuable for
its minute deferiptions of grafles. The latter was John
James Scheuchzer, profeflor of mathematics in the fame
umverfity, who died in 1733s aged Gr, author of Jtinera
Alpina va two quarto volumes; Herbarium diluvianum, Phy-

partly drained ;

Schreb. 239. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2.263. Mart. Mill. Di.
v. 4. Aut. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 324. Purfh v. 1. 247.
Jufl. 46. Lamarck Di@. v. 6: 728. Tiluftr. t. 268.—
Clafs and order, Hexandria Trigynia. Nat. Ord. Tripeta-
loidee, Linn. © Junci, Jufi.

Gen. Ch. Cal. none. Cor. Petals fix, oblong, acute,
fpreading, revolute, rude, permanent, equal. Stam. Fila-
ments fix, oppolite to the petals, capillary, flaccid, fhorter
than the corolla; anthers terminal, linear-oblong, obtufe,
compreffed, burfting internally by two longitudinal fiffures.
Fift. Germens three, fuperior, ovate, obtufe, compreffed,
oppefite to three of the petals, and about as long ; ftyles
none; f{tigmas three, oblong, obtufe at the upper end,
united lengthwife to the outer fide of the germen. eric.
Capfules three, roundifh, pointed, compreffed, inflated,
fpreading, of two valves. Seeds one or two, oblong.

Obf. The number of the germens, as well as of the
capfules, varies from three to fix, but the former was foun
by Linnzus to be the moft natural. '

Eff. Ch. Calyx sone. Petals fix. Stigmas feffile,

lateral. Capfules three, fuperior, inflated. Seeds one or
two. Anthers linear. ‘
1. S. paluffris. Marfh Scheuchzeria. Linn. Sp. Pl.
482. Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 103. t. 10. f. 1. Ehrh. Phytoph.
24. Fl. Dan. t. 76. Engl. Bot. t. 1801. (Juncoidi
affinis paluitris; Scheuchz. Agr. 336. Juncus floridus
minor; Bauh. Prodr. 23. Gramen junceum aquaticum,
femine racemofo ; Loef. Prufl. 114. t. 28.) — This, the
only known fpecies of its genus, is found in deep watery
alpine bogs in Lapland, Norway, Sweden, North America,
Germany, Switzerland and England. In both the laft-
mentioned countries it is rare, Haller having never feen this
plant wild, nor has it been obferved in our ifland, except in
Lakeby Car, near Borough-bridge, Yorkfhire, where it
was firft difeovered by the Rev. Mr. Dalton, growing abun-
dantly in June 1807, in full flower, along with the, fcarcely
lefs uncommon, Ly/imachia thyrfiflora. The perennial roots
are long, fealy, creeping to a great extent in the turfy
bottoms of mountain pools. Stems ereét, fimple, a fpan
high. Leaves few, fheathing, rufhy, femi-cylindrical,
mofttly radical, but overtopping the ftem, each having, as
Mr. Dalton firit noticed, a pore at its point, through which
®rater oozes, whenever the leaf is comprefled. Flowers of
a greenifh-brown, {mall and inconfpicuous, in a fimple, ter-
minal, bracteated clufter. Fruit turgid, the fize oF pea.
We prefume to differ from Linnzus in calling a corolla, what
he terms ¢alyx; nor are we deterred by the opinion of
Juffieu, who, led by apeculiar hypothefis, ufes the appella-
tion of calyx, not only in this, but in various nearly allied
genera; as Sfagittaria, Colchicum, &c.; in which fuch
phrafeology feems to us {till more paradoxical.

SCHEVELING, in Geography, a village of Holland,
near the fea, whfch is an agreeable walk from the Hague ;
3 miles N.W. from the Hague.

SCHEVEN, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Ober-
land; 7 miles N.W. of Soldau.

SCHEUPORTI, a town of Thibet; 30 miles from
Deuprag.

SCHEWETZ, or Switzer, a town of Pomerelia, on
the Viltula; 52 miles S, of Dantzig.

SCHIACHA, a town of Tripoli, in the road from
Auygela to Siwah,

SCHIASSI, Gaetano Maria, in Biography, an opers
compofer of the Bologna {chool, author of many works much
efteemed in their day ; among which, in 1732, were the

4N2 operas

SCH

operas of “ Amor tranemici;” 1734, “ Fide ne’ tradimenti;”’
1735, “Aleflandro nell’ Indie,” «« Demofoonte,”” and “ Di-
done abbandonata.”’

SCHIAVL, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Abruzzo
Citra; 8 miles S.E. of Civita Borella.

SCHIAVONI, Anprea, called Medula, in Biography,
was born in 1522, at Sebenico, in Dalmatia. As his parents
were in a low {tation of life, they were not able to forward the
inclination he exhibited at an early age for the art of defign ;
but engaged him to a painter of houfes at Venice, where, at
his leifure hours, he employed himfelf in ftudying fuch
prints from Parmigiano and other painters as his fcanty
means enabled him to procure. The works of Giorgione
and Titian in the public buildings of the city, were to him
delightful fources of recreation ; and with thefe aids, and
determined induftry and perfeverance, he cultivated his
talents in retirement. At length fome of his productions
were feen by Titian, who being informed of his unfortunate
fituation, and pleafed with his tafte, took him under his ewn
care, and foon afterwards employed him, with Tintoretto
and others, in thofe grand works he had undertaken for the
library of St. Marco. He had here a fair opportunity of
difplaying his power, and three entire cielings are fhewn as
the work of Schiavoni. His improvement was fufficiently
great to encourage him to enter the lifts again{t Tintoretto ;
and to paint, in conipetition with him, a picture for the
church of the Santa Croce, reprefenting the vifitation of
the Virgin to Elizabeth; and though his performance was
not received as equal to that of his antagonift, yet he was
not difmiffed without a confiderable fhare of applaufe.
Tintoretto himfelf refpeéted him highly 2s an artilt, and as
one of the greateft of the Venetian fchool; he is even faid
to have kept a picture of Schiavoni’s painting in his own
room as a model for colour, though he condemned the in-
correétnefs of the drawing.

The neceflity of providing for his fubfiftence, fuperadded
to his natural tafte, caufed Schiavoni to work with rapidity ;
and his productions are charaéterized by that irregularity
which neceffarily attends fuch a mode of proceeding. They
are always, however, fraught with grace and tafte. His
compofitions are numerous and extended, managed with

reat dexterity, and executed with altonifhing freedom.

is attitudes and draperies are gracefully arranged, and the
countenances of his figures, efpecially of his women, very#
agreeable, though he was by no means attentive to pro-
priety of expreflion ; or rather, like others of the Venetian
{chool, it feems never to have been an obje& of attention
with him. Colour, both in arrangement and execution, was
the god of his idolatry; and to that he facrificed every
other requifite of the art. Two of the molt admired works
of this mafter are in the church of the Padri Teatini at
Rimini, reprefenting the Nativity and the Affumption of
the Virgin. He died at Venice in 1582, at the age of 60.

SCHIBAM, in Geography, a large city of Arabia, in
the province of Hadramaut, and the feat of a powerful
prince, diftant eight days’ journey from Sana. Schibam is
thought by fome perfons to be the Saba of the ancients,
from which the Sabzans were denominated ; a people who
occupied the fouthern parts of Arabia, before Mareb be-
came the capital of their empire; 200 miles E.S.E. of
Sana.

SCHICKARD, Witutam, in Biography, a learned
aftronomer and orientalilt, was profeflor of the Hebrew
language at eg in the ant part of the feventeenth
century. To his knowledge of the Hebrew language he
added that of the Oriental tongues, which then began to be

SCH

itudied in the different European fchools. He publifhed :
feveral works in this department of literature, of which the
mott confiderable were “ Befchinat Happerufchim; or, An
Examination of the Hebrew, Chaldean, Cabbaliflical, and
Rabinnical Interpretations of the Book of Genefis ;??
“ Tarich,’”? or the feries of Perfian kings for nearly 4oo
years; “De Jure Regio Hebrzorum ;” « Horologium
Hebreum,” or a method of teaching the Hebrew language
in twenty-four hours. Schickard was alfo profefior of
mathematics, and was author of various inventions for giving
fummary views of the Copernican fy{tem, and of the lunar
motions and appearances. He died of the plague in 1635.

SCHIDLOWITZ, in Geography, a town of Poland, in
the palatinate of Sandomirz, 50 miles N. of Sandomirz.

SCHIDONI, or Scuepone, Bartotomeo, in Bio-
graphy, was born at Modena in 1560. He acquired the
principles of the art of painting in the {chool of the Caracei ;
but when he left it he appears to have attached himfelf to the
ftudy of the works of Corregio; and no one has imitated
the ttyle of that incomparable mafter more happily than
Schidoni. He had already acquired confiderable reputation
by fome early performances inhis native city, when Raauccio,
duke of Parma, took him into his fervice,‘and gave him
refidence ia his villa at Felegara, where he was at liberty to
purfue his itudies commodioufly and in tranquillity. Here
he painted feveral pi€tures for his patron; compofitions of
facred fubjects, and from the Roman hiitory, in the adopted
tafte of Corregio ; which afterwards found their way to the
royal Neapolitan colleGtion. On his return to Modena, he
painted his admirable frefcoes in the Palazzo Publico, of the
hiftory of Coriolarus, and of feven emblematical figures
alfo, in which he emulated the grandeur of {tyle found in the
Duomo of Parma. In the cathedral there is an admirable
picture of his, of S. Geminiano re{toring a dead child to
life; which has often been honoured by being miftaken for a
work of Corregio. He alfo painted portraits of the princes
of the houfe of Modena, with an equal degree of: merit.
Large works by Schidoni are extremely rare, and even his
eafel piétures of religious fubje&ts, Madonnas, &c. are not
frequently to be met with. He is faid to have confumed
much of his time in that powerful and unfortunate pro-
penfity to gaming, which wafted his fubftance, “and dif-
turbed his mind; and at lait to have fallen a facritice to it,
not being able to overcome the mortification of having one
night loft more than he ‘was able to pay. He died at the
age of 56, in 1616.

The imitation of which we have fpoken, runs through
every part of Schidoni’s works. The aétions of his figures,
and particularly the delicate graceful airs of the head, and
elegant turns of the limbs and fingers ; the arrangement and
management of the chiaro-feuro, in its breadth and tone,
and the hues and impa/lo of the colouring of his pi&tures; all
exhibit the chara€teriitic qualities of his great prototype,
and render it cifficult fometimes to diftinguifh between them ;
and, no doubt, many a work of the pupil has paft, and been
fold, for a production of the mafter. Their inherent merit,
however, juitly entitles them to very high eltimation, and
their rarity gives them an additional value.

SCHIEBENBERG, in Geography, a town of Saxony,
in the circle of Erzgebirg ; 4 miles E. of Schwarzenberg.

SCHIECH, or Scueicn, the title of an officer in Arabia
of high birth, which can come only by defcent, and is pe-
culiar to fovereigns, rinces, and independent lords. Among
the Bedouins this title belongs to every noble, whether of the,
higheft or lowett order. ‘Their nobles are very numerousy,.
and compofe almolt the whole nation; the plebeians are in-

variably

SOH

variably actuated and guided by the fchiechs, who fuper-
intend and direct in every tranfaGtion. See BEDOWEENS.

SCHIEDAM, in Geography, a fea-port of Holland,
fituated on the canal called the “ Schie,”’ which gives it its
name, and difcharges itfelf into the Meufe, a litt e below the
town. It holdsa third rank among the {mall cities of Hol-
land ;. 4 miles W. of Rotterdam. 5

SCHIEDER, atown of Weftphalia, in the county of
Lippe, on the Neifs. Near it is a caftle, called ‘* Skider-
borg,”’ an ancient fortrefs of the Saxons, where Charle-
magne founded a bifhopric, which was afterwards removed
to Magdeburg; 5 miles S.E. of Blomberg.

SCHIEGGIA, a town of the duchy of Urbino;
6 miles N.E. of Gubio.

SCHIERKE, a town of Saxony, in the county of
Wernigerode ; 6 miles S. of Wernigerode.

SCHIERLING, a town of Bavaria, on the Laber;
ro miles S.E. of Kelheim. :

SCHIESE, a river of Pruffian Lithuania, which runs
into the Ruffe, 1 mile N. of Rufle.

* SCHIEVELBIEN, a town of the New Mark of Bran-
denburg, onthe Rega; somiles N.E. of Stargard. N. lat.
15° 44'. E. long. 43° 45!. |

SCHIFBECK, a town of the duchy of Holftein ; 4 miles
E. of Hamburg.

SCHIHALLIEN, or ScHEHALLIEN, a mountain of
Scotland, in the county of Perth, 3550 feet above the level
of the fea; 12 miles E. of George-Town. See Arrrac-
TION of Mountains, and MounTAIN

SCHILDA, a town of Saxony, in the marggraviate of
Meiffen; 7 miles W.S.W. of Torgau. N. lat. 51° 27/.
E. long. 12° 56’.

SCHILDBERG, a town of Moravia, in the circle of
Olmutz; 7 miles W. of Schomberg.

SCHILDESCHE, 2 town of Weitphalia, in the county
of Ravenfberg, 2 miles N.W. of Bielefeld.

SCHILE, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia, on
the S. coaft of the Black fea; 14 miles N. of Ifmid.

SCHILLER, Freperic, in Biography, was born
Novy. roth, 1759, at Marbach, in the duchy of Wurtem-
berg, where his father was lieutenant in the fervice of the
duke. He was afterwards advanced to the rank of major,
and was appointed commandant at “The Solitude,’”? and
infpeGtor of the {chools of agriculture, which was his fa-
vourite purfuit. He was a man of a {trong judgment and
enlightened underftanding, and his mother was equally dif-
tinguifhed for the qualities of the heart and mind. While
a boy, the fubject of this article was diftinguifhed by un-
common ardour of imagination, and nothing afforded him
fo much delight as the perufal of the prophecies of Ezekiel.
“ The fancy of this book is inexhauftible, and its author
unfolds new worlds, as it were, to our view. His unfet-
tered imagination burits forth, and paints in glowing co-
lours, yet in minute detail ; and it is his peculiar chara¢ter,
that he tranfports all f{piritual objeéts into the fenfitive
world, and converts them into a magnificent picture.”
When young Schiller was fufficiently advanced in years, he
was placed in the military fchool at Stuttgard, where the
wee plan of inftruétion was formed entirely on the prin-
ciples of military tactics, and as fubordisation was the chief,
almoft the only virtue inculcated, every exertion of an inde-
pendent {pirit was confidered as a crime of the firlt mag-
nitude. In literature he was diltinguifhed among, and fu-

jor to, all his contemporaries, and his compofitions were
marked with that poetical charaéter which denoted the turn
of his difpofition. He was intended for the profeflion of
furgery, and attended to le¢tures in phyfiology and anatomy

SCH

with great ardour, but from the freedom of his opinions, he
was obliged to withdraw himfelf through apprehenfion of
the confequences, and it is faid that, at this time, he pro-
duced his firlt play, “The Robbers.”? This tragedy,
though full of faults and extravagancies, was fo powerfully
conceived and written, that it became the admiration of all
the youth of enthufiaftic fentiments in Germany, and even
induced feveral ftudents at Leipfic to defert their college,
with the avowed purpofe of forming a troop of banditti in
the forefts of Bohemia. Some of their firit diforders
brought on them a fummary punifhment, which reftored
them to their fenfes. Schiller acquired prodigious fame from
his compofition, which was foon tranflated into feveral
foreign languages, and the author was appointed to the office
of dramatic compofer to the theatre of Manheim. He was
now ina fituation to learn fomething of that world which, ac-
cording to his own confeffion, he had begun to delineate in
his ** Robbers,”? merely from the imagination. His other
pieces, entitled “Cabal and Love,” the ‘¢ Confpiracy of
Fiefco,”? and «Don Carlos,’’ were the fruits of his maturer
dramatic efforts. After his tragedies he publifhed a volume
of poems, which were fo much admired that they procured
for him a wife of good family and fortune. This lady, it
is faid, fell in love with him from reading his works, and fent
him a matrimonial challenge, which he accepted, and this
change in his fituation probably was the means of roufing
him from thofe habits of diflipation in which he had in-
dulged, and to which he was in great danger of falling a
victim. He was now patronized by the duke of Saxe»
Weimar, who conferred on him the title of aulic counfellor,
and nominated him to the profeflorfhip of hiftory and phi-
lofophy at the univerfity of Jena. He had previoufly
written an account of the ‘* Revolt of the Netherlands from
the Spanith Government,”’ and he now fet about compofing
his ‘* Hiftory of the thirty Years’ War in Germany.’”? He
ftudied very diligently claffical literature in general, and
drew up lectures worthy of his reputation as a writer. At
length he removed to Weimar, where the penfion, as hono-
rary profeffor from the duke, was continued to him, and
where he lived happily in the bofom of his family, and the
fociety of men of letters. He now produced the “ Hiftory
of the moft memorable Confpiracies,’? and the “ Ghoft-
Seer,’’ which difplayed the peculiar turn of his mind, and
were much read. He, in the latter part of his life, con-
duéted a monthly work publifhed at Tubingen, and an
annual poetical almanac. He compofed a tragedy entitled
«The Maid of Orleans,’? which was acted at Leipfic in his
prefence, when, being difcovered, he received from the
audience the moft flattering tokens of refpeét and admira-
tion. He died at Weimar on the gth of May 1805, and he
was interred with great funeral folemnity. He was to have
been borne to his grave by artifans, but feveral of his young
friends among the literati and artilts, defirous of evincing
their love at refpect for their diftinguifhed guide, claimed
that honour for themfelves. And between twelve and one
at night they carried the coffin to the cemetery. On the
following day Mozart’s Requiem was performed in the
church of the Kirchhof, by the band of the ducal chapel,
and the fuperintendant-general, Vogt, delivered a difcourle
in memory of the deceafed. He had been made, without
his folicitation, a citizen of France, and a noble of the
German empire. In his private character Schiller was
friendly, candid, and fincere. In his youth he affeéted ec-
centricity in his manners and appearance, and a degree of
fingularity feems always to have adhered to him. In all his
works, with brilliant {lrokes of genius, was frequently much
of that extravagant reprefentation of paflion, and violation

of

>

SCH

of nature and probability, which were charateriftic of him,
and of the tafte of his country, and he has been cenfured
by the refined critics of the German language for frequent
pita from the purity of that tongue. Monthly Mag.
vol. xxi.

SCHILLING, in Commerce, a money of account, and
copper or bafe filver coin in feveral parte of Germany, called
alfo failing. At Aix-la-Chapelle, 6 {chillings, or 9 guldens,
are worth a rix-dollar. At Cologne, the rix-dollar {pecie is
divided into 14 florin {pecie, or 8 fhillings or 20 blafferts ; and
the rix-dollar current is worth 14 florin current, or 19 blaf-
ferts; and the Rader florin contains 16 blafferts, an Ort 5 blaf-
ferts, or 2 fhillings, and a fhilling 24 blafferts. At Hamburgh,
accounts are kept in marks, fhillings, and pfenings lubs ;
the mark containing 16 fhillings, and the fhilling 12 pfenings.
Accounts are alfo fometimes kept in pounds, fhillings, and
pence Flemifh, the pound confifting of 20 fhillings, and the
fhilling of 12 pence or grotes. ‘The mark lubs is worth
2+ fhillings Flemifh, or 32 grotes, fo that the fhilling or
fol lubs is 2 grotes or pence Flemifh; the rix dollar is 3 marks
or 48 fhillings, the rix-dollar of exchange 32 fhillings, and
the pound Flemifh 24 rix-dollars, or 20 fhillings Flemith.
In coins, there are many filver and bafe pieces of 1 and 2
marks, alfo of 8, 4, and 2 hhillings; fingle fhillings, feck-
flings, and dreylings, or pieces of 12, 6, and 3 pfenings.
This currency is always reckoned about 22 per cent. below
banco.

SCHILLINGSFURT, in Geography, a town of Ger-
many, belonging to the county of Hohenlohe, infulated in
Anfpach; 11 miles N.E. of Kirchberg.

SCHILPADS, or Marsima, an ifland in the North
Pacific ocean, belonging to Japan, towards the eaft of
Niphon.

SCHILTACH, a town of Wurtemberg; 44 miles
S.W. of Stuttgard. N. lat. 48° 15’. E. long. 8° 21.

SCHILTBERGER, Joun, in Biography, was born
at Munich, in Bavaria, and became a celebrated traveller.
In the year 1394 he went with the army of Sigifmund,
king of Hungary, againit the Turks, but was taken pri-
foner by Bajazet I. in 1395. Bajazet himfelf being afier-
wards defeated and made prifoner by Tamerlane, Schilt-
berger accompanied that conqueror in all his campaigns till
the time of his death, in 1405. Schiltberger then came
into the fervice of Sha-Rok, and remained with the auxi-
liary troops which were left with his brother Miran-Sha
to make war on Kara Jofeph, the emir of Turcomania.
Miran-Sha was taken and beheaded, and on this event
Schiltberger uttached himfelf to Abubeker, the fon of
Miran-Sha. About this time Zegra, a fon of the king of
Great Tartary, who refided with Abubeker, being offered
the fovereignty of Kaptthak, fet out for Tartary, attended
by Schiltberger and others; and this expedition afforded
our traveller an opportunity of becoming acquainted with
Tartary and the adjacent diltriéts, then but little known to
the Europeans. On his return home he wrote an account
of his travels, which was publifhed at Frankfort without
the name of the author. Another edition was printed at
the fame place in 1549. Dr. Fortter fays, that Schilt-
berger’s narrative furniihes fome obfervattons, which ferve
to determine with certainty the fituation and cuitoms of
Tartary at that period: it has, however, been afferted by
others, that this journal is of but little ufe to thofe who
make qeoiiapiekcal refearches, fince the author wrote merely
from memory, and paid more attention to military events
and the cruelty of Tamerlave than the names and pofitions
of places. It may however be noted that Schiltberger
fpeaks of wild affes found in the mountains of the defart ;

SCH

and of fledges drawn by dogs, as is known to be now the
cafe in many parts of the Ruffian empire.

SCHILTER, Jonn, a learned jurift, was born in 1632
at Pegau, in Mifnia. He ftudied at Leipfic, and likewife
at Jena: and he firft fettled as an advocate at Naumburg.
He was appointed keeper of the archives to prince Maurice
of Saxony, and in a few years afterwards he was nomi-
nated privy-counfellor to duke Bernard of Saxe-Weimar.
After the death of that duke he removed to Strafburg, on
being appointed counfellor and advocate of that city, and
honorary profeffor in the univerfity. He died there in

1705. Asan author, the principal works of Schilter are;
“ Codex Juris Alemannici feudalis,’’ 3 vols. ato. The-
faurus Antiquitatum Teutonicarum,” 3 vols. fol. * Infti-

tutions du Droit Canonique,’”’ 8vo. ‘ Inttitutiones Juris
Publici,’”’ 2 vols. 8vo. ‘ De Pace Religiofa.” He like-
wife publifhed a number of feparate diflertations on fubje@ts
conne&t-d with what are denominated legal antiquities.

SCHILTERN, in Geography, a town of Moravia, in
the circle of Znaym; 12 miles N.W. of Znaym.—Alfo,
a town of the duchy of Stiria; 3 miles S. of Oberwoltz.

SCHILU, Cuetow, or Chetow, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Lariltan, on the coalt of the gulf; 20 miles
S.E. of Konkin. N. lat. 27° 5o!. It. long. 52° 18!.

SCHILUPP, a river of Pruffian Lithuania, which joins
the Arye before its union with the Nemonin.

SCHILUS, in Ichthyology, a name given by many to
the fifh called by the generality of authors /ucioperca, or the
pike fith.

SCHIMONIEKEN, in Geography, a town of Pruffia,
in the province of Bartenland; 18 miles S.E. of Barten-
ftcin.

SCHINAUCH, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Oberland ; 10 miles E.S.E. of Holland.

SCHINCK, a town of Tranfilvania; 6 miles N. of

Fogaras.

SCHINDLERIN, Tie, in Biography, a female opera

finger, engaged as firft woman in 1774, when Rauzzini
was firlt mean. They had performed together at Venice
previous to their arrival in England. She was a native of
Germany, young, aod generally thought handfome. She
was engaged at Rauzzini’s recommendation. Her figure
on the ttage was elegant and graceful, and fhe was a good
aétrefs. Off the ftage, however, fhe was coquettifh, filly,
and infipid. Her voice was a mere thread, for the walle
nefs of which there was neither tafte nor knowledge to
compenfate. Indeed fh: always appeared on the ttage,
what fhe really was off it, Rauzzini’s fcholar; and fhe was
fo inferior to him m voice and abilities, that he thought
it neceflary to lower himfelf to her level, in order to make
her appear to more advantage. It is injudicious and danger-
ous to confult either the firit man or the firlt woman, of an
opera, about the performers they are to contend with for
fame. Millico wifhed to fing with no better performer than
his young and inanimate fcholar, the Carrara.. Gabrielli
Jong made it a condition of her coming to England, that
Manzoletto fhould be the firft man; and Rauzzim made
feveral ingenious manceuvres to have the Schindlerin for his
partner a fecond feafon. Singers of nearly equal abilities,
though of different kinds, regard one another with horror ;
reciprocally imagining that all the applaufe gained by their
colleague is at their own éxpence,

SCHINELJEON, a word ufed by the ancients to ex-
ae an oil of mattick, or oil in which maftick was dif-
‘olved.

SCHINTA, in Cntr , atown of Hungary, on the
Waag ; 2 miles S.S.E. o

erat.
SCHINUS,

—— - SC rr Sh e”t”~—~—”—

SCH

SCHINUS, in Botany, cxwo:, the ancient Greek name
of the Maitick-tree, Piffacta Lentifcus, transferred to a
new genus, which is the Maftick-tree of Peru.—Linn.

Gen. . Schreb. 697. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 817.
Mart. Mil. Did. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 401.
Juffl. 371. Lamarck Did. v. 4. 229. Illuftr. t. 822.

Gaertn. t. 140.—Clafs and order, Divecta Decandria. Nat.
Ord. Dumofz, Linn. Terebintacee, Juil.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cai. Perianth of one leaf, in five deep,
fpreading, acute fegments. Cor. Petals five, oval, {pread-
ing, with claws. Sam. Filaments ten, thread-fhaped, the
length of the corolla, fpreading ; anthers roundifh. Pi.
Rudiment ef a germen without a ftigma. -

Female, Ca/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in five deep,
acute, permanent fegments. Cor. Petals five, oblong,
fpreading, with claws. Pf. Germen roundifh; ftyle none;
ftigmas three, ovate. Peric. Berry globofe, of three cells.
Seeds folitary, globofe.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx five-cleft.

Female, flower like the male.
cells.

1. S. Molle. Peruvian Maftick-tree. Linn. Sp. Pl.
1467. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. 1. Mill. Ic. t. 246. (Molle;
Clef. Exot. 322. Mbolli, five Molly ; Ger. Em. 1530.)

Petals five.
Berry fuperior, of three

@. Willd. (S. Areira; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1467. Maulli
foliis non ferratis; Feuill. Peruv. v. 3. 43. t. 30. Molle
arboris adulti ramus; Cluf. Cur. Poft. 50. Ger. Em.

1530)-

eae pinnate, ferrated or entire.—Native of dry fandy
places in Peru. A hardy greenhoute plant, cultivated here
evea in Gerarde’s time. In Sicily it bears the open air,
and ripens its beautiful berries, which are never feen in
our climate, though the flowers are plentiful on old plants,
in July and Auguft. The flem ts fhrubby in Europe, but
is faid to form a confiderable tree in Peru. Leaves alter-
nate, of an elegant afpedt, evergreen, pinnate, of nume-
rous, oppofite or alternate, f{eflile, ovato-lanceolate, acute,
fmooth leaflets, ufually ftrongly ferrated, but in the
S. Areira of Linneus, jultly in our opinion made a variety
by Willdenow, they are quite entire. Clufius indeed fays
they become entire on old plants of the Molle. Flowers
fmall, yellowith-green, in compound axillary pamicles.
Miller reprefents them as polygamous, fome being perfect,
others female, with incomplete famens ; and Linnzus men-
tions the fame circumitance, as well as that of the true
male flowers having an abortive piffil. Hence we fhould be
induced to refer this genus to the clafs Decandria. The
berries, about as large as a {mall pea, are, even wien dried,
of a fingularly beautiful opaline rofe-colour, and highly

lithed. The Peruvians are reported to make a vinous
drink by boiling thefe berries, as well as a kind of honey,
or a fort of vinegar, according to the mode of manage-
ment. A refinous gum exudes from the fem when wounded,
which partakes of the nature of Mattick.

2. 5. dependens, Entire Simple-leaved Schinus. Willd.
n. 2. “ Orteg. Decad. 8. 102.’? (Amyris polygama;
Cavan. Ic. v. 3. 20. t. 239. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 333.)
— Leaves fimple, entire ; undivided or three-cleft. Flowers
moftly o¢tandrous.—Native of Chili. It flowers about

in the royal garden of Madrid, and was introduced
at Kew, where it proves hardy, by fir J. Banks, in 1790.
This is alfo a tree, but differing widely from the foregoing,
in having fimple eaves, whole margin is always entire.
Cluflers Fon » axillary, aggregate, rather longer than the
tohage. Flowers yellowih-wiute, for the molt part four-
cleft, with eight flamens. Berries black. Cavanilles de-

SCH

{cribes thefe flowers as occafionally polygamous, monoc-
cious, or dioecious.

3- S. dentata. Tooth-leaved Schinus. Andr. Repof.
t. 620. Willd. n. 3.—Leaves fimple, toothed.—Found
by Mr. Menzies in the ifland of Owhyhee, and raifed at
Kew, in 1795. A nearly hardy fhrub, flowering from
May to July; ripening fruit, in favourable feafons, at the
marquis of Blandford’s, where it is trained againit a wall.
The dranches end each ina thorny point. The aves are
alternate, on fhort itatks, lanceolate, ftrongly toothed or
ferrated, {mooth. Flowers white, numerous, in compound
axillary clufters. Berries black, the fize of {mall currants,
with a {weet flefhy pulp, each having many cells, though
generally perfeGting but one feed.

Scuinus, in Gardening, affords plants of the fhrubby
evergreen exotic kids for the greenhoufe and itove, of
which the fpecies cultivated are; the Peruvian mattic-ktree
(S. molle) ; and the Brafilian mattick-tree (S. areira). See
the preceding article.

Method of Culture—The firit is increafed by fowing
feeds obtained from its native fituation in pots filled with
frefh mould, plunging them in a moderate hot-bed: frefh
air and water fhould be frequently- given, when in fiye or
fix weeks the plants will be fit to plant out in feparate
{mall pots filled with foft loamy mould, re-plunging them
in the hot-bed, and giving proper fhade till they are freth
rooted. They fhould afterwards be gradually inured to
the open air during the fummer feafon, being taken under
fhelter before the frofts commence. ‘They are tender while
young, requiring a little warmth in winter, but the pro-
tection of the greenhoufe will be fufficient afterwards. —

It is alfo capable of being increafed by layers and cut-
tings; the former may be laid down in the fpring, and
the latter planted out in the early {pring ; the plants, when
well rooted, being treated as the feedlings.

And the fecoud fort may be increafed in the fame
method; but the plants require to be continued in the
ftove for feveral winters, when they may be preferved in
a moderate greenhoufe.

Both thefe plants are durable in their roots and tops, re-
taining their leaves the whole year.

They afford variety among other exotic plants in green-
houte colleétions, when placed in pots in a diverfified man-
ner with them.

SCHINUSSA, in Ancient Geography, one of the Spo-
rades iflinds. Pliny.

SCHINZNACH,, in Geography, a medicinal bath in Swit-
zerland, in the canton of Berne.

SCHIO, a town of Italy, in the Vicentin; 18 miles
N.W. of Vicenza.

SCHIPPENHEIL, a town of Pruffia, in the province
of Natangen; 34 miles S.S.E. of Konighberg. N. lat.

o4', E. long. 81 44!.

SCHIPPER. See Surerer.

SCHIPUNOVA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in
the government of Kolivan; 88 miles S. of Kolivan. N.
lat. 53°. E. long. 81° 44!.

SCHIPUNSKOI, a cape on the S.E. coaft of Kamt-
{chatka; 76 miles E.S.E. of Verchnei-Kamt{chatfkoi. N.
lat. §3° 10’. E. long. 159° 44!.

scHIRAS, or Seine oxi of Perfia, the capital
of the province of Fars, or Farfiftan, and alfo that of
Perfia, during the reign of Kurim Khan, is beautifully
fituated between mountains, on a well-cultivated plain be-
tween feven and eight leagues in length and about four in
breadth. The foundation of this city is afcribed by —

erfian

sCH.

Perfian authors to Taimuras, a fabulous hero, and another
king of the name of Fars, the great grandfon of Noah;
whilft others, with greater probability, declare that it was
firft built in the 24th year of the Hegira, either by the
fon or the brother of Hejaje. However this be, Schiras
was undoubtedly not a city of any repute before the birth
of Mahomet. Its title to equal antiquity is much weakened
by the want of thofe ftupendous ruins, which {till atteft
the former grandeur of Perfepolis, of Shapour, and of
Sufa; and the inhabitants have {till a fuperttitious tradition,
that before the world was enlightened by the birth of this
prophet, the valley in which this city now ftands compofed
part of the lake of Baktegan. The princes of the
family of Boueah, who governed Perfia for many years
under the Abaflides, generally held their court either at
Ifpahan or Shirauz, and contributed much to the improve-
ment of the latter, which reached its meridian under the
emir Azad a Doulah Delemi, who not only furrounded
the capital with walls, but improved the whole province of
Fars in an extraordinary degree. When the power of the
caliphs of Bagdad was overthrown, and Perfia fell under
the dominion of the houfe of Seljuck, a petty dynafty of
Attabegs became pofleffed of Shirauz, which they held
until they became extin@. (We obferve here, that Atta-
beg fignifies a tutor to a prince, and was one of the higheit
titles which the monarchs of the Seljukian dynalty gave to
fuch nobles as they entrufted with the care of their fons.
Several who bore this title, and were governors of pro-
vinces, threw off their allegiance to the laft of the Selju-
kian kings, and tranfmitted, with their power, the title of
Attabeg to their defcendants). The Attabegs were fuc-
ceeded by the Moguls, who having retained it for fome time,
were in their turn driven out by the Mo-Zaflar family.
Four princes of this race reigned in Shirauz, previoufly to
its extirpation by one of the fons of Timour; whofe de-
feendants continued in pofleffion, until they were defeated
by the Turkoman princes of the Kara Yufef. The Tur-
komans yielded to the fuperior fortune of the houfe of
Sefi; from whofe hands it fucceffively pafled into thofe of
Nadir Shah and Kurim Khan. This remarkable prince
made Shirauz the feat of his empire, and not only fortified
it, but embellifhed it with a number of gardens and public
buildings. The confufion that enfued after his death left
his fucceffors little to add to its improvements. The con-
teft for power between the tribes of Kajer and Zund,
which defolated Perfia for fo many years, terminating in
favour of the former; the firft at of Aga Mahomed Khan,
after he had taken pofleffion of Shirauz, was to level with
the ground many of the fortifications erected by the Vakeel ;
and at prefent a mud wall is the only defence of the city.
Shirauz has a pleafing, rather than a grand appearance.
It is furrounded with many beautiful gardens, the principal
of which is that of the Vakeel. The lofty domes of the
mofques, feen from afar amidit the trees, diverfify and enrich
the view ; but on entering the city, the houfes, which are
in general {mall, together with the narrow, filthy {treets,
give the {tranger but a mean idea of the fecond city in the
empire. The great bazar, or market place, built by Kurim
Khan, forms, Steve, a diftinguifhed exception to this
general remark, It is in length about a quarter of a mile,
made of yellow burnt brick, and arched at the top, having
numerous fky-lights, which, with its doors and windows,
always admit fufficient light and air, whilft the fun and
rain are completely excluded. ‘This bazar is allotted to
the different trades of the city, all of which have their
aflighed quarters, which they poflefs under ftrict regula-

SCH

tions. The ark or citadel, in which the Beglerbeg of
Fars refides, is a fortified fquare of 80 yards. The royal
palace within is far from being an elegant ftruture; and
the pillars of the Dewan Khana, its greateit ornament,
were removed by Aga Mahomed Khan, to adorn his palace
at Tehraun.

The environs of Shirauz have been celebrated by many _

different perfons ; and particularly by Hafiz, the Anacreon
of the Eaft, who was a native of this city; and is buried
in a {mall garden about half a mile from the town. The
tomb of the poet was erected by Kurim Khan, and is
nothing more than a block of white marble, in the form of
a coffin, on which are infcribed two of his poems, and the
date of his death. His works are not, as fome have {tated,
chained to his tomb ; but afplendid copy of them is always
kept in an adjoining houfe. Not far from the tomb of Hafiz
is the garden of Jehan Numa, the moft beautiful in the neigh-
bourhood of Schiras, and known, in the time of Kurim,
by the title of the Vakeel’s garden. Its name is changed
by his prefent majefty, who, when governor of Fars, built a
houfe in it for a fummer refidence.
another, on an eminence that commands a beautiful view of
the city and its vicinity, which.is named Tukht Kajerea,
or the throne of Kajers; but both the houfe and gardens
are unfinifhed. The garden of Jehan Numa is almoit a
mile from the town, and that of Kajerea fomewhat more.
Between them runs the famous ftream of Rocknabad (Abi
Rockny), a {mall rivulet of the cleareft water, not more
than two feet in width; and not a fhrub now remains
of the bower of Moffella, the fituation of which is
only marked by the ruins of an ancient tower. The in-
habitants of Shirauz, who are faid to amount to about
40,000, enjoy one of the fineft climates in the world, and
have nothing to regrét but the want of a wife and liberal
government. The commerce of the city is exténfive, and
has greatly increafed within a few years paft. Its principal
trade is with Bufhire, Yezd, and Ifpahan. From the
former it imports fugar, pepper, cinnamon, chintz, glafs,
hardware, piece-goods, &c.: thefe articles are exported to
Yezd and If{pahan, receiving in return the manufactures of
thofe cities. Shirauz is famous for its wine, which is dif-
tinguifhed by its fine colour and rich talte. It is manuface
tured from grapes, obtained from the vineyards that cover
the level plains of Ardecoone, Gooum, and Shirauz, and
alfo the fides and fummits of the adjoining mountains.
Schiras is 160 miles S. of Ifpahan. N. lat. 29° 36’. E.
long. 52° 44’. Kinneir’s Memoirs of the Perfian Empire.

SCHIREMOTE, or Scyremore. See Scyremor.

SCHIRGISWALDA, in Geography, a town of Lufa-
tia; 6 miles S. of Budiffen.

SCHIRMECH, «a town of France, in the department
of the Vofges, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrié of
St. Dié. The place contains 932, and the canton 9164 in-
habitants, ona territory of 205 kiliometres, in 15 communes.

SCHIROKOIBUERAK, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Saratov, on the Volga; 12 miles N.E. of
Volik.

SCHIRRA, a town of Arabia, in the province of
Yemen; 20 miles N.N.E. of Sana.

SCHIRROSIS, a name given to a diforder of the eye,
arifing from the violence of a long continued inflammation,
when the flefh increafes in bulk, and affumes a livid colour,

SCHIRRUS. See Scirruus.

Scuirrus of the Tefliciey &c. See SARCOCELE.

SCHIRVAN, or Scuirwan, in Geography, a province
of Perfia, the largeft and moft important divifion of the

fouthern

He alfo commenced ©

s CH

fouthern Caucafus, extends along the Cafpian 300 verits,
from the mouth of the Cyrus or Kur to the little river
Rubas. It is bounded on the E. by the Cafpian, on the
N. by Dagheitan, on the S. and S.W. by the Cyrus, and
the plains of Mogam, and on the N.W. by the kingdom of
Georgia, with the khanfhip of Ganfcha. The breadth of
this province, reckoning from the Cafpian, is very various.
On the Rubas it is fcarcely 25 verfts ; near Kuba it amounts
to about 60; from the mouth of the Ata nearly 80; whilft
from the points of the peninfula of Abfcharon, neareit
Badku, to the Kur, it is 240. With regard to the natural
ftate of the country, Schirwan may be divided into four dif-
triéts: viz. 1. The plam at the foot of the mountains,
between the Rubas and the Ata; 2. The dry and naked
ridge of mountains from the Atatfchai (¢/chai fignifying a
rivulet, and Atatfhai the rivulet Ata) to the plain on the
left bank of the Kur; 3. The plain on the Kur; 4. The
more elevated mountainous region which bounds the three
other diftrifs. With regard to its political divifion, Schir-
wan comprehends 1. The territory of the khan of Kuba;
2. The tra@ of country conquered by the khan of Kuba
on the other fide of the Atatfchai; 3. The territory of Sal-
lian ; 4. The territory fubje@ to the khan of Baku; 5. The
territory of the khan of Schamachi; and 6. The territory
of the khan of Scheki.

The firft natural divifion, comprehending a great part of
the province, is formed by the mountains that extend to-
wards the fea near Derbend or Derbent, and gradually re-
ceding behind that city, approach again, in a circular form,
within four verits of the fea, at the mouth of the river Ata.
Numerous ftreams from the mountains very much contribute
to its fertility, at the fame time to its fecurity, rendering
the paflage of an army extremely difficult. They branch
off in various dire€tions, are uncommonly rapid, and being
fhallow, have a wide channel with a rough and fandy bed.
The plain is interfperfed with {mall woods and clumps of
bufhes, and the villages are furrounded with orchards, vine-
yards, and plantations of mulberries. The fecond divifion
of Schirwan extends on one fide along the coaft, from the
Ata to the plain watered by the Kur; and on the other it
is bounded by the higher range of mountains, which run in
a S.E. courfe through the province. The length of this
diftri& is about 120 verfts; but as the coalt projets be-
tween the Atatfchai and the Kur, the breadth varies con-
fiderably. The higher ranges are the mott fertile ; the part
towards the fea is’ barren and devoid of water; and from
mount Pefchparmak to Kofutfchai and Badkn is a defert
traét of 80 verits. The third divifion, or the plain alon
the left of the Kur, is zoo vertts in length, and in ber
between 60 and 70. This diltrié is, in a great degree,
furrounded with mountains: and being expofed to frequent
inundations, is overgrown with rufhes to a confiderable dif-
tance. The fourth, or the molt clevated divifion of Schir-
wan, extends from the Rubas to Lefgeftan. It varies much in
breadth, and is interfeéted by narrow vallies, in many of which
are {mall lakes full of water, even in the hotteft fummer.

The capital of this province is Schamachi, which fee.
Badku, or Baku (which fee’, literally denoting ‘ the wind
of the mountain,’ fo named from the violent gults of
wind which blow at times from the chafms of the moun-
tains, is the moft {pacious and convenient port in the Caf-
pian. It was taken by the Ruffians in 1801, and is fituated
on the peninfula of Abfcharon in N. lat. 42°22’. This
is a place of confiderable trade, and is defended by a double
wall and deep ditch, made during the reign of Peter the
Great. It was a celebrated city of the ancient worfhippers
of fire, and before the conquelt of the Saracens was annually

Vou. XXXI.

yo Or

vifited by thoufands of pilgrims. The plain to the S.E. of
the city yields an-enormous quantity of naptha, which fee.
(See alfo Persta.) About feven verfts E. of the Naphtha
{prings, the attention is arrefted by the “* Atafh-Kudda,”’ a
fire-temple of the Guebres, about a mile in circumference,
from the centre of which a blueifh flame is feen to arife.
The whole country, indeed, round Badku, has at times
the appearance of being enveloped in flames. This fire does
not confume; and if a perfon finds himfelf in the midit of
it, no warmth is felt. Kuba (which fee) is the capital of a
khanfhip of the fame name, which is the moft populous and
flourifhing divifion of the province of Schirvan. The town
is fmall, but fortified with towers ; except towards the river
Deli, the fteep banks of which fupply the place of works.
For an account of the opulent city of Sallian, fee SALLIAN.

Schirwan may be efteemed, in general, a fertile country,
being watered by innumerable rivers, fome of which fall
into the Kur, and others into the Cafpian. The moft con-
fiderable are the Samur, Deli, Sugaite, and Pirfagat. This
province, from its conqueft by Shah Ifmael I., in 1500,
continued in the hands of the Perfians until the decline of
the Sefi family, about which period the khans of Badku,
Schamachi, ard Sallian, ettablifhed an independence, which
they maintained until the late conquefts of the Ruflians,
who have now the whole of the fea-coaft in their pofleffion,
together with the country between Badku and Ganfcha.
The Lefghaes, who inhabit the frontier, are all, either di-
reGtly or indire@ly, governed by two chiefs; Uma Khan,
whom the Awars acknowledge, and the Khanbutai, who
rules over the numerous tribes of free Kumuks inhabiting
the mountains between the Samur and the Deli.

Between Schirwan and Georgia, on the dire& road lead-
ing from Teflis to Schamachi, are the town and khanfhip of
Ganfcha, commanding a celebrated defile, where it is fup-
pofed Cyrus was overthrown and Pompey defeated the
Athenians. Kinneir’s Mem. of the Perfian Empire.

SCHIRWINDT, a town of Pruffian Lithuania, on the
Schefchuppe; 92 miles E. of Konigfberg. N. lat. 54°
46'. E. long. 23° 18!.

SCHISANDRA, in Botany, fo named by Michaux,
from cxizi:, a fifure, and ame, a male; becaufe the anthers
are merely feparated by fiflures in the receptacle of the
flower.—Michaux Boreal-Amer. v.2. 218. Purfhv.1, 212.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 372. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 268.—
Clafs and order, Monvecia Pentandria. (Monoecia Synge-
nefia; Michaux. Pentandria Polygynia; Pur/b.), Nat. Ord.
Sarmentacee, Linn. Menifperma, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth of nine concave, coloured,
deciduous Jeaves; the inner ones gradually {mallett. Cor.
none. Stam. Filaments none; anthers five, fellile on the re-
ceptacle of the flower, oblong; contiguous at the bafe;
connected at the {ummit, above their cells ; feparated in the
middle by chinks.

Female, Ca/. asin the male. Cor. none. Pi/, Germens
numerous, ovate, feflile on a receptacle which is finally
elongated ; ftyle none; {tigma pointed. Peric. Berries obo-
vate, fingle-feeded, forming a {pike on the elongated thread-
fhaped receptacle. Seed ovate-oblong, fomewhat cylindri-
cal, nearly {mooth.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx of nine leaves in three rows.
Corolla none. Anthers nearly feffile, conneéted at the top.

Female, Calyx as in the male. Corolla none. Piflils
numerous, capitate. Berries fingle-feeded, attached to an
elongated thread-fhaped receptacle.

1. 8. coccinea. Scarlet-flowered Schifandra, Michaux
v. 2. 219. t. 47. Willd. n, 1. Ait. na. Curt. Mag.
t. 1413—Found in the fhady woods of Carolina and

40 Georgia,

SCH

Georgia, flowering in June. Brought to England by Mr.
John Lyon, in 1806. Hort. Kew. A climbing /hrub,
hardy, except in our very fevere winters. The /lem is
{mooth, flender, twining. Leaves {talked, alternate, ovate,
pointed, wavy, fmooth, three or four inches long ; Mant
cous beneath. Flowers axillary, folitary, ftalked, droop-
ing; the internal leaves of their calyx of a fine fearlet ;
each flower about half an inch in diameter; the fpike of
ripe derries meafuring in length rather more than an inch.
The flower-flalks are about the length of the /footfalks.
There are neither /lipulas nor brageas. The genus is fome-
what allied to Meni/permum.

SCHISCHELIZ, in Geography, a town of Bohemia,
in the circle of Konigingratz ; 7 miles S. of Bidfchow.

SCHISCHKOPA, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Perm; 6o miles S.E. of Krafnouphimfk.

SCHISCHTOMAK, a river of Ruffia, which runs into
the Irtifch; 52 miles N.W. of Tara.

SCHISCHTOMATZKATA, a town of Roffia, in
the government of Tobolfk, at the conflux of the Schifch-
tomak and the Irtifch; 52 miles N.W. of Tara.

SCHISM, Scuisma, formed from cyicpua, cleft, fifure,
in the general, fignifies divifion, or /eparation; but it is
chiefly ufed in {peaking ef feparations happening through
ges of opinions among people of the fame religion and
aith.

Thus, we fay the fchifm of the ten tribes of Ifrael,
from the two tribes of Judah and Benjamin; the {chifm of
the Perfians, from the Turks, and other Mahometans, &c.
Among ecclefiaftical authors, the great /chifm of the Weft
is that which happened in the times of Urban VI. and
Clement VII. who were both advanced to the papacy at
the fame time, the latter refiding at Avignon in France,
and the former at Rome, which divided the church for
forty or fifty years; the caufe of Clement being efpoufed
by France and Spain, Scotland, Sicily, and Cyprus, while
the reft of Europe acknowledged Urban to be the true
vicar of Chrift ; and was at length ended by the election of
Martin V. at the council of Conftance, fummoned to meet
in the year 1414.

The Romanifts number thirty-four {chifms in their church.
They beftow the name Engli/h {chifm on the reformation of
religion in this kingdom. ‘Thofe of the church of Eng-
land, again, apply the term {chifm to the feparation of the
noncontormifts ; viz. the Prefbyterians, Independents, and
Anabaptifts, who contend for a farther reformation.

Some éall the feparation of the Proteftants from the
church of Rome a paffive {chifm ; becaufe that church cut
thern off from their communion.

The word fchifm is ufed, in fcripture, in an indifferent
fenfe (fee John, vii. 43. John, ix. 16. x. 1g.) ; and, there-
fore, the Jawfulnefs or unlawfulnefs of it is entirely to be
determined by circumftances. In our own language, indeed,
common ufe has affixed to the term an idea of guilt and re-
proach: but in this fenfe there can be no fuch thing as
{chifm, except in cafes where there is an obligation to unity
and communion: fo that in order to define the nature of it
juftly, we muft find out fome centre of union, which is
common to all Chriltians. This muft be either uniformity
of fentiment in matters of fpeculative belief, or in external
modes of worfhip and difcipline; which, in the nature of
things, is impoffible: or, if it be mnreafonable to expeé
either of thefe, the enly centre of unity that remains is
charity and mutual forbearance, notwithitanding leffer dif-
ferences, where there is an affent to all the neceflary princi-
ples of Chriftian faith, and the profeffion of Chriftianity is
proved to be fincere by a regular and virtuous life. How-

9

( SCH

ever numerous the differences that fubfift among Chriftians,
as long as mutual charity is preferved, there cannot be the
guilt of fchifm. Alienation of affeétion, and a turbulent
excommunicating {pirit, are the eflence of fchifm, and not
mere difference of opinion; not the ufe of different cere-
monies, or of no ceremonies at all; or joining ourfelves to
any particular religious communion: for, according to St-
Paul, who in feveral paflages blames the Corinthians for
divifions, or ichifms, among themfelves in the fame com-
munity, this crime miay be committed where there is.no fe-
paration from a particular church ; and, confequently, they
that differ uncharitably, whether they belong all to one, or
form diftin& worfhipping aflemblies (and they alone), are
f{chifmatics.

In the cafes to which the apoftle refers, it is unqueftion-
able, that the Corinthians had, by their condué, given a
wound to charity, and not that they had made any deviation
from the faith: and that, in the apoftolical acceptation of
the word, men may be {chifmatics, or guilty of {chifm, by
fuch an alienation of affe&tion from their brethren, as vio-
lates the internal union fubfifting in the hearts of Chriftians,
though there be neither-error in doétrine nor feparation
from communion, and confequently no violation of external
unity in ceremonies and worfhip. Fauttus, a Manichean
bifhop in the fourth century (however remote from truth
the leading principles of his party were on more important
articles) entertained fentiments on this fubje&t entirely ferip-
tural. Schifma,’’ fays he, “ nifi fallor, ef eadem opinan-
tem atque eodem ritu colentemque ceteri, folo congrega-
tionis deleétari diffidio.” Fauft. 1. xx. c. iii, ap. Augult,

As to the diftinGions on this fubje&, which in after-times
obtained among theologians, it is proper to remark, fays
Dr. Campbell, that error in doétrine was not fuppofed
eflential to the notion of f{chifm: its diltinguifhing badge
was made feparation from communion in religious offices,
infomuch that the words /chi/matic and /eparati/? have been
accounted fynonimous. By this, divines commonly diferi-
minate fchifm from herefy, the eflence of which laft is re-
prefented as confifting in an erroneous opinion, obftinatel
maintained, concerning fome fundamental doétrine of Chrif.
tianity, and that whether it be zccompanied with feparation
in refpe€t of the ordinances of religion or not. Hence it
may be inferred, that {chifm in feriptural ufe is one things
and fchifm in ecclefiaftical ufe, another. Prelim. Diff,
part ii.

Scuism, Grecé. See Greek Cuurcu. :

Scuism-Bill, the name of an a& paffed in the reign of
queen Anne, which reftrained Proteftant diffenters from
educating their own children, and forbad all tutors or fchool-
matters being prefent at any conventicle, or diffenting place
of worfhip. The queen died on the day when this act was
to have taken place (Aug. 1, 1714), and the {chifm-bill was
repealed in the fifth year of George I.

SCHISMA, in Mufic, is a minute interval, equal only
to half a comma, and of which the ratio is a furd quantity :
fince, in order to exprefs it by numbers, a meaa propor-
tional muft be found between 80 and 81.

SCHISTOUS, in Mineralogy, compofed of lamina, or
flates.

SCHISTUS, Scuist, in Mineralogy and Geology, is a
name defcriptive of the flaty {tructure of rocks, and is ap-
plicable to all which are divifible into thin plates: thus we
have micaceous {chilt, or mica flate ; argillaceous fchift, or
common flate ; and chlorite fehift, &c. The fhale which
occurs in the coal ftrata is alfo properly called afchift. If
we examine the fchifls of a mountainous traét, we fhall find
they confift almoft entirely of mica, or felfpar, or quartz,

or

SCH

er hornblende (fee thefe fubftances under their refpective
heads), or of a mixture of two or more of thefe minerals.
In fome initances, carbonate of lime is intermixed with
{chiftus, and affumes a flaty ftru€@ture. Granite aflumes alfo
a flaty ftru€ture, and is then called gneifs. (See Gnetss.)
It has been ufual, fays a late writer, to confider the various
characters of {chiit as correlative with their age, or the order
of their difpofition, as follows: gneifs, micaceous {chift ;
then roof-flate, hornblende fchift, chlorite {chiit, and grey-
wacke fchiit, which were fuppofed to lie in regular fucceffion.
This regularity of fucceffion is now queltioned on authorities
as high and numerous as thofe by which it was firlt afferted ;
and there appears to be fo complete an intermixture of all
the varieties, that they may be confidered as of cotempo-
raneous origin. See Rock and SLATE.

Scuistus, Aluminous. See Alum-flate, under ALuM.

SCHITELLA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in
Capitanata; 18 miles W. of Vieite.

SCHIT-ELU, in Botany, aname given by fome authors
te the plant which produces the feed called /efamum in the

ops.

SCHITTEREN, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in
the palatinate of Culm; 14 miles N.N.W. of Strafburg.

SCHITTUAR, or Suitwanr, a{mall ifland in the Per-
fian gulf, near the coaft of Perfia. N. lat. 26° 59'. E.
long. 53° 24!.

SCHIUMLAH. See SuHrumLan.

SCHIUSCHKINA, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Irkutfk ; 38 miles N.N.E. of Orlenga.

SCHIUZAR, a town of Syria, in the pachalic of
Aleppo, onthe Orontes ; 60 miles S. of Aleppo.

SCHIZA, in Botany, received that name from the
writer of the prefent article, in allufion to the cloven ap-
pearance of its aggregate fan-like fpikes, the word being
derived from cy%, to cleave afunder.—Sm. Mem. del’ Acad.
de Turin, v. 5. 419. t. 9. f.9. Traéts relating to Nat.
Hift. 257. t.1. 3 9. Swartz Fil. 150. Sprengel Crypt.
{Engl ed.) 170. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 5. 85. Brown Prodr.

ov. Holl. vy. 1. 161. Thunb. Prodr. 172.—Clafs and
order, Cryptogamia Filices. Nat. Ord. Filices.

Eff. Ch. Capfules fomewhat turbinate, with radiating
furrows at the top, buriting laterally, feffile, covering the
back of anaggregate appendage to the frond. Involucrum
from the inflexed margin of the appendages, uninterrupted.

A genus very diflin& in habit List all others.

1. S. pedinata. Swartz n.1. Willd. n. 1. (Acrof-
tichum peGtinatum; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1524. A.n. 6. Amoen.
Acad. v. 1. 270. t. 12. f. 4, 5. Juncus elegantiffimus,
capitulis pe€tinatis, prom. bon. fpei; Pluk. Phyt. t. 95.
f. 7. J. africanus, peGtinato capite; Morif. feét. 8. t. 9.
f. 30. Adiantum peétinatum, ¢ capite bone {pei; Petiv.
Mof. n. 743-)—Frond undivided, linear ; channelled above.
Appendages crowded into a roundifh deflexed head.—Na-
tive of the Cape of Good Hope, in heathy places, from
whence it was brought by Mr. Cunninghame to Petiver,
who, aa Linnzus fays, “ fmelt out’? that it was a fern,
though preceding authors, as well as fome following ones,
have called ita rufh. We cannot but give great commenda-
tion to Petiver’s mental olfaétories for this difcovery, while
we wonder at the error of his rival Plukenet. The root is
black and tufted, of courfe perennial. Jronds feveral,
afcending in an oblique zigzag manner, a foot m height,
ats of bis, quite fimple, rigid, very narrow, {mooth, en-
tire, fomewhat revolute ; channelled in front; furnifhed
with a flout midrib behind; their bafe tapering, blackish,
accompanied at its origin from the root with a denfe tuft,

of tawny, shining, tubular, jointed filaments, inftead of the

S CH

feales ufual in ferns. Each frond is crowned with a com-
preffed, denfe, fomewhat kidney-fhaped head, formed of
two clofe converging rows, of ereét, linear, often cloven,
leaflets, about fifteen in each row, {mooth externally, co-
vered on the inner furface with innumerable cap/ules, im-
bedded in hair. -

2. S. fftulofa. Labill. Nov. Holl. v. 2. 103. t. 250.
f.3. Willd. n.z. Brown. n. 2.—Frond undivided, fome-
what thread-fhaped and cylindrical. Appendages crowded
into a lanceolate ere {pike. Involucrum fringed. Briities
at the root tubular, pervious.—Found by Labillardiere, at
the cape of Van Diemen. This feems very like the latt,
except that the hollow fibres, which crown the roof, do not
appear to be jointed, and the appendages at the fummit of
the frond {pread in fome degree, compofing a two-ranked
nearly upright /pike.

3. S. penicillata. Willd. n. 3. (S. pennula; Swartz
n. 2. defer. 379.) —‘* Frond undivided, linear-thread-
fhaped, femi-cylindrical. Appendages five or fix pair, di-
gitate, ereé.’? — Gathered by the celebrated travellers
Humboldt and Bonpland, near the Black river in South
America. Fronds fix or eight inches high, with brown
fcales at their bafe. Appendages half an inch long. We
have feen neither fpecimen nor figure, and Willdenow’s de-
{cription contains little to diftinguifh this from the latt.
We doubt the appendages being really digitate.

4. S. rupefris. Brown n. 1.—*¢ Frond undivided, flat,
linear, entire. Appendages from five to eight pair, pinnate.
Involucrum cut.’?—Found by Mr. Brown, on rocks near
Port Jackfon, New South Wales.

5. S. digitata. Swartz n. 3. defcr. 380. t.4. f. 1.
Willd. n. 4. (Acroftichum digitatum; Linn. Sp. Pl.
1524. A. n. 5; Amoen. Acad. v..1. 269. t. 12. f. 1.
Planta pluribus foliis triquetris inftar graminis cyperini fum~-
mitate foliorum in plurima folia biuncialia divifis; Herm.
Muf. Zeyl. 27. Burm. Zeyl. 194.) — Frond undivided,
linear, entire, keeled, fingle-ribbed. Appendages three or
four pair, digitate, {traight, fomewhat radiating ; the inner-
moft longeit. Involucrum entire, {mooth-edged.—Native
of Ceylon and Tranquebar. The fronds are a quarter of
an inch wide, flat, except the keel ofthe mid-rib, a foot or
more in height, occafionally zigzag, {mooth ; crowned with
three or four pair of linear {mooth appendages, from one to
two inches long, each half the breadth of the frond, Jn-
volucrum continued, even, {mooth, quite entire. Mr.
Brown is difpofed to doubt the genus of this rare and fin-
gular {pecies, becaufe the “ cap/ules are thickly crowded all
over the backs of the appendages, not ranged in two rows 5
neither do they burft at the outer fide ; nor are the appendages
themfelves pinnate, but digitate.’’ ‘This laft character may
admit of fome difpute, the increafed length of each pair of
appendages, in proportion as they are more central, evinces
fomething of a pinnate inclination; nor do we perceive that
much ftrefs can be laid on the opening of the capfules, for
we are unable to determine its direétion. ‘The habit of the
plant fufficiently refembles other Schizaa, We readily
agree with aaialfor Willdenow, that Acroflichum /picatum,
Linn. Suppl. 444. Sm. Plant. Ic. t. 49, doubtfully re-
ferred to Schizea in the Memoirs of the Turin Academy,
y- 5. 419, does not belong to this genus. Whether his
Lomaria, Sp. Pl. v. 5. 289, to which it is referred, be well
diftinguifhed from his Struthiopteris and Onoclea, their cha-
ra¢ters depending merely on the divifions of the involucrum,
may admit of fome doubt. The margin of that part cer-
tainly differs in different {pecies of molt natural genera, as,
for example, in that now bevere us.

6. S. bifida. Willd, on. 5. AQ, Erfurt, for 1892. 30.

40 2 te 3,

SCH

t. 3. f.3. Swartz n. 5. Brownn.3. (Acroftichum dicho-
tomum; Cavan. Leccion. 240.)—Barren fronds repeatedly
forked ; fertile ones fimply or doubly divided, roughifh.
Appendages ten to fixteen pair, pinnate, crowded into a half-
ovate head. Involucrum fringed.—Native of New South
Wales, as well as of Van Diemen’s ifland. The barren
fronds we have not feen; the fertile ones are in two of our
{pecimens quite fimple; in all the reft only once divided,
more or lefs deeply ; all narrow and channelled. This plant
bears a general refemblance to the firft fpecies, but is rather
fmaller, and the appendages comhpofe a more ereét and oblong,
not kidney-fhaped or deflexed, head.

7. S. dichotoma. Willd. n. 6. Swartz n. 4. AG. Erfurt.
for 1802. 30.t. 3. f. 2. (Acroftichum dichotomum; Linn. Sp.
Pl. 1524. Cochine branched comb-fern ; Petiv. Gazoph. 7.
t. 70. f. 12.) —Fronds all repeatedly forked ; fegments linear,
fingle-ribbed, roughifh, tapering upwards. Appendages
pinnate, fomewhat {preading, obtufe. Involucrum hairy.—
Native of the Eaft Indies, Cochinchina, the Mauritius,
Madagafcar, and the tropical part of New Holland. The
root confifts of many tutted, ftrong, black, hairy fibres,
crowned with fhining, tawny, hollow, jointed hairs, as in
S. peinata. Fronds forked four or five times, or more, very
narrow, with a {trong mid-rib; more or lefs rough with
minute rigid prickles, all directed towards the points; the
barren ones about fix inches high; the fertile eight inches,
ormore. Appendages {mall, fomewhat club-fhaped, ufually
about eight pair, divaricated, compofing a {mall recurved,
pale ee ance minutely fpinous, efpecially at its bafe.
Mr. Brown {peaks of this asa very variable plant, fometimes
nearly {mooth in the margin and ribs of its fronds, and having
from three to ten pair of appendages in each /pike. Sir Jofeph
Banks has favoured us with an Otaheite tpecimen, which,
but for this remark of our learned friend, we fhould confide,
as a diftin@ {pecies, and call fa/figiata ; the fegments of its
fertile fronds — level-topped and exceedingly numerous,
the appendages uniformly four pair, as nearly as poflible, in
each /pike, all of them ereét and parallel, not divaricated,
nor are the /pikes recurved.

8. S. criflata. Willd. n.7. (Ripidium dichotomum ;
Bernhardi in Schrad. Journ. for 1802. part 2. 127.t. 2.f. 3.
Acroftichum dichotomum; Forft. Prodr. 78.)—** Fronds
repeatedly forked, linear, fingle-ribbed, {mooth ; very taper
at the fummits. Appendages about five pair.”,—Gathered
by Forfter in the Society ifles. Willdenow, who had feen
a dried fpecimen, fays this {pecies is very like the laft, but
with a broader frond, {mooth at the margin, remarkably
tapering at the top, and bearing fmnaller /pites.

g. S. elegans. Swartzn.6. Willd. n. 8. (Acroftichum
elegans; Vahl. Symb. v. 2. 104. t. 50. Lophidium latifo-
lium ; Richard in A&. Soc. Hift. Nat. Paris. v. 1. 114 ?)—
Frond fan-fhaped, forked, with wedge-fhaped, many-ribbed
fegments, jagged at the top. Appendages pinnate, pa-
rallel. Involucrum hairy. Gathered by Vor Rohr, in the
ifland of Trinidad; by Merter in the Caraccas. The
root is fomewhat creeping. Fronds differing from the laft
but one, in having fewer divifions, and thofe very broad,
each bearing many pinnate terminal /pikes of appendages.
The latter are ufually five or fix pair in each /pike, bluntith,
hairy, green, fupported by a thick flat common ftalk. We
conceive that Richard’s Lophidium can fcarcely be different
from our plant.

SCHIZANTHUS, fo called by the authors of the
Flora Perwviana, from cysts, to cut, or cleave, and avbo-,
a flower, becaufe of the numerous and deep fegments
of its corolla.—‘“ Fl. Peruv’’ Prodr. 5. t. 1. Fl. Peruv.
vy. 1. 132” Vahl. Enum, v. 1. 171.—Clafs and order,

SiC-H
Diandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Perfonate, Linn.
phularie, Jufl. ;

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, in five deep, linear,
nearly equal, permanent fegments. Cor. of one petal,
ringent, reverfed: tube compreffed, the length of the
calyx ; upper lip in five deep fegments, lower in three.
Stam. Filamentsfour ; two of them abortive, villous, under
the upper lip (which by the reverfed pofition of the flower
ftands lowermoft) ; the other two perfe&t, inferted into the
lower lip; anthers roundifh, of two lobes. Pi/}. Germen
fuperior, roundifh ; ftyle thread-fhaped, longer than the
tube of the corolla; ftigma club-fhaped. Peric. Capfule
ovate, the length of the calyx, of two concave cloven valves,
and two cells. Seeds feveral, kidney-fhaped, rough. Re-
ceptacle orbicular, comprefied, parallel to the valves, uncon-
need with them, rough and corrugated at the fides, where
the feeds are inferted.

Eff. Ch. Calyx in five deep fegments. Corolla two-
lipped, reverfed ; the upper lip in five, lower in three, deep
fegments. Two barren itamens. Capfule fuperior, of two
cells, and two cloven valves.

1. S. pinnatus. Vabl.n. 1. Fl. Peruv. t. 17.—Native
of the borders of cultivated fields in Chili.
was fent by the late abbé Cavanilles, in 1803. The /lem is
herbaceous, ere&t, two feet high, branched, leafy, round,
rough, efpecially in the upper part, with glandular vifcid
hairs. Leaves alternate, on fhort ftalks, flightly hairy, pin-
nate, or rather deeply pinnatifid, with linear, decurrent,
bluntifh, partly cut or fubdivided fegments. Stipulas none.
Cluflers oppofite to the leaves, in the upper part of the
branches, fimple, of from fix to twelve drooping flowers,
with a pair of {mall roundifh bradeas at the bafe of each par-
tial ftalk. Calyx and flalks hairy and vifcid. Corolla about
an inch long, variegated with fhades of light purple, the
upper lip having a darker fpot in the middle ; the fegments
of the lower lip falcate, the intermediate one abrupt.
Valves of the cap/ule {mooth, thin, almoft membranous.

SCHKEUDITZ, or Sueunirz, in Geography, a town of
Saxony, in the principality of Merfeburg, or the Elfter ;
8 miles W.N.W. of Leipfic.

SCHKOLEN, a town of Saxony, in the bifhopric of
Naumburg ; 6 miles S. of Naumburg.

SCHKUHRIA, in Botany, received that name from
Dr. Roth, in his Catale&a, v. 1. 116, in commemoration of
Mr. Chriftian Schkuhr, who is ftiled, in his own work, Me-
chanic of the Univerfity of Wittenberg. Whatever may
be his office or rank, he has proved himfelf a moft acute and
exa& defcriptive botanilt, in a general illuitration in German
of the genera, and principal f{pecies, of the Linnzan fyitem,
with coded figures, under the title of Botani/ches Hand-
buch, or Botanical Manual. Of this work, what regards
the {pecies of Carex, all of them, as far as known, bein
carefully delineated, is the moft valuable, and fufficient, he
itfelf, to fecure the botanical immortality of its author. We
regret, therefore, that the genus dedicated to fo worthy a
name proves, in our judgment at leaft, not diftin& from
Pectis ; fee that article, fpecies the fixth. Mr. Schkuhr
was born at Pegau, May 14, 1741, and, we believe, is ftill
living.

SCHLACKEN, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the principality of Coburg ; 18 miles S.W. of Coburg.

SCHLADEN, a town of Weltphalia, in the bifhopric
of Hildefheim; 28 miles E.S.E. of Hildefheim.

SCHLAKENALU, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Leitmeritz ; tomiles N. of Kamnitz.

SCHLAKENWALD, or Stawkow, a town of
Bohemia, in the circle of Elnbogen, near which is a tin-

: 6 mine 3

Scro-

Our fpecimen ~

SCH
mine; 3 miles S.E. of Elnbogen. N. lat. 50° 7/. E.

long. 12° 50!.

SCHLAKENWERT, a town of Bohemia, in the cir-
cle of Elnbogen, with a citadel; 7 miles N.E. of Elnbo-
gen. N. lat. 50° 16’. E. long. 12° 55'.

SCHLAMING, or ScuLapminG, a town of the
duchy of Stiria, on the river Enns; 36 miles W.S.W. of
Rottenmann.

SCHLAN, a town of Bohemia, once the capital of a
circle, united with Rakonitz ; 28 miles W.S.W. of Jung-
Buntzel. N. lat. 50° 15’. E. long. 14° 15!. :

SCHLAUPPITZ, a town of Silefia, in the principality
of Grotkau; 5 miles N.N.E. of Ottmuchau.

SCHLAWA, a town of Silefia, in the principality of
Glogau, on the borders of Poland, near the Schalwer See, or
lake, the fifhery of which is farmed at an annual rent of
tooo Silefian rix-dollars ; 12 milesof Gros-Glogau.

SCHLAWE, Stawe, or Slage, a town of Pomerania,
onthe Wipper; 68 miles N.E. of Stargard N. lat. 54°
1g’. E. long. 16° 23!.

SCHLEBHEIM, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg ;
4 miles S.E. of Schweinfurt.

SCHLECHTENDALITA, in Botany, is the Willdenowa
of Cavanilles; but there being already a Willdenovia, as it
ought to be -written, eitablifhed by Thunberg, profeffor
Willdenow has dedicated the prefent genus to his “ very
dear friend”? Von Schlechtendal, a noble German, whom he
terms alfo “ a moft acute botanift.”” How often does Vol-
taire’s with, of “* fewer confonants,’”’ to thefe meritorious
Germans, come acrofs the mind, as we range over the wide
and rugged field of botanical nomenclature !—Willd. Sp.
Pl. v. 3. 2125.—Clafs and order, Syngenefia Polygamia-
Superfiua. Nat. Ord. Compofite oppofitifolie, Linn. Corym-
bifere, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx double ; the outer of many,
f{preading, awl-fhaped fcales ; inner of many, clofe, ereét,
linear leaves, longer than the outer. Cor. compound, radi-
ated ; florets of the radius eight, female, ligulate, rounded,
broad, entire ; thofe of the difk numerous, perfect, tubular,
their limb in fix, feven, or eight linear, acute, very narrow
fegments. Stam. Filaments (in the difk only) five, capillary ;
anthers fimple, united intoacylinder. Pi/. Germen oblong,
crowned with five briftles, and five fhort intermediate fcales ;
ftyle folitary, divided half way down into three parts ;
fligmas three, briftle-fhaped. Seeds folitary, oblong,
flightly pentagonal, tapering at the bafe, crowned with
five ereét briftles. Receptacle chaffy, its {fcales fhort, cup-
like, toothed.

Eff. Ch. Receptacle chaffy. Seed-crown of five ereé&
briftles. Calyx double ; the outer of many briftles ; inner
of many equal leaves. Florets of the difk in fix or eight

fegments.
1. S. glandulofa. Willd. n. 1. (Willdenowa glandulofa ;
Cavan. Ic. v. 1. 61. t. 89.)—Native of Mexico, from

whence it was fent to the garden at Madrid. vot perennial.
Stems annual, a yard high, branched, leafy, round, reddith
and fmooth. Leaves numerous, moftly alternate, rigid,
caer with an odd leaflet ; their common flalk channelled,
inged with briftles; /eaflets about feven, oppofite, ovate,
decurrent, {mooth, an inch long, toothed, often fringed with
briftles, and bordered with fcattered pellucid fpots, or
lands, in their fubftance, near the edge. lowers corym-
fe, refembling the common Zinnia in fize and shape, {car-
let; the difk paleft. Each feale or leaf of the calyx ends
in a red briftle, at whofe bafe are two glands, in the
inner calyx, one in the outer. The flower-/lalks {well gra-
dually upwards, and bear a few {cattered brittles, relembling

SCH

the onter feales of the calyx. This plant is certainly, as
Cavanilles remarks, akin to Tugetes, but differs in its double
calyx, more numerous fegments of the tubular florets, chafty
receptacle, and three fligmas ; which lalt charaéter, as this
intelligent author appears to think, requires further invefti-
gation. The plant before us would be a great acquifition
to the Englifh flower-gardens, where it would probably
prove a hardy perennial, flowering late in autumn.

SCHLEERIET, in Geography, a town of the duchy
of Wurzburg; 5 miles N.N.E. of Arnftein.

SCHLEGELBERG, a mountain of the Brifgaw; 22
miles N.N.E. of Friburg. ;

SCHLEICHINGEN, a town of Swabia, in the
lordfhip of Limburg ; 25 miles N. of Ulm.

SCHLEINACH, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric
of Bamberg; g miles N.W. of Burg Eberach.

SCHLEINITZ, a town of Auftria; 2 miles S. of
Eggenburg.—Alfo, a town of Auftria; 4 miles N.E. of
Meiffau.

SCHLEISHEIM, a town of Bavaria, with a royal
palace, containing a colleCtion of pictures by the mott cele-
brated matters, Rubens, Albert Durer, &c.; 8 miles N.
of Munich.

SCHLEITZ, a town of Saxony, in the county of
Reuflen, the feat of the count, containing three churches ;
17 miles W.S.W. of Greitz. N. lat. 50° 30! E. long.
DiasO-

SCHLEK, a town of Courland, onthe Wota; 6miles
N. of Goldingen. :

SCHLEMMEN, a term ufed by the fmalt-makers to
exprefs the fubftance of the fmalt after fufion, when it is
feparated from the efchel ; that is, a fort of grey afhes which
adhere toit, and is ready for powdering for ufe.

SCHLENACKEN, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the Roer; 8 miles S.W. of Aix-la-
Chapelle.

SCHLENTER Sez, a large lake nm the duchy of
Holitein, about fourteen miles in circumference ; 3 miles
W. of Lutkenburg.

SCHLETTAU, a town of Saxony, in the circle of
Erzgebirg ; 3 miles W.N.W. of Grunhayn.

SCHLETTSTATT, or Scuerestat, a town of
France, inthe department of the Lower Rhine, and chief
place of a canton, in the diftri€t of Barr, fituatedin a marfhy
country, on the Ill; formerly imperial ; 5 pofts S.S.W. of
Strafburgh. The place contains 7464, and the canton
13,626 inhabitants, on a territory of 75 kiliometres, in 6
communes. N. lat. 48°s!. E. long. 7° 22!.

SCHLEUSE, atown of Pruffia, in the province of Sam-
land; 18 miles E. of Konigfberg.

SCHLEUSINGEN, a town of Germany, in the county
of Henneberg, on the Schleufs; 19 miles N.N.E. of
Schweinfurt.

SCHLEUSS, ariver of Germany, which runs into the
Werra, 7 miles S.W. of Schleufingen.

SCHLEYDEN, or Scutiepen, a town of France, in
the department of the Ourthe, and chief place of a can-
ton, inthe diftrié of Malmedy ; late capital of a county of
Weflphalia, annexed to the county of Mark ; 40 miles N.
of Treves. The place contains 1308, and the canton
4136 inhabitants, on a territory of 1424 kilometres, in 4
communes. N. lat. 50° 35'. E. long. 6° 25/.

SCHLICHTING, a town of the duchy of Holftein

miles S.E. of Lunden.

SCHLICKHEIM, a river of Wurtemberg, which runs
into the Neckar, near Rothweil.

SCHLIEBEN,

SCH

SCHLIEBEN, a town of Saxony; 25 miles $.E. of
Wittenberg. N. lat. 50° 33/. E. long. 13° 36.

SCHLIENGEN, or ScuLinceEn, a town of Baden,
about two miles from the Rhine; 14 miles N. of Bale.

SCHLIERSBACH, a town of Auttria; 14 miles S.W.
of Steyr.

SCHLIESBURG, a town of Auftrig; 2 miles E. of
Griefkirchen.

SCHLISSELBURG, a town of Ruffia, inthe govern-
ment of Peterfburg, on lake Ladoga; 32 miles E. of Pe-
terfburg. N. lat. 60°. E. long. 48° 44!.

SCHLITZ, a town of Germany, giving name to a
county on the Fulda; 7 milesN.N.W. of Fulda.

SCHLOBITTEN, a town of Pruffia, in the province
of Oberland, near Holland.

SCHLOCKAU, a town of Pruffia, in Pomerelia, on
the Bro ; 43 miles S.S.E. of Dantzic.

SCHLODEIN, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Oberland, near Holland.

SCHLOFKA, a town of Pruffia, in Oberland ; 7 miles
N.N.E. of Soldau.

SCHLOMEN, a town of Germany, in the principa-
lity of Culmbach ; 9 miles N. of Bayreuth.

SCHLOSSAU, a town of Pruflia, in the palatinate of
Culm ; 8 miles S.W. of Strafburg.

SCHLOSSHOFF, atown of Autftria; two miles S. of
Marckeck.

SCHLOTHEIM, atown of Saxony, in the county of
Schwartzburg Rudolftadt ; 6 miles N.E. of Muhlhaufen.

SCHLUCHTEREN, atownof Germany, inthe county
of Hanau-Munzenberg, with a Proteftant college, which
was formerly a convent of Benedictines; 14 miles S.W. of
Fulda.

SCHLUSSELAU, atown of Bavaria, in the bifhopric
of Bamberg ; 7 miles S. of Bamberg.

SCHLUSSELBURG, a town of Weftphalia, in the
county of Minden; 13 miles N.E. of Minden.

ScHLUSSELBURG, a town and fortrefs of Ruffia, con-
taining about 300 houfes, and 2800 inhabitants, near
lake Ladoga: the fortrefs ftands on an ifland in the river.
This has been frequently ufed asa {tate prifon. The ifland
is of an elliptical form, about 175 fathoms long, and 78 in
tts broadeft part. The walls that furround it are for the
moft part conitruéted of ftones and brick ; fifty feet high,
and from eleven to twenty thick, and fortified with battle-
ments, and eight round towers. The paflage into the
ifland is by a drawbridge. The fortrefs is about 146 feet
{quare, and furrounded by ftone walls of a great height.
Ap adjoining brick houfe, of a fingle ftory, extends (oe
one fide to the other, and contains eight rooms, of feventeen
feet by twelve. The houfe is unfinifhed, is without ceiling,
and has never been inhabited. Peter III. begun it precip1-
tately, but when he was depofed, the work was difcontinued ;
36 miles E. of Peterfburg.

SCHLUSSELFELD, a town of the duchy of Wurz-
burg, infulated in the bifhopric of Bamberg ; 13 miles S.W.
of Bamberg.

SCHMALENBERG, a town of Weltphalia; 18 miles
S. of Brifon.

SCHMALFELDEN, a town of Germany, in the
margraviate of Anfpach; 6 miles N.N.E. of Gerhardfbron.

SCHMALIEN, a town of Pruffia, in Ermeland; 8
miles S.W. of Heilfberg.

SCHMEDITTE, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Natangen ; 20 miles S. of Konigfberg.

SCHMEIZEL, Martin, in Biography, a German
hiftorical writer, was born at Cronftadt in the year 1679.

SCH

He was educated partly at Jena, and partly at Wittenberg
and Griefswald. In 1706 he accompanied a young gentle-
man in the quality of tutor to Halle, and thence to Jena.
In 1709 he undertook atour to Denmark and Sweden. In
the latter country he was entrulted with the care of two
young gentlemen, whom he carried with him to Jena, and in
1713 took them back to Sweden: on which occafion he
was twice captured by Danifh privateers, and conveyed to
Copenhagen, but he foon obtained his liberty, and returned
to Jena. After this he was appointed profeflor of philofo-
phy in the academy, and at the fame time librarian. In
1731 he was invited to Halle, to be profeflor of jurifpru-
dence and hiftory, with the honour of the title of counfel-
lor of ftate to his Pruffian majelty. Hedied in1747. His
works are numerous, and written partly in his native lan-
guage, and partly in Latin: of thefe, the principal are as
follow: ‘* T'ra€tatus de Coronis tam _antiquis quam moder-
nis;”’ “ De Clenodiis et Ritu inaugurandi Reges Hungariz ;”’
“ Precognita Hitt. Ecclefiaftice ;?? ‘ Catalogus Scrip-
torum qui Res Hungarix, Tranfilvanie, &c. illutrant et in
Bibliotheca Martini Schmeizelii fervantur.””

SCHMEKEWALT, in Geography, a town of Pruffia,
in Oberland; 6 miles §.S.W. of Otterode.

SCHMELING, Map., in Biography. See Mara.

SCHMELTZDORYF, in Geography, a town of Silefia,
in the principality of Neiffe.

SCHMERA, a town of Wurzburg; 9 miles E.S.E.
of Geroltzhofen.

SCHMERGRUB, a town of Pruflia, in Pomerelia ;
20 miles E.N.E. of Vogelfang.

SCHMERLENBACH, a town of Germany, in the
eleGtorate of Mentz ; 4 miles E. of Afchaffenburg.

SCHMEY, a town of Pruflia, in the palatinate of
Culm ; 4 miles N. of Strafburg.

SCHMID, Joun Anprew, in Biography, a German
Lutheran divine, was born at Worms in 1652. He was
educated at his native place, and after the death of his pa-
rents, who were both carried off by the plague when he was
only fourteen years of age, he was fent to a college at
Augfburg, after which he went to Altdorf, and thence to
Jena, where he took his degree of maiter of arts in 1675.
In 1679 he nearly loft, his life by a fall from a window, and
though he recovered after a long illnefs, his right arm was
fo injured, that he was under the neceffity of learning to
write with his left hand. In 1683 he was 2ppointed profef-
for of logic and metaphyfics in the univerfity of Jena, and
after this he fucceeded to the theological chair, In 1695 he
removed to Helmftadt, and was appointed to the profeflor-
fhip of theology and ecclefiaftical hittory. He died in 1726.
He wrote feveral works, which relate chiefly to literary and
ecclefiaftical hiftory. Mofheim defcribes hina as a man of
great genius and indefatigable induftry, and {peaks of him
as the firft man of learning in Germany who had the courage
to throw afide the trammels of Ariftotle: he further fa
that he was a judicious hiftorian, who knew how to avoid fu-
perititious credulity on the one hand, and {cepticifm on the
other ; and a pacific theologian, who had the good fortune
to defend the truth without making himfelf enemies.

SCHMIDA, in Geography, a town of Auftria; 8 miles
S. of Sonneberg.

SCHMIDELIA, in Botany, received that name from
the pen of Linneus, in honour of Cafimir Chriitopher
Schmidel, formerly Profeffor of Medicine at Erlang, and
afterwards Prefident of the College of Phyficians at An-
{pach, author of fome very valuable and {cientific differta-
tions, on Oreofelinum, Buxbaumia, Blafia, and Jungermannia,
as well as of feveral fafciculi, in folio, of fleutin a 3

plates

—_ ge a

-

_ mathematics.

St Oo |

plates of plants, with elaborate diffeGtions of their parts of
fruGification, drawn under his infpeétion, and illuitrated
with ample fynonyms and remarks. He travelled, in the
years 1773 and 1774, through part of France, Switzerland,
and Germany, as phyfician to Elizabeth Friderica Sophia,
late duchefs of Wirtemberg, who laboured under an infirm
ftate of health. Of this journey, a Latin account, confitt-
ing principally of obfervations relative to Natural Hittory,
was publifhed at Erlang, in 1794, making a thin quarto,
with two coloured plates. The author died in 1793, aged
75.—Linn. Mant. 10. Schreb. 262. Willd. Sp. Pl.v. 2.
435- Mart. Mill. Di&. v.4. Juff.247. Lamarck Iluftr.
t. 312. (Toxicodendrum; Gertn. t. 44 ?)—Clafs and
order, O@andria Digynia. Nat.Ord. Sapindi, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, of two roundifh co-
loured leaves, larger than the corolla. Cor. Petals four,
roundith, feffile. Stam. Filaments eight, fimple, the length
of the flower ; anthers roundifh. Pi/?. Germens two, ftalked,
compreffed, longer than the flower; {tyles fimple, fhort ;
ftigmas fimple. Peric. Drupas two, ftalked. Seeds foli-
tary? Linn. :

Eff. Ch. Calyx of two leaves.
flalked, longer than the flower.

1. S. racemofa. Linn. Mant. 67. Willd. n.1. (Ufubis
triphylla; Burm. Ind. 89. t. 32. f. 1.)—Native of Java,
where it is called by the Malays Dieroedji, according to the
Linnzan fpecimen. Kleinhoff told Burmann that the inha-
bitants of Java knew it by the name of Kiinting birou, and
thie, by fome blunder, flands as its place of growth, in the
Meantiffa of Linnezus. The /lem is defcribed as arboreous.
The branches are round, leafy, finely downy. Leaves alter-
nate, on long downy footitalks, ternate; J/eaflets ftalked,
ovate, or elliptic-oblong, pointed, wavy, pliant, with one
rib, and many eeiecte veins; the upper fide, except the
rib and veins, nearly fmooth; the under downy. Cluflers
axillary, folitary, flender, denfe, many-flowered, on long
downy ftalks. Flowers fomewhat whorled, {mall.

Such is the Linnzan {pecimen ; but whether this be the
very fame plant with Rhus Coble, Sp. Pl. 382, our Orni-
trophe Cobbe, we can neither affirm nor deny. See Orni-
TROPHE, n. 3, and our note at the end of that ar-
ticle. Lamarck, copying Burmann’s-figure, has retained
Schmidelia in the plates of his Illuftrations of Genera ;
but the continuator of his Di&ionary, Poiret, has united
this genus and Ornitrophe under the name of U/ube. For-
fter’s {pecimen of his porctica ternata is {o like this plant,
except the aves being {mooth beneath, and ferrated, that
we prefume they muft belong to one genus ; but he defcribes
the calyx as confifting of four leaves, Juffieu feems to have
been in doubt on the fubjeét, though he places Aporetica in
the firft fe&tion of his Sapinn1, fee that article, and Schmi-
delia, next to Ornitrophe, in the fecond, ‘The examination
of living {pecimens is neceflary to fettle all thefe matters ;
but if the three genera in queftion fhould prove one and the
fame, the name of Schmidclia mult take place of the others,
as the olde{t and moft important.

SCHMIDING, in Geography, a town of Auftria; 5
miles N.E. of Kemmaten.

SCHMIDT, Enxasmus, in Biography, was born in
1560, in Mifnia, and ftudied at Wittemberg, where he after-
wards became profeffor, firlt of the Greek and then of the
He died in 1637, leaving behind him a Greek
grammar, a treatife on the Greek dialects, and feveral Latin
orations. He gave new editions, with tranflations and com-
mentaries, of Hefiod, Pindar, Lycophron, &c.: he alfo
publifhed a Greek and Latin concordance of the New Tef-
tament.

Petals four. Germens

SCH

ScHMIDT, BERNARD, a German organ-builder of great
and well-merited renown, but known in this kingdom under
the revered name of Father Smitu. See his article. .

SCHMIEDEBERG, in Geography, a town of Silefia,
in the principality of Jauer, fituated in a country abounding
with iron ore: here are manufactures of fteel and of linen ;
7 miles S.S.E. of Hirfchberg. N. lat. 50° 35’. E. long.
15° 50'.—Alfo, a town of Saxony, in the margraviate of
Meiffen ; 15 miles S. of Drefden.

SCHMIERENBERG, a town of the duchy of Stiria ;
8 miles N.W. of Marburg.

SCHMIRSCHITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle
of Konigingratz ; 4 miles N. of Konigingratz.

SCHMITH, Nicuotas, in Biography, a writer in hif-
tory, was a native of Oldenburgh, in Hungary. He entered
early into the fociety of the Jefuits, and taught the belles-
lettres and theology in the fchools of his order with great re-
putation. He died in 1767. As an author, his chief
works are, ‘ Series Archiepifcoporum Strigonenfium,”
2 vols. 8vo. : ** Epifcopi Agrienfes, fide diplomatica concin-
nati :? “ Imperatores Ottomannici 4 capta Conftantinopoli,
cum Epitome Principum Turcarum ad annum,” 1718, 2 vols.
fol. Thefe works, efpecially the hiftory of the Ottoman
emperors, are faid to abound in erudition, and to be com-
pofed in a pure and elegant ftyle. ;

SCHMOGRA, in Geography, a village of Silefia, in the
principality of Brieg, where, A.D. 966, was erected the firft
Chriftian church in Silefia, together with the fee, which was
removed to Bitfchen, and afterwards to Breflau ; 5 miles
N.N.E. of Nambflau.

SCHMOLLEN, a town of Saxony, in the principality
of Altenburg ; 6 miles S. of Altenburg. N. lat. 50° 50’.
E. long. 12° 20.

SCHMOLNITZ, or SmetnitTz, atown of Hungary, in
a narrow valley, near which, in the hills on each fide, which
are of argillaceous {chiftus, are copper-mines, which formerly
gave exiftence to this town, and now fupport it. ‘The cop-
per ore is {melted and manufaétured here ; but the ores con-
taining filver are fent to Neufohl; 15 miles N.W. of
Cafchau.

SCHMOLSIN, a town of Farther Pomerania ; 16 miles
S.E. of Stolpen.

SCHMOLTZ, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of
Bamberg ; 4 miles W.N.W. of Cronach.

SCHMUTTER, a river of Bavaria, which runs into
the Danube, at Ingolditadt. :

SCHNACKENBURG, a town of Germany, in the
principality of Luneburg-Zelle, on the Elbe, where is a
toll; 3 miles N.E. of Lauff.

SCHNALLENDORYF, a town of Auttria; 6 miles
S.W. of Sonneberg.

SCHNECKENWERT, a town of the duchy of Wurz-
burg ; 6 miles S. of Kiflingen. ;

SCHNEEBERG, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Leitmeritz ; 14 miles N. of Leitmeritz.—Alfo, a town of
Saxony, in the circle of Erzgebirg, on an eminence near
the Mulda. In it are manufactures of thread, filk, gold and
filver lace ; and in the vicinity are filver mines, which were
formerly very profitable ; 7 miles N.W. of Schaar
—Alfo, atown of the duchy of Carniola; 9 miles W.N.W.
of Gottfchee.—Alfo, a mountain of Auftria; 12 miles Ss.
of Steyr.—Alfo, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of Bam-
berg; 13 miles N.N.E. of Bamberg.—Allo, a town of
Germany, in the principality of Culmbach; 12 miles N.E.
of Bayreuth. oes

SCHNEE-KOPPE, a lofty mountain of Sik fia, in the
principality of Jauer ; 9 miles 8.S.W. of Hirfchbery.

SCHNEIDER,

SCH

SCHNEIDER, Cowrap Victor, in Biography, a Ger-
man’ phyfician, much diftinguifhed by his anatomical re-
fearches, was a native of Bitterfeld, in Mifnia. He was
profeflor of anatomy, botany, and medicine, in the univer-
fity of Wittemberz, and filled thofe offices with great repu-
tation. He was father of his faculty, when he died in Au-
guit, 1680, at the age of 66. He wrote many treatifes ;
thofe on anatomical fubjeéts relating chiefly to the bones of
the cranium, and to the pituitary membrane of the noftrils,
to which, indeed, his name is {till attached ; the Schneiderian
membrane being the common appellation of this part at the
prefent day. He refuted an ancient error which was pre-
valent in his time, that the catarrhal mucus dilftilled through
the os cribriforme from the brain ; he demonftrated that no
fuch diftillation could take place, and that this mucus was
fecreted from the pituitary membrane. His principal works
were, “ Diflertationes Anatomicz de partibus, quas vocant,
principalioribus, corde, capite, hepate, cum Obfervationibus
ad Anatomiam, necnon ad Artem Medendi pertinentibus,”’
Witteb. 1643. ‘* Difputationes ofteologice aliquot,” 1649.
«© De Offe occipitis, ejufdem vitiis ac vulneribus,” 1653.
«¢ Difputatio Medica de offibus temporum,” 1653. ‘ Liber
de ofle cribriformi, et fenfu ac organo odorattis, et morbis ad
utrumque fpeCtantibus, de coryza, hemorrhagia narium,
polypo, fternutatione, amiffione odorattis,” 1655. ‘ De
Catarrhis Libri quinque,” 1660. ‘ Liber de Catarrhis
fpecialiffimus,’’ 1664. ‘ Liber de morbis capitis, feu ce-
phalicis illis, ut vocant, foporofis,”? 1669. ‘* Liber de nova
graviflimorum trium morborum curatione; de Apoplexia,
de Lipopfychia, et Paralyfi,” Francf. 1672. ‘ Liber de
Spafmonum natura et fubjeéto,’? Witt. 1678. The writings
of Schneider, fave thofe which relate to anatomy, are diffufe
and obfcure, and full of ancient hypothetical doétrines. See
Eloy Di&. Hitt. de la Méd.

SCHNELLACH, Zur, in Geography, a town of Pruffia,
in Pomerelia ; 13 miles S. of Marienburg.

SCHNELLENBACH, a town of Germany, in the
county of Erbach; 5 miles S.S.E. of Erbach.

SCHNEMT, atown of Egypt ; 9 miles N. of Benifuef.

SCHNEPFENBACH, a town of Wurzburg ; 4 miles
S.W. of Volckach.

SCHNEPFRAUE, a town of Germany, in the county
of Bregentz ; 23 miles S.S.E. of Bregentz.

SCHNEVERDINGAN, a town of Germany, in the
county of Verden ; 32 miles N.E. of Verden.

SCHNOT-Fifi, a name by which fome call the hafela,
or hafler, a frefh-water fifh, approaching to the mullet or
chub kinds, and at fome feafons efteemed a very delicate difh.
See Hasera.

SCHNOTEBACH,, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the county of Schwarzenberg ; 4 miles W. of Schwar-
zenberg.

SCHOAMAN, a town of Afia, in the country of Samar-
cand; 150 miles S.E. of Samarcand.

SCHOBERSTEIN, a mountain of Auftria; 8 miles
S. of Steyr.

SCHOBERT, » in Biography, a native of Straf-
burg, and a mufician who well deferves a niche among in-
ftrumental compofers and performers of the firft clafs; his
pieces for the harpfichord having been for many years the
delight of all thofe who could play, or hear them played.
His firlt works were publifhed at Strafburg about 1764;
foon after which period he went to Paris, and was engaged
in the fervice of the prince de Conti, who always retained
a very feleét band, which in Germany would be called a
chapel. -

About the year 1771, he and his whole family, except one

SCH

child that was out at nurfe with a friend, and a phyfician
who dined with him, were poifoned by eating de faux cham-
pignons, or fungufes, commonly called toad-flools, taking them
for mufhrooms.

In 1766, we were the firft who brought his compofitions
to England, when they had a run of favour of more than
twenty years. His ftyle never pleafed in Germany fo much
asin England and France. Thofe of Emanuel Bach’s party
allowed him to be a man of genius, but {poiled by his affec-
tation of a new and extraordinary ftyle, accufing him of too
frequently repeating himfelf. The truth is, the fpirit and
fire of his pieces require not only a ftrong hand, but a harpfi-
chord, to give them all their force and effe@. They are
too rapid, and have too many notes for clavichords, er piano
fortes, which fupply the place of harpfichords in Germany.
The novelty and merit of Schobert’s compofitions feem to
confift in the introdu€tion of the fymphonic, or modern
overture {tyle, upon the harpfichord, and with the judicious
ufe of a pedal by light and fhade, alternate agitation and
tranquillity, imitating the effects of an orcheftra. The ge-
neral ufe of piano fortes, for which the prefent compofitions
for keyed-initruments are chiefly written, has more con-
tributed to leffen the favour of Schobert’s pieces, than their
want of merit. ,

The charaéter of this mufician being drawn up with
energy and feeming truth by M. Laborde, we fhall fubjoin
atranflation of it, in confirmation of our own opinion as far
as we know by his works, without perfonal acquaintance, _
‘or having ever heard him perform. ,

“ Schobert was one of the moft aftonifhing profeffors on
the harpfichord who has ever been heard. e was engaged
in the fervice of the prince of Conti, and extremely beloved
by that prince. His manners were as {weet and fimple, as
his telents were extraordinary. It was neceflary to fee him
perform extempore, to believe that what he did was poffible.
His written compofitions, with and without accompaniments,
are charming, and abounding with beautiful melody. His
works are {till (1780) in the hands of all thofe who culti-
vate the harpfichord and piano forte. .

« The unfortunate Schobert, walking one day with his
family and fome friends in the fields of St. Gervais, a village
in the environs of Paris, gathered fome mufhrooms, which he
imagined to be good; and having drefled them himfelf, eat
of them, as did the reft of his party. But torture foon en-
fued ; and after incredible fuffering, he died, as did moft of
his companions. One or two only efcaped death, after long
fuffering.”’

The child at nurfe being left an orphan, was educated, and
liberally provided for by the father’s benevolent and affec-
tionate patron, the good prince of Conti. Effai fur la
Mufique.

SCHOCKL, in Geography, a mountain of the duchy of
Stiria; 8 miles N. of Gratz.

SCHODACG, a townfhip of Renffelaer county, in New
York, incorporated in 1795, and containing 3166 inhabit-
ants, including 184 flaves ; 9 miles S.E. of Albany.

SCHODEN, a town of Samogitia ; 45 miles N.N.W. of
Miedniki.

SCHODTWEIN, or Scnatntwer, a town of Aultria,
near a narrow pafs between Auttria and Stiria, with a citade
on a high rock ; 32 miles S. of Vienna. ms

SCHCEHHARA. See Scumunara.

SCHOELLER, a town of the duchy of Berg; 4m
E. of Medman. ~ i) i

SCHGENANTH, or Scu#nantu. See Sc#NANTH,
and next article.

SCHGENANTHUS, in Botany, from THOUS arufby and

avWory

SCH

oxtos, a flower, a fynonym of the Juncus odoratus, or Camel’s
hay. This oriental plant has long been an article of the
materia medica, but it is fuppofed that various aromatic
gtaffes have been, from time to time, confounded under the
above denomination. dzdropogon Schenanthus of Linneus
is one of thefe; fee Pluk. Phyt. t. 190. f. 1. Venten. Jard.
de Cels, t. 89. Ger. Em. 43, 1631. Another may poflibly
be the Andropogen detected by Mr. Blane, on mountains to
the north of Lucknow ; of which a very able and learned
account is given by his brother, the prefent fir Gilbert
Blane, in the Philofophical Tranfaétions, v. 80. 284. t. 16.
This laft, however, is there very fatisfactorily prefumed to be
the true Wardus indica of the ancients, and of our writers on
drugs. (See Dale’s Pharmacologia, 282.) Whether it may
be the Andropogon Nardzs of Linnzus, of which no {pecimen
exifts in his herbarium, and which can be afcertained by that
of Hermann only, we cannot at prefent decide. His de-
{cription in Fl. Zeylanica, 19, is not unfuitable to our {pe-
eimen; particularly the comparifon of the fmall leaves, on
the panicle, to the hufks of oats. The botanical reader
muft not confound any of thefe plants with the Linnzan
Nardus indica. See Narvvs.

SCHOENAS, among the ancients, a land meafure con-
taining two parafangs, or fixty ftadia, according to Herodo-
tus, which make feven and a half of our miles. But Pliny
computes it at five miles, or fifty itadia. See PARASANG
and STApIuM.

SCHOENBERG, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Sarre, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri@ of Prum. The place contains 281, and the canton

42 inhabitants, in 45 communes.

SCHOENBRUNN, or Beautiful Spring, one of the
eafternmott fettlements of the Moravians on Mufkingum
river, eftablifhed in 1772, on a traét of land granted by the
Delaware tribe. This thriving fettlement was deltroyed in
1782, when the Huron Indians carried the inhabitants to
Sandufky ; but when thefe peaceable Indians were permitted
to return to reap their harveft, they were cruelly butchered
by the Americar fettlers. In 1788 congrefs granted 4000
acres of land here to the fociety of the United Brethren, for
the purpofe of propagating the gofpel.

SCHGENER, » in Biography, aneat and expreflive
performer on the violin, whofe tone, lefs powerful than {weet,
was, in aroom, every thing that could be wifhed. He was
a mative of Switzerland, and arrived in England the latter end
of the laft century.

J SCHCEENION, in Ancient Mufic, a nome or air for
utes.

SCHENOBATES, cyomSarnc, formed from rye,
a rope, and Gawx, I walk, a name which the ancient Greeks
gave to their rope-dancers, by the Romans called funambul.

The fcheenobates were flaves, whofe mafters made money
of them by entertaining the people with their feats of activity.
Mercurialis, de Arte Croats, lib. iii. gives us five figures
of {chcenobates, engraven after ancient itones. See Rope-
Dancer.

SCHCENODUM, in Botany. See Lyarnia,

SCHCENOPRASUM. See Atrium, n. 49.

SCHENUS, cxone, the Greek name for a ruth, and
fynonimous with the Latin Juncus, is retained by Linnwus

‘or a genus of fimilar habit and ufe. Haller complains of
it, not unjultly, as too near in found to Schinus, and prefers
Moarifcws.—Linn. Gen. 29. Schreb. 41. Willd. Sp. PL.
We Se 259. Vall. Enum. v. 2. 207. Mart. Mill, Diét.
v4 Sm. Fl, Brit. 42. Prodr. Fl. Grac. Sibth. v. 1. 28.
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 1.126, Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl.
vy 1. 23t. Purh vy. 1. 47. Jufl, 27. Lamarck Illuftr.
Vou. XXXL,

SCH

t. 38.—Clafs and order, Triandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord.
Calamarie, Linn. Cyperoidee, Suit.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Glumes feveral, chaffy, fingle-valved, per-
manent ; fome of the outer ones {maller, clofely imbricated,
empty ; the rett collected into a fpike, each fingle-flowered.
Cor. none. Stam. Filaments three, rarely two only, capil-
lary ; anthers linear-oblong, terminal, ereét. Pift. Germen
{uperior, triangular, roundifh, obtufe; ityle briftle-thaped,
the length of the glume ; fligma in three, rarely two or four,
flender fegments. Peric. none. Seed folitary,, roundifh,
embraced by the glumes.

Obf. Linneus remarks that fome f{pecies are furnifhed
with a few minute briftles, originating from the receptacle,
and embracing the bafe of the feed. Such fpecies are re-
ferred by Mr. Brown to his new genus Chetofpora, which
differs from Schenus in that re{peét alone, and not in habit,
or any other charaéter. The ftyle in Chetofpora, as well as
in Schenus, as limited by this learned writer and by Vahl, is
deciduous. Their Ruyncuospora, fee that article, differs
from both thofe genera in having the feed tipped with the
permanent bafe of the ftyle, {aid to be as broad as the feed.
(See S. albus hereafter defcribed.) Not having had fuffi-
cient time or opportunity to examine for ourfelves all the
copious and intricate tribes which compofe the genera in
quettion, and their allies, we fhall confine our prefent account
to fome of the moft remarkable fpecies of Schenus, with or
without briftles at the bafe of the feed ; particularly no-
ticing all fuch as are of Britifh growth.

Eff. Ch. Glumes chaffy, crowded, permanent, fingle-
flowered ; the outer onesempty. Corollanone. Seed foli-
tary, roundifh, embraced by its appropriate glume.

Section 1. Stem reundi/h.

S. Marifcus. Prickly, or Long-rooted Bog-rufh. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 62. Willd. n. x. Vahl. n. 34. FL. Brit. ne 2.
Engl. Bot. t. 950. (Marifcus n. 1343 ; Hall. Hitt. v. 2.
179- Cyperus longus inodorus fylveitris; Ger. Em. 29.
Pfeudo-cyperus paluitris, foliis et carina ferratis ; Scheuchz.
Agrott. 375. t. 8. f. 7—11.)—Stem round. Leaves prickly
at the margin and keel. Panicles clofe, ere&, ftamens two.
—Native of boggy moors throughout Europe, from Sweden
to Greece, flowering in July and Augutt, but not a general
Britith plant. The roots are Seeinel very long and creep-
ing. Stems three or four feet high, leafy, quite {mooth.
Leaves narrow, taper-pointed, edged with minute faw-like
teeth, fo as to cut the hand that grafps them incautioufly.
Panicle of numerous, clofe, corymbofe branches, with many
acute narrow floral leaves. Spikelets oblong, capitate, brown.
Stamens only two, as defcribed by Scheuchzer, and fince
remarked by Mr. Sowerby. Germen ovate, without briftles
at the bafe. Stigmas two, three, or four. Fruit a real
{mooth dry mealy "tig containing an elliptical, pointed,
triangular feed. The bafe of the fy/e appears permanent in
this {pecies ; but we would not from thence deduce any
argument to invalidate the character of Rhynchofpora, as we
conceive §. Marifcus ought, by its fruit, to conititute a fepa-
rate genus, to fay nothing of its diandrous flowers.

S. mucronatus. Cluttered Bog-rufh, Linn. Sp, Pl. 63.
Willd, n. 3. Vabl.n. 15. Sm. Fl. Grac, Sibth, v. 1. 30.
t.43- (Cyperus egyptiacus; Gloxin Obf. Bot. 20, t. 3.
Scirpus maritimus, capite glomerato; Scheuchz. Agr. 367.
t..8.f. 4, Juncus maritimus ; Lob, Ic, 87.)——Stem round,
naked. Spikeleta ovate, tufted. Leaves channelled, re-
curved ; three of them clofe to the flowers.—Native of the
fandy fea-coatts of the fouth of Europe, and north of Africa,
Root perennial, creeping by means of long runners, and fend-
ing forth many ttrong downy fibres, Stems folitary, erect,
ftraight, a foot high, round and {mooth, naked, except at

4 P the

SCHGNUS.

the top and bottom. Leaves as long as the item, but
ftrongly recurved, channelled, without a keel, rough-edged,
pungent, flightly glaucous. Flowers compofing a denfe,
round, feffile head ; their g/umes keeled, and more compreffed
than ufual in this genus. '

S. nigricans. Black Bog-rufh. Linn. Sp. Pl. 64. Willd.
n. 9. Vahl. n.2. Fl. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 1121.
(Cyperus n. 1347; Hall. Hift. v. 2. 181. Junco affinis,
capitulo glomerato nigricante ; Scheuchz. Agr. 349. t. 7.
f. 12—14. Juncus capitatus, lithofpermi femine ; Morif.
feét. 8. t. 10. f. 28.)—Stem round, naked. Head ovate,
of many {pikelets. One of the two involucral leaves awl-
fhaped, and longer than the other.—Common on turfy,
fpongy bogs, that are liable to become dry in fummer, in all
parts of Europe, as well as at the Cape of Good Hope.
It flowers with us in June. The perennial tufted root con-
filts of {trong black fibres, and is crowned with blackith,
polithed, fheathing fcales. Stem about a foot high. Leaves
ereét, very narrow, femi-cylindrical, with a dilated sheathing
bafe. Head of flowers blackifh, about half an inch broad,
furmounted by the leafy point of its involucrum. Germen
encompafled with three fhort, narrow, acute feales. Seed
white and polifhed, pointed, with fcarcely any vifible feales
at its bafe.

S. ferrugineus. Tron-coloured Bog-ruth. Lim. Sp.
Pl. 64. Fi. Suec. ed. 2.14. Willd. n. ro. Vahl. n. 1.—
Stem round, naked. Head of about two f{pikelets, nearly
equal to the longeft involucral leaf. Seed furrounded with
feveral briftles, twice its own length.—Native of mountain
bogs in Sweden and Switzerland. We know of no figure
of this rare little-known {pecies, the fynonyms of Ray and
Morifon, cited by Linnzus, belonging to his Juncus tri-
glumis ; fo that this Schenus has been erroneou‘ly fuppofed a
Britifh produ€tion. The Weltmoreland f{pecimen in Dick-
fon’s Hortus Siccus, fafe. 10. 5, is certainly S. nigricans.
The true ferrugineus is much more flender, though of equal
height, and its little black heads confilt of but two, rarely
three, /pikelets, {carcely overtopped by one taper-pointed leaf
of their involucrum. The mott effential difference however was
pointed out to us by 'M. du Cros, an excellent Swifs botanitt,
in the long, flender, permanent briftles, four, five, or fix in
number, which furround the ripe feed; whereas in the nigri-
cans, though Mr. Sowerby has dete&ed fcales under the

in its flowers, none are vifible when the /eed is ripe,
and Vahl therefore denies the exiitence of any fuch. As
no principle whatever could be allowed to feparate thefe
plants generically, the above diftinGtion might feem of itfelf
a fufficient objeGtion to Mr. Brown’s Chato/pora, were there
no fcales at all to be found during the flowering ftate of the
nigricans.

S. compreffus. Comprefled Bog-rufh. Linn. Sp. Pl. 65.
Vahl. n. 17. Fi. Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 791. Rel.
Rudb. 3. f.2. Leers Herborn. 9, t. 1. f. 1. (Carex uligi-
nofa; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1381. Fl. Suec. ed. 2. 325. Scirpus
caricis; Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.292. S.n. 1342; Hall. Hitt.
v. 2.179. Gramen cyperoides, {pica fimplici, comprefla,
difticha ; Scheuchz. Agr. qgo. t. 11. f.6.)—Stem naked,
nearly round. Spike two-ranked, fhorter than the folitary
involucral leaf ; fpikelets many-flowered. Seed furrounded
with briftles. Leaves flat, with a prominent keel.—Found
in the turfy bogs, or wet fpongy meadows, of Sweden,
Germany, Switzerland, Italy, and England, flowering in
July. The root is flightly creeping. Stems hardly 2 Todt
high, ftriated, a little fattened at one fide. Leaves bright
green, fheathing the bafe of the ftem, flat, except the pro-
minent rib. Spite chef{nut-coloured, fhining, comprefled,
above an inch long, formed of many /prtkelets, dilpofed in

“Michaux and Purfb.

two oppofite rows. Braéea, or involucrul leaf, folitary,
triangular, and rough at the end, moftly taller than the fpike-
Stigma in two rough divifions. Germen and feed {urrounded
by feveral long rough briitles. r

S. rufus. Brown Bog-rufh. Hudf. 15. Vahl. n. 18.
Fl. Brit. n. 4. Engl. Bot. t. toro. Dickf. Hort. Sice.
fafe. 10.6. (S. ferrugineus; Hudf.15. Lightf. 86, ex-
cluding Morifon’s fynonym. S. compreffi varietas ; Lightf.
1138. t. 24. f. 2.)—Stem round, naked. Spike two-ranked,
longer than the folitary obtufe involucral leaf; fpikelets of
few flowers. Seed without briftles. Leaves channelled,
without a keel.—Native of fandy marfhes, near the fea, in
Scotland, Anglefea, the weft of Ireland, and Lancahhire,
flowering in July. Root creeping. Plant {maller than the
laft, with fhorter, darker-coloured /pikes, and diftinguifhed
by its channelled /eaves, deftitute of a midrib ; as well as
the want of feales, or briftles, under the germen. The ufually
accurate Mr. Yalden indeed has left a manufcript note to the
contrary ; but Mr. Sowerby’s obfervations coincide with
our’s, that there are no rudiments of {cales at any period-
This fpecies is neverthelefs infeparably conneéted, as to
genus, with the laft.

S. Bobartie. Hop-fpiked Bog-rufh. Retz. Obf.
fafc. 4.9. Willd. n. 20. Vahl. n. 13.—Stem comprefled,
naked. Spikelets ovate, numerous, in an ovate head, fub-
tended by five long leaves. Glumes tumid, ftriated.—Ga-
thered in the Eait Indies by Koenig, from whom we have a
named fpecimen. Retzius thinks it was found in Ceylon.
Root of long brown fibres. Stems feveral, a fpan high,
crowded, ereé, fimple, ftriated, leafy at the bottom and
top only; thick, and apparently bulbous, at the bafe.
Leaves flat, {mooth, grafly ; the radical ones often taller
than the ftem; the floral ones dependent, unequal, but
partly as long as the ftem itfelf. Heads folitary, ovate, am
inch long, formed of numerous, fmall, oval, pale green,
hop-like /pikelets, whofe glumes are imbricated every way,
ovate, concave, copioufly itriated, blunt, with a fmall point.
Seeds elliptical, bluntly triangular, concave at the fides,
brown, unpolifhed, minutely dotted, obtufe, without any
remains of the fly/e, and, as far as we can difcern, dettitute
of any fcales or briftles at the bafe. No figure exifts of
this rare {pecies, nor have many botanifts ever feen a fpe-
cimen.

Se&. 2. Stem triangular.

S. fiellatus. Starry-fpiked Bog-rufh. Swartz Ind. Occ.
v. I. 102. Willd. n. 21. (Dichromena leucocephala ;
Vahl. Enum. v. 2. 240. Michaux Boreali-Amer. v. 1. 37.
Purfh v. 1. 47. Gramen cyperoides, {pica compacta alba,
foliis ad {picam partim albis partim viridibus; Sloane Jam.
v. I. 11g. t.°78. fF. 1.)—Stem naked, obtufely trian ular.
Spikelets crowded, ina roundifh head, fubtended by feveral
long leaves, coloured at their bafe. Glumes even, fingle-
ribbed. Seed nearly globular, minutely corrugated, with-
out briftles.—Native of Jamaica, in places that are occa-
fionally inundated in rainy weather. Svoane. Found in wet
places, in Lower Carolina, and Georgia, flowering in July.
This. has much of the habit of the
laft-defcribed, but is more flender, and the s are not
bulbous at the bottom. Jnvolucral leaves fix, fpreading ;
dilated and white at their bafe. Spikelets few, ovate, pale ~
green or whitifh, with membranous glumes. Seed inal
nearly globular, obtufely triangular, marked with fine tranf- ae

verfe wrinkles, which make the principal part of the cha-

rater of Vahl’s Dichromena; for the want of dri les be~
neath the feed, can furely avail little, as to a natural generic
diftin&tion.

S. glomeratus. Clufter-headed Bog-rufh. Linn. Sp. Pl.

65.

» GH

5. Willd. n. 27. (Rhynchofpora glomerata; Vahl.
Enum. v. 2. 234. Purfh v. 1. 48.) — Stem triangular,
leafy. Spikelets in corymbofe, twin, diftant, axillary tufts.
Leaves lanceolate. Seed beaked, with feveral rough briftles
at its bafe.—Native of wet meadows in Jamaica, Carolina,
and Pennfylvania, flowering in June and July. Root pe-
rennial. Stem ere€i, two feet high or more, bearing feveral
flat, grafly, fmooth, alternate aves, with clofe, tubular,
abrupt fheaths. From each of thefe Tae tae exe
capillary unequal /fa/és, bearing corymbofe tufts o mall,

an, ae. eae acute Spikelets. The feed is
obovate, brown, fmooth and fhining, with a flat, pale,
taper beak, of its own length. The ériffles are about fix,
rough with deflexed teeth, and longer than the feed.

S. albus. White-headed Bog-rufh. Linn. Sp. Pl. 65.
Willd. n. 35. Fl. Brit. n.5. Engl. Bot. 985. Fl. Dan.
t.320. (Rhynchofpora alba; Vahl. Enum. v. 2. 236.
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 1. 127. Purfh v. 1. 49. Gramen
eyperoides paluftre leucanthemum; Scheuchz. Agr. 503.
t. 11. f. 2., G. junceum Jeucanthemum ; Ger. Em. 30*.
Scirpus n. 1341. Hall. Hitt. v. 2. 179.)—Stem trian-
gular, leafy. Spikelets in corymbofe tufts; the axillary
ones folitary. Leaves briftle-fhaped, channelled. Stamens
two. Seed beaked, with ten briltles at the bafe.—Native of
turfy bogs, in England and other parts of Europe, efpe-
cially in mountainous fituations, flowering in July or Augutt.
Mr. Purth {peaks of it as common in North America. The
habit of this plant refembles the preceding, but its height
is feldom more than twelve or fifteen inches, and the aves
are fetaceous, not flat or grafly. The flower-flalks which
{pring from the fheaths of the ftem-leaves are folitary.
Spikelets white, with a brown or flefh-coloured tinge, very
elegant, moft numerous in the upper or terminal tufts. The
jtamens, as Scheuchzer firlt noticed in his plate, are only
two. Szed obovate, furrounded with ten rough briftles, and
tipped with a beak rather fmaller than in the laft. This
beak did not efcape the accurate Scheuchzer.

S. fufeus. Brown-headed Bog-rufh. Linn. Sp. PI.
1664. Willd. n.11. Ebrh. Beitr. v. 4.154. Phytoph. 1.
Engl. Bot. t. 1575. (Rhynchofpora fufca; Ait. Hort.
Kew. v. 1. 127. R. alba @; Vahl. Enum. v. 2. 236.
Cyperus minor anguttifolius paluttris, capitulis fufcis palea-
ceis; Morif. fe. 8.t. 11. f.40? Dill. in Raii Syn. 427?)
—Stem triangular, leafy. Spikelets in oblony tufts. Leaves
thread-fhaped. Stamens three. Seed beaked, with three
briftles at the bafe.—Found in bogs near Upfal, by Ehrhart ;
in Germany by Roth; from both of whom we have authentic
f{pecimens, agreeing with thofe of Linnzus, who erred
greatly in eine the flem as round. Mr. Mackay met
with this plant on a bog near Killarney in Ireland ; and Mr.
E. Fortler on Cromlyn bog, near Swaufea in South Wales.
It flowers in Augult, and has a perennial creeping root.
The whole plant is {maller, the /eaves more flender, and the
heads, or rather pikes, more oblong, than in S. albus, of
which it is made a variety in F'/. Brit. All doubt is re-
moved by a comparifon of their parts of fruétification,
8. fufeus Boe three flamens, and only three briftles, alter-
nate therewith, at the bafe of rag fsbo The length of the
Siyle varies. The fligma in each {pecies has only two feg-
ments. Ebrhart firlt clearly determined the differences
between thefe two {pecies, but he announces his difeovery in
a fupercilious and unbecoming manner ; fee his Beitrage.

Scua@xus, in Ancient Geogra by, a port of Corinth,
on the gulf, N. of Cenchrea.—Alfo, a river of Greece, in
Beotia.—Alfo, a {mall country of the Peloponnefus.—Alfo,
a town of the Peloponnefus, in Arcadia, N.W. of Man-
tinea.

SCH

SCHCEPFIA, in Botany, received its name from Schre-
ber, in honour af John David Schcepf, Prefident of the
Medical College at Anfpach, author of a Materia Medica
Americana, and fome few tra&ts on natural hiftory.—Schreb.
129. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.996. Mart. Mil. Dia v. 4.
(Codonium ; Vahl.) —Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia.
Nat. Ord. Aggregate, Linn. Caprifolia, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Cail. Perianth incrutting the bottom of the
germen, turbinate, angular, indiftin@ly five-toothed. Cor.
of one petal, bell-fhaped, ten-furrowed at the bafe, cloven
into five, triangular, acute, reflexed fegments. Stam. Fila-
ments five, very fhort ; anthers twin, ere@, at the mouth of
the corolla. if. Germen turbinate, femi-inferior, within
the corolla, crowned with a femi-globular, porous gland ;
ftyle fhorter than the corolla, cylindrical, ere ; ftigma ca-
pitate, trifid. Peric. Drupa with three cells, but perfeét-
ing only one /zed.

Eff. Ch. Corolla bell-fhaped. Calyx double, the outer
cloven, inferior ; the inner entire, {uperior. Stigma capitate.
Drupa fingle-feeded.

1. S. americana. ‘Willd. (« Codonium arborefcens;
Vahl. Symb. v. 3. 36. A@. Hafan. v. 2. p. 1. 206. t. 6.’”)
—Native of Santa Cruz and Montferrat, where, according +
to Vahl, it was firft difcovered by Von Rohr.—A finall tree
eight or ten feet in height, whofe dranches are round and
fmooth. Leaves alternate, ftalked, ovate, {mooth, attenu-
ated, obtule, entire. Flower-flalks axillary, moftly in pairs,
fingle-flowered, but oceafionally two or three-flowered. It
has fometimes only four ftamens, and is nearly allied to Loni-
cera and Loranthus. '

Willdenow remarks, that although Schreber has defcribed
this genus with a three-celled drupa, it is moft unqueition-
ably the fame plant as Vahl’s Codonium.

SCHCEPILIN, Joun-Danret, in Biography, a writer
in hiftory, was born in 1694, at Saltzburg, in the Brifgau.
He itudied at Bafil and alfo at Strafburg, and in 1720 he
was chofen profeflor of eloquence and hiftory at the latter
univerfity. Here he obtained a large fhare of reputation,
and was invited by various princes and univerfities to come
and refide among them, but he preferred continuing at
Strafburg. In 1726 he travelled into France, Italy, and
England, and on his return he was prefented with a canonry
of St.Thomas. Having planned a hiftory of Alface, he
travelled into the Low Countries, Germany, and Switzer-
land, in fearch of materials, and in 1751 he publifhed the firft
volume of his “ Alfatia illuftrata.’”” When he prefented this
to the king of France, he took the opportunity of pleading
for the privileges of the Prote{tant univerfity of Strafburg,
and obtained a confirmation of them. In 1761 the fecond vo-
lume was given to the public, and during the interval he had
publithed his « Vindicie Celticw,’’? which was an account of
the origin, language, &c. of the Celts. He alfo prepared, as
fupplements to the hiltory of Alface, a colle&tion of its char-
ters, and an account of its learned men, which his fucceflor
in the profeflorfhip, M. Koch, publifhed under the titles of
“ Alfatia diplomatica,” and « Alfaticarum Rerum Serip-
tores.”” The laft great work of Schoepflin was a mott ela-
borate hittory of his native (tate, intitled « Hittoria Zuringo-
Badentis,”” 7 vols, gto. 1763—6. He was author of feveral
differtations printed in the Memoirs of the Academy of In.
feriptions and Belles Lettres, of which one is an attempt to
prove that Guttemberg firll praétifed the art of printing at
Strafburg, which M. Schasfler afterwards brouglit to per-
feétion at Mentz. Scherpflin had collefted a tine library and
mufeum attached to it, which, in the end, he liberally pre.
fented to the city of Strafbury. Of thivadefcription has been
publifhed by Oberlin, under the title of « Mufeum Schapfi-

4 P 2 nanum??

SCH

nianum.” This learned man died at Strafburg in 1771, at the
age of 77.

SCHOERDAAL, in Geography, a town of Norway,
in the province of Drontheim; 24 miles E.N.E. of Dron-
theim.

SCHOFFERSTEIN, a town of Auftria;
S.E. of Steyr.

SCHOGR, or Suaar, atown of Afiatic Turkey, in the
pachalic of Aleppo, on the Orontes; 40 miles W. of
Aleppo.

SCHOHARIE, a county of New York, taken from
Albany and Otfego counties, and incorporated in 1795 ;
it is bounded on the N. by Montgomery, S. by Greene and
Delaware, E. by Albany, and W. by Otfego. Its area
is about 565 f{quare miles, or 361,600 acres. By a law
paffed in March 1797, this county was divided into eight
townthips; aud contains 18,945 inhabitants, many of whom
are rich. The land is variegated with hills ; it is in general
fertile, and well watered by the Schoharie, Cobus Kill, and
feveral other ftreams. A fingular inftance of petrifaction is
found in this county ; it is a hill of confiderable fize, which
is a mere mafs of petrified fhells. This county fends two
members to the houfe of affembly.

Scnouanie, a polt townfhip in the above-mentioned
county, fituated on Schoharie creek or river ; its area is
about 80 miles {quare, and it contained in 1810, 3232 inha-
bitants, 125 being flaves, and 266 electors. In 1810 this
townfhip had 139 looms in families, which produced about
32,000 yards of cloth. The public buildings are, a court-
houfe of {tone, three ftories high, a brick church, and another
of ftone. In this townfhip are two fmall villages; viz.
Schoharie, beautifully fituated on the Schoharie flats, 32
miles W. of Albany, which has the county buildings, two
churches, about 25 houfes, a poft-office, and two {chool-
houfes ; and Efperance, 8 miles: N. of Schoharie, and 26
miles W. of Albany.

Scnouarie River purfues a northerly coarfe of about
80 miles from the Kaat’s Kill mountains, and difcharges
itfelf into Mohawk river at Fort Hunter ; the wettern branch
of this river is called Cobus Kill; and on the E. fide of
Cobus is the fettlement of its name.

SCHOKA, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Sam-
land ; 18 miles W. of Konighberg.

SCHOKLAND, an ifland in the Zuyder Sea, near the
coatt of Overiffel, about three miles long, aad two broad ;
8 miles W. of Vollenhoven.

SCHOLARES, an ecclefiaftic order, inttituted by In-
nocent II]. in the council of Lateran.

SCHOLARUM Domesticus. See Domesticus.

SCHOLASTIC, oxorxs1x0:, fomething belonging to the
fchools, or that is taught in fchools. See Scuoot.

Schohafic, {cholaflicus, was a long time a title of honour, at
firft only given to fuch as diftinguifhed themielves by their
eloquence in declaiming, &c.

After Nero, the appellation {cholafticus was alfo given to
the advocates; and, among others, to Socrates and Eufe-
bius, of the ecclefiaftical hiltorians, who were both advo-
cates at Conftantinople. Conftant. Harmenopulus alfo bore
it, in the twelfth century ; with feveral others.

Afterwards fcholafticus became re(trained to fuch as had
the government of the ecclefialtical {chools, eftablifhed under
the firft race of French kings, who inftructed the clerks of
each church, firft in the humanities, then in the theology,
and the liturgy. Thefe were alfo called primiciers ¢fcola/ires,
and theologaux : and, if the church were fituated in a city,
the {cholafticus was called the chancellor.

Among the Greeks, {cholafticus, cxorasixory was alfo the

14 miles

SCH

name of an office, or dignity, anfwering to our divine of
theologue. Indeed, Genebrard obferves, it was only pro-
perly applied to people of general learning and fine parts;
and who were well known to the world in that character.

Thus St. Jerom mentions, that Serapion was furnamed
Scholafticus, by reafon of the delicacy of his wit. Walafrid.
Strabo calls the poet Prudentius /cholafficus ; and Fortunatus
was called Scholaflici/fimus.

Scuorastic Age. See ScHOLASTICS.

Scuotastic Philofophy, a name given to the dialeétic
or Ariftotelian philofophy, which, Asse with metaphy-
fical fubtleties, had been ftudied and profefied by feveral of
the clergy towards the clofe of the 11th century, and which
began at the opening of the 12th to be publicly taught in
the {chools, and to take the lead of every other kind of
learning. It gained efteem at this period, becaufe it was
fuppofed to be the key of theology, without which it
would be impoffible to unlock the mytteries of facred
wifdom. It was on account of this fancied alliance between
logic and theology, that the former was made the principal
obje& of ftudy in all the fchools, and that thofe who ex-
celled in the diale€tic art were regarded with the highelt
admiration, and attended by crowds of pupils. ‘There were
alfo other collateral circumftances which contributed to the
prevalence of a tafte for logical difputations. The Arif-
totelian philofophy had for feveral centuries been itudied by
the Saracens, and was at this time taught in their fchools
in Spain. Thefe {chools were: vifited by many of the
weftern Chriftians, who learned Arabic, that they might
be able to read tranflations of Ariftotle, and other phile:
fophical writers in that language, and who afterwards
tranflated many Arabic books into the European tongues.
The firft perfon who undertook this taik feems to have
been Conftantine Afer, a monk of Caffino. Daniel Morley
alfo, of Norfolk, a itudent in the univerfities of Oxford and
Paris, vifited Spain, and learned mathematics in the Arabic
tongue at Toledo, and on his return publifhed books in
Latin, one “ De inferiori et fuperiori parte Mundi,” and
another ** De Principiis Mathematicis.”” He was followed
by Robert Retin, archdeacon of Pampelona in Spain, who
wrote a Latin tranflation of the Koran, and Adelard, an
Englith monk of the Benedi&tine monaftery at Bath, in the
reign of Henry I., who learned Arabic, and tranflated from
that language many Greek writings, among which were the
Elements of Euclid. ,

Another caufe which feemed to eltablifh a general tafte for
the Peripatetic philofophy, and particularly for the Aritto-
telian logic, was the circumitance, that about this period many
Greek copies of the writings of Arittotle were brought from
Conltantinople into the Welt. This fondnefs for logical
difputations, however, occafioned an inundation of new 0 i-
nions, which alarmed the guardians of the church ; and the
fynod of Paris pafled a fentence, prohibiting the ufe of the
phyfical and metaphyfical writings of Ariltotle in the
{chools ; which fentence was afterwards confirmed by the
council of Lateran, under pope Innocent ITT. Thefe vio-
lent meafures increafed the evils againft which they were
directed ; and it was at length found neceflary, by degrees,
and under certain reftriétions, to favour the ttudy of Arif-
totle : fo that his dialeGtics, phyfics, and metaphyfics, were
by exprefs ftatute received into the univerfity of Paris. In
feveral other countries, the Ariftotelian philofophy was re-
ceived with lefs oppofition. The name of Arittotle, from the
end of the 12th century, obtained univerfal dominion; ahd his
writings were fo far from falling under the cenfure of coun-
cils and popes, that the Ariftotelian and Saracenic philo-
fophy became the main pillars of the ecclefiaftical hierarchy.

During

SCHOLASTIC

During the period that elapfed from the 12th to the

14th century, though many perfons profeffed to philofo-

phife, true philofophy and learning made little progrefs.
The Scholaitics loft themfelves in metaphyfical darknefs.
They carried on their difputes with fuch vehemence, that
many ludicrous and many bloody frays happened among
them. The whole world was difturbed with the idle contefts
of the fcholaftic philofophy from the 12th century to the
Reformation ; and fo deeply did this philofophy take root,
that ever to this day it has not been entirely extirpated.

The origin of the fcholaftic philofophy may be eafily
traced. The high reputation which St. Auguftine ob-
tained in the Chriitian church, gave his treatife on dialectics
univerfal authority, and led thofe who were inclined to phi-
lofophife, implicitly to follow his method of applying the
fubtleties of Steic reafoning, and the myfteries of the Pla-
tonic do¢trine, to the explanation of the facred doGtrines of
revelation. The dialcétic art, thus introduced, was further
encouraged by Latin verfions of fume of the writings of
Ariftotle, and of Porphyry’s Introdué&tion to the Cate-
gories. The itudy of logical fubtleties was purfued under
thefe guides in the f{chools of the monatteries, particularly
in Ireland, whence many fcholars from England and Scot-
land carried this kind of philofophy into their own countries ;
and from Britain it afterwards paffed into France, and other
parts of Europe.

From tliis time, the ecclefiaftics, who, during a long
period of tumult and barbarifm, kept the fmall remains of
learning and philofophy in their own hands, made no other
ufe of them than as pillars to fupport the hierarchy, or as
weapons of defence againit its adverfaries. The whole hif-
tory of the church, irom the 8th to the rith century,
proves that fcholattic men, that is, the profeflors of philo-
fophy and theology in the monattic {chools, ftudied and
taught philofophy only for this purpofe ; and there can be
no doubt, that the violent ecclefiaftical difputes of thefe
times foftered that difpofition towards fubtle refinement in
{peculation, which at length brought the {cholattic philofophy
to matarity. Towards the clofe of the 11th century, this
fpirit fo generally prevailed, that difputation upon theology
and philofophy became the chief occupation and amufement
of the learned ; and, in procefs of time, various feéts {prung
up, in which queltions purely logical were confounded with
points of theology, and dialectics were applied to the ex-
planation of the feriptures. ‘This kind of philofophy was
taught not only in the monaftie {chools, but in public aca-
demies ; and Ariitotle, at firft imperfetly reprefented in
Arabic and Latin verfions, and afterwards brought into
full view in his own original writings, obtained fovereign
authority in the whole Chriltian world. Thus the fcho-
laltic philofophy appears not to have been the invention of
any one man, but*to have rifen up by almott imperceptible
degrees from the 5th to the 12th century, when it at-
tained its maturity.

The leading charaéter of the {cholaftic philofophy was,
that it employed itfelf in an oftentatious difplay of ingenuity,
in which axioms affurned without examination, dillinétions
without any real difference, and terms without any precife
meaning, were made ufe of as weapons of affault and de-
fence, in controverfies upon abilrufe queftions, which, after
endlefs tkirmifhes, it was impoflible to bring to any illue,
and which, notwithitanding all the violence of the contett,
it was of no importance to determine, ‘I'he {cholattic logic
is not to be confounded with the genuine art of reafonin
from which it diffars, as much as drofs from pure wold,
Thefe difputants made ufe of dialeétics, aot to affilt the
human nsderlindéieg in difcovering truth conducive to the

PHILOSOPHY.

happinefs of man, but to fecure to themfelves the honours
of conquett in the field of controverfy. John of Salifbury
complains, that the fcholars of his time confumed not ten
or twenty years, but their whole lives, in thefe difputes ; and
that when, through old age, they became incapable of ‘any
other amufement or pleature, thefe dialeGtic quettions {till
dwelt upon their tongues, and dialectic books itill remained,
in their hands.

{t is {carcely to be conceived with what ardour, apprcach-
ing even to madnefs, the firft geniufes of the age applied to
this kind of ftudy. Lofing themfelves in a wood of ab{tra&t
conceptions and fubtle diltinétions, the further they pro-
ceeded the greater were the darknefs and confufion, till at
length what was commonly called philofophy no longer
deferved the name. Ludovicus Vives, one of the molt in-
telligent writers of the 16th century, {peaking of the
{cholattic philofophy, fays, « from the writings of Ariftotle
they have feleted not the moft ufeful, but the moft intri-
cate and unprofitable parts; not his books of Natural
Hittory or his Problems, but his Phyfics, and thofe treatifes
which mott refemble theirs in fubtlety and obfcurity ; for
example, his books upon the Firit Philofophy, . upon
Heaven, and upon Generation. For as to the treatife on
Meteors, they are fo entirely unacquainted with the fubjec,
that it feems to have been admitted among the {cholattic
books rather by accident than defign. The truth is, that
thefe philofophers are lefs acquainted with nature than huf.
bandmen or mechanics ; and fo much offended are they with
that nature which they do not underftand, that they have
framed for themfelves another nature, which God never
framed, confiiling of formalities, hzcceities, realities, rela-
tions, Platonic ideas, and other fubtleties, which they honour
with the name of the metaphyfical world; and if any man
has a turn of mind averfe to the ftudy of real nature, but
adapted to the purfuit of thefe vifionary fictions, they fay
he is poflefled of a fublime genius.

“« The topics, upon which thefe philofophers fpent the
whole force of their ingenuity, were of a kind at once the
molt difficult and abitrufe, and the moit trifling and ufelefs.
Intention and remiflion, proportion and degree, infinity,
formality, quiddity, individuality, and other abttra& ideas,
furnifhed innumerable quettions to exercife their fubtlety.
Not contented with confidering properties and relations as
they fubfilt, and are perceived in natural objeéts, they fepa-
rated, in their conceptions, the former from the latter, and
by this artifice transferred them into univerfal notions.
Then forgetting that thefe notions are merely the offspring of
the reafoning mind, they confidered them as real entities, and
made ufe ok dtiets as fub{tantial principles in explaining the
nature of things. This they. did not only in eee
but in phyfics, in which thefe imaginary entities confufed
and obfcured all their reafonings. If thefe creatures of
abftraétion be brought back to their natural conneétion
with real objects, and with the terms which exprefs them,
it will apperts that they had nothing more than an imagi-
nary exiltence, and the whole contelt concerning them will
vanifh into a mere war of words. Whence fome judgment
may be formed concerning the value of this molt profound,
angelic, and feraphic philofophy.”

Notwithitanding all the homage which was an to the
name of Ariltotle, it is certain that the Scholaftica were
very imperfeétly acquainted with the true fenfe of his
writings : for, not to infilt at prefent upon the difficulties
which unavoidably attend the (tudy of his works, arifing
from the abitract nature of the fubjeéta upon which he treats,
from the ttudied ambiguity with which he frequently writes,
from the extreme concifenefs of his ftyle, and from his

obfcure

SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY.

ob{cure and defective report of the opinions of preceding
philofophers, it muft be recolleéted that thefe philofophers
engaged in the ftudy of Ariftotle without a previous ac-
quaintance with hiftory, or with the Greek philofophy, and
even without the knowledge of the Greek language, and
faw the doétrines of their mafter through the obfcure me-
dium of very imperfect tranflations. Hence they never
underftood his whole fy{item in conneétion, and often created
monttrous forms, at which the Stagyrite himfelf would have
been terrified.

The {cholaitic philofophy, thus introduced, and fup-
ported by the authority of Ariftotle, derived its complete
eftablithment from the firm alliance into which it entered
with theology, and the honours and emoluments which
were, in confequence of this alliance, beftowed upon thole
who excelled in this kind of learning. Dialeétics having
been found an ufeful inftrument in eftablifhing the prevail-
ing theological fy{tem, eminence in this art became the fure
road to ecclefiaitical preferment. Almott all the great men,
who are mentioned under the article ScuoLasrics, role to
diftin@tion through their knowledge of fubtile queftions in
metaphyfics, and through their adroitnefs in’ wielding the
weapons of logic. Excellence in the fcholaltic art of
trifling was not only fufficient to procure the high titles of
Mott Profound, Subtle, Refolute, Wonderful, Angelic, or
Seraphic Doétor, but to create profeflors, abbots, bifhops,
cardinals, and even pontiffs. What wonder, that the
{cholaitic philofophy univerfally prevailed ?

The effeéts of its prevalence were of the moft ferious
nature. Befides the extravagant wafte of time which thefe
difputes occafioned, they introduced an abfurd kind of
vanity, which perfuaded thefe fublime do¢tors to believe,
that they had arrived at the fummit of wifdom, both human
and divine, and gave occafion to violent contefts, which often
terminated in fomething worfe than a mere war of words.
Theology, already fufficiently clouded.and corrupted by the
{peculations and difputes of former ages, by admitting into
its fervice {cholaftic philofophy involved itfelf in new ob-
{curity ; fo that inftead of the plain and fimple doétrines of
religion, little elfe was to be found in the writings of theo-
logians, but vague notions, and verbal diftinctions. As an
example of the mifchief which arofe to theology from this
alliance, we may mention the doétrine of Tranfubitantiation,
which firft {prung up at this period, and concerning which
the moft violent difputes arofe between Berengar and his
heretical partizans on the one fide, and Lanfranc and his
orthodox brethren on the other, till at length this abfurd
dogma paffed into an article of faith.

Another evil which arofe from the fcholaftic philofophy
was, that inftead of attempting to diftinguifh the real dif-
ferences of things, and to deduce clear conclufions from
certain principles, in order to enlarge the boundaries of
human knowledge, it employed all the powers of ingenuity,
and ail the arts of fophiltry, to obfcure the principles of
{cience, to mix truth with fallacy, and to open the door to
univerfal fcepticifm. By the help of confufed notions, un-
meaning diftinétions, barbarous terms, and a fophiftical
method of reafoning, men were prepared to advance and
defend the mokt frivolous and abfurd pofitions ; both theolo-
gicaland philofophical difputations degenerated into a mere
trial of {kill; and the honeft enquirer after truth was left
without any certain guide. ‘The confequences were, that
tenets deftruétive of all religion were often publicly main-
tained in the fchools ; a corrupt fyftem of moral philofophy,
which left open many avenues to difhonefty and debauchery,
was taught ; and great depravity of manners prevailed.

This corruption of opinions and manners was accom-

panied with barbarifm of language, Little attention was
now paid to the ftudy of grammar, or rhetoric ; a valt mafs
of terms, wholly unknown in the Augultine age, were in-
troduced into the Latin tongue, to exprefs the abftra@
notions of dialectics and metaphyfics ; and a verbofe, puerile,
and inelegant mode of writing generally prevailed. John
of Salifbury, who took much pains to revive an attention to
literature, complained, that in his time, thofe who profefled
to be acquainted with all arts, both liberal and mechanic,
and to teach them in a fhort time, neglected the ftudy of
grammar ; whence they were ignorant of the firit art, with-
out which it is in vain that any one attempts to become
matter of the relt. Even the beft writers of this period
were not wholly free from literary barbari{m, lied
Although logic and metaphytics were the peculiar pro-

vince of the Scholaf{tics, their labours in thefe branches of

learning were of little ufe. Their logic was rather the art
of fophiftry than that of reafoning ; for it was applied to
fubjeéts which they did not underftand, and employed upon
principles which were not afcertained. Their whole bufinefs
being difputation, they fought out for fuch thorny queftions
as were likely to afford them fufficient exercife for their
ingenuity. ,Their whole care was to conduét themfelves in
the conteft by the rules of art, and their whole ambition te
obtain the victory. For want of clear principles, and ac-
curate definitions, their metaphyfical fyftem was a chaos of
abftraé notions and ob{cureterms. They profeffed, indeed,
to follow the metaphyfics of Ariftotle, but for want of un-
derftandiag the ancient doGtrine of phyfics and metaphyfics,
or even the language of Ariftotle, they frequently fubftituted
the fictions of their own imaginations in the room of the
true Ariftotelian principles.

Of this the manner in which they handled the fubjeét of
jitft matter affords a clear example. The Stagyrite, in his
metaphyfics, had called matter, that of which, confidered in
itfelf, neither quantity nor quality can be predicated, and in
which being terminates. In this definition Ariftotle had a
reference to the ancient do¢trine, that bodies are compofed
of corpufcles ; and, by mental abftraction, feparated from
thefe that which is the firft formal caufe of their exiftence,
and called it fir? matter. But the Scholattics, being igno-
rant of the ancient notion of body, and confounding the
purely metaphyfical conception of matter with an extended
{ubjeét endued with form and quantity, fell into trifling
difputes, and devifed innumerable fubtleties, by which the
original obfcurity of the deétrine of Arittotle concerning
the firft matter was greatly increafed. The firft matter,
according to the followers of Thomas Aquinas, was fimple
power without aétual energy. Others, who perceived that
this was a mere phantom of the imagination, defended
the real exiltence of matter, though they confefled themfelves
ignorant of its nature. Whilft others, concluding that the
attributes afcribed to matter could belong only to God, con-
teuded that God was the firlt matter. Nor did thefe fubtile
reafoners trifle leis on the fubject of divine and {piritual
natures. Bonaventure, in his Compendium of Theology,’?
treats of angels, their fubitance, orders, offices, language,
and the like, as if he himfelf had been an inhabitant of the
angelic world.

cp natural philofophy, inftead of attending to the real
properties of bodies, and invelligating the laws of nature by
experiment and obfervation, they reafoned with fubtlety
upon vague and obfcure principles, and always confounded
phyfics with metaphyfics. Many reafonings of this kind
may be met with in thofe parts of the writings of Thomas
Aquinas, where he treats of the principles of nature, of the
nature of matter, of the occult operations of nature, and the

like.

—

SCH

like. Among other profound obfervations, he derives the
occult operations of nature from the forms of things, which
exift in their refpective bodies, and fuppofes the formal
principles of fuch bodies to be celeftial bodies, which by
their acceffion or receffion caufe the production or corrupticn
of the inferior body. Whence he concludes, that there is
in thefe occult forms a capacity of being rettored to higher
principles, namely, celeftial bodies, or to powers ftill nigher
than thefe, that is, to feparate intelle@ual fubftances, which
in their refpective operations leave traces of themfelves. If
the reader will apply the mylterious operations of thefe
occult forms to the explanation of magnetic attractions, he
will foon perceive how much the fcience of phyfics is in-
debted to this angelic do¢tor. Bonaventure, and others,
laboured in this field with equal-fuccefs. Roger Bacon,
indeed, Albert, and a few more, in their enquiries into
nature, left the clouds of metaphyfics, and defcended into
the humble vale of experience ; but the world was not, pre-
pared to receive the information they were able to com-
municate, and imputed their operations“to the power of
magic. Boniface, the patron of ignorance and barbarifm,
fummoned Polydore Virgil, bifhop of Salifbury, to the
court of inquifition, for maintaining the exiltence of an-

3 for this profound theologian wifely concluded,
that fuch a race of men would be a new world for which
Chrift had not died.

Upon the fubjeét of ethics, we find among the Scholaftics
furprifing proofs of ignorance and weaknefs. Till the 12th
century, the only books of morals which obtained any
authority were that wretched compilation, the ‘* Moralia’’
of pope Gregory, and fome other injudicious colleGtion of
fentences from the feriptures and the writings of the
fathers. When the ethics of Ariftotle were introduced,
and moral doétrine began to be confidered as a part of
philofophy, we indeed find the Scholaftics treating concern-

- Ing virtues and vices, but always in the dialectic method ;

fubftituting ufelefs queftions concerning cafes which are
never likely to happen in real life, in the room of practic:
inquiries.

Quid fit pulchrum, quid turpe, quid utile, quid non.”

«« What fair or bafe, what good or ill to man,
And what his wifeit, fafelt, happielt plan.”

If they difcourfed upon thefe topics, they either impli-
citly followed the definition and arrangement of Ariltole,
or injudicioufly combined with his moral doétrine the pre-
ae of picty and fanétity which the church had prefcribed.

correction and improvement of ethics was indeed at+
tempted by John Scotus Erigena, and other followers of
the fuppofed Dionyfius ; but thefe enthufiafts having aban-
doned the humble path of common fenfe to foar into the
wons of myfticifm, the remedy proved {carcely lefs mif-
chievous than the difeafe to which it was applied; and the
fimple doétrine of pure morality, taught by Chrift and his»
apoftles, which had hitherto been debafed by fuperttition,
was now loft in the extravagancies of enthufiafm.

The {pirit of difputation which fo eminently diltinguifhed
the Scholaftics, gave birth to many fects, which contended

ioft each other with bitter animofity. The difciples of

called Albertifts, who mixed the do@rines of reli-
gion with the tenets of the Ariftotelian philofophy, were
vehemently oppofed by Peter Lombard and his followers.
The diffentions between Thomas Aquinas and John Duns
Scotus laid the foundation of the feéts of the Thomilts and
Scotifte, who difputed with
of grace and free will, and
4

warmth on the doétrines

theological topics. From

SiC i

the fchool of Duns Scotus arofe Occam, the inventor of
new fubtleties, who became the father of the fe& of Oc-
camifts. But, among all the fe&s of the Scholattics, the
moft memorable, on account of the extent, the violence,
and the duration of their contefts, are thofe of the Nomi-
nalifts and Realifts.

Although the fcholaitic philofophy was affiduoufly op-
pofed, and its futility and pernicious tendency laid open,
from the time of the revival of letters to the completion of
the Reformation in the 16th century, yet this philofophy,
fomewhat corre@ed by the introduétion of Ariftotle’s logic
and metaphyfics, was ftill ftudied and profefled in the col-
leges and monatteries belonging to the church of Rome.

The bigotted attachment to ancient {fyftems, which has
prevailed in the Romifh chureh with refpec to religion,
has always extended itfelf to philofophy, and has given a
permanent etftablifhment to the fcholaltic method of philo-
fophifing, which all the wifdom of modern times has not
been able to overturn. It is, however, a happy omen of
the entire exorcifm of the demons which have fo long
haunted the fchools, that in many univerfities a better and
more extenfive plan of inftruction has been adopted, which
has in a great meafure precluded the idle dreams of dia-
leGtic fubtlety. In an age in which a rational plan of phi-
lofophifing was generally followed ; in which vague con-
ceptions, unmeaning terms, and uncertain principles, were
commonly exploded; in which the accurate method of
mathematical reafoning was applied with fuccefs to other
{ciences; in which experimental philofophy was every
where itudied and encouraged ; and in which the correét
ufe of language was an obje& of attention ; it could not
but happen that the empty fhadow of ab{traétion would be
thrown out of the philofophical world, to make room for
more fubttantial and profitable ftudies. Brucker’s Phil. by
Enfield, vol. ii.

Scnorastic Theology, is that part or {pecies of divinity
which clears and difcuffes queitions by reafon and argu-
ments. In which fenfe it ftands, in fome meafure, op-
pofed to fofitive divinity ; which is founded on the authority
of fathers, councils, &c.

The {cholattic and the myftic theology owed their rife
and increafe to the mixture of the dogmas of Pagan philo-
fophy with the doétrines of Chriftiantty. Although thefe
two fyltems of theology differ in their leading characters ;
the former attempting to derive the confirmation of divine
truth from philofophy ; the latter calling in its aid to fupport
the {pirit of fanaticifm ; the true origin of both will be found
to have been, an injudicious application of the Peripatetic
and Platonic philofophy to the illuftration of theology.
The feeds of the {cholaftic theology were fown, when the
dialeétics of Ariftotle were firlt introduced into the contro-
verfies of the church and the myttical theology took its
rife, when the enthufiaftic notion of union with God, and
other fanatical principles, taught by the Alexandrian phi-
lofophers, were embraced among Chriftians ; and was efta-
blithed, when the fpurious writings of the pretended vt fees
obtained credit and authority in the Chriftian world. From
the Peripatetic fchool, Chriftians learned to perplex the truth
by fubtle difputations ; and from that of the later Platonifts,
they received a powerful bias towards enthufiafm. Hence,
with the profefled defign of exploring truth, they enveloped
it in a cloud of obfcure notions and fubtle diftinétions ;
and, under the pretence of producing fublime piety, enfeebled
and enflaved the human mind by the mp ere of myf-
ticiim: in both ways, oppofing the true pirit, and ob-
{truéting the natural operation of Chriftianity, See the
next article.

SCHO.

SCHOLASTICS. -

SCHOLASTICS, derived their name from thofe profef-
fors, who, in the public fchools of cathedrals and monatteries,
taught philofophy and the liberal arts. In the colleges of
canons, which, in the times of Charlemagne and Louis the
Pious, were erected near the epifcopal churches or cathedrals,
and in the abbacies of monafterics, it was cuftomary to have
preceptors or fcholattic doors, to whom the charge of the
education of youth was committed: and great care was at firlt
taken, by thofe who founded or {upported thefe fchools, that
able and learned men fhould be appointed to perform the offices
of inftru@ion. The name, thus introduced, remained, when
the care of the {chools was no longer in the hands of {cholaf-
tic doctors. For when emperors, princes, and bifhops,
had, from a defire of banifhing ignorance and barbari{m,
enriched this ufeful office with ample endowments, wealth
produced indolence ; the labour of teaching was transferred
to thofe who would undertake it for the fmalleft falary ;
and the {cholaitic doftors themfelves (for, that they might
enjoy the profits of this eftablifhment, they {till retained the
name) paid little attention to letters, and only vied with each
other in luxury and debauchery. A lively picture of the
infamous lives of thefe Scholaltics is drawn in the Speculum
Humane Vite, “Mirror of Human Life,” written by
Roderic, bifhop of Zamora, in Spain, in which he complains,
“that they were no longer learned themfelves, nor able to
teach others ; that they never vifited the fchools ; that they
united, with the molt contemptible ignorance, the mott
fhameful depravity of manners; and that, through fear
left their places fhould be filled up by men more learned
than themfelves, they gave no encouragement to erudition.”
In the fchools of feveral monatteries, this noble inftitution
was lefs abufed; and fome of the Scholaltics were employed
in inftru€ting, not only thofe young men who were devoted
to a morattic life, but the fons of noblemen, and others of the
laity. And this was the chief means of preferving alive the
embers of {cience and learning, in the dark period between
the eighth and the twefth centuries.

From the fchools of monatteries and cathedrals at length
fprung public fchools and academies, in which the liberal
arts and facred learnivg were taught; and the method of
philofophifing, whieh had prevailed in the monatteries, and
among the ecclefiaftics, was transferred to the profeffors of
philofophiy and literature in thefe public fchools. ‘The pro-
feffors of philofophy, or the Scholattics, perceiving that
eminence in the diale&ic art was the fure road to popu-
larity and preferment, devoted their principal attention
to this ftudy; and the fchools, now confided to men who
placed their chief merit in the fkill with which they handled
the weapons of intellectual warfare, produced nothing
but polemics. The fpirit of difputation, transferred from
the old feminaries of learning to every new eltablifhment,
was diffeminated through Europe; and education was,
every where, nothing elfe but a courfe of initruétion in
dialeétics and in metaphyfics. The general introduction
of the writings of Ariltotle into the fchools eftablifhed a
talte for this ttudy. The whole body of the clergy em-
ployed themfelves in folving abitrute and fubtle quettions,
which were always merely {peculative, and often merely
verbal. Inthis manner the Ariftotelian dialectics became by
degrees intimately connected with theology, and on this ac-
count obtained the zealous patronage of thofe who prefided
in the church; fo that almoft the whole Chriltian church
became Scholattics.

Under all this appearance of philofophifing, it muft, how-
ever, be remarked, that nothing of the true {pirit of philo-
fophy was to be found. The art of reafoning was employed,
not in the free inyeftigation of truth, but merely in fap-

porting the do&trines of the Romifh chureh, the canons of
which denounced a perpetual anathema and excommunication
upon all who fhould attempt to corrupt the faith, and bound
the clergy, in the form of a folemn oath, to defend the papal
fee, and the inftitutions of the holy fathers, againtt all op-
pofition. Hence philofophy became nothing more than an
inftrument in the hands of the pontiff, to confirm and extend
his {piritual dominion. Some oppolition, indeed, the {pe-
culative philofophy of the Scholaitics met with, from that
myttical fyftem, derived from the enthufiafm of the Alex-

andrian fchool, which Joannes Scotus Erigena, from the

fpurious books of Dionyfius, introduced into the Chriftian
church ; a fy{tem which profeffed to raife the mind from the
barren purfuit of fcholaftic controverfy, to the pure and
fublime contemplation of God and divine things. But the
only confequence of this oppofition was, at firlt, to excite
mutual jealoufies and animofity between the Myitics and
Scholaftics, and afterwards to produce a coalition between
them highly injurious to the church. See Scuorastic PAi-
lofophy.
The Scholaitics are commonly divided into three ages : the
firit, from Lanfranc, or Abelard, and his difciple Peter
Lombard, to the middle of the 13th century, when Alb
flourifhed : the fecond, from that time to the year 1 330; and
the third, from thelaft period to the Reformation. After
Lanfranc, Anfelm, and Rofceline, arofe in the firit age of
the Scholaftics William de Champeaux, who was bifhop of
Catalaun in 1113, and afterwards archbifhopof Paris, where
he taught dialectics with great applaufe, and maintained the
dodtrine of the Realifts, who held that all individual thin
partake of the one eflence of their fpecies, and are only
modified by accident: he obtained the appellation of the
“venerable doGtor.”? From his fchool arofe Peter Abelard.
(See AgELARD.) Abelard was followed by many of his
difciples, and particularly by Peter Lombard. (See Lom-
BARD.) This age alfo produced Robert Pulleyn, who in the
time of the civil wars of England withdrew into France,
where he enjoyed the friendfhip of Bernard. On his return
to England, he revived the ftudy of the fcriptures, and for
five years taught theology in Oxford. In his “* Sententiarum
Libri,”’ he expreffes a preference of the fimple authority
of reafon and fcripture to the teftimony of the fathers, or
the fubtlety of metaphyfics. He was admitted into the
college of cardinals in the year 1144. About the fame
time flourifhed Gilbert Porretan, bifhop of PoiGiers, who
died in 1154: Peter Comeftor, dean of Troyes, who wrote
a breviary of the hiltorical books of the Old and New Tef-
tament, for the ule of the {chools, under the title of « Hit
toria Scholaftica,’® a work which father Simon declares to
be of great ufe in biblical learning: and John of Salif-
bury, furnamed the « Little,’”? who was reckoned one of
the moft learned and valuable men of this age. He died
about the year 1182. His moft valuable works are his
“ Metalogicum,” or apology for grammar, philology, and
the Ariftotelian logic, his “ Policraticum,”’ and his Letters.
Other Scholaftics of fome repute at this period were Alex-
ander Hales, denominated the ‘ irrefragable doétor ;”
Stephen Langton, confecrated archbifhop of Canterbury in
1207, to whom 1s afcribed the firtt divifion of the books of
the Old and New Teftament into chapters: Vincent, a
monk of Beauvais, who, about the year 1244, wrote a
famous fummary of knowledge, under the title of * Speculum:
do&rinale, hiltoriale, naturale, et morale :’? Alfred ; and
Robert Greathead, bifhop of Lincoln, ranked by Roger
Bacon, for his wifdom and learning, with Ariftotle and
Selomon. (See Grossetteste-) The fecond age of the
{cholaftic philofophy, in which Ariltotelian metaphyfics,
obfcured

SCH

obicured by pafling through the Arabian channel, were ap-
plied with wonderful fubtlety to the elucidation of Chrif-
tian doGtrine, began with Albert, and ended with Durand.
(See Arsert the Great.) Albert was rivalled and even
exceeded by his pupil Thomas Aquinas. (See Aquinas.)
Another Scholaftic of great celebrity in this age was Bona-
veature of Tufcany. (See St. Bonaventura.) Of a very
different and much higher character than Bonaventure, or
any other mere Scholaftic, was that great man Roger Bacon.
(See Bacon.) Amoag the philofophers of this age we may
mention AZgidius de Columna, a Roman monk of the Au-
guftine order, who taught philofophy and theology in the
univerfity of Paris with fo much reputation, that he was
honoured with the appellation of “ the moft profound
do@tor.”” In the fubtletiés of f{cholaftic philofophy no one
acquired a more diftinguifhed name than John Duns Scotus.
(See Duns.) To the celebrated names above recited we may
add thofe of Simon of Tournay, Peter d’Apono, Robert de
Sorbonne, Francis de Mayro, Arnaud de Ville Neuf, and
Peter the Dane. Inthe third age of the fcholattic period,
which commences with Durand, at the beginning of the
fourteenth century, and continues to the end of the fifteenth,
the fcholaftic philofophy advanced in the number of its
teachers and learners, in the affeGtation of fubtleties, and in
the multiplicity of intricate and trifling difputes, but by no
means in the celebrity of its profeflors. Durand (fee his
article) was fucceeded by Occam (fee Occam), Richard of
Swinfhead, Walter Burley, preceptor to Edward III. who
wrote many treatifes, and obtained the appellation of the
« perfpicuous door ;”” and John Herman Weffel, born at
Groningen in 1409, and educated in the monaftery at Zevole.
The chief claim of Weffel to diftintion in the hiltory of
philofophy, arifes from the penetration which, in the midft of
the fcholaitic phrenzy of his age, enabled him to difcover
the futility of the controverfies which agitated the {chools of
the Thomilts, Scotifts, and Occamifts. To a young man
who confulted him concerning the beft method of profecut-
ing his ftudies, he faid, « you, young man, will live to fee
the day, when the do@rines of Thomas Aquinas, Bona-
venture, and other modern difputants of the fame ftamp,
will be ecg by all true Chriftian divines, and when the
irrefragable doctors themfelves will be little regarded.” A
predi¢tion which difcovers fo much good fenfe and liberality,
that Weffel eught to be immortalized under the appellation
of the “ wife doétor.”” He died at Groningen in 1489,
about the era of the revival of letters. Brucker’s Hitt.
Phil. by Enfield, vol. ii.

SCHOLD, or Sottu, in Geography, a town of Hun-
gary ; 4 miles E. of Foldvar.

SCHOLIAST, cxsrsarns, commentator, a grammarian
who writes /cholia, that is, notes, gloffes, &c. upon ancient
authors who have written in the learned languages.

SCHOLIUM, ¢x:As,, a note, annotation, or remark,
oceafionally made on fome paflage, propofition, or the
like.

The term is much ufed in geometry, and other parts of
mathematics ; where, after demonftrating a propofition, it is
frequent to point out how it might be done fome other
way ; or to vive fome advice or precaution, in order to pre-
vent miftakes; or add fome particular ufe or application
thereof,

Wolfius has given us abundance of curious and -ufeful
arte and methods, and a good part of the modern philofo-

hy, the defcription of mathematical iaftruments, &c. all
y way of fcholia to the refpeétive propofitions in his
« Elementa Mathefeos.’’
SCHOLLERA, in Botany, fo named by Schreber, in
Vor. XXX1,

SCH

honour of Frederick Adam Scholler, a principal perfon, as
it appears, in the- Moravian academy at Barsy, fee that
article; and author of the Flora Barbienfis, an ottavo
volume, publifhed at Leipfic in 1775. This work is com-
piled from the publications of Linnzus, and difpofed ac-
cording to his fyitem, with various remarks, but no citation
of authors. The commendable aim of the writer, for four-
teen years previous to this publication, had been, as he de-
clares in his preface, to give his pupils a tafte for Natural
Hiftary, efpecially Botany ; which he judged likely to be
particularly ferviceable in their vifits te remote countries,
without interfering with the higher objets of their miffion.
The advantages of this projet have been experienced, for
fome years pa{t, in the botanical communications of the
miffionaries at Tranquebar, to the learned in various parts of
Europe.—Schreb. Gen. 785.—Clafs and order, Triandria
Monagynia. Nat. Ord. Tripetaloidee, Linn.? Junct, Juff.?
orrather perhaps Enfate, Linn.? rides, Jufl.?

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Spatha of one leaf, two-edged, pointed,
fplit lengthwife, fhorter than the ftalk of the flower. Cor.
Petals fix, lanceolate, {preading, bluntifh, nearly equal.
Stam. Filaments three, broadifh, acute, ere&, fhorter than
the corolla, longer than the piftil; anthers linear, erect,
recurved at the fummit. Pi. Germen fuperior, oblong,
tapering into a fhort ftyle; {tigma three-cleft, bearded.
Peric. and feeds unknown.

Unfortunately this is all the account extant of Schollera ;
Schreber, who defcribed it from a dried fpecimen, having
not left a word concerning its native country, difcoverer,
habit, or qualities. Neither do we know whether he had
feen one {fpecies or more. All fuch information he referved
for an intended Species Plantarum, which has never feen the
light. Some good botanift, who has accefs to his herbarium,
would do well to afcertain, and inform the world, what the
Schollera of Schreber is ; that fo meritorious a name might
be eftablifhed and generally adopted.

SCHOLLIA, fo named by Profeffor von Jacquin, jun.,
in compliment to Mr. George Scholl, curator of the impe-
rial garden of Belvedere. See Jacq. Eclog. 5.t.2. This
genus however was previoufly called Hoya, by Mr. R. Brown
in his paper on A/clepiadee, publifhed in Tranfactions of
the Wernerian Society, v. 1, as well as in Ait. Hort. Kew.
v. 2.84. The {pecies on which it is founded is A/clepias
carnofa of Linnzus; Sm. Exot. Bot. v. 2. 21.t. 70; but
there are feveral more of the fame genus. Mr. Brown’s
eflential charaéter of Hoya is thus given.

« Afclepiadea. Mafles of pollen {mooth, ten, ere&, con-
verging. Anthers tipped with a membrane. Crown of the
ftamens of five depreffed leaflets, whofe inner angle is
extended into a tooth, lying over the anther. Corolla
wheel-fhaped.”’

The perfon here commemorated is Mr. Thomas Hoy,
F.L.S., an excellent botanift and cultivator, who has for
a long courfe of years been curator of the valuable collec-
tion of plants in the duke of Nort humberland’s garden, at
Sion houfe. See Piencra.

SCHOLOS, or Scotos, in Ancient Geography, a {mall
town of Greece, in Baotia, placed by D’Anville on the
Afopus, S. of Thebes.

SCHOMBERG, Freneric Amann, duke of, in Bio
raphy, 2 diltinguithed officer, the fon of count Schomberg,
Sy an Englith lady, the daughter of lord Dudley, was born
in 1608. He was initiated into the military life under
Frederic Henry, prince of Orange, and afterwards ferved
under his fon, William II. of Orange, who highly efteemed
him, He then repaired to the court of France, where his
reputation was fo well known, that he obtained the govern.

4 Q ment

SCH

ment of Gravellines, of Furnes, and the furrounding coun-
tries. He was reckoned in no way inferior to any general
in that kingdom, excepting marefchal Turenne and the prince
of Condé. The French court, thinking it neceflary to
diminifh the power of Spain, fent Schomberg to the affift-
ance of the Portuguefe, who were engaged in a war with
that country refpecting the fucceffion to their throne.
Schomberg’s military talents gave a turn to the war in favour
of his allies. The court of Spain was obliged to folicit
peace in 1668, and to acknowledge the houfe of Braganza
as the juft heirs to the throne of Portugal. For his great
fervices on this oceafion he was created count Mentola in
Portugal, and a penfion of 5000/. was granted to him, with
the reverfion to his heirs. In 1673 he came to England te
command the army, but the purity of his intentions being
fufpeéted, he found it neceflary to return to France, which
he foon left for the Netherlands. In June 1676 he forced the
prince of Orange to raife the fiege of Maeftricht, after which
be was almoft immediately raifed to the rank of marefchal
of France. According to the writers in ‘ Diétionnaire
Hiftorique,”’ he had been raifed to that rank while he was
ferving in Portugal. Upon the revocation of the edict of
Nantes, Schomberg, who was a Proteftant, requetted leave
to retire to hisown country. This petition was refufed, but
he was allowed to go into Portugal, where he imagned he
fhould be kindly received on account of his paft fervices. But
the bigotry of the Portuguefe, though it did not prevent
them from accepting afliftance from a heretic, when their
kingdom was threatened with fubverfion, could not permit
them to give him fhelter when he came for protection. The
deteftable inquifition interfered, and the king was obliged to
fend him away. He then went to Holland, and foon after
accepted from the eletor of Brandenburg, and was invefted
with, the government of Ducal Pruffia, and appointed com-
mander-in-chief of the Eleftor’s forces. He followed the
prince of Orange to England, when he came to take poffef-
fion of the throne of thefe realms ; and when that prince was
firmly eftablifhed in the government, he appointed Schom-
berg to be commander-in-chief of the forces, and matfter-
general of the ordnance. In April 1689 he was made knight
of the Garter, and naturalized by aét of parliament; and in
the following fpring he was created a baron, earl, marquis,
and duke of the kingdom of England, by the name and
title of baron Teys, earl of Brentford, marquis of Harwich,
and duke of Schomberg. The houfe of commons voted to
him 100,000/. as a reward for his fervices. Of this he only
received a very {mall part, but after his death a penfion of
soool. was given to his fon.

In Augait 1689 he was fent to Ireland, to reduce that
kingdom to obedience. When he arrived, he found himfelf
at the head of an army of 12,000 foot, and 2000 horfe, while
king James commanded an army three times more numerous.
Schomberg thought it dangerous to engage fo fuperior a
force,.and remained on the defenfive for fix weeks, during
which, owing to the wetnefs of the feafon, he loft a con-
fiderable part of his army. Schomberg was blamed for not
bringing the king to aétion; but others, and thofe excel-
lent judges, admired his condu& as a real difplay of great
military talents. Had he rifked an engagement, and been
defeated, Ireland matt have been loft. Atthe famous battle
of the Boyne, which decided the fate of James, Schomberg
paffed the river at the head of his cavalry, defeated eight
{quadrons of the enemy, and broke the Irifh infantry.
When the French Proteftants loft their commander, Schom-
berg went to rally and lead them on to the charge. While
thus engaged, a party of king James’s guard attacked him
with great fury, and gave him two wounds im the head.

SCH

Thefe would not of themfelves have been dangerous, but
the French Proteftants thinking their general was killed,
fired upon the guards, and fhot the duke of Schomberg
dead on the fpot. He was buried in St. Patrick’s cathedral.
He is defcribed by bifhop Burnet as *¢a calm man, of great
application; who thought much better than he fpoke; of
true judgment, of exa& probity, and of a humble and
obliging temper.” :

ScHOMBERG, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the
province of Oberland; 6 miles N.N.W. of Eylau.—Alfo,
a town of Pruffia, in Ermeland; 22 miles S.W. of Heilf-

rg.

_ScuoOmBERG, or S/umberg, a town of Moravia, in the
circle of Olmutz ; furrounded with walls, and defended by
a citadel; 24 miles N. of Olmutz. N. lat. 49° 52'. E.
long. 16° 4o!.

ScHOMBERG, or Schomfberg, a town of Silefia, in the
principality of Schweidnitz; 20 miles S.W. of Schweid-
nitz.

SCHONAICH, a town of Germany, in the lordfhip of
Schwarzenberg; 3 miles N.W. of Schainfeld—Alfo, a
town of the duchy of Wurzburg; 6 miles $.S.E, of Ge-
roltzhofen. :

SCHONAU, 2 town of Baden, in the Brifgau, on the
Wifen ; 20 miles N.E. of Bale.—Alfo, a town of the duchy
of Baden, where the elector Frederic IV. fixed a colony of
Flemings and French Proteftants; 5 miles N.E. of Heidel-
berg.—Alfe, a town of Silefia, in the principality of Jauer,
on the Katzbach, founded in 1296, and furrounded by
mountains; 12 miles W. of Jauer. N. lat. 50° 57'. E.
long. 15° 55'—Alfo, a town of Germany, in the county
of Henneberg; 6 miles E.N.E. of Smalkalden.—Alfo, a
bom of Lufatia, in the circle of Gorlitz; 5 miles W. of

ittau.

SCHONAW, a town of Pruffia, in the palatinate of
Culm; 27 miles N.E. of Culm.—Alfo, a town of Pome-
relia; 6 miles.S.E. of Dantzick.—Alfo, a town of Pome-
relia; 3 miles S.W. of Marienburg.

SCHONBACH, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Boleflaw ; 4 miles S. of Krottau.

SCHONBERG, a town of Semigallia ; 35 miles E. of
Mittau.—Alfo, a town of Upper Lufatia; 6 miles S.E.
of Gorlitz. N. lat. 51° 4! E. long. 15° 9!.—Alfo, a
mountain of the Tyrolefe, near Brixen.—Alfo, a town of
Germany, in the principality of Ratzeburg; 11 miles
N.N.E. of Ratzeburg.—Alfo, a town of Bavaria; 4 miles
W. of Gravenau.—Alfo, a town of Pruffia, in Oberland ;
40 miles N.E. of Culm.—Alfo, a town of the duchy of
Holftein; 9 miles N.W. of Lutkenburg.—Alfo, a town
of the duchy of Carniola; 7 miles W.N.W. of Rudolfs-
werth.—Alfo, a town of Saxony, in the Vogtland, on
the Egra, where are medicinal {prings; 16 miles S.S.E. of
Oelfnitz.

SCHONBIHEL, a town of the duchy of Stiria;
4 miles W. of Cilley. :

SCHONBORN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Leitmeritz ; 13 miles N. of Leitmeritz.

SCHONBRUCK, a town of Pruffia, in the province
of Natangen; 27 miles S.S.E. of Konigfberg.—Alfo, a
town of Pruffia, in the palatinate of Culm; 23 miles.N.E.
of Culm.—Alfo, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Ermeland; 9 miles W.S.W. of Allenttein

SCHONBRUN, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of
Bamberg ; 3 miles S:W. of Lichtenfelsx—Alfo, a town of
Saxony, in the Vogtland; 2 miles W. of Oclfnitz.—Alfo,
a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Chrudim ; 4 miles S.E.

of Politzka. ‘
SCHON.

TT

si@) HH.
SCHONBRUNN, a town of Auftria, on the Danube;

miles W. of Vienna.

SCHONBURG, a county furrounded by Saxony:
the counts are divided into two principal branches, which
are Schonburg-Waldenburg and Schonburg-Penigk.

SCHONDEMERAW, atown of Pruflia, in Oberland;
4 miles N. of Ortelfburg.

SCHONEBECK, a town of the duchy of Magdeburg,
on the Elbe, having falt-works, and a toll on the Elbe;
10 miles $.S.E. of Magdeburg. .

SCHONECK, a town of Saxony, in the Vogtland ;
7 miles E. of Oelfnitz.—Alfo, a town of Pruffian Pome-
relia; 20 miles S. of Dantzig.

"SCHONECKEN, a town of France, in the department
of the Sarre; 2 miles N. of Treves.

SCHONEFELD, a town of the Ucker Mark of Bran-
denburg; 8 miles E. of Prenzlow.

SCHONEMOR, a town of Germany, in the county. of
Delmenhorft ; 4 miles N.N.W. of Delmenhortt.

SCHONEN, Sconen, or Shania, .a province of Sweden,
bounded on the N. by Halland and Smaland, on the E. by
Blekingen and the Baltic, on the S. by the Baltic, and on
the W. by the Sound, which feparates it from Denmark ;
about 65 miles from N. to S., and 48 from E. to W.;
formerly governed by its own kings and laws. This pro-
vince is the moft level, fertile, and agreeable diitrict of
Sweden; producing plenty of rye, barley, oats, peafe, buck-
wheat, cummin-feed, and honey; and affording pit-coal,
chalk, tiles, and pot-afhes. It furnifhes alfo alum, ful-
phur, and amber. It carries on a confiderable trade in oak-
timber, mill-ftones, cordage, fifh, horfes, fheep, and horned
cattle. The animals are larger than thofe of the northern
parts of Sweden, but lefs vigorous and hardy, in which
refpects they improve by being removed northwards. Near
the Sound and Baltic Schonen is deftitute of wood, with
which the part contiguous to Blekingen, Smaland, and
Halland, abounds. In the former part the fuel is turf and
ftraw. With regard to many advantages, this province
may be confidered as the ftore-houfe and granary of Sweden.
It is diftinguifhed by fine feats and noblemen’s eftates, and
by well-built towns, above all the other provinces of Swe-

. The number of inhabitants is eftimated at above
600,000 fouls. Its rivers and lakes, which are numerous,
are well ftored with fifth. The principal towns are Malmo,
Lund, Landfcron, Helfingborg, and Chriftianftadt.

SCHONER, Joun, in hs ig German mathema-
tician, was born at Carlftadt, in Franconia, in 1477. He
ftudied at Nuremberg and Erfurt, where he applied himfelf
to philofophy, and other branches of general fcience. He
was fettled fome time as a clergyman at Bamberg, but, on
the recommendation of the celebrated Melanchthon, he was,
in 1528, made profeffor of the mathematics in the gym-
nafium of Nuremberg, where he publifhed his aftronomical
tables, called, on account of their clearnefs, “ Refolutz,’”’
dedicated to the magiftrates of that city, in the year 1536.
Schoner, like many of his contemporaries, was much ad-
dicted to judicial aftrology. He was, however, of con-
fiderable benefit to fcience by his labours, He died at
Nuremberg, in the year 1547. After his death, his fon
publithed his works in 1551, under the title «« Opera Ma-
thematica Joannis Schonen Caroloftadii, in unum Volumen
po edhe ublice Utilitati Studioforum omnium ac cele-
bri orici Nominis dicata. Denuo ab authoris filio
correéta et locupletata.””?’ The fon, who was editor of this
work, publifhed a work on dialling, which has been fome-
times, though erroneoufly, afcribed to the father. It is
entitled “ Gnomonice Andree Schoneri.”’

SCH

SCHONEWALT, in Geography, a town of the duchy
of Holftein; 8 miles E.N.E. of Eutyn.

SCHONEWERDA, a town of Brandenburg, in the
Middle Mark; 16 miles S. of Potzdam.

SCHONEWERT, a town of Switzerland, in the canton
of Soleure; 3 miles E. of Olten.

SCHONFELD, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Saatz; 18 miles E. of Egra. N. lat. 50° s!. E. long.
12° 48'.—Alfo, a town of Germany; in the bifhopric of
Muniter ; 8 miles N. of Muntter.

SCHONFELS, a town of Saxony, in the circle of
Erzgebirg ; 6 miles S.W. of Zwickau.

SCHONFELT, a town of the duchy of Holltein; 10
miles W. of Pinnenberg.

SCHONFLIES, or ScHowEnFLiet, a town of the
New Mark of Brandenburg; 22 miles N. of Cuftrin.

SCHONFORST, a town of France, in the department
of the Roer; 2 miles S. of Aix-la-Chapelle.

SCHONFURT, a town of Pruflia, in the province of
Oberland ; 3 miles E.N.E. of Eylaw.

SCHONGAU, a town of Bavaria, fituated on a de-
clivity, having at its foot the river Lech, and-containing
about 600 houfes. Its great fquare, which is handfome,
has three fountains of marble, that is yielded by the country ;
and it has eight churches, one of which is diltinguifhed par-
ticularly by the dome-form of its fteeple, and the covering
and gilding of its high altar; 8 miles S, of Weilhaim. N.
lat. 48° 45’. E. long. 10° 53/.

SCHONGRABEN, a town of Auftria; 3 miles N. of
Sonneberg.

SCHONHAUSEN, a town of Brandenburg, in the
Old Mark; 6 miles N.E. of Stendal.—Alfo, a town of
Brandenburg, in the Middle Mark; 6 miles N. of Berlin.

SCHONHEYDA, a town of Saxony, in the circle of
Erzgebirg ; 8 miles W.S.W. of Schwarzenberg.

SCHONHEYDE, a town of Silefia, in the principality
of Grotkau; 7 miles S.S.W. of Grotkan.

SCHONITZ, a town of Germany, in the county of
Sayn; 2 miles N.W. of Hachenburg.

SCHONKERKE, a town of the duchy of Holftein;
12 miles W. of Lutkenborg.

SCHONLINDEN, a town of Pruffia, in the province
of Natangen; 22 miles S.S.W. of Brandenburg.

SCHONNA, a town of Pruffia, in Oberland; 8 miles
S.S.E. of Holland.

SCHONNING, or, as it is more generally fpelt,
Scnoninc, GERRARD, in Biography, alearned Norwegian,
was born at Skatnes, in Nordland, in 1722. He received
the early part of his education at the {chool of Drontheim ;
and after having completed his ftudies at other feminaries,
where he was diitinguifhed by his great talents, he was, in
1751, elected a member of the Royal Society for improving
the Danith language and hiftory. In 1758 he became a
member of the Academy of Sciences at Copenhagen, and
was, a few years after, chiefly inftrumental in forming the
Drontheim fociety, which obtained the title of the item
Norwegian Society. In 1764 he wae appointed profeflor
of eloquence and hiftory in the academy of Soroe ; in 1772
he was chofen a member of the hiftorical inttitute of Got-
tingen ; and in 1774 appointed a counfellor of juftice. In
the years 1773, 1774, 1775, he went on a tour, at the
king’s expence, through various parts of Norway, to exs
amine the different remains of antiquity, and colleét informa-
tion in refpeé& to the phyfical and economical ftate of the
country. After this he became private keeper of the re-
cords to the king, and an aétive member of the fociety
formed for the purpofe of publifhing Icelandic works from

4Q2 the

SCH

the colleétion of Arnas Magneus. He died in 1780, be-
queathing his library, which contained a large number of
books, to the Royal Norwegian Society. His works are
very numerous, of which the titles are given in the General
Biography, and among which the following may be men-
tioned as the more important: * An Effay towards the
ancient Geography of the Northern Countries, particularly
Norway ;”? “ Obfervations on the old Northern Marriages
and Weddings ;”’ ‘* De Anni Ratione apud veteres Sep-
tentrionales ;”? ** Hiftory of Norway from the Foundation
of the Kingdom till the Time of Harold Haarfager ;”
“ Travels through Norway,’? &c. Among the papers
which this author caufed to be inferted in the Tranfaétions
of the Norwegian Society, and of the Academy of Sciences
at Copenhagen, were the following: ‘On the Northern
Lights ;?? «On the Knowledge which the ancient Greeks
and Romans had of the northern Countries, and particularly
of Scandinavia ;”” * On the Expedition of Darius Hyttafpis
into Scythia,’ and many others. Gen. Biog.

SCHONPUHL, in Geography, a town of Auitria;
g miles W. of St. Polten.

SCHONSEE, a town of Bavaria, in the county of
Sternitein ; 33 miles N.N_E. of Ratifbon.

Scuonser, or Kowalewo, a town of Pruffia, in the dif-
trict of Culm; 20 miles S.E. of Culm.

Scuonsze, a town of the palatinate of Culm; 16 miles
N.E. ot Thorn.

SCHONSTEIN, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 6 miles
S.S.W. of Windifch Gratz.

SCHONTHAL, atown of Bohemia, in the circle of
Pilfe:: ; 4 miles N.W. of Teufing.

SCHONVIESSE, a town of Pruffia, in Pomerelia;

miles E. of Marienburg.

SCHONWALLD, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Culmbach; 5 miles E. of Kirch Lamitz.—Alfo,
a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Boleflaw; 10 miles
N.E. of Krottau.—Alfo, a town of Bohemia, in the circle
of Leitmeritz ; 10 miles N.E. of Auflig.

SCHONWALDE, a town of Saxony; 8 miles S.W.
of Dahme.

SCHONWALDT, a town of Pruffia, in the province
of Natangen; 18 miles $.S.W. of Brandenburg. — Alfo,
a town oF Pruffia, in Natangen; 28 miles S. of KGonigf-
berg.

SCHOOCKIUS, Martin, in Biography, a critic and
mifcellaneous writer, was born at Utrecht in 1614. He
was fucceflively profeffor of languages, eloquence, hiflory,
&c. at Utrecht, Deventer, Groningen, and laftly at Frank-
fort on the Oder, where he died in 1669. He was author
of a great number of works in Latin, and many of them on
very fingular fubjects. Among the more important were
the following: ** De Statu Reipublice Faderati Belgi ;”
De Imperio Maritimo;’? “ De Lingua Helleniltica ;”
and * Exercitationes Variz.”’

SCHOODIAK, in Geography. See ScoopraK.

SCHOOL, Scuo.a, a public place, wherein the lan-
guages, humanities, or other arts and f{ciences, are taught.

The word is formed from the Latin /chola, which, ac-
cording to Du Cange, fignifies difcipline and correction. He
adds, that it was anciently ufed, in the general, for all
places where feveral perfons met together, either to ftudy, to
converfe, or do any other matter. Accordingly, there
were /chole palatina, being the feveral poits wherein the em-
peror’s guards were placed ; /chola /cutariorum, /chola genti-
hum, &c. At leagth the term pafled alfo to civil magiftrates ;
and, aceordingly, in the code we meet with /chola chartula~

5

SCH

riorum, fehola agentium, &c.; and even to ecclefialtics, as
Jchola cantorum, fchola facerdotum, &c.

Thus we fay a grammar-{chool, a writing-{chool, a {chool
of natural philofophy, &c.

SCHOOLS. Inthe articlesMorarand Puysrtcat Edu-
cation, references were made to a comparative view of the ad-
vantages and difadvantages of a public and private education.
On this fubjeé&t we fhall now endeavour to bring together
fome obferyations, which perhaps may be ufeful to parents
in forming plans for the future conduét of their offspring,
without, however, pretending to draw a general conclufion
that fhall apply in all, or even in a majority of cafes. Dif-
ferent circumttances, different difpofitions, and different
talents, muft lead the judicious, even with refpeét to children
of the fame family, to a different courfe of condué. The
writer of the feveral articles on education in the New Cyclo-
pzdia, and who meant to have undertaken this alfo, wifhes it
to be diltin@ly announced that his avocations are too preffing
to allow him to perform what he ftood engaged to perform,
and that of courfe he is anfwerable for no fentiment that
will be found in the prefent article.

From the time of Quinctilian to the prefent day, it has re-
mained a queltion, Whether a private or a public education is
more conducive to valuable improvement ? Quin@tilian, with-
out hefitation, approved of public education, but then he had
only a fingle object in view, viz. that of forming a public ora-
tor, whereas the objects of modern education are numerous,
and hence the queftion becomes more intricate, and difficult
of folution.

We fhall in the firft place ftate briefly the arguments ir
favour of a private education, asthey have been enumerated by
authors who have written on the fubject. It has been thought
that feclufion is particularly favourable for acquiring ufeful
knowledge and virtuous habits. Perfons who are attached
to a private method of education obferve, that though the
young reap many advantages from mingling in focial life, yet
in fociety they are liable to be tainted with vices to which
they would have been {trangers in folitary life. At what-
ever period the young begin to mix with the world, they find
that they have not more ftrength than what is fufficient to
refift the temptations with which they may be affailed; but
if they are thus liable to faulter in the courfe of virtue when
more advanced in life, there feems wanting no other argument
to fhew the propriety of reftricting children from thofe dan-
gerous {cenes in which the infection is widely fpread, and
eafily caught. It is alfo afflumed, that whoever furveys the
ftate of morals in a public {chool with careful and candid at-
tention, even though it be under the management of the
mott virtuous and afliduous teachers, will find reafon to ac-
knowledge that the empire of vice is there, though in a
{maller degree, eftablifhed asit is in the world at large. Hence
it isinferred, that nothing can be more negligent or inhuman,
than for parents to expofe their children to thofe tempta-
tions which a great {chool prefents, at a time when they are
{trongly difpofed to imitate any example fet before them, and
have not yet learned to diftinguifh between fuch examples as
are worthy of imitation, and thofe which ought to be held in
abhorrence. Even under a parent’s fuperintendance, by an
almolt unavoidable intercourfe with fervants, with workmen
and vifitors, their native innocence is hkely to fuffer con-
fiderably. Yet a parent’s care will be more likely to pre-
ferve the manners of his child uncorrupted under his own
roof, than any affiduity and watchfulnefs that can poflibly
be given by teachers in a {chool.

It will be admitted that the morals and difpofitions of a
child ought to be the firlt objeéts of our concern in condu-
ing his education : but to imitiate him in the pain a

e

_—

——

SCHOOLS.

ufeful knowledge is alfo an important objeét, and the proba-
bility is, that ina private education virtue will not only be
better fecured, but knowledge more readily acquired. When
a very few, as from one or two to fix or eight boys are com-
taitted to the care of a judicious preceptor, he can watch
the moft favourable opportunities for communicating inftruc-
tion ; he can awaken curiofity and command attention by the
gentle arts of infinuation, without endeavouring to inflame
their breafts with emulation, which too frequently leads to
envy and inveterate hatred ; and he will probably fucceed in
rendering learning pleafing by other means lefs likely to pro-
duce unfavourable effeéts on the temper and difpofitions of
his pupils. As the attention of the tutor is not divided
among a number, he can pay more regard to the particular
difpofitions and turn of mind of each of his pupils: he
can encourage thofe that are modeft and flow, and reprefs
the quickneis and volatility of the others. He can, by a
kind of Socratic method, aid the dull, without encouraging
indolence, and thus call forth and improve their powers, and
excite talents which did not appear tovexilt, by leading the
young, at one time to view the fcenes of nature, and the
changes which fhe fucceflively undergoes through the vary-
ing feafons ; at another to attend to fome of the more enter-
taining experiments of natural philofophy ; and then again
allure them to literary exertions of one kind or another ;
and he may occafionally mix with them in their games, and
thus, without th: appearance, watch over them, their tem-
pers and difpofitions, even in their molt relaxed moments, and
when they are likely to exhibit themfelves in their trueft
light. Thefe circumttances are unqueitionably favourable
both to the happinefs and literary improvement of youth,
and they are attainable only where the number of pupils is
limited to about halfa dozen. Moreover, in a private edu-
cation, as children {pend more of their time with people far-
ther advanced in life, they fooner acquire their manner of
thinking, of exprefling themfelves, and of behaving in their
ordinary intercourfe with one another ; hence thole boys who
receive what may be called a family education, that is, who
affociate with all the company that from time to time are in-
troduced into the houfe, precifely as branches of the famil
circle, will begin fooner to think and aét as men than thofe
who pafs their earlier days in a public feminary. And though
a youth be educated entrrely at home, there is no reafon why
he fhould be more accultomed to domineer over, and take
liberties with, his inferiors, or to indulge a capricious difpo-
fition, than if he were educated with a large number of
boys of his own age and rank. He may alfo, in a private
education, exercife his limbs with nearly as much aétivity as
in a publicone. He cannot, indeed, engage in all the {ports
for wmch a larger party of eompanions is neceflary, yet
there are other objeéts that may call forth his a@ivity. In
private life, alfo, he will have an opportunity of feeing the
various operations of mechanics and others, which he will be
difpofed to imitate, and which will produce the moft fa-
vourable effects, both with refpeét to the body and mind.
To thefe obfervations in favour of private education, we
may quote the following paragraph from a work very lately
— ed, entitled “* Syttematic Education.”? “ Is it not,”
y the authors of that work, “ molt clearly the height of
abfardity to think of committing a youth, feeble in body
and mind, to the difcipline of our public {chools. The
fyitem neceffarily adopted in thofe feminaries does not admit
of thofe relaxations and indulgences, and of that minute-
nefs of attention, which are requifite to mitigate the effeéts
of corporeal or mental infirmity. In fo rade a climate, a
fickly plant will {peedily wither and die. What an affecting
pitture does the biographer of Cowper delineate of the fub-

je& of his memoir juft emerging from an infancy of pecu-
liar delicacy, and fent to encounter, without protection, the
contentions and buffettings of a public feminary of edu-
cation. The little Cowper was fent to his firft fchool in the
year of his mother’s death, and how ill-fuited the fcene was
to his peculiar charater, muit be evident to all who have
heard him defcribe his fenfations in that feafon of life, which
is otten very erroneoufly extolled as the happieft period of
human exiftence. He has frequently been heard to lament
the perfecution which he fuftained in his childifh years, from
the cruelty of his {chool-fellows, in the two f{cenes of his
education. His own forcible expreffion reprefented him at
Wettminiler as not daring to raife his eye above the fhoe-
buckle of the elder boys, who were too apt to tyrannize
over his gentle fpirit. The acutenefs of his feelings in his
childhood rendered thofe important years, which might have
produced, under tender cultivation, a feries of lively enjoy-
ments, miferable years of increafing timidity and depreflion,
which, in the moft cheerful hours of advanced hfe, he could
hardly defcribe to an intimate friend, without fhuddering at
the recolleGtion of his early wretchednefs. It is true, that
at Weitmintter {chool, Cowper acquired a confiderable ftore
of learning, and imbibed the principles of that jult tafte
which charaéterizes all his writings. But at what a price
were thefe accomplifhments purchafed? What was the
effect of the procefs to which he was there obliged to fub-
mit, upon the happinefs of his future exiftence? His health
was impaired—his fpirits broken. He withdrew from the
active fcenes of fociety into a comparatively ufelefs retire-
ment, and he finally became a prey to that morbid fenfibility,
which, for the long and dreary {pace of thirteen years, ren-
dered his life a blank in the records of intellectual exiftence.”

Oue of the chief arguments in favour of a public edu-
cation is, that it is much more favourable than a private one
tothe pupil’s improvement in knowledge, and much more
likely to infpire him with an ardour for learning. Whena
number of boys, of or about the fame age, meet together
in the fame fchool, each foon begins to feel the impulfe of a
principle which enables the matter to command their attention
without much difficulty, and prompts them to apply with
cheerful ardour to tafks which would otherwife be extremely
irkfome. This principle is a generous emulation, which
animates the breaft with the defire of fuperior excellence,
without infpiring the youth with the envy or hatred of a
competitor. When children are prudently managed ina
great fchool, it isimpoffible for them not to feel its impulfe.
It renders their tafks fearcely lefs agreeable than their amufe-
ments, and dire¢ts their aétivity and curiofity to proper ob-
jects. View, fays a writer on this fide of the quettion, the
{cholar at a public fchool, compofing his theme, or turning
over his dictionary ; how alert! how cheerful! how inde-
fatigable ! He applies with all the eagernefs and all the per-
feverance of a candidate for one of the moft honourable
places in the temple of fame. Befides, in a {chool there is
fomething more than emulation to render learning lefs dif-
agreeable than it naturally is to children ; when a number of
boys in a great {chool are all bufied on the fame or fimilar
talks, a fpirit of induftry and perfeverance is communicated
from one to another through the whole circle, each of them
infenfibly acquires new ardour and vigour; even though he
do not Rel the {pur of emulation, yet, while all are bufy
around him, he caunot remain idle.

Neither are public {chools fo unfavourable to the virtue
of their members, as they have been reprefented, If the
matters are men of virtue and prudence ; careful to fet a good
example before their pupils; attentive to the particular cha-
rater and behaviour of each individual among them; firm

to

SCHOOLS.

to punith obftinate depravity, and even to expel thofe who are
more likely to injure the morals of others than to be reclaimed
themfelves, and, at the fame time, eager to applaud and to
encourage amiable and virtuous difpofitions wherever they
appear ;—under fuch preceptors a public f{chool will not
fail to be a fchool of virtue. Again, at a public fchool
young people enjoy much greater advantages for preparing
them to enter the world, than they can poflibly be favoured
with, if brought up in a private and folitary manner. A
large {chool is a miniature reprefertation of the world.
The obje&ts which engage the attention of boys at {chool
are different from thofe which occupy their parests; the
views of the boys are lefs extenfive, and they are not, ca-
pable of profecuting them by fo many bafe and mean arts ;
but in other refpeéts, the two fcenes, and the actors upon
them, nearly refemble each other. He, therefore, who has
performed his part on the miniature fcene, has rehearfed, as
it were, for the greater: if he has acquitted himfelf well on
the one, he may alfo be expeéted to diftinguifh himfelf on
the other ; and even he who has not diftinguifhed himfelf at
{chool, at leaft enters the world with fuperior advantages,
when viewed in comparifon with one who has fpent his
earlier days in the folitude of domeftic education. Befides,
when a number of boys meet in a public feminary of educa-
tion, engaged in fimilar ftudies, and fond of the fame amufe-
ments, they naturally contrat friendfhips with one another
which are more or leis cordial and fincere than any that take
place between perfons farther advanced in life. Friendfhips,
it has been urged, are often formed between boys at {chool,
which continue through life, and are produétive of the hap-
pieft confequences to the parties concerned.

One of the ableft writers in defence of a public fy{tem of
education is Dr. Barrow, who informs us, that he has given
to the public the refult of his own experience and ey aed
tions without difguife. He is aware that the moft formi-
dable objeétions to this fy{tem of education confift wholly in
the danger, either that the morals of the pupil will be cor-
rupted by the corruption of his fellows; or that his im-
provement will be negleéted in the confufion naturally
incident to numbers.

« Were the former of thefe obje¢tions,”’ fays he, ‘ well
founded, it ought certainly to be decifive. The purity of
morals muft not be facrificed to the acquifition of learning.
But, fortunately, this dreaded corruption is far from certain.
The danger of it is not greater, perhaps, than in other fitua-
tions; and at leaft, if public fchools furnifh.the bane of
morals, in them too are to be found the moft powerful
antidotes,”

The common notion that boys corrupt each other is not,
fays Dr. Barrow, juft to the extent generally fuppofed. Its
rife and continuance may be very reafonably accounted for
without admitting its truth. The partiality natural toa
parent inclines him to believe, that his fon is difmifled from
his own hands innocent and {potlefs; and to conclude, when
the fon is afterwards found to be vicious, that he has been
feduced by others more vicious than himfelf. The fon, to
foften his own offences, imputes the guilt and blame to his
companions; and the father, willing to give credit to his
aflertions, condemns the f{chool, rather than his child, and
the conduct of the matter, rather than his own. The truth
is, that when boys of various difpofitions and habits meet
promifcuoufly in a {chool, they ufually difcover one another’s
inclinations, with a quicknefs and penetration refembling ‘the
effe&ts produced by the private fignals of free-mafonry ; and
each aflociates with thofe whofe temper and purfuits the
neareft correfpond with his own. .'The corrupt attach them-
felves to the corrupt, with the rapidity natural to thofe who

are carelefs of the charaters of their friends ; and leave the
diligent and virtuous to form their intimacies among them-
felves without any fort of interruption. The former, indeed,
do not frequently fucceed in their endeavours to feduce the
latter, and ufually refpeét them too much to make the at-
tempt. The mutual encouragement and affiftance of num-
bers will undoubtedly fometimes pufh them farther in cul-
pable purfuits, than each fingly would have ventured to
proceed. But Dr. Barrow, whofe experience was very
large, fays he has feldom known a youth deeply involved in
depravity at fchool, who did not bring the feeds of it along
with him. ,

In a numerous fchool, the noife and riot of the pupils have
ufually more merriment than mifchief ; and their mifchief
has more frolic than malignity. Care, however, muit be
taken, that occafional frolic do not proceed to cruelty ; that
repeated tranfgreffions do not fink into fettled corruption.
To prevent thefe evils, the care and vigilance of teachers are
neceflary, and thefe, if wifely exerted, will feldom fail of
producing their effe&t. It is an eafy tafk to introduce every
pupil to proper conneétions when he firft enters the {chool,
and to caution him againft fuch as are diftinguifhed only by
their vicious propentfities and feduétive manners. It is ealy
to punifh vice, and expofe it to contempt and difgrace ; and
it is amoft pleafant taf to fhew conftant favour and en-
couragement to truth, integrity, and diligence ;—to make
it appear on all occafions, that if a ftudious and virtuous
youth fhould be expofed to the ridicule or malice of his lefs
meritorious {chool-fellows, he will find himfelf abundantly
compenfated by the efteem of his mafter and his friends,
Such a courfe of condu@ in teachers feldom fails to be re-
warded by the gratitude, as well as the progreflive virtue, of
thofe entruited to their care.

The exertion required in the ftudents to perform the tafks
appointed in every well-regulated fchool, is itfelf highly
favourable to the vigour and aétivity of the intelleé&t ; and
eventually, therefore, to the interefts of virtue. There are
always among the pupils of a large fchool, a fort of public
opinion, and certain laws of honour, which, though fome-
times founded on erroneous principles, generally tend to the
prevention of mean or malignant vices: and fuch manlinefs
of fentiment and fpirit are thus generally acquired, as pave
the way to the fubfequent correétion of any errors, into,
which the negligence or impetuofity of youth may and will
furprife them. ‘Let found learning,” fays Dr. Barrow, “ give
a young man ftrength of mind to conquer himfelf, and from
any other moral enemy he will foon have little to fear.” If
fuch a {chool be found the moit favourable to the promotion
of found learning and knowledge, it will not be much lefs
favourable to the foundnefs of moral principle. Notwith-
{tanding fome extraordinary exceptions, which by the wonder
they excite are proved to be rare, it is commonly true, our
author fays, that as the mind is enlarged, the ions afe
rectified.

The next objection, that the youth’s improvement may be
negleéted amidit the confufion incident to numbers, is, ac-
cording to Dr. Barrow, founded wholly upon miftaken
notions of a large {chool,. or of human nature. Order and
regularity in its bufinefs are efiential to the government of a
public {chool, and mutt there be preferved and enforced
with a degree of {teady uniformity, which cannot eafily exift
elfewhere. By fy{tem only can application produce its pro-
per effect: by fyftem only can any art or feience be fuc+
cefsfully taught. Nor, fays Dr. Barrow,. does a larger

ortion of his time beftowed by the mafter produce a corre+
Potidéht benefit to the pupil. * His ren in literature
does not depend fo much upon what is done for yor
ot .

al

SCHOOLS.

ethers, as upon what he can be ftimulated to do for himfelf.
The teacher, indeed, will naturally exert the greater zeal
and diligence where greater numbers are to profit by his
inftru€tions, and to judge and report his condu& ; and the
fame circumftance is every way favourable to the improve-
ment of his fcholar. The voice of the preceptor, to adopt
the fimilitudes of Quinétilian, is not like the food provided
for an entertainment, where each man’s fhare muit he di-
minifhed in proportion as the numbers are increafed. It
fhould rather be compared to the fun, which difpenfes the
fame degree of light and heat to each individual of a multi-
tude, however numerous and extenfive. The attention of
the ftudent feldom fails to be roufed and fixed by the atten-
tion of his teacher. The oppofition of his rivals, the affift-
ance of his friends, the praife or cen{ure of his maiter and his
{chool-fellows ; the hope of reward, and the fear or fhame of
punifhment : all thefe motives united produce {uch exertions,
as no domeftic teacher can hope to fecure. By every exer-
tion, too, his faculties naturally expand ; confidence in his own
powers increafes by fuccefs ; and the pupil of a public fchool
often attains to an eminence in literature, which a youth dif-
ferently circumftanced would not attempt; and which him-
felf, perhaps, had not prefumed to expe@&. Each, indeed,
is aware, that a charaGer eftablifhed among a numerous clafs
of {chool-fellows will be very widely diffufed in the world,
and promote his advantage, or his reputation, in all the fubfe-
quent tranfaétions of his life. And he to whom the palm of
merit is adjudged, after an examination, probably feels
greater pride and pleafure than can eafily be defcribed.

Dr. Barrow, in {peaking of private and domettic tuition,
fays, that the objections to it are at leait of equal weight with
thofe which are ufually urged again{ft public education.
Private tutors for individual pupils he confiders the leaft eli-
gible mode of giving literary inftruGtion, becaufe he thinks
men of real talents cannot be found to undertake the tafk,
or if they do, that they will not exert a proper portion of
zeal and diligence for a folitary pupil; and the exertions
of the pupil will not be more than proportionate to thofe of
his preceptor. ‘ To prevent any feverity of difcipline is
gu one of the firft principles of domeftic tuition.

mpulfion and correétion, therefore, are in a great meafure
excluded. The youth has no rivals of his own age to fti-
mulate his efforts, and no friends to affift or applaud them.
Honour and thame, of the firft importance in all other cafes,
have hardly any place in the fyftem. Every thing, there-
fore, is languid and inefficient. Even the fports of the

ivate pupil, for want of affociates and competitors, have
Fittle animation and little pleafure. He cannot compare his
own acquifitions with thofe of others, and therefore elti-
mates t rather by the meafure of his own vanity, than
the flandard of truth. His books will engage lef of his
attention, than thofe amufements in which he is too liberally
indulged ; and for the fake of which, in fome degree, the
lan of domeflic education was adopted ; and he will value
imfelf lefs upon bis progrels in literature and {cience, than
me his tafte in drets, or his dexterity in the {ports of the
”

A {chool with a {mall and limited number of pupils he

thinks liable to fewer objeétions, but not entitled to much

greater praife. Every circumftance which feems to re-
commend them, forms an objeétion to them as places of
i education. To confult by every means the eafe

and comfort of boys, to fupply them with a full thare of

amufements and luxuries, may conciliate the favour of the

parents; but their natural tendency is to make pupils men

of pleafure, not men of learning. T'he matter profelles to be-

ftow his whole time upon a {mall number, and accordingly
12

a larger portion of attention upon their improvetnent; @
profeffion which, if fulfilled, is feldom beneficial. Some of
thefe fchools profefs to exclude all feverity; to have re-
courfe to as little reftraint as poffible; and to ufe every
means to avoid the appearance of arbitrary power. After
all, Dr. Barrow aflumes that without the ufe or the fear of
fevere punifhment not a fingle {cholar was ever made.
“ The acquifition of learning muft always be laborious ;
and by what motives but the fear of a greater evil, fhall
boys be induced to labour with regularity and perfeverance :
they cannot,.or they will not, underftand the force of argu-
ments drawn from diftamt and future advantage,—the policy
of fufpending enjoyment for the prefent, in order to in-
creafe it hereafter. The forbearance and virtues of the
ftoic, indeed, fuit their comprehenfion as little as their in-
clination. They are, when left to themfelves, the genuine
difciples of Epicurus; they grafp with avidity the plea-
fures of the prefent hour, with little thought, and lefs ap-
prehentfion, of what may happen to-morrow.” ,

The great argument, however, for private in preference
to a public education, is a regard to the morals of the youth.
The ftronger we form the habit of virtue, the better pre-
pared will he be to encounter the corruptions of the world.
If he has feen nothing but virtue, he will hear of vice with
horror ; and by keeping him perpetually under the eye of 2
virtuous and vigilant preceptor, the impreffion becomes fo
ftrong, that it will not be eafy to efface it. « You have,”
fays Mr. Gilpin, “in that cafe fixed the feal, and given the
wax time to cool.”? This, indeed, depends on the choice of
a proper inftrutor ; but it is probably eafier to find a good
tutor than a fchool free from vice. In anfwer to this it
has been afked, if we wifhed to form a young foldier, fhould
we be fatisfied with fhewing him how to draw up an army
on a paper,—how to fortify a camp, or befiege a town, on a
table ? and could we expe@, from this kind of inftru@tions,
that he could commence a matter in taéties, and be qualified
to command an army ? Would it not be much better that he
fhould have experience under able and diftinguifhed com-
manders? ‘Though the cafes are not exattly fimilar, yet
with refpe& to morals, as well as to actual military fervice,
a youth fhould fight the good fight; fhould put on the
armour of God; fhould grapple with principalities and
powers: and accordingly, # the foldier ought to be formed
in the field among the dangers of his profeffion, fo the
young Chriftian fhould be educated amidit the temptations
of the world. For this purpofe, the knowledge, not the
practice of vice, feems to be as necellary a part of educa-
tion as the knowledge of virtue; for unlefs the navigator
point out the fhoals and rocks upon the coafl, as well as the
commodious harbours, his chart will be very imperfe&.
So it is with regard to the moral culture of a youth; furnifh
him, if you steals’ with every mode of knowledge which
inftru€tion can give; raife in his breaft the moft exalted
ideas of virtue, and the nobleft {corn of every thing mean
and unmanly ; but you may fully expeé, that when he
comes into the world, he will find himfelf deficient in one
{pecies of knowledge at leatt—the knowledge of real life :
and though he know vice is deteftable, and might not be
in danger of feduétion, if he could always {ee it in its pro-
per colours; yet, having never been initiated into the
myfleries of lik and manners, nor having had any oppor-
tunity of tracing the difguifes of the human heart, he will
not be able, in many cafes that mult neceffarily occur, to
diltinguifh truth from falfehood. Befides, what will be
the furprife of the youth educated under the domettic roof,
and who has heard nothing of virtue and vice, but deferip-
tions of the excellence of the one and the hideoufnefs of

the

SCHOOLS.

the other, when he comes into the world and finds the young
man of fafhion, who is careffed by all around him, and
who is efteemed perhaps the moft agreeable man in all com-
panies, but who, on a nearer infpeétion, is found to be im-
merfed in every fpecies of debauchery? Will he not
naturally afk, have I not been deceived; can the account
of things which has been given to me been a fair and true
account? Is vice fo hideous and deteftable in its nature as
has been reprefented? ‘“ Depend upon it,” fays an ani-
mated writer on the fubjeét, “ this is the language of nature,
and a much more eloquent kind of language than the dead
letter of a clofet le€ture. And though fuch pleadings in
favour of vice are too apt to find a paflage into every
youthful breaft, yet I fhould think they would faften the
mott eafily on the moft inexperienced—on thofe who have
been the leaft accuftomed to develope the gloffes of the
human heart. Deprived of experience, what other crite-
rion can the raw youth fubftitute in its room, to feparate
appearances from realities? Wholly unverfed in the ways
of men, he is continually miftaking one thing for another—
forming improper conne¢tions—or giving way in an un-
guarded hour—or gliding into undue compliances: and
thefe falfe fteps, which he may be led into through igno-
rance, may end at laft in the total extinGtion of virtue. It
is inconceivable how foon the inexperienced mind may flide
into frail indulgences. The habit of virtue cannot be
formed in a clofet. Habits are formed by ats of reafon,
in a perfevering ftruggle through temptation. The do-
mettic youth has never been put to proof. His paftions are
not fubdued ; they are afleep, and have never been awakened.
Roufe them by temptation, and you will fee what hold
your leffons have obtained. Whereas, he who is early ini-
tiated into life, and manners, is naturalized to the foil by
degrees, and is certainly better able to fuftain the varieties
of the climate.”? But it is faid, that in a private educa-
tion it is not neceffary that the knowledge of the world
fhould be entirely left out of the domettic courfe of inftruc-
tion. We may take a thoufand opportunities to inftru&
the pupil, in the moft retired fituation, in the characters of
men,—to inform him of the various deceits he muft expect
to find, and to warn him that he muft not fuppofe every
thing is virtue which is carefled, but look upon the world
and its various actors with a jealous eye. ‘This being ad-
mitted, {ill we all know, that after the moft iaborious
efforts, we may have omitted in our defcriptions thofe
very chara¢ters, which the pupil fecluded from the world
may firft meet with when he enters into its active f{cenes,
and thus with the utmoft preparation he will at the onfet be
unprepared for the conte(t, in which he will neceffarily be
called toengage, For the colours of men are fo various and
fo changeable, that we might with equal eafe fix the precife
tinge af each drop in the fhower that floats by in the fun-
beam, as chara¢terife, by defcription, the various arts and
fubterfuges and gloffes of mankind. They can only be
known by experience, And he muft ftand the befl chance
to obtain a proficiency, who has been early introduced to
the world in miniature—has made his own obfervations—and
from his own experience, and little errors, has formed
within himfelf that watchful temper, which is the beft
fecurity of morals. Human nature is ever the fame. ‘The
boy fees at fchool what he afterwards finds prattifed in the
world, The fcale is only more enlarged; and the mode of
refinement fomew!at more delicate; and though it cannot
be fuppofed that his knowledge of mankind can be at all
matured; yet he has gotten, at leaft, the grammar of the
world by heart; and will be able to apply very many of
his rules, when he comes to read its living authors at large.

Again, though in the beft {chools, and in {pite of every
attention, there be too little of what are denominated the
delicacies of moral feeling, yet it is allumed by the friends to
{chool-education, that in a certain degree the knowledge of
vice may be ufeful. The education of a fchool, conftituted
as the world is, would be imperfe& without it. « Here,’
fays Mr. Gilpin, in his excellent dialogue on the fubje&s
“¢ we fee, and learn to avoid thofe evils which will foon in-
fallibly furround us. Nay, vice itfelf, when properly cor-
reéted, is an excellent preacher. The infliGion of fhame
and punifhment to others, enforces the virtuous habit more
ftrongly, perhaps, than a leffon of virtue on ourfelves ;

‘* Teneros animos aliena opprobria fxpe,
Abfterrent vitiis.””

By living examples the mafter points out the inftruGion ;
and, in a manner, realizes morality. Precept and example
are joined together. The former, without the latter, wants
life and fpirit.”’

Horace, {peaking of his own education, fays, his father
fent him to one of the beft fchools in Rome, and prefided
himfelf over his education, inftru@ing him in morals by
pointing out to him the good or bad qualities of his com-
panions, and fhewing him the confequences of their ations.
Whereas a private education muft need want that variety of
examples, which a more public one is able to furnifh; at
leaft it wants an intimate acquaintance with that variety ©:
circumftances, on which every charaéter is formed, and
from which almott every action receives its denomination. _

The advocates for a public, in preference to a private
education, affirm that the temper of a lad is not more im-
proved by a fchool education than his aétivity and fpirit.
What, fay they, would become of Old England’s glory,
if all her fons fhould be nurfed in the effeminacies of a par-
lour? Where would be that hardinefs—that undaunted
{pirit—that love of eaterprize—that fearleAnefs of danger—
and, in fhort, that manlinefs which is fit for all the offices
of fociety, and which is early acquired by buftling in a
crowd? Thefe alfo aflume, that high prinerples of trot
are better inculcated in public. The friendfhips, quarrels,
and various intercourfe among boys, afford a thoufand op-
portunities of exhibiting and improving fuch principles,
which cannot be had in private. The emulation of glori-
ous deeds infpires them more ftrongly in a crowd at ae :
tators; and the pulfe of honour of courfe beats higher.

It is farther “afked, if it be not a matter of great im-
portance to inculcate ideas of fociety; and te imbue the
mind with early notions of fubmiffion to authority and
government. Morcover, at {chool a boy gets fome idea of
that dependence, which the feveral parts of a community
have on each other. He fees the beauty of order, the
utility of law, and the neceflity of good government.
School hours, and fchool privileges, have a favourable ten-
dency alfo to imprefs upon him a love of liberty, of the
value of which a youth brought up at home cannot form an
idea. He may have leflons on all thefe fubje&s, but fuch
leffons muit ever be inferior to a real intercourfe with life,
feeing with his own eyes, and obtaining knowledge by ex-
perience.

Such feem to be the chief arguments in favour of the
different modes of education ; but it is impoffible, as we ob-
ferved in the outfet, to come to any general conclufions.
It is admitted on all hands, that there are many cafes in which
a youth cannot be trufted to a large {chool ; there is, how-
ever, a confiderable difcordance oF opinion as to the parti-
cular fubje&ts which may, and which may not, be fent to
{chool. Dr. Knox and Dr. Barrow enumerate among the

number

SCHOOLS.

number not to be entrufted to a large fchool, thofe whofe
difpofitions are meek, who have a natural weakne(s of under-
ftanding, bodily infirmity, or who, unfortunately, have any
natural defeéts. Boys, fay the learned doors, in thefe
circumftances fhould be treated like thofe tender plants
which, unable to bear the weather, are placed under glaffes,
and in the fhelter of a greenhoufe. The oak will fiourifh
beft in open expofure. But Dr. Paley, on the fame fubje@,
fays; ** With a view to the particular frame and tendency
of the pupil’s charaGer, I would make choice of a public
or private education. The referved, timid, and indolent,
will have their faculties called forth, and their nerves exerted
and invigorated by a public education. Youth of ftrong
{pirits and paffions will be fafer in a private education.”?—
“ At our public fchools,” he adds, ‘as far as I have obferved,
more literature is acquired, and more vice ; under private
tuition, a moderate proficiency in juvenile learning is feldom
exceeded, but oftener attained.’’ : .
In Mr. Gilpin’s dialogue on education, fir Nathanael
Digby, having heard the chief arguments on the fubje& ad-
vanced by lord Somers and archbifhop Tennifon, is made to
fay, ‘* That there was too much argument on both fides of
the queftion to give up either. My lord prefident, (faid
he,} has fhewn fo ftrongly the neceffity of an early intro-
duétion to the world, that I think it cannot be overlooked
in education. At the fame time, turning to me, you have
pointed out fo many grofs corruptions in the general manage-
ment of {chools, that I think we muft be very wary how we
truft our children in any of them. Let me then propofe a
compromife. Chufe the moft virtuous fchool you can,
where the head is not negleéted; but where the heart is
more attended to, and where religion is made more an object
than learning. Here let your boy continue till he be twelve
or thirteen ; in five or fix years he will have fhaken off the
ideas of the nurfery ; and have gained fome knowledge both
of the world and of himfelf. About that time, fooner or
later, his paffioris begin to rife, and that is the critical period
when I confider the vices of fchools both in the way of
knavery and fenfuality to be moft mifchievous. Hitherto
they have made little impreffion. This is the time then,
(appl ing himfelf to Dr. Tennifon,) when your fcheme
uld take place. If you can find a good tutor, you will
certainly, by placing your fon under him, I think, reap
the advantage in point of morals, and in my opinion in point
of learning alfo. I know not, (added he,) what you claffical
gentlemen may think, but it appears to me a very great
waite of time, to lay it out on acquiring the proprieties
and re cm of a dead language, which is nearly all that
our public fchools profefe. For myfelf, I own, freely, I
loft much time in thofe purfuits, which I have fince found
of little or no advantage to me. In my time I could have
made Latin verfes with any boy of my ftanding, and could
have compofed, at leaft as I then ty in pure Ciceronian
ftyle. Att prefent, for want of ufing faculties which I never
had any ufe for, I thould be etiam’ of thewing either fuch
verfes, or fuch Latin, as I could now write, to the lads of
any of the upper forms of our great {chools. If a youth
can read and underftand a dead language, it feems to me all
that is neceflary. At the age of thirteen or fourteen, his
mind fhould therefore be opened by knowledge, and this will
certainly be effected better by the application of a tutor
than the beft grammar-fchool.”” See Locke, Barrow, and
Knox, on Education, and Gilpin’s Dialogues. To Barrow
and Gilpin the foregoing swtiele is much indebted.
Senoors, Charity, are thofe {chools which are fet apart
by _— contributions, or private donations, for the in-
ot. XXXI.

ftru€tion of poor children, who could not otherwife enjoy
the benefits of education. Inno country are thefe more
numerous than in our own; neverthelefs, froma report made
to parliament a few years fince by Mr. Rofe, it fhould feem
that only a {mall part of the children who aétually ftand in
need of gratuitous education, can enjoy its benefits. By
the returns made under Mr. Rofe’s a€ in the year 1803,
comprifing very nearly the whole of England and Wales, it
appeared that the number of children out of the workhoufe,
between five and fourteen years of age, who have been the
fubjeéts of parifh relief, was 188,794; whereas the number
of thofe who had enjoyed the benefit of {chools of induttry,
receiving education, amounted only to 20,336, being lefs

“than the ninth part of the number actually receiving paro-

chial relief.

The defign of fetting up fchools for the inftruétion of
children of the meaneft and pooreit of the people, was begun
in the year 1698. What now has diffufed itfelf through the
whole nation, fprung from a very {mall feed, which was
firft planted in London, and which, by the bleffing of
heaven, has, in a wonderful manner, increafed. This cha-
ritable defign, which originated in the kindnefs of indi-
viduals, was, in London, taken up on a more extenfive
{cale ; a great number of parifhes affociated together; truflees
were chofen in each diftri& to overlook the management of
the mafters and miftrefles, and to preferibe rules and orders
for the government of each fchool ; treafurers were alfo ap-
pointed, to whom all contributions might be paid, and who
were, under the direCtion of auditors, to make up accounts
of all money received and difburfed. The children, befides
being inftruéted in the elementary branches of education,
and in the fundamental principles of religion, are all clothed
at the expence of the truftees and fubferibers, and when
they have been taught to read, write, and ca{t accounts, they
are either put out to fervice or to fome handicraft trade.
The girls are likewife inflruéted in fuch duties as may fit
them for fervice. Thefe fchools almoft immediately became
favourites with the public, and in the year 1700 it was
thought neceflary that the truftees fhould be formed into
a voluntary fociety, and that a chairman fhould be ele&ted to
prefide at the meetings of the truftees as often as occafion
fhould render it neceflary. Thefe meetings have regularly
been continued till this time, where orders from time to
time have been by the majority of votes agreed upon, and in
1729 rules and orders for the better regulation of the fchools
were recommended by feveral truftees of the fchools in the
country, which being laid before the archbifhops and bifhops
of the feveral diocefes in the kingdom, they were approved
and ettablifhed by their fignatures. Tf thefe orders,’
which are pretty generally known, ‘be candidly confidered,
there is no room for the objections that are commonly made
againit the charity-fchools ; and it muft be a Prom atisfac-
tion to thofe who have engaged in this ufeful defign, that
out of fo great a number of children as have been thus
educated, there is but one inftance that any of them have
been conviéted of any crime ; and this perfon, being
tranfported, was fo far influenced by the early principles of
his sated, as to be fo completely reclaimed, that he be-
came a very induftrious and fober man, and was fo fenfible
of the benefit of his education, that being in good circum-
{tances, he was an annual contributor to the {chool in which
he was educated.”” In fome {chools, both in London and
the country, where the benefaétions will allow it, the children
are fed debits and in thefe the children of both fexes
are inured to labour, and the profit of their work applied
towards their maintenance ; in moft of the country-fchools,

4 R the

SCHOOLS.

the children in the time of harvelt may be abfent from fchool
for a certain period, either for the purpofes of gleaning, or
for affilting in the labours of the field.

Thefe fehools are fupported by voluntary contributions
in every parifh and ward; they have no obligatory fupport
from the laws, nor from the government, and therefore they
may be faid to exhibit a pleafing reprefentation of the
Britith charaéter, which feels the neceflity of educating
and clothing the children of poor neighbours, while it
enjoys the important benefit of inftruétion and comfort for
Ms own.

The numbers who are taught in thefe fchools of Lendon,
Weltmintter, Southwark, &c. are not lefs than 5000. The
combination of all thefe {chools in one view was an extraor-
dinary effort of mind endowed with benevolence, and a fore-
knowledge of the probable effets: this may be traced back
more than a century. In 1713, out of 2250 youths who
had been placed as apprentices and fervants from thefe
fchools, more than 1400 aflembled at St. Bride’s church, in
which a fermon was preached before them from the words
* When my father and mother forfake me, the Lord will
take me up.”? In the year 1716, about 4800 children at-
tended on the anniverfary of the charity-fchools at St.
Sepulchre’s church. From the falutary effe€ts of thefe
meetings, the moft affecting fpeGtacle of modern times has
become a part of the plan of this fociety: the truftees are
denominated the ‘ Patrons of the Anniverfary of the
Charity-fchools.”” They are fanétioned by the dean and
chapter of St. Paul’s, and are allowed tlie ufe of that church
annually in the month of May, where feats are erected under
the dome for the reception of feven thoufand children, with

their maiters, matrons, guardians, &c. A temporary defi
and pulpit are alfo erected, in which the fervice is performed ;
the children join by finging appropriate pfalms, with the
Gloria Patri: thefe numerous voices, led by the mufic
matter, on whom all their eyes are fixed, while he beats
time, afcend.the dome, and vibrate through

“© The long drawn aifles and fretted vaults,”
while the
“ Pealing organ {wells the note of praife.’’

“ No language,’ fays Mr. Malcolm, in the Anecdotes
of London, ‘is adequate to convey the idea of this almoft
celeftial choir. The valt crowd of fpeétators which aflemble
in the church by tickets on this occafion froin year to year,
and the ‘colleétions made at the doors, prove the fenfation
which this juvenile aflembly has upon the public mind.’?
It is, however, to be regretted, that out of the fum col-
lected, fo fmall a part can be appropriated to the charity ;
feven-eighths of the whole are expended in ere&ting and
clearing away the fcaffold, and other neceflary expences ;
in the year 1808 the receipts amounted to 972/. 13s. 10d.,
and the whole expenditure to 824/. 11s. 4d., leaving a
balance of only 148/. 2s. 6d. for the ufe of the fchools.

Befides thefe affociated charity {chools, there are, no
doubt, in the united kingdom feveral hundred others which
are feparate and independent inftitutions ; inthe year 1793 a
fummary view of the number of charity-fchools in Great
Britain and Ireland was publifhed, by which it appeared,
from the beft information that could be obtained, that there
were, at that period

Schools. Boys. Girls.
In London - - - 182 affording education, &c. to 4442 and 2870
In other parts of South Britain 1329 - - - - - 19506 3915
In North Britain - - 135 - - - - - 5187 2618
In tears for teaching to read 168 E fe F n 2406 rahe
and writeonly - -
In Ireland, ere&ted by charter, )
for inttruéting, employing, |
and maintaining the children, $ 42 - - - - - 1935
exclufive of the Dublin work-
houfe {chool - - J
Total of fchools 1856 Total of children 33476 10003

Scuoots, Sunday, are another fpecies of charity-fchools,
inftituted about thirty-five years ago, and which are now
very common in almoft every town and village in Great
Britain. That this inftitution is of very great importance
to the interefts of a country, will not be denied by thofe
who admit of a clofe conneétion between morals and educa-
tion. The original founder of thefe fchools was Robert
Raikes, efq. of Painfwic, in Gloucetterfhire, who faw with
regret that the inititution of Sunday, as a day of reft, in-
tended for the moft benevolent purpofes, had in many cafes
a ea unfavourable effe€t on the morals of people: he
therefore concluded, that the day might be made truly
beneficial, if its hours, or a part of them, could be devoted
to the inftruétion of children in reading and other elemen-
tary principles of education. This plan would, at leatt,

referve the children of the poor from {pending the day in
idlenefs, and of confequence in diffipation and vice ; and at
the fame time enable them to lay in, for the comfort of a
future life, a ftock of ufeful knowledge and virtuous prin-
ciples, which, if negleéted in early life, will perhaps never

be fought after amidft the hurry of bufinefs, and the cares
and temptations of the world. The fcheme, firft attempted
at Pai:f{wic, was foon carried into execution in the city of
Gloucefter, and from thence very quickly extended itfelf to
every part of the kingdom. The plan recommended itfelf
from its cheapnefs as well as utility : a feparate building, in
moft cafes, is not neceflary ; the church, or chapel, or meet-
ing, affording accommodation for the purpole; and young
perfons of from fifteen to twenty, who themfelves had en-
joyed the advantages of a good education, found employ-
ment for the exertion of their faculties, in becoming, with-
out fee or reward, the inftru€tors of the poor, who itood
in need of their help. It is not poflible to afcertain the
numbers of children who have received, in this way, the
elements of inftruétion. Jn many cafes we have known
that from Sunday fchools have rites f{chools on an enlarged
and more beneficial plan, which have been intended to re-
ceive, into a houfe for maintenance, a certain number who
have beft improved by their weekly leflons.. In favour of
the inftitution of Sunday fchools, it may be obferved a

r.

SCHOOLS.

Mr. Raikes, the founder, has left on record, that during a
period of twenty years, fince the firft eftablifhment ef Sun-
day {chools at Gloucefter, about. 3000 children had re-
ceived education there ; and, though he had regularly vifited
the city and county gaols, he had only met, during that
period, with one initance of criminality, in any of the 3000
perfons.

It has been obferved, that {chools of this kind were foon
fpread over almoft the whole kingdom, and their utility and
importance excited a ready liberality towards their fupport :
but many were eftablifhed in very {mall and remote diftrifs;
and after a ftruggle for want of patronage, and that kind
of notice which always.aéts as a ftimulus, even in cafes
where, in fa&, a ftimulus fhould not be neceflary, they
feemed to be on the decline. A foftering hand was necef-
fary to uphold and fupport the declining caufe. The be-
nevolence of the capital, which is ever active, was therefore
folicited for their encouragement and prefervation, and for
the fupply of fuch books as were neceflary towards their
progrefs. This led to the inftitution, in the year 1785, of
the Sunday-fchool fociety, the obje&t ef which was to pro-
moté, by correfpondence, and effe€tual communication and
pecuniary affiftance, the e‘tablifhment of Sunday fchools in
all parts of the country ; to induce the opulent, and thofe
who are in eafy circumftances, to vifit and fuperintend the
education of the young, and to fuggeft fuch improvements
as may occur to them; to provide {pelling books, tefta-
ments, bibles, &c. for the ufe of the fcholars; to direct
that all the fcholars attend fome place of worfhip every
Sunday, fuch as their parents approve; that they be clean
in their drefs, and decent in their behaviour ; and during the
intervals of the day, that they be taught to read the bible,
&ec. The fuccefs of this inftitution has extended its bene-
fits to every part of the united kingdom.

The objects of this charity are poor children of each fex ;
and during the firft fourteen years inwhich the fociety exifted,
nearly 3000 f{chools were eftablifhed, and 246,724 {cholars
inftru&ed in them: the books diftributed were 249,896
{pelling-books, 55,881 teltaments, and 7,423 bibles; and
to fchools that {tood in need of pecuniary afliftance, the fum
of 4165/. 12s. 4d. had been advanced.

Scnoots for the Poor, on the Plan of Lancafter and Dr.
Bell. In the year 1789, Dr. Bell, then a chaplain to the
Eaft India Company, undertook the management of a cha-
rity {chool eftablifhed at Madras under the name of the Male
Afylum. Befides himfelf, he had affiftants or under-mafters
to affit him. The number educated in the fchool, at the
time in which he left the Eaft Indies, in 1796, was on the
average 200. Previoufly to the commencement of his fuper-
intendance, Dr. Bell had frequently obferved the va{t ad-
vantages attending the mode of teaching by writing in fand,
prattifed from time immemorial in all the native {chools of
Malabar. He therefore refolved to adopt the practice in
the afylum ; but he met with many difficulties from the con-
firmed habits of his teachers, who were grown up men, and
on that account he had recourfe to the ce of teaching by
the elder boys, whofe habits and prejudices were eafily over-
come, and whom he was enabled, with little difficulty, to
qualify as inftruétors to the reft. In adopting this ex-

jent, he, in faét, only did fyltematically what is more or
efs done in almolt all fchools in Europe, and in fome very
regularly. It will, however, be readily admitted, that Dr.
Bell’s method was more entire and fyftematic, and that he
made ufe of the boys, inftead of adult teachers, with a view
to overcome a {pecific difficulty, viz. the prejudices of the
latter againft the writing in fand, and their unfitnefy to in-
troduce it. Hence, it 1s quite evident, that we owe a great

.is {till greater.

improvement in education to Dr. Bell. In the year 1794,
this gentleman gave the firft publication on the fubje& to
the world, under the title of «« An Experiment in Education,
made at the Male Afylum of Madras, fuggefting a fyftem,
by which a fchool or a family may teach itfelf, under the
fuperintendance of the mafter or parent.’? This being the
foundation of the plan, of which the fand-writing may now
be faid merely to conftitute one of the additional details, or
partial improvements, one other improvement of a fimilar
defcription was added by Dr. Bell. He introduced a mode
of reading and pronouncing by fyllables, inftead of the
common way—thus teaching the art of {pelling with addi-
tional eafe and acwiracy. Having inftru¢ted the elder and
more intelligent lads in this art as well as that of fand-writ-
ing, they were found perfe@ly capable of communicating it
to the reft. All other branches of knowledge were taught
in the common way. In1797 Dr. Bell returned to Eng-
land, publifhed the pamphlet above alluded to, and then re-
tired into the country upon an obfcure living at Swanage, in
the county of Dorfet.

In the year 1798, Mr. Jofeph Lancafter brought into
practice the plan which had been fuggetted by Dr. Bell.
We mean to avoid, as much as poflible, entering into the con-
treverfy which has fubfifted between the adherents of Dr.
Bell and Mr. Lancafter, as to the praife of invention. Our
chief obje& is to explain the principles on which both
{chemes are conducted. The fy{tem itfelf, to whomfoever
the merit of invention, or of bringing it into practice belongs,
is calculated to promote a cheap, rapid, and eafy diffufion of
knowledge in an unprecedented degree. By tating, as we
{hall now itate, the methods adopted by J. Lancafter, we
give our readers a competent idea of the new fyitem. What
appears to us the radical difference between the practice of the
{chools conduéted by the followers of Lancaiter and thofe
of Dr. Bell, is, that the former teach the bible, and allow
the children of all feéts the benefits of education, obliging
them to attend on the Sunday in fome place of werfhip, but
no particular place is prefcribed: whereas at the {chools
under the fuperintendance of Dr. Bell, the church catechifm
mutt be learnt by each fcholar, and each {cholar is obliged
to attend the fervice, as performed at the church eftablifhed
by law. The one aims at making the young, Chrittians ; the
other offers proteétion and infiruétion to none bur thofe
who are willing to enlift themfelves in a particular clafs of
Chriftians.

By the mode of inftruétion now to be explained, children
of the firlt or lowett clafs are taught to write the printed
alphabet, and to name the letters when they fee them. ‘The
fame is done with the figures ufed in arithmetic. One day
the boy traces the form of the letter, or figure, the next
day he tells the name, when he fees the letter. Thefe two
methods aflift each other. In the fame manner he learns
fyllables and words, writing them one day and reading them
A: next. This progrefs being made, the clafs, perhaps of
20 or 30, go up to read: while one boy isreading, fome
word is given out by the monitor, which is to be written
down, fyllable by fyllable, by all the other boys of the clafi,
which writing being examined by the monitor, another word
is given out for the fame purpofe. So that when one boy
iy reading; all the others in the fame clafs are, at the fame
time, writing and f{pelling ; but by the old method, only
one was iiployed and the others were idle.

Boys of the firlt and fecond clafs write in fand ; the next,
having made a certain progrefs, are allowed the ule of {lates ;
and the upper boys are entrufted with paper and ink. This
is a great faving in point of expence ; but in books the faving
Twenty or thirty boys fland round a card

eh Sa fufpended

SCHOOLS.

fufpended to @ nail; and on this card are printed the letters
in avery large character: thefe letters the boys are to name,
at the requett of the monitor. When boys of one fpelling clafs
have faid their leflons in this manner, they are difpatched to
fome other occupation, and thofe of another fpelling clafs fuc-
ceed. In this manner one book or one card may ferve 200 boys,
who would, according to the common method, have had a
book each. In the fame way, fyllables and reading leflons
are printed on cards, and ufed with the fame beneficial
economy. A fimilar method is adopted with regard to
arithmetic ; fo that in a fchool of a thoufand children, few
books are wanting.

In a {chool of this fort nothing can be done without a
mott precife attention to order, and in this part of his plan,
which feems to be enttrely his own, Mr. Lancafter has been
eminently fuccefsful, by contriving to make the method and
arrangement (fo neceflary to his inftitution) a fource of
amufement to the children. In coming to, and going out
of fchool, and in moving in their clafles from one part of
the {chool to another, the children move in a kind of mea-
fured pace, and to known places, according to their zumber,
of which every boy has one. Upon the firft inftitution of
the fchool, there were a great lofs and confufion of hats:
now, when every boy has taken his proper and known place,
they all ftand up, expeéting the word of command * fling
your hats;’”? upon which they immediately fufpend their
hats round their necks, by a {tring provided for that pur-

ofe. When the young children write in fand, they all
Bok attentively to their monitor, waiting for the word, and
in{tantly fall to work, with the utmott precifion. All thefe
little inventions keep children in a conftant ftate of. activity,
prevent the liftlefsnefs fo obfervable in all other inftitutions
for education, and evince an original and obferving mind in
him who invented them.

* The children aflembled round their reading or arithme-
tical cards take pluces as in common {chools. The boy who
is at the head of the clafs wears a ticket with a fuitable in-
{cription. The ticket-bearer is obliged to yield his badge
of honour to any one who can excel him; and the defire of
obtaining, and the fear of lofing the mark of diftinétion,
create, as may eafily be conceived, no common degree of
enterprize and exertion. The children have a prize when
they are moved from one clafs to another. Thofe that are
appointed to teach cthers are called monitors: they are in
the proportion of one to about ten; fo that 1ooo children
may be managed by one fuperintendant; the reft of the
teaching is all done by the boys themfelves. Befides moni-
tors for inftruétion, there are other monitors for general
purpofes, fuch as infpeétors of flates, infpectors of abfen-
tees, &c.

The improvements, then, of this new fyftem of education
over the old, confifts in the cheapnefs of the fchools, the ac-
tivity of the boys, and alfo their order, and their emulation.
The reading, cyphering, and {pelling cards, fufpended for the
ufe of two or three hundred boys; the employment of fand
and flates, inftead of pens and ink ; and particularly of moni-
tors, inftead of ufhers; mutt, in iarge feminaries, conttitute an
immenfe faving. ‘* The introduction of monitors,” fays a
writer on the fubjeé&t, ‘ an extremely important part of the
whole {cheme, is as great an improvement in fchools, as the
introduCtion of non-commiffioned officers would be in an army,
which had before heen governed only by captains, majors,
and colouels: they give that conftant and minute attention
to the operations of the mafs, without which the general
and occafional fuperintendance of fuperiors is wholly ufelefs.
An uber hates his tafk, and is’ often afhamed of it; a mo-

nitor is honoured by it, and therefore loves it: he is placed,

over thofe, who, if their exertions had been fuperior to his
own, would have been placed over him; his office is the
proof of his excellence. Power is new to him, and truft
makes him truit-worthy ; a very common effect of confi-
dence, and exemplified in the moft ftriking manner in Mr.
Lancatter’s fchool. Nor is the monitor at all detained, by
teaching to others what he has already learnt ; at leaft, not
unprofitably detained ; for if a boy be at the head of the firft
ag clafs, it is clear that a delay of fix or eight weeks,
in teaching others what he has already learnt, will perfe&
him in his new acquirements, and rivet them in his memory.
The extraordinary difcipline, progrefs, and economy of this
{chool are, therefore, in a great meafure, produced by an
extraordinary number of non-commiflioned officers, ferving
without pay, and learning while they teach.”

Another recommendation of fuch fchools as we are de-
{cribing is, that every child is every moment employed. In
the clafs aflembled round the fufpended card for reading
and fpelling, the wand of the monitor pointing to a parti-
cular letter, the taking of places, the hope of obtaining an
honorary ticket, muft keep the children conftantly on the
alert. When they read, fpell, and write, at the fame time ;

or when the monitor ditates fums, it is impoffible for any —

individual to be inattentive. Such are the improvements in
this mode of educating the poor; and they haye been fo
completely carried into execution, that it is quite certain a
thoufand boys may now be educated in reading, writing,
and the firft rules in arithmetic, by one perfon, at ah expence
not exceeding 300/. per annum. A more beautiful, a more
orderly, and a more affeGting fcene than fuch a fchool, it is
not poffible to behold. The progrefs of the children is
rapid beyond belief; and it evinces, in the moft gratifying
manner, the extraordinary effects which are produced upon
the human mind by the art of cultivation.

We fhall conclude with an extra& from the “ Account of
the Female Ettablifhment of the Briuifh and Foreign School
Society,” publifhed and diftributed with thefe few days.
The Britifh and Foreign School Society is eftablifhed,
to promote the education of the labouring and manufac-
turing claffes of fociety of every religious perfuafion. It
maintains {chools on an extenfive {cale for the education of
children, according to the Britifh fyitem. It alfo trains up
young perfons of ‘both fexes to be teachers in fchools, efta-
blifhed upon the Britifh fyftem, both at home and abroad.
The children are taught reading, writing, and arithmetic,
and the girls ufeful needle-work, and the mode of cutting
out garments. The leffons for reading are taken from the
holy Scriptures ; the children are enjoined to a proper ob-
fervance of the Sabbath, and they attend the places of wor-
fhip to which their parents belong.

The management of the affairs belonging to the female
department 1s entrufted to a committee of ladies, whofe
obje& in undertaking this duty is to endeavour to excite a

eneral interett in the minds of the fex, in behalf of the
fw clafs of females. The benefits which may reafonably
be expected to arife from thefe efforts, if effectually fup-
ported, are incalculable.

The tendency of the Britifh fy{tem is to fubje& children
to habits of order and obedience ; it prepares the youthful
mind to preferve inviolate that fubordination among the
different ranks of fociety, which forms the happinefs of
each. Induttry, diligence, punétuality, and attention, are
neceffary to the operations of the fchool; and thefe qua-
lities, fo eflential to the right difcharge of all domettic
duties, are interwoven in the difcipline of education. The
children are taught to obferve all the relative and focial
duties, and are prepared to obtain their livelihood by the

12 exercife

SCHOOLS.

exercife ef their talents in honeft labour and ufeful em-

ployment.
Female fchools have been organized on the Britifh

fyftem, (now, in the year 1815,) at

Birmingham, Launcetton,
Blandford, Lewes,
Borough Road, Maiditone,
Bury St. Edmunds, Margate,
Briftol, Mary-le-bone,
Camberwell, Middleton,
Chelfea, Newcattle,
Chertfey, Norwich,
Chefterfield, Peckham,
Chichefter, Plymouth,
Clewer, Rennifhaw,
Dudley, Rofs,
Edinburgh, Rotherham,
Exeter, Sherborne,
Farnham, Shrewfbury,
Godalming, Swanfea,
Halifax, Weymouth,
Harlow, Whitby,
Hitchin, and
Ip{wich, York.

Thefe fchools colleGively contain feveral thonfand fe-
male children, and it is truly gratifying to fee mingled to-
gether, in unity as one family, the children born of parents
of every religious denomination ; who are taught alike to
love and fear God, and reverence his holy word: they thus
learn their duty to Him, to their neighbour, and to them-
felves. ,

To judge with reafon and candour concerning the refult
of this inftitution, we are led to anticipate the general re-
formation of the female world. During the laft few years,
mankind have witnefled with altonifhment the wonderful
rapidity with which education has been {pread among the
pre: Upon the ruins of negle€&t and ignorance, know-

ge and virtue have erected their habitations. Many
hearts, which would probably have been hardened in vice,
are foftened and ameliorated by inftruétion; and inftead of
becoming burthens to themfelves, and aiding the growth of

ofligate habits in others, are made happy in their own
lings, and bleffings to the public.

While contemplating thefe means for inftruGting the
ignorant, it is with i of gratitude and thankfulnefs
that it may be recorded, that of the many thoufand children
of both fexes, who have been educated during the lait fifteen
years in the Royal Free Schools in the Borough-road, no
inftance is known of even one having been charged with a
criminal offence in any court of jultice.

This faét {peaks more than volumes, and ought to ani-
mate every philanthropic mind in the benevolent employ of
communicating inftruction. At no period has the progrefs
of knowledge been fo accelerated by the higher orders of
fociety. he pious with that firft emanated from the heart
of George III., that every poor child fhould be taught to
read the bible; after infpiring the royal offspring, after
oes upon the next in rank, and inclining all to prefs
eagerly forward with the precious boon of initrution, {till
continues its animating influence.

Surely, many words cannot be neceflary to recommend
the education of girls. The moft certain means of fecuring
the morals of acountry is to poffefs a race of virtuous fe-
males. On the condu& of this fex, of whatever rank, de-
pends much of the harmony and happinefs of civilized life.
Could all be made to love virtue, (and the fteps now taking

are the only methods likely to produce fo defirable an end, )
vice, and mifery its infeparable attendant, would flee abafhed.
Many of the lower clafs of females are vicious, on/y through
ignorance and bad example. Much might be faid on the
fubje&, to aroufe the feelings of the fex of every clafs into
an endeavour to refcue the youthful part of it from de-
gradation and guilt; but it is not neceffary: for the dire
train of evils affailing all ranks from fuch a caufe are un-
happily too well known.

Scuoots for Adults. This being one of the laft attempts
at improvement among the poor, the account of it has been
referved to the conclufion of the article on charity-{chools.
Dr. Pole, the hiftorian of this inftitution, obferves, that
“a few years fince, it would have been deemed a whimfical
and chimerical projet to have collected a ichool of perfons
from twenty to eighty years of age, under the expeCtation
of being able to teach them to read; and the man who
fhould have undertaken to effeé&t this obje&, would have
fubjeGted himfelf to the ridicule of his neighbours. But
happy will it be for tens of thoufands, I truft I may fay,
that there are men whofe benevolence has induced them to
difregard the fneers of the fcornful and incredulous, and
make that experiment, which has been crowned with fuccefs
far exceeding their moft fanguine expeétatious, and opened
a moft cheering profpe& to our view, in the animating con-
templation of the moral and religious benefits capable of re-
fulting from it.”? The inftitution of fchools for the educa-
tion of adults was generally believed to have had, in this
country, its origin at Briftol ; but it is now afcertained that
the firft adult fchools were eftablifhed in North Wales.

In a letter from B. Morgans, vicar of Trelech, near
Monmouth, dated March 14, 1754, is the following certi-
ficate: ‘ This is to certify, that I. T. kept a Welth charity
fchool, in my parifh, for three months pait, with great fuc-
cefs. The fcholars in all were about one hundred; feveral
of them, before the expiration of the quarter, could fpell
and read pretty well; though they knew not the letters be-
fore. Ina fhort time after the {chool was opened, I went
to vifit it, and was agreeably furprifed to fee there an old
man, feventy-one years of age, with five other people far
advanced in years, who came there, with their little children,
to be taught to read the word of God. Some of them
were beginning their A, B,C; others could read a little.
I examined the {cholars feveral times. Some of their pa-
rents, when we had done, came to me with tears in their
eyes, deeply concerned for their own ignorance, and with
vifible joy for the improvement of their little children.
They faid, their children ufed to afk them quettions, when
they came from fchool, which they could not an{wer till
their children taught them.”

It is alfo proved that the firft fchool, exclufively for the
inftruétion of adults, was opened in North Wales, by the
benevolent efforts of Thomas Charles, A.B., Epifeopal
minifter of Bala, Merionethfhire. This commenced “ in
the fummer of 1811.’? He obferves, ‘* We had no parti-
cular fchool for their inftruétion ewclufivel, till then, though
many attended the Sunday {chools with the children, in dif.
ferent parts of the country, previous to that time. What
induced me firft to think of etablithing fuch an inftitution,
was the averfion I found in the adults to affociate with the
children in their fchools.’? This truly philanthropic man,
by way of experiment, eftablifhed one er for adults ;
and he fays, ‘ the firlt attempt fucceeded wonderfully, and
far beyond my molt fanguine expectation, and {till con-
tinues in a profperous ftate.’”

The report of the fuccefs of this {chool foon {pread over
the country, and, in many places, the illiterate adults began

to

SCHOOLS.

to inquire, and even call for inftru€tion. The adults and
children are fometimes in the fame room, but placed in dif-
ferent parts of it. When their attention is gained and fixed,
they foon learn; their age feems to make but little dif-
ference, if they are able, ‘ie the help of glaffes, to fee the
letters. In putting the plan into prattice, fays Mr. Charles,
“* as the adults have no time to lofe, we endeavour, before
they can read, to inftru@t them without delay in the firit
principles of Chriftianity. We fele& a fhort portion of
Scripture, comprifing in plain terms the leading do¢trines,
and repeat them to the learners, till they retain them in
their memories, and which they are to repeat the next time
we meet.”’

To give a clear account of the commencement of adult
{chools in England, it is neceflary to go back to the year
1804, when the Britifh and Foreign Bible Society was
founded in London. (See Society.) Subfequently to
the formation of this inftitution, auxiliary focieties were
eftablifhed, the more effeGtually to carry into effe& the bene-
ficial purpofes of the original inftitution. One of thefe was
formed in the city of Briftol; and as the minds of its mem-
bers were now employed in devifing the beft means of dif-
covering thofe individuals among the poor, who were not in
poffeffion of the facred Scriptures, in order to fupply them,
it was found requifite to eftablifh a fubordinate inftitution,
chiefly compofed of ferious and well-inclined young men, of
whom a committee divided the city in fifteen diltricts, and
appointed fub-committees, whofe bufinefs was to explore
the ftreets, the lanes, and the courts—to enter the habita-
tions of the poor, the cottages of mifery, and the chambers
ef wretchednefs. Among the almoft unnumbered objects
who excited their fympathy and Chriftian commiferation,
they met with many who could not read the bible. On the
13th of February 1812, at the anniverfary of the Briftol
Auxiliary Bible Society, a letter was read, in which a lift
was made out, containing the names of perfons who did not
ee the holy Scriptures. This letter contained the fol-
owing fentence: ‘ We have been neceflarily obliged to
omit a great number of poor inhabitants who could not
read, and are therefore not likely to be benefited by the
pofleffion of the bible.’ This attracted the attention, and
awakened the commiferation of Mr. William Smith, who
from that moment fet his heart to remedy the evil ; and the
next day he entered upon this new field of exertion. Hav-
ing fele&ted two friends, they went round among the poor
of one of the out-parifhes of Briftol, to take down the
names of thofe who were willing to fubfcribe {mall weekly
fums, for purchafing the bibie at very reduced prices;
rightly judging, that thofe who purchafe a book are more
likely to take pains in reading it, than thofe to whom it is
given. Many individuals, to whom the application was
made, replied, ‘* I fhould be very glad to have a bible, but
it will be of no ufe to me; I cannot read.’? This led to the
opportunity of afking if they would like to learn to read,
provided a fchool were opened for the purpofe. Almoft all
of them embraced the offer with expreflions of pleafure.
‘Their names were immediately taken down, and the firft
man who entered his name on the lifts of learners was aged
fixty-three, and the firit woman forty. Two rooms free of
expence were obtained, and two perfons, who had been
formerly employed in teaching in charity-fchools for chil-
dren, were applied to, and undertook to conduc the two
{chools, one for men, and one for women. Notice was
now given among the poor of the fame parifh, that it was
intended to open the propofed {chools on the eighth of the
following month, On that day, that is, withia three weeks
of the time when the idea came into the founder’s mind, the

{chools were opened with eleven men and ten women. The
numbers quickly increafed, until the rooms were filled.
‘¢ The learners,” fays Dr. Pole, ‘ foon evinced not only a
defire, but a capability, of learning ; their rogrefs was en~
couraging to Phemfelvea and to the teachers; their con-
duc was orderly and becoming ; their perfonal cleanlinefs
beyond what might have been expeéted of people in ve
humble ftations in life ; they likewife demonitrated no fm
fhare of gratitude for the friendly and benevolent exertions
made for their benefit ; and that too by individuals, to whom
they could not have looked up with a hope of their becom-
ing the benefa&tors of the poor. The fuccefsful exertions
of William Smith have proved him to be a well-wifher to his
country, and to mankind at large ; and itrikingly evince to
us, that neither an humble ftation in life, nor the want of
an extended education, preclude the fincere Chriftian from
important ufefulnefs to his fellow-creatures. This eftimable
man, who, through Divine Providence, has been made fo
great a bleffing to the indigent in fociety, occupies a rank in
life no higher than that of a door-keeper of a diffenting
chapel in this city, for a falary of eighteen thillings per
week ; out of which he pays three fhillings, to have a part
of his work done by another perfon, for the purpofe of fet-
ting himfelf more at liberty to perform the duties di€ated
by that Chriftian philanthropy which animates his heart, and
guides his footfteps to the haunts of forrow, the abodes of
ficknefs and of want. This is the perfon who colleéted the
learners, engaged the teachers, and opened the two firft
{chools in England for inftru€ting adults exclufively, in bor-
rowed rooms, and with borrowed books. The fuccefs at-
tending this new undertaking was, unqueltionably, moit
gratifying to the mind of Smith, and of thofe humble indi-
viduals whom he inlifted in the fervice : this encouraged him
to Jook out for other apartments in the fame neighbourhood,
for the reception and inftruétion of thofe who were daily
coming forward with folicitations to be admitted as learners ;
as the defire of learning to read the Scriptures was now
{preading from {treet to ftreet, and from parifh to parifh,
Thus commenced the fchools for adults in Briftol, in the
benevolent exertions of a poor, humble, and almoft unlet-
tered individual, whofe example foon excited fimilar feelin
of Chrittian philanthropy in the minds of many others, dif-
pofed to patronize a defign that affords a bright profpe& of
advantage to the poor, as well as to the moral, political,
and religious ftate of the community at large; and which
promifes, under the direétion of the Supreme Controller of
events, to become a very important means of inculcating
the great truths of Chriftianity amongit thofe clafles of our
fellow-creatures, who have been hitherto unhappily ne-
glected, and fuffered to remain in a {tate of ania de-
gradation and moral turpitude.”

In the courfe of a few weeks after the eftablifhment of
the two firlt {chools, a fociety was formed by Mr. Smith,
and other patriotic perfons, under the title of « An Infti-
tution for inftru@ing Adult Perfons to read the Holy
Scriptures ;”? and within fourteen months from the com-
mencement, there were nine {chools opened for men, and
the fame number for women; during which, 601 men and
women had been benefited by gratuitous inftru€tion. The
efforts of this fociety having been attended with confiderable
fuccefs, in refpe&t to the progrefs made by learners, as well
as, in many initances, in the evident improvement of their
moral charaéter, afforded no {mall degree of encouragement
to thofe who had been employed in this new field of ufeful
labour, and to the occafional, but numerous, vifitors who
came to the {chools, either out of curiofity, or to gain the
requifite information as to their plans of proceeding, for the

purpofe

S.C H

purpofe of eftablifhing fimilar inftitutions in other parts of
the country.

At the commencement of the year 1814, the fchools in
Briftol were increafed to twenty-one for men, and twenty-
three for women, befides two others out of the city ; and
the number of adults who had been admitted into them was
more than 1500. There were likewife, in the fame city,
four other adult fchools, not under the jurifdi€tion of the
Briftol Adult School Society, into which more than 300
perfons had been admitted.

« From information received,”? fays Dr. Pole, “ it ap-
pears that adult fchools are now opened in various parts of
the nation; and according to accounts tranfmitted by per-
fons who have taken an intereft therein, they are uniformly
attended with the fame fuccefs as in this city. In moft of
the places where fchools are eftablifhed, many perfons of
opulence and influence have patronized the undertakings.
In the town of Plymouth, in the county of Devon, a public
meeting was convened, on the 14th of the 12th month
lait (1813), in the Town-hall, at which the mayor pre-
fided: a confiderable number of the moft refpectable in-
habitants attended, which refulted in a conclufion to eftablifh
« A Society for teaching the adult poor within the bo-
rough of Plymouth; and that the inftitution fhall alfo em-
brace thofe of the rifing generation, who may have been
apprenticed, or placed out, without being able to read.’
The requifite fteps for that purpofe were refolved upon, and
a fubfcription entered into. One fchool is alfo opened at
Bradnich, in the fame county. Schools of this kind are
likewife eftablifhed in London; Uxbridge, in Middlefex ;
Salifbury ; Sheffield, in Yorkthire ; Norwich and Yarmouth,
in the county of Norfolk ; Ipfwich, Bury, and Bungay, in
Suffolk ; in feveral parts of North Wales; at Swanfea, in
Glamorganfhire, and fome other places in South Wales.”

The conduGtors of the adult fchools, who have had ex-
perience of their efficacy, are decidedly of opinion, that
thofe inftitutions are not likely to laft, in which the adults
are mixed with children. Perfons of mature age will feel it
particularly unpleafant to expofe their ignorance and awk-
wardnefs before the young, and will not long affociate in a
place where there is a mixture of both claffes. In the in-
ttruétion of adults there are required, in an efpecial manner,
a foftnefs of manners, a patient forbearance with the weak-
nefs of fome of their capacities, or the occafional flownefs of
their comprehenfion. Zealous and perfevering endeavours
to explain what they cannot at once under{tand, will gain
their regard, and at the fame time encourage their efforts
to overcome difficulties ; but an auftere deportment, the ufe
of authoritative language, or impatient rebuke, will have a
difcouraging tendency, and fruftrate their laudable defires,
and the objeét of their own labours.

In the courfe of application for learners in Briltol, fome
perfons have been found among the uittaught poor, who
evince a eg averfion from attending the public {chools
open for their inftruétion ; and hence it has been fuggefted
by the poet Montgomery, that private {chools might be
formed in the dwellings of the poor, where {mall companies
of neighbours acquainted with each other might be col-
leéted, for the purpofe of receiving inftruétion in a more

ivate way, from teachers of fuitable ages, and who may
ga: eb to the learners. ‘The plan has been tried, and
proved fuccefsful in Sheffield.

Such is the account of adult fchools, chiefly extracted
from Dr. Pole’s “ Hiltory of the Origin and Proatefe of
Adult Schools,’’? which we earneftly recommend to the
notice of fuch of our readers, as may require more ample
information upon a fubje¢t, that cannot but be generally

i

SCH

interefting to thofe who are anxious for the welfare and
happinefs of their fpecies. From private information we
learn, that great attention is paid to the fubjeét in America,
and in divers parts of Germany; and a defcendant of the
celebrated Bayle is about to introduce ichools for the adults
in Picardy.

Scuoor is alfo ufed for a whole faculty, univerfity, or
fe&t, as Plato’s fchool or Academy (which fee), fchool of
the Cynics (fee Cynics and Cynosarces), the fchool. cf
Epicurus (fee his biographical article), the fchool of Arif-
totle (fee ArntsrorLe and Lyceum), the fchool of Zeno,
or porch of the Stoics (fee Sroics and Zeno), &c. &c.

ScHOoL, in Painting, is ufed asa term to diftinguifh the
different manners of places and perfons.

Thus we fay, the Roman {chool, the Venetian f{chool,
the Flemifh fchool, &c. Raphael’s fchool, Titian’s {chool,
Da Vinci’s fchool, &c. meaning their difciples, pupils, &c.

ScHoor of Athens, is the name of a celebrated piece of
Raphael, now in the Vatican. It contains a great number
of figures, reprefenting philofophers, mathematicians, and
other perfons engaged in the’arts and fciences.

Several authors have written of this painting, and given
different explications of it. Vafari will have it to be the
agreement of philofophy and aftronomy with theology.

The engravers, by the infcription they add at the bottom
of the print of it, fhew, that they take it for a painting of
St. Paul preaching at Athens. And a comtine of Venice
takes the philofopher, who is writing, for St. Mark; and
him at his knees, for the angel Gabriel. M. de Piles reje&s
all thefe explications of the fchool of Athens, and efpecially
the laft: his opinion is, that it is nothing more than an
image of philofophy, which Raphael here reprefents under
all the philofophers he has painted.

In behalf of the Venetian engravers it may be faid, that
they do not pretend to explain the painting, but have only
copied fuch of the figures as they thought proper to repre-
fent, St. Mark, Gabriel, &c.

Scuoor Philofophy and Theology, &c. See ScHorastics.

Scuoots, Charity. See Cuarity, and the precedipg
article Charity ScHoots.

Scuoots of the Jews.
TIBERIAS.

Scuoots of the Prophets. ‘See Sons of the Proruets.

Scuoots of the Saracens. See SARACENS.

Scuoor, or College of Singers, eftablifhed at Rome by
St. Gregory. See Coirece, and S’. Grecory.

Scuoots of Singing, eftablifhed in England. See Brpr.

Scnoots of Ecclefiaflical Singing, after the Roman man-
ner, were eftablifhed by Charlemagne at Metz and Soiffons ;
having obtained of pope Adrian, Theodore and Benedict,
two chanters of great rains and abilities, who had been
inftruéted by Gregory himfelf, to fuperintend thefe fchools.
He likewife granted to them Antiphonaria, or choral books
of that faint, which he had written himfelf in Roman notes.

At Canterbury, the fucceffors of St. Gregory, and of
Auttin his miffionary, having eftablithed a (chool for eccle-
fiattical.mufic after the Roman manner, the rett of the ifland
was furnifhed with matters from that feminary. Indeed,
Roman mufic and finging were as much in favour here,
during the middle ages, when there were no operas, or arti-
ficial voices to captivate our countrymen, as Italian com-
pofition and performance are at prefent.

Scnoor, or Schooling, inthe Manege, is uled to fignify
the leffon and labour both of the horfe and horfeman.

A fehool pace, or gait, denotes the fame with ecoute.

SCHOOLMASTER. No perfon thall keep a {chool-
matter, who does not conitantly go to church, or |) not

allowed

See Jamnra, Massora, and

SCH

allowed by the ordinary, on pain of to/. a month; and the
fchoolmafter fhall be difabled, and fuffer a year’s imprifon-
ment. Stat. 23 Eliz. cap. 1.

Recufants are not to be {choolmatters in any public gram-
mar fchool, nor any other, unlefs the perfons be licenfed
by the bifhop, under the penalty of forfeiting gos. a-day.
B. Jac. I... 4.

By 17 Car. II. c. 2. no perfon fhall be fchoolmatter, or
take any boarders to be inftruéted by himfelf, or by any
other, without taking an oath of allegiance therein men-
tioned, on pain of 4o/.

Every {choolmafter keeping any public or private fchool,
and every tutor in any private family, fhall fubfcribe the
declaration, that he will conform to the liturgy of the
church of England, as by law eftablifhed, and be licenfed
by the ordinary, or he fhall, for the firft offence, fuffer
three months’ imprifonment ; for the fecond and every other
offence, be imprifoned three months, and forfeit 5/, &c.
13 &_14 Car. II. c. 4.

For the exemption relating to Popifh fchoolmafters, pro-
vided by ftatute, fee Papist and ToLeratrion.

By 19 Geo. III. ce no diflenting minifter, nor any
other Proteftant diffenting from the church of England,
who fhall take the oaths, and fubfcribe the declaration
againft Popery, and the other declaration enjoined by that
a& (fee Torgration), fhall be profecuted in any court
whatfoever, for teaching and aang youth as a tutor or
{choolmafter: provided, that this fhall not extend to tke
enabling any perfon, diffenting from the church of England,
to hold the mafterfhip of any college, or {chool of royal
foundation, or of any other endowed college or fchool for
the education of youth, unlefs the fame fhall have been
founded fince the firft year of king William and queen
Mary, for the immediate ufe and benefit of Proteftant dif-
ienters.

SCHOONER, in Sea Language, a {mall veflel with two
mafts and a bowfprit. The mafts rake aft, but the bow-
fprit lies nearly horizontal. On the bowfprit are fet two
or three jibs; on the foremaft a fquare forefail; and abaft
the foremaft a gaff or boomfail; and above thofe a topfail :
abaft the mainmaft fet a boomfail, and above it a topfail.
The main-ftay leads through a block, at the head of the
foremaft, and fets up upon the deck bya tackle. By thefe
means the fail abaft the forema{t is not ob{ftruéted, when
the veffel goes about, as the peak paffes under the ftay.
Schooners fail very near the wind, and require few hands
to work them. Their rigging is light, fimilar to that of a
ketch, and the topmafts fix in iron rings, abaft the lower
maft-heads.

SCHOONHOVEN, in Geography, a town of Holland,
fituated on the N. fide of the river Leek ; deriving its name
either from its good gardens or good harbour. It holds a
fourth rank among the fmall cities which had a voice in the
ftates of Holland. Its magiltracy confilts of three burgo-
matters and feven echevins, the term of whofe fervices can-
not be longer than three years. It is remarkable for its
large quantity of falmon, and {till more diltinguifhed by the
conduét of its commander in 1424, whofe name was Albert
Beyling, who being obliged to furrender, on condition that
all the lives of fifty men that defended it fhould be faved,
that of the commander excepted ; this brave man, defiring
fome refpite, was allowed a month for fettling his affairs ;
and having done this, he returned and fubmitted to his fen-
tence, in order to vindicate his honour, and fo reflecting
everlafting difgrace on his enemies.

SCHOOTEN, Francis, in Biography, an eminent
Dutch mathematician, flourifhed between the years 1627

SCH

and 1659. He was profeflor of mathematics at Leyden,
and was one of the firft who adopted the geometry of Def-
cartes, upon which he wrote a commentary. He firft
tranflated the work into the Latin language, and then pub-
lifhed it with comments. This was inthe year 1649. Ten
years afterwards he prepared a new edition, to which were
added many interefting pieces; viz. the notes of M. de
Baune ; two letters of Hudde on the reduétion of equations,
and the maxima and minima; one by Van Heuraet on the
rectification of curves; two polthumous letters of M. de
Baune on the nature and limits of equations; and the ele-
ments of curves, by De Wit. To the whole is fubjoined
a pofthumous work of his own, entitled «« De concinnandis
Demonttrationibus Geometricis ex calculo Algebraico.”
According to Montucla, this work was generally approved,
as containing every thing neceflary for underftanding the
Geometry of Defcartes, without that prolixity which is
too frequent among commentators. Schooten was the
author of a treatife, «* De Organica SeGtionum Conicarum
in Plano Defcriptione,” in which he teaches the various
methods of defcribing conic fe€tions by one continued mo-
tion. Schooten publifhed alfo ‘* Exercitationum Mathe-
maticarum Libri quinque,”’ containing among other things,
a hundred arithmetical and geometrical Tropcaeoaainile
con{truétion of fimple geometrical problems: ‘ Seétiones
Mifcellanee triginta, quibus accedit Chriltiani Hugenii
TraGtatus de Ratiociniis in Alez Ludo.”

SCHOOUBIJAH, a feé& among the Muffulmen, whofe
diftinguifhing tenet it is, that the Sonnites are not at all pre-
ferable to the Shiites, or Rafadhites, i. e. the orthodox to
the heterodox, but that both the one and the other are
equally true believers.

The Schooubiah, therefore, fhould be, properly, the la-
titudinarians in Mahometanifm; yet are they not regarded
by either party as much better than gentiles or heathens, as
their name in that language imports.

There are many among the Muflulmen, who give into
this fe&, only fecretly ; Mahometanifm, like all other falfe
religions, being an avowed enemy to toleration.

SCHOP, Jouy, in Biography, one of the firft great
players on the violin in Germany, who, in 1640 and 1644,
publifhed Paduanas, Galliards, Allemands, and thirty Con-
certos for violins; that is, according to the acceptation of
the word. Concerte, at that time, implied vocal compofi-
tions concertale, or accompanied by violins and other in-
ftruments.

SCHOPFHIM, or Scuorren, in Geography, a town of
Baden, on the Viele; 14 miles N.E. of Bale.

SCHOPKA, a river of Bohemia, which runs mto the
Elbe, near Melnik.

SCHOPLENREITH, a town of Auttria, at the con-
flux of the Marfch with the Danube ; 16 miles E. of Ent-
zerdorff.

SCHOPP, in Commerce, a liquid meafure at Francfort.
See Stuck. > Y

SCHOPPACH, in Geography, a river which runs into
the Kintzig, near Wolffach.

SCHOPPERNALU, a town of the county of Bre-
gentz; 27 miles S.E. of Bregentz.

SCHOPPINGEN, a town of Germany, ia the bifhopric
of Muntter; 4 miles W. of Horftmar.

SCHORGAST, Lupwie, a town of Bavaria, in the
bifhopric of Bamberg ; 28 miles N.E. of Bamberg. N. lat.
50° 8. E. long. 11° 39'.

Scuoreast, Markt, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric
of Bamberg ; 34 miles E.N.E. or Bamberg. N. lat. 50°

'. E. long. 11 a
" i SCHORI.-

SCH

SCHORIMENTHOPF, a river of Silefia, in the pro-
vince of Oppau, which rifes about two miles W. from Weig-
itedtel, and runs S. into the Oder.

SCHORL, in Mineralogy, a mineral which is faid to
have derived its name from Schorlaw, in Saxony, where it
was firft obferved. No word hasbeen ufed by mineralogitts
with more latitude than fchorl ; according to Cronitedt it
denotes any ftone of a columnar form, with great hardnefs,
and a {pecific gravity from-3 to 3.4. Werner firit defined
the word fchorl precifely, and reftri€ted it to one {pecies of
ftones. It occurs commonly in granite, gneifs, and fimilar
rocks. The colour of common ichorl is velvet-black ; it is
found both in maffes and cryftallized. The cryftals are
three-fided prifms, having their lateral edges truncated, and
are moftly long and flender, and are either aggregated in
parallel or diverging concretions. The fra€ture is imper-
fe€tly conchoidal ; it is opaque, and fufible into a black glafs.
The hardnefs is fomewhat inferior to quartz. Hiaiiy clafles
common fchorl as a variety of tourmaline, (fee TouRMA-
LINE,) owing to the prefence of iron. Schorl does not
always acquire ele¢tricity by being heated, which is the cafe
with tourmaline.

The conitituent parts of fchorl, as given by Gerhard, are,

Silex - = = = = 38
Alumine - - - - 20
Lime - = 2 - = 20
Oxyd of iron and manganefe - 19
Lofs_ - = s 2 = 3

100

SCHORLACEOUS Beryt. See Pycnire.

SCHORNDORYF, in Geography, a town of Wurtem-
berg, on the Rems; 28 miles N.N.W. of Ulm. N. lat.

°45'. E. long. 9° 37.

SCHORNFELD, a town of Bavaria, in the principa-
lity of Aichttatt ; 4 miles W.N.W. of Aichiftatt.

SCHORN-PENY. See Scuar-peny.

SCHOROGALSKOI, in Geography, a town of Ruffia,
in the government of Irkutfk, on the borders of China;
60 miles S. of Selenginkk.

SCHOSBERG, a town of Hungary; 17 miles N. of
Prefburg.

SCHOTANUS, Cuaist1an, in Bisgraphy, an hifto-
rical writer, was born in 1603, at Scheng, a village in Frife-
land. He was chofen profeflor of Greek and ecclefiaftical
hiftory at Franeker, as well as one of the minifters of that
aaa He died in 1671. His principal works were, “ A

efcription of Frifeland,’”? with plates; “A Hiftory of
Frifeland,”’ to the year 1558: thefe are both in the Dutch
lan : “Continuatio Hiftorie Sacre Sulpitii Severi ;”
« Bibliotheca Hiltoriz Sacrz Veteris Teftamenti, five Ex-
ercitationes in hiftoriam facram Sulpitii Severi et Jofephi,”’
in 2 vols. folio.

SCHOTIA, in Botany, named in commemoration of the
botanical zeal and acutenefs of Mr. Richard van der Schot,
formerly curator of the royal Schonbrun gardens at Vienna,
and the companion of Jacquin in his travels through Ame-
Fica.—Jacq. Colle&. v. 1.93. Schreb. 279. Willd. Sp. Pl.
¥. 2.537. Mart. Mill. Dict. v.4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3.
33- Juff. Gen. 347. Lamarck Iluite. t. 331. (Theo-
dora; Medic. Monogr. 1786.)—Clafs and order, Decandria
aete Nat. Ord. Lomentacea, Linn. Leguminofa,

uff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, coloured,
permanent; tube turbinate, rather compreifled, flefhy ; limb

Vor. XXXI,

SCH

cloven half way down into five, ovate, concave, obtufe,
ereG, equal fecments. Cor. Petals five, inferted into the
tube of the calyx, oblong, concave, obtufe, ereét, equal,
lying laterally over each other, feffile, twice as long as the
fegments of the calyx. Stam. Filaments ten, awl-fhaped,
erect, a little longer than the petals, placed circularly in
the tube of the calyx ; anthers oblong, incumbent. Pif.
Germen fuperior, oblong, compreffed, italked ; ityle thread-
fhaped, the length of the ftamens ; ftigma fimple, obtufe.
Peric. Legume italked. Seeds two. -

Eff. Ch. Calyx tubular, five-cleft. Petals five, inferted
into the calyx, lying over each other at their edges, con-_
verging. Legume ftalked.

I. 5S. /peciofa. Maftick-leaved Schotia. Willd. n. 1. Ait.
n.1. Jacq. Ic. Rar. v.1.t.75. Andr. Bot. Repof. t. 348.
(Guiacum afram; Linn. Sp. Pl. 547.)—Leaves pinnate,
compofed of from feyen to ten pair of oval-lanceolate,
pointed leaflets. Stipulas awl-fhaped.—Native of Senegal ;
and the Cape of Good Hope, near Moffel-bay. It flowers
at Kew from July to December. A tufted, evergreen /brub
about three feet high, of very handfome growth, with round,
rigid, diffufe branches ; a grey or brownifh dark ; and firm
white wood. Leaves alternate, equally pinnate ; leaflets
fometimes alternate, fometimes oppofite, entire, pointed,
fhining. Stipulas {mall, deciduous; avery {mall, purple
one is attached to the bafe of each leaflet. Flowers forming
arich cluiter, of a bright pink or fcarlet colour, like the
calyx and flower-ftalk. The fruit does not ripen here.

2. S. tamarindifolia. _Tamarind-leaved Schotia. Ait.
n.2. Sims in Curt. Mag. t. 1153.—Leaves pinnate, com-
pofed of from eight to ten pair of oval, rather obtufe,
leaflets, either with or without points, rather gibbous at the
bafe on the upper fide.—Introduced at Kew in 1795, from
the Cape of Good Hope, by Mr. Francis Maffon. It
flowers in June and July.—In habit, this f{pecies greatly re-
fembles the laft ; from which however it is made diftin@ on
the authority of Mr. Afzelius. The seafets of this are
confiderably broader, more obtufe, not fo conftantly pointed,
their internal margin hollowed fo as to render them flight]
kidney-fhaped. Legume large, broad, extremely flattened,
much arched, with a remarkably thick margin at both
futures, veined on the fides with an elezant net-work. The
flowers are fomewhat darker, but equally beautiful with the
Speciofa.

3. S. flipulata. Large-ftipulated Schotia. Ajit. n. 3.—
Leaves pinnate, compofed of five pair of oval, acute, pointed
leaflets. Stipulas deeply divided into two, oval, fickle-
fhaped, pointed fegments. Introduced at Kew, in 1794,
by Mr. F. Maffon, from the Cape of Good Hope. It
flowers from June to Augutt.

We know nothing of this laft {pecies but from the Hortus
Kewenfis, as quoted above. In the Botanical Magazine,
under t. 1153, another {pecies is mentioned as being in the
Bankfian Herbarium, « with four pair of dhcondshd tesa,
and a legume much lefs curved than that of S. ¢amarin-
difolia.””

Scnorra, in Gardening, affords a plant of the evergreen
fhrubby greenhoufe kind, of which the {pecies cultivated is
the ealrts-Leneed {chotia (S. {peciofa),

Method of Culture.—This is a plant which is moft com.
monly increafed by laying down the young branches during
the fummer feafon, w ick may be taken off in the following
{pring after they haye ftricken full root, and be then planted
out into feparate pots of light earth, and placed in a moderate
hot-bed or ftove until well rooted again; after which the
pots of young plants may be put under the shelter of a

48 greenhoufe

SCH

houfe for the winter feafon, and fet out with others of
Emilar kinds in the fummer months. In this way they afford
variety and ornament.

SCHOTT, Anprew, in Biography, a learned Jefuit,
was born at Antwerp in 1552. He ftudied at Louvain,
and was for fome time in the family of the famous Bufbe-
quius at Paris, where he formed conneétions with fome of
the moft eminent literary chara€ters. He afterwards vifited
Spain, and refided fome years with the archbifhop of Tarra-
gona, from whofe houfe he entered into the order of the
Jefuits in 1586. He taught Greak at feveral of their col-
leges, and was at length made profeflor of eloquence at
Rome. Returning to Antwerp, he pafled his remaining years
in learned labours, and died in 1629. As a man, he pofleffed
an open and liberal difpofition, taking pleafure at all times
in obliging men of letters, without any refpeét to their
country or opinions. He was diftinguifhed for his deep
knowledge of the Greek, and publifhed feveral works of
the philological clafs. He gave an edition of Photius,
with a Latin verfion and notes ; likewife editions of feveral
of the fathers, enriched with notes and commentaries on a
number of ancient writers. He wrote biographical accounts
of St. Francis of Borgia; Ferdinand Nunez; James Laynez;
and Peter Ciaconius; and was author of a work entitled

_ “ Hifpania illuftrata,” 4 vols. fol.

Scnott, Gasparp, a Jefuit, famous for his difcoveries
in natural and experimental philofophy, was born in 1608,
in the diocefe of Wurtzburg. He paffed feveral years at
Palermo, whence he removed to Rome, where hecontraéted an
intimacy with the celebrated Kircher, who communicated to
him feveral of his obfervations on the arts and {ciences.
Schott was author of feveral works, of which the moft re-
markable are, 1. ** Phyfica curiofa; five Mirabilia Nature
et Artis ;” 2. ‘ Magia naturalis et artificialis,” four vols.
4to.; 3. * Technica curiofa ;” in this work is found the firft
idea of the air-pump; 4. “ Anatomia Phyfico-hydroftatica
Fontium et Fluminum;” 5. ‘ Organum Mathematicum.”
In the various writings of this Jefuit are to be met with the

erms of the greater part of modern experiments in phyfics.
its name was, neverthelefs, entirely forgotten, till it was
brought to notice in 1785 by the abbé Mercier, in his Notice
Raifonée.

Scuott, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in Oberland ;
9 miles N.N.E. of Soldau.

SCHOTTEN, a town of Heffle; 16 miles E.S.E. of
Gieffen. ~

SCHOTZOU, a town of Silefia, in the duchy of
Tefchen; 12 miles S.E. of Tefchen.

SCHOUG, one of the Carolina or New Philippine
iflands.

SCHOUNBERG, a town of Weltphalia, in the Harz
foreft, near which is a filver-mine.

SCHOUNG, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg; 4
miles E. of Schweinfurt.

SCHOUSBOEA, in Botany, fo denominated by Willde-
now, in honour of Mr. Schoufboe, a,celebrated botanilt,
who has made many botanical difcoveries in his travels, he-
tween the years 1790 and 1793, through the kingdom of
Morocco, where he refided as Danifh conful, An account
of thefe difcoveries, with a few plates, has appeared at Co-
penhagen and Leipfic, in 1801.—Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 573.

Cacoucia; Aubl. Guian. v. 1.450. Jul. 320. Lamarck
luitr. t. ¢59.)—Clafs and order, Decandria Monogynia.
Nat. Ord. Calycantheme, Linn. Onagra, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, bell-

thaped, five-toothed, coloured, deciduous. Cor. Petals five,

SCH

elliptic-lanceolate, acute, equal, inferted between the teeth
of the calyx. Stam. Filaments ten, thread-fhaped, twice
the length of the calyx, and inferted into its lower part ;
anthers ovate, of two cells. _ Pi/f. Germen inferior, oval,
furrowed ; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of the ftamens ;
re acute. Peric. Berry oval, with five angles, of one
cell. Sced folitary, with a membranous tunic.

Eff. Ch. Calyx fuperior, bell-fhaped, five-cleft, bearing
the corolla. Petals five. Berry with five angles. Seed
folitary, tunicated.

1. S. coccinea. Willd. n. 1. (Cacoucia coccinea; Aubl.
t. 179. )—Gathered by Aublet, on the banks of the Sinemari
river, in Guiana, twenty leagues from its mouth. The flem
is fhrubby, fix or feven inches in diameter at the bottom,
climbitig, by long twining branches, to the tops of lofty trees,
from whence the extremities of thofe branches, laden with
leaves and flowers, are pendulous. Leaves alternate, on fhort
ftalks, fmooth, firm, rigid, oval, pointed, entire, four or
five inches long, with one rib, and many tranfverfe veins.
Spikes terminal, folitary, long, many-flowered. Braéeas
lanceolate, acute, green, nearly as long as the flowers,
Calyx green at the bafe ; of a coral red in the upper part.
Petals veiny, red as well as the flamens. Berry an inch and
half long, pointed, yellow, pulpy. : ;

The Gahbis are accuftomed to rub the nofes of their dogs
with this fruit, when they go to hunt, thinking it renders
their fenfe of {melling more acute. The genus is akin to
Fuchfia. The flowers and fruit are both to be found in
Oober.

SCHOUTEN’s Isianp, in Geography, an ifland in the
Eaft Indian fea, difcovered by a Dutchman of that name ;
120 miles in circumference. S. lat. o° so!. LE. long.
136° 20!.

Scuouten’s J/lands, an archipelago of iflands, near the

E. coaft of New Holland, about 50 miles in circumference.
S. lat. 43° 12. E. long. 148° ol.

SCHOUWEN, or Scuowen, an ifland belonging to
Holland, at the mouth of the Scheldt, N.E. of the land of
Walcheren ; 14 miles from E. to W. and 5 from N. to S.
The chief town is Ziricfee.

SCHOWENFLIET. See Scuonrties.

SCHRADERA, in Botany, was dedicated by Vahl to
the honour of profeffor Henry Adolphus Schrader of Got-
tingen, author of a Flora Germanica, and many learned
works, efpecially relating to cryptogamic produtions ; nor
was ever any fuch honour more richly deferved.—Vahl. Ecl.
vy. 1.35. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2.238. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4.
—Clafs and order, Hexandria Monsgynia. Nat. Ord.
Aggregate, Linn. Caprifolia, Juli.

Gen. Ch. Cal. General Involucrum of one leaf, coria-
ceous, containing feveral flowers. Perianth fuperior, of
one leaf, cup-fhaped, permanent. Cor. of one petal, fuc-
culent, tubular ; tube much longer than the capes cylin-
drical, fearcely curved ; limb in ei five to eight, or ten,
lanceolate, flefhy fegments, fomewhat reflexed, comprefled
and triangular at the extremity, with a tooth on each fide ;
throat hairy. Stam. Filaments fcarcely any ; anthers linear,
as many as the fegments of the corolla, one-third their
length, and inferted between them. Pit. Germen inferior,
oblong, quadrangular at the bafe; abrupt; ftyle fhorter
than the tube of the corolla; ftigma in four deep, creat,
converging fegments. Peric. Berry oblong, crowned with
the perianth, of four cells. Seeds numerous, angular,
minute,

Eff. Ch. General inyolucrum many-flowered. Perianth
fuperior, cup-fhaped. Corolla tubular, hairy ia the so ;

10 im

SCH

limb in feveral fegments. Anthers nearly feffile, between
the fegments. Berry with many feeds.

1. S. capitata. Willd. n.1. Vahl. Ecl. t. 5.—* Invo-
lucrtm toothed. Calyx entire. Leaves obtufe.’’—Native
of the ifland of Montferrat. A climbing parafitical /rub ;
with fquare greyifh branches. Leaves oppofite, italked,
elliptical or roundifh, entire, bluntifh, coriaceous. F/ower-

ftalks terminal, folitary, an inch and half long. Flowers
capitate, about fifteen, their involucrum coriaceous, with five
roundifh obtufe fegments. Margin of the partial calyx
abrupt and entire. The number of /lamens, as well as of
the fegments of the corolla, varies from five to fix. Vahl
confounded this with the following, but Willdenow, at the
fuggeftion of Swartz, has juftly diitinguifhed them.

2. S. cephalotes. Willd. n. 2. (Fuchfia involucrata ;
Swartz Ind. Occ. v.+2. 674. )—* Involucrum entire. Calyx
toothed. Leaves pointed.’””—Native of woody hills, in the
interior of Jamaica, flowering at all times of the year. This
is alfo a fhrub of a climbing and partly parafitical nature.
The eaves are thickifh, pointed, {mooth; paler beneath.
Flower-fialks terminal, folitary, fhort, thick, quadrangular.
Involucrum abrupt, fmooth, thick, quadrangular, contain-
ing from four toeight fowers. Perianth rather longer than
the involucrum, undivided and fomewhat abrupt, with eight
very minute teeth. Corolla white, fucculent, many times
longer than the calyx, flightly curved; its limb ufually having
eight fegments, but varying from five to nine, or even ten.
Stamens agreeing in number with the fegments, and half as
long ;_ anthers burfting lengthwife towards the fligma. Berry
foft, fweetith, infipid, with brown feeds.

The branches, when broken, and the flowers in fading,
exhale a naufeous {mell, like fermenting cabbage. Swartz.

SCHRAETSER, in Jchthyology, the name of a fith
very common in the Danube, and in many things refembling
our ruff, or {mall gilded pearch.

Its common fize is about three inches in length ; its tail is
forked, and its back-fin is fupported by thirty rays or nerves,
eighteen of which are rigid and prickly, and thofe which
ftand behind them foft and flexile. The upper jaw has a
membrane fomewhat like a lip, which hangs from it, and the
coverings of the gills terminate in a {pine or prickle. The
membrane of the back-fin is variegated with black fpots,
and its general colour is fomewhat paler than that of the
pearch. It is a very well-tafted fifh. Itis a fpeciesof the
Perca; which fee.

SCHRALENBURG, in Geography, a town of New
Jerfey ; 4 miles N.N.E. of Hackinfack.

SCHRAMBERG, a town of Germany, in the county
of Hohenberg, on the Schiltach; 10 miles N.W. of Roth-
well. N. lat. 48° 11’, E. long. 8° 22.

SCHRANKIA, in Botany, was named by Willdenow
in honour of Francis von Paula Schrank, Profeffor of
(Economy and Betany at Ingolftad, author of Primitiz
Flora Salifburgenfis, and various other botanical, as well as
zoological tres. —Willd, Sp. Pl. v.4. 1041. Ait. Hort.
Kew. v. 5. 456. Purth 305.—Clafs and order, Polygamia
Monoecia; or rather Decandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord,
Lomentacea, Linn. Leguminofe, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianthinferior, minute, tubular, with
five ereét teeth, deciduous. Cor. Petals five, ereét, lanceolate,
inferted into the tube of the calyx, alternate with its teeth.
Stam. Filaments ten, capillary, faced, inferted into the tube
of the calyx, twice as long as the corolla, fomewhat unequal ;
anthers verfatile, roundith, incumbent. Pi/. Germen fu-

Te oval, flightly comprefled; ftyle thread-fhaped ;
igma obtufe. Perie Legume oblong, quadrangular, of
one cell and four valves, the two oppofite ones rather the

S.¢

fhorteft: Seeds numerous, quadrangular, comprefled, in a
fingle row. ‘

Some flowers are four-cleft ; others are male only, on the
fame tree.

Eff. Ch. Calyx inferior, with five tecth.
inferted into the calyx. Legume of four valves, with many
feeds. Some flowers male.

Authors who have undertaken to divide the great Lin-
nzan genus of Mimofa, have formed this out of it, with
feveral others, of which the moft ill-charaéterized are Def-
manthus and Acacia of Willdenow. The prefent may per-
haps be admitted, as well as Znga of the fame author, both
being well diftinguifhed by their fruit. Three fpecies of
Schrankia are defcribed, all faid to be fenfitive in their foliage,
like the original Mimo/z, which Willdenow obferves not to
be the cafe with any /nga or Acacia, though in fome Def-
manthi. See Mimosa.

1. S. aculeata. Vera Cruz Schrankia. Willd. n. 1.
Ait. n. 1. (Mimofa quadrivalvis; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1508.
Mill. Ic. t. 182. f.1. Banks Rel, Howft. 11. t. 25.)—
General leaflets two or three pair. Stem with four angles.
Very frequent in all the fandy ground about Vera Cruz, ac-
cording to Houftoun, who fent feeds to England, which,
Miller fays, fucceeded in feveral gardens. The plant is
herbaceous and perennial, requiring to be kept in a ftove,
where it bloffoms in the fummer months. The root is tube-
rous, asin the whole genus. Stems weak and trailing, but
little branched, {quare, zigzag, leafy, armed with numerous,
comprefled, hooked prickles, as are all the Jialks and feed-
veffels. Leaves abruptly doubly pinnate; their primary
leaflets two or three pair, each of numerous pairs of crowded,
imbricated, fimple, elliptic-oblong, entire leaflets, each
half an inch long. Flowers very numerous, in globofe,
axillary, folitary, rather long-ftalked heads, of a beautiful
red, with yellow anthers. Each head perfeéts but two or
three acute, ftraight, {preading /egumes, (as they are by ana-
logy called,) about two inches long.

2. S. hamata. Beaked Schrankia. Willd. n. 2.—Gene-
ral leaflets four pair. Legume witha pointed beak. Stem
with five angles. Flower-italks very fhort.—Gathered by
Humboldt and Bonpland in South America. Herbaceous,
covered with hooked prickles. Heads of flowers on very
fhort ftalks. Each valve of the /egume is armed with a triple
row of denfely crowded prickles. The ultimate /eaflets are
linear, not elliptical.

3- S. uncinata. Hooked Schrankia.

Petals five,

Willd.n.3. Ait.

n.2. Purfhn. 1. (Mimofa horridula; Michaux Boreali-
Amer. v. 2. 254. Venten. Choix de Plantes, t. 28. M.
microphylla; Sm. Inf. of Georgia, v. 2. 123. t. 62. M.

Intfia; Walt. Carol. 252.)—General leaflets five to feven
pair. Legume poiiited. Stem with five angles. Flower-
ftalks longer than the foot{talks.—In old fields and meadows,
from Virginia to Florida, flowering in June and July. It is
known by the name of Senfitive Briar. Pur/b. This {pecies
refembles the two former in habit, but the primary divifions
of the /eaves are much more numerous. The flowers are of
a fine rofe-colour, with yellow anthers, and ttand on lon
prickly fla/ks, fometimes two together. Legume befet with
denfe rows of prominent prickles,

SCHRANNEN, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in
the palatinate of Culm; 8 miles N.E. of Strafburg.

SCHRAPLAU, a town of Weltphalia, in the county
of Mansfeld; 6 miles S.E. of Eifzleben.

SCHRATCHELL’s Bay, a bay atthe W. extremity
of the Ifle of Wight.

SCHRATTENTHAL, atown of Antftria; 15 miles
W. of Laab, N. lat. 48° 40’. E. long. 15° 51!.

452 SCHRE.

Ss ¢H
SCHREBERA, in Botany, fo named in commemoration

of the very eminent John Chriftian Daniel von Schreber, Pro-
feflor of Medicine, Botany, Natural Hiftory and Rural
Economy in the univerfity of Erlang, and Prefident of the
Imperial Academy Nature Curioforum, His Spicilegium
Flore Lipfice; differtation de Phafco; defcriptions of
Graffes in German, with excellent plates; edition of the
Genera Plantarum of Linnzus; and various other works,
rank him among the moit acute, as well as moft learned,
botanical writers. He was one of the conitant friends and
correfpondents of Linnzus; a man of no lefs candour than
information ; and died univerfally refpeéted, a very few
years fince, at an advanced age, having been born in 1739.
The original Schrebera, Linn. Gen. 124, was founded on
one of the moit curious miftakes ever made by a naturalift,
the authentic {pecimen proving nothing more than a Cu/cuta,

owing on Myrica athiopica. Seeits figure and defcription
in Nov. AG. Upf. v. 1. gt. t. 5. f. 1. ‘This genus had puz-
zled many a botaniit, and feveral different things had been
referred to it. Onthe difcovery of the above error, Retzius
attempted to eftablifh a new Schrebera, in his Obf. fafe. 6.
25. t. 33 and this is adopted by Willdenow, in Sp. PI.
y. 1. 1092. But it proves a fpecies of a genus previoufly
eftablifhed, Elzodendron. Such being the cafe, the late Mr.
Dryander has conferred the name of Schrebera on an undoubt-
edly new, and very fine Eaft Indian genus, with which we
trult it will permanently remain.—Roxb. Coromand. v. 2. 1.
Mart. Mill. Dié&. y. 4.—Clafs and order, Diandria Mono-
gynia. Nat. Ord. Ja/minee, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
its orifice with about five unequal, upright teeth. Cor. of
one petal, falver-fhaped ; tube cylindrical, pervious, thrice
the length of the calyx; limb flat, in five, occafionally fix
or feven, deep, wedge-fhaped, abrupt, equal fegments.
Stam. Filaments two, very fhort, inferted about the middle
of the tube of the corolla; anthers ereét, heart-fhaped,
concealed within the tube. Pi/l. Germen fuperior, ovate ;
ftyle thread-fhaped, fomewhat longer than the tube ; ftigma
cloven. Peric. Capfule large, obovate, woody, of two
cells and two valves; the partitions from the centre of each
valve. Seeds four in each cell, in two rows, oval, oblique,
compreffed, with a large, lateral, ovate, membranous
wing.

ff. Ch.
Capfule woody, of two cells and two valves.
in each cell, winged.

1. S. Sqwictenivides. Roxb. Coromand. t. 101.—Native
of vallies in the mountainous parts of the Rajahmundry
Circar, in Hindoottan, flowering about the beginning of the
hot feafon. A large, upright, timber tree, with rough
bark ; the wood grey, very clofe-grained, heavy and durable.
This wood, being reckoned lefs fubjeét to crack, or warp,
than auy other, is employed by weavers in India, for many
parts of their looms, particularly the beam. It ferves alfo for a
great variety of other ufes ; and Dr. Roxburgh was inclined
to think it would anfwer well for feales to mathematical
inftruments ; for though not fo handfome as box, it is not
fubje& to warp. The branches of this tree are numerous,
{preading in every direétion, fo as to form a large, handfome,
umbrageoushead. Leaves nearly oppofite, ftalked, pinnate,
about a foot long, compofed of three or four pair, with an
odd one, of ftalked, ovate, pointed, entire, fmooth /eaffets,
which are individually not unlike the leaves of lilac, Syringa
vulgaris, in fize, form, and appearance; the upper ones gradu-
ally fmaller, andrather narrower. Panicles terminal, three-
forked, {preading, much fhorter than the leaves ; their ftalks
round, {mooth, with {mall, awl-fhaped, deciduous bradeas

3

Corolla falver-fhaped; with abrupt fegments.
Seeds four

SCH

under each fubdivifion. Flowers not very numerous, highly
fragrant during the night, about the fize of common Jafmine;
whitifh externally ; the upper fide of the limb variegated with
brown. Capfule the fize of a pullet’s egg, rough, thick, and
very hard, {plitting open when ripe and dry, and bearing
fome refemblance, efpecially with its winged feeds, to the
fruit of Swietenia, the Mahogany, whence originated the
fpecific name, a barbarous compound, which, with all
deference to its learned and lamented author, we cannot
approve.

SCHRECKENBERG, in Geography, a mountain of
Germany, in the territory of Erzgebirg, celebrated for
its filver-mines, near Annaberg.

SCHRECKHORN, or Peak of Terror, a mountain
of Switzerland, in the $.E. part of the canton of Berne;
11 miles S.S.E. of Interlacken. This peak rifes between
the two glaciers of Grindelwald, concealed by its bafe,
the Mettenberg: it is not far from the valley of Grindel-
wald, and the rugged paths which lead acrofs the fuperior
glacier to its foot are extremely difficult and dangerous;
part of it is obferved from that glacier. ‘The tops of the
Mettenberg are of granite, and the lower parts of lamel-
lated rock, blended with mica and quartz. The piked fum-
mits of the Schreckhorn, which rile to an enormous height,
viz. 13,397 feet, appear to be of pure granite and other
primitive itones.

SCHREIDER of London, in Biography, organ-
builder to his majefly at the beginning of the lait cen-

tury.

SCHREKENSTEIN, in Geography, a town of Bohe-
mia, in the circle of Leitmeritz, on the Elbe; 7 miles
N.W. of Leitmeritz.

SCHRETTI, a {mall ifland in the Grecian Archipelago ;
12 miles S.E. of Stamphalia.

SCHREVELIUS, Corvettus, in Biography, a native
of Holland, was one of the principal compilers of the notes
to the Variorum editions of the claflics, in the exercife
of which tafk he is thought to have difplayed more induftry
than tafte or judgment. His name, however, is familiar to
every ftudent in the Greek language, by a lexicon in Greek
and Latin, which has been frequently reprinted in almoft
every part of Europe. To many editions of this ufeful
lexicon are added divers pieces, well calculated to aid the
young in their claflical ftudies : fuch as ‘* Breves Sententie
Grece,’’? with a Latin tranflation; ‘ Tabelle Diale&to-
rum ;” “ Traétatus de refolutione Verborum,” &c.

SCHREVENHORN, in Geography, a town of the
duchy of Holttein; 13 miles W. of Lutkenborg.

SCHRIEBERSHAU, a village of Silefia, in the prin-
cipality of Jauer, famous for its glafs-houfes, and manufac-
ture of vitriol; 7 miles S.W. of Hifchberg.

SCHRIESHEIM, a town of the duchy of Baden; 4
miles N. of Heidelberg.

SCHROBENHAUSEN, a town of Bavaria; 21 miles
N.E. of Augfburg. N. lat. 48°31’. E. long. rr° 3/.

SCHRODE, a river which runs into the Elbe at Mag-
deburg.

SCHROETER, Jonn Samuet, in Biography, born at
Warfaw in 1750, of German parents. At fifteen he went
with his father and filter to Leipfic, where he fung at the
great concert with uncommon applaufe. When his voice
broke, he applied clofely to the piano-forte, and became one
of the neateft and molt expreflive players of his time. In
1767 he came to England with his father and fitter, but was
not much noticed till after the deceafe of Bach, in 1782, when
he publithed his natural and pleafing concertos. His ry i
of compdfition, highly polithed, refembled that of Abel

more

+74

SCH

more than any other. It was graceful and in good tatte ;
but fo chafte as fometimes to feem deficient in fire and inven-
tion, But his manner of playing was fo quiet, that when
the hand feemed doing nothing, he furpafled all other great
players in rapidity. ‘The piano-forte was a new initrument
in this country: when he firit arrived the hammer initru-
ments of alarge fize were bad, and harpfichord players pro-
duced no great effeéts upon them; but Schroeter may be
faid to have been the firft who brought into England the true
art of treating that inftrument. We were unwilling to give
up the harpfichord, and thought the tone of the piano-forte
fpiritlefs and infipid, till experience and better in{truments
vanquifhed our prejudices ; and the expreffion and the chiar’
efeuro in performing mufic exprefsly compofed for that in-
ftrument, made us amends for the want of brilliancy in the
tone fo much, that we foon found the fcratching of the
quill in the harpfichord intolerable, compared with the tone
produced by the hammer.

The accomplifhed mufician Schroeter, whofe neat and ex-
quifite performance on the piano-forte will be long remem-
dered with regret, died of a confumption, Noy. 1783. He
married a young lady of confiderable fortune, who was his
fcholar, and was in eafy circumftances ; but there was a lan-
guor difcoverable in his looks, while difeafe was preying upon

im, feveral years before his deceafe.

SCHROPPEN, in Geography, atown of Prufiia, in the

rovince of Pomerelia ; 5 miles E. of Marienburg.

SCHROTTENEGG, a town of the duchy of Carin-
thia; 6 miles S.E. of Pleyburg.

SCHRUERNICK, a town of Pruffia, in the palatinate
of Culm ; 15 miles N.E. of Thorn.

SCHRUNDEN, a town of the duchy of Courland; 16
miles S. of Goldingen.

SCHUDI, Burkar, in Biography, harpfichord-maker
to his royal highnefs Frederic prince of Wales, and the royal
family. He was a German, and had been one of Tabel’s
principal finifhers. His work was extremely neat, and his
tone and touch refined and delicate, while his inftruments
were new ; but neither fo full nor fo durable as thofe of
Kirkman. Snetzler, who added horizontal organs to many
of his harpfichords, ufed to account for his inftruments foon
lofing their perfe€tion, by his working in a very hot room,
and keeping them there, in order to give the tone the bril-
liancy of oldinftruments ; but as foon as they were removed
to acold ordamp room, the wood {welled fo much, as to
warp, crack the bellies, and diforder all the movements ; ac-
cidents which we never remember to have happened to the
excellent inftruments of his worthy fon-in-law and fucceflor,
Broadwood.

SCHUIA, in Geography, a river of Ruffia, which runs
into the Onezkoe lake, near Petrozavod{k.—Alfo, a town of
Ruflia, inthe government of Olonetz ; 4 miles N. of Petro-
zavodik.—Alfo, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Vladimir; 60 miles N.E. of Vladimir. N. lat. 56° 42'.
E. long. 41° 34/.

SCHVINSKI, a town of the duchy of Warfaw; 48
miles N. of Warfaw.

SCHUIT, in Commerce, a filver ingot, ufed as money in
Japan. It weighs 40z. 18 dwts. 16 grs. Englih troy, and is
11 0%. fine, which gives its value 1/. 5s. 3d. fterling. ‘The
word fchuit, denoting a boat, is of Dutch origin, and pro-
bably refers to the fhape of the piece. Mott payments are
made here in filver ingots of different fizes, the value of
which are determined by their weight: the largeft is about
7 ounces, and the {mallet 84 grains Englifh troy, and the
finenefs is 4. There isalfo a little globular piece of filver,
called “ Kodama,’’ bearing the figure of a Jepatele deity,

SCH

with feveral letters. It varies in fize and value from five te
fifteen condorines, ~ 100 condorines being equal to a tale or
tayel, which is reckoned by the Dutch at 33 florins, or about
6s. 2d. tterling. Kelly’s Cambitt.

SCHULEN, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the pro-
vince of Ermeland ; 10 miles E.S.E. of Heilfberg.

SCHULIPAR Istanps, two of the Laccadive iflands,
in the Eaft Indian fea. N. lat. 10° to 10° 10". E. long.
71° 5o! to 72°.

SCHULPE, or Scuutpenst&t, a fea-port town of the
duchy of Holitein, on the left bank of the Eyder, near its
mouth. N. lat. 54° 20!._ E. long. 9°.

SCHULTENS, Axserr, in Biography, an eminent
orientalilt, was born at Groningen about the year 1689. He
ftudied at Leyden, and afterwards at Utrecht, under the cele-
brated Reland. Upon his entering the miniltry, he was
chofen paitor of Waflenaar, from which place he removed to
Franeker, as profeflor of the Oriental languages. After this
he was invited to fill the fame office at Leyden, which he
held with high reputation till his death, in 1750. Hewasa
man of profound learning, accurate tafte, and great judg-
ment. The moft confiderable of his works are as follow :
«A Commentary on the Book of Job,” in 2 vols. 4to.;
“A Commentary on Proverbs,’’ gto. ; « Vetus et Regia
Via Hebraizandi;”? « Origines Hebraice ;?? ‘* Animad-
verfiones Philologice et critice ad varia Loca Vet. Telt. ;”
*¢ Grammatica Hebraica.’”? He alfo tranflated from the
Arabic ‘* The Life of Saladin.”

SCHULTET, Axranam, an eminent Proteftant divine,
was born at Grunberg, in Silefia, in 1566. He was ftudying
at Breflau at the age of 16, when his father, who had lott all
his property by a fire, and was unable to maintain him at the
univerfity, recalled him, with the intention of putting him to
atrade. The fon, unwilling to renounce his literary purfuits,
refolved upon joining: at the fame time the character of
teacher and {cholar, and attended in different feminaries of
learning as a private tutor, while he was himfelf an afliduous
ftudent at public le&tures. He a¢ted in both thefe capaci-
ties at Wittenberg, and afterwards at Heidelberg, till his re-
ception as a minilter in 1594. He foon attained to confi-
derable confequence in his profeflion, and was nominated by
the elector palatine one of his preachers. In 1660 he was
elected to the ecclefiatlical fenate, and was frequently em-
ployed to vifit the churches in the palatinate. In 1610 he
accompanied the prince of Anhalt to the war of Juliers, and
in 1612 he attended the prince Frederic to England, where
he formed an acquaintance with the moft diftinguifhed men
of learning. On his return he was appointed to the office of
court-preacher, and in 1618 to the profeflorflup of theology
in the univerfity of Heidelberg. He was one of the depu-
ties to the fynod of Dordrecht, and efpoufed the caufe of
the contra-remonttrants. When the eleétor accepted the
crown of Bohemia, Schultet attended him to that country,
but after the famous battle of Prague, he returned to Heidel-
berg, which, however, he was obliged to quit, with the reft
of the profeffors, on the approach of the enemy. He now
went to Embden, having. been chofen minitter, and died while
exerciling the office, in 1625. He was greatly diftinguifhed
for his eloquence as a preacher, and was author of various
works, theological, moral, and hiftorical. Among hia picces
was a treatife on Ethics, in two books, one “* Ona Virtuous
Life,’’ and the other «Ona Happy Life.’ He had _ pro-
jected a hiftory of the Reformation, of which he publithed
only two decades ; the remainder was detlroyed in the pil-
lage of the Prague. He was charged with having inlligated
the elector palatine to accept the crown of Bohemia, and was
accordingly held refponfible for all the misfortunes confe-

quent

SCH

quent on that ftep. To this our divine replied, that he had
no fhare whatever in the deliberation concerning the ac-
ceptance of that crown; neverthelefs he admitted that he
compofed a fermon, in which he congratulated the elector
on having acceded to the wifhes of the Bohemians, and en-
Saksge him from the word of God to condué himfelf
vahantly in the enterprize. .

SCHULZ, Joun-Avsrecut-PeTeR, an elegant, re-
fined, and fertile mufician, chapel-mafter to the king
of Denmark at Copenhagen, was born at Luneburg in
1740. He ftudied under the profound Kirnberger, and
afterwards travelled with a Polifh prince, which gave him an
opportunity of vifiting France and Italy, of hearing the
great performers, and becoming familiar with the ftyle of
both nations. In 1774 he returned to Germany, and fettled
at Berlin, where he became not only refpeétable as a com-
pofer, but a theorift anda critic. He furnifhed the fecond
article in Sulzer’s theory ; reviewed feveral books in an able
manner; and had the direction of the orcheftra of the French
theatre at Berlin. In 1780 he was appointed chapel-mafter
to prince Henry at Reinfberg. In this ftation he continued
feven years, during which time he produced many of his beft
works.

In 1787 he was called again to Copenhagen by the.

reigning prince, and placed at the head of an academy, or
mufical feminary ; but the drawing up a code of laws for re-
gulating this eftablifhment did not occupy his mind fo en-
tirely, as to check his imagination, or blunt his critical acu-
men, Senfe and intelleét feem to have been equally em-
ployed. He produced feveral theatrical and critical works
that did him much credit ; and a lift is given in Gerber’s
Continuation of Walther’s Di€tionary of nineteen different
works in compofition ; operas, ferious and comic, oratorios,
and inftrumental mufic. We have feen but few of his
works ; but thofe few convince us that his tafte was too re-
fined, and his imagination too fertile, to allow him ever to be
vulgar or dull in the rett.

SCHUMBERG, in Geography, atown of Pruffia, in the
province of Pomerelia; 12 miles N.W. of Marienburg.

SCHUNDA-PANA, in Botany, Rheede Hort. Malab.
v. 1. 15. t. 11. is Caryota urens of Linneus. See Ca-
RYOTA.

SCHUNGA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the go-
vernment of Olonetz, on the Onezfkoe lake ; 20 miles S. of
Povenetz.

SCHUNTER, ariver of Germany, which rifes near
Helmftadt, in Wolfenbuttel, and runs into the Ocker, 7
miles below Brun{wick.

SCHUPFEN, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of
Lucerne ; 11 miles S.S.W. of Lucerne.

SCHURGAST, a town of Silefia, in the principality of
Oppeln; 11 miles N.N.W. of Oppeln. N. lat. 50° 4o!.
E. long. 17° 40!.

SCHURMAN, Anna-Maria, in Biography, a very ce-
lebrated female, was born of a good family at Cologne, in
1607. Her father removed with his family to Utrecht,
being of the Proteftant religion, and afterwards to Franeker,
for the education of his fons; but on his death, his widow
returned to Utrecht, which place was from this time the
chief refidence of the fubjeét of this article. From a very
early age Anna-Maria manifefted extraordinary talents for in-

enious works and ornamental accomplifhments. Acs foon as
fhe could ufe a pair of {ciffors, fhe employed herfelf in cut-
ting out all forts of figures in paper, without a pattern.
She then acquired the arts of drawing, painting, embroidery,
fculpture, engraving, and mufic. ‘She wrote a mott beauti-
ful d, modelled in wax with great perfection, and drew

SCH

portraits on glafs with the diamond. She applied herfelt
very fuccefsfully to different branches of literature, and be-
came a perfe& miftrefs of the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew
er : fhe acquired a knowledge of feveral modern, as
well as the ancient tongues. She was extremely well verfed
in aftronomy, geography, and feveral of the other branches
of experimental philofophy. She made theology and the
holy fcriptures objets of her particular attention. « All
this wonderful extent of knowledge did not render her in the
leaft vain, or difqualify her for the ufual occupations of her
fex ; and her fingular merit might have remained unknown to
the world, had not Voffius, Spanheim, and other illuftrious
men, almott forcibly dragged her from obfcurity. Her re-
putation foon fpread through Europe, and the moft diftin-
guifhed literary charaéters became her corref{pondents.’’
The celebrated poet and penlionary Catz offered her his
hand, but fhe preferred the freedom of a fingle life. She
was vifited by almoft all the perfons of rank and eminence
who pafled through Utrecht, and enjoyed the efteem of the
illuftrious Elizabeth, princefs palatine. She firft ap

as a writerinacopy of Latin verfes on the founding of the
univerfity of Utrecht, in 1636. Some of her letters were
publifhed, and in 1641 was printed part of her Latin Dif-
fertation, ‘‘ Whether the Study of Literature was fuitable to
a Chriftian Woman.” After this fhe publifhed her « Opuf-
cula,”’ confifting of pieces in profe and verfe in different Jan-
guages. She now became a zealous follower of the myittic
and enthufiat Labadie ; whom fhe accompanied in his va-
rious migrations, and it was in her arms that he breathed his
laftat Altona. After his death fhe fold her,property, and
took up her abode with an affociation of religionifts of t
fame connection, at Wywert, near Leuwarden. Here fhe
died in 1678. Her “ Opufcula’”’ have been frequently re-

rinted.

SCHURNDORF, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the principality of Culmbach; 8 miles S.W. of Culm.
bach.

SCHURTZFLEISCH, Conrap-Samuet, in Biogra-
phy, a man of letters, was born in 1641, at Corbach, in
the county of Waldeck. He ttudied at his native place, at
Gieffen, and Wittenberg, and for fome time taught in a fchool
at Corbach, in the room of his father, after which he went
to Leipfic, and engaged in private tuition ; and in 1671 he
obtained the profetiasiiig extraordinary of hiftory at Wit-
tenberg. In 1678 he was promoted to the ordinary pro-
fefforfhip of hiftory in that place, to which was afterwards
added that of Greek. He pafled fome time in foreign travel,
and in 1700 he was appointed profeflor of eloquence at
Wittenberg. He was alfo librarian to the duke of Saxe-
Weimar, with the title of counfellor. He died in 1708.
This learned man was author of a great: number of works,
of which the following may be mentioned ; « Difputationes
Hittorice civiles,”? 3 vols. gto. ; ‘* Epiftole arcane,” 3
vols. 8vo.; and a continuation of Sleidan’s work, “ De
Quatuor Imperiis.”’ A fatirical piece, which he wrote when
he was young, entitled «* Judicium de noviflimis Prudentiz
civilis Scriptoribus,’’ occafioned confiderable commotion
among the learned, and in the end caufed his name to be
{truck out from the lift of the members of the univerfity of
Wittenberg. In 1744, a collection ef his Differtations on
ecclefiattical hiftory was publifhed at Wittenberg.

SCHUSPE, in Geography, a river of Germany, which
runs into the Wefer, near Corvey.

SCHUSS, a river of Germany, which runs into the Jake
of Conttance, 2 miles E. of Buchorn.

SCHUSTER, Josgrn, in Biography, maeitro di cap-
pella to the king of Sardinia and the elector of Saxony,

famous

> eM

SCH

famous German compofer, was bornin 1748. His father, a
baffoon player in the king of Poland’s famous band, had him
well educated, placed with Nauman for counterpoint, and
in 1765 fent himto Italy. At Venice he purfued the ftudy
of harmony with Girolamo Pera; and before he left Italy,
he compofed operas for feveral theatres, which were crowned
with fuccefs. On his return to his own country, in 1772,
he was appointed chamber compofer to the eleCtor of Saxony.
In 1774 he made a fecond journey into Italy, in order to
place himfelf under the learned contrapuntilt, Padre Mar-
tini; and after compofing feveral operas for Naples and
Venice, he returned in 1776 to Germany. It was during
this fecond tour to Italy that he had the honour of being
appointed maeftro di cappella to his Sicilian majefty.

Upon a new call tu Italy, he undertook, with the con-
fent of his patron, the eleCtor of Saxony, a third journey to
Venice and Naples, in 1778, and was equally fortunate in
the reception of his works in thefe capitals as he had been in
his former vifits, in whatever Italian cities he had been em-
ployed as a dramatic compofer. The learned converfations
which he now enjoyed with the great and venerable Hafle at
Venice, whither he had retired with his wife, the Fauttina,
and daughters, to end his days, were extremely gratifying
to Schutter, whom Haffe remembered at the brighteft period
of his life at Drefden, for which court he always feemed
penetrated with the moit profound refpe& and gratitude.

In 1781 Schufter quitted Venice, and on his return to
Drefden became, for the firft time, an ecclefiattical com-
pofer, and produced a mafs for the chapel of his ferene
highnefs the ele&tor, which pleafed fo much, that he was
appointed joint maeftro di cappella with Nauman and Scy-
delmann, who were to compofe and be in waiting alter-
nately.

After this, the fertile maeftro Schuiter compofed feveral
comic operas, which pleafed very much, and in which he
difcovered a vein of humour which he was never before fup-
pofed to poflefs.

There is an ample lift of his works in Gerber’s Lexicon,
up to 1792, from which this article has been chiefly drawn.
We only know the name of Schutter in England from fome
capital bravura airs, which he compofed exprefaly to difplay
the Mara’s extraordinary powers of execution.

SCHUSTIS, in Geography, a river of Samogitia, which
joins the Minia near its mouth.

SCHUT, Corvetivus, in Biography, was born at An-
twerp in 1600, and being pofleffed of a lively and inventive
genius, was educated as a painter. He was placed asa difci-
ple with Rubens, and became one of the principal orna-
ments of the fchool of that celebrated mafter. When he
had acquired fufficient power to prattife by himfelf, he
was employed for the altars of feyeral churches ; and by the
works fs produced, obtained very confiderable reputation :
fufficient, unfortunately, to render him vain and prefump-
tuous. To fucha degree did his vanity urge him, that he
offered himfelf as a rival to his great inttruCor ; criticifing
his works with contumacious illiberality, and accufing him
of want of invention and genius! His rafhnefs was reproved
by the gentlenefs of Rubens, who returned his railings with
aks of kindnefs and liberality, applauding his piétures, and
recommending him to employment.

The qualities of Schut as an artift were confiderable, at
leaft as far as the executive part of the art is concerned.
He*had a fertile and vivid imagination, which, however, he
did not always exercife with difcretion; being evidently
much more intent upon pfoducing a pleafing arrangement of
light and colour, that interefting the mind, or engaging the
heart: following, indeed, too clofely the molt prominent

SCH

features of the fchool in which he had been educated.
His talents had moft ample field for employment, which he
ufed with confiderable fuccefs in the frefcoes he painted in
the cupola of the cathedral at Antwerp, and other large
works of that nature, in this, his native city. Befides
abundance of altar-pieces, he painted many hiftorical fub-
jects, his reprefentations of which are fcattered about in va-
rious collections, and doubtlefs not unfrequently offered to
faleas the work of Rubens. He died at Antwerp in 1660,
at the age of 60.

This artift etched a confiderable number of plates from his
own defigns, which are fkilfully executed, with great clear-
nefs and precifion.

SCHUTOVSKATA, in Geography, a town of Ruiffia,
in the government of Tobolfk, on the Vagai; 40 miles S.
of Tobolik.

SCHUTT, or Scuit, an ifland of Hungary, formed
by the Danube, 30 miles in length, and 10 in medial
breadth ; abounding in herbage and fruits, and alfo in wood,
game, and fifh. There is another ifland of the fame name,
and feparated from the former by a branch of the Danube, 20
miles long, and 5 broad. On thefe iflands there are feveral
towns and villages: the N.W. extremity of Schutt is a
little below Prefburg. :

SCHUTTEBA, a town of Arabia, in the province of
Yemen ; 36 miles E. of Chamir.

SCHUTTENHOFEN, Suscr, or Sutchutz,a town of
Bohemia, in the circle of Prachatitz ;. 20 miles W.S.W. of
Prachatitz. N.lat. 49° 12!. E. long. 13° 28!.

SCHUTTER, a river of Baden, which runs into the
Rhine, near Kehl.

SCHUTTORF, atown of Germany, in the county of
Bentheim, on the Vechte; 3 miles N.E. of Bentheim.

SCHUTZENDORYF, a town of Silefia, in the principa-
lity of Grotkau ; 9 miles N.E. of Patfchkau.

SCHUYLER, a townfhip of America, in the ftate of
New York, and county of Herkemer, between Mohawk
river and Canada creek, 6 miles N.N.E. of Utica and 86
from Albany ; incorporated in 1792, and containing, in
1810, 324 families, 124 electors, and 2107 inhabitants.

Scuuyier’s Lake, a lake of New York, nine miles
long, and between four and five broad; 10 miles W. of
lake Otfego.

SCHUYLKILL, a river of Pennfylvania, which rifes
N.W. of the Kittatinny mountains, throughwhich it pafles
into a fine champaign country, and runs from its fource up-
wards of 1z0 milesin a S.E. direCtion, and pafling through
the limits of Philadelphia, falls into the Delaware oppofite
to Mud ifland, fix or feven miles below the city. By means
of the Norriton canal, it is navigable from above Reading,
85 or gomiles to its mouth. Acrofs it are three floating
bridges, made of logs faftened together, in the vicinity of
Philadelphia. Another wooden bridge, refting on two {tone
pieces, has been a work of great expence, and a valuable
improvement. Little Schuylkill river falls into this river
from the N. at Reading. On the head-waters of Schuyl-
kill are great quantities of coal.

SCHUYTEN’s Bayy.a bay on the E. coaft of Co.
chinchina. N, lat. 12° 36!. E. long. 109° 10.

SCHWABACH, a town of Germany, inthe principa-
lity of Anfpach, on a river of the fame name, which di-
vides it into two parts, and runs into the Rednitz at Erlang.
The town, though not large, is very populous, and contains
three churches, one of which is Proteltant. Here are a
Jetter-foundry, and manufactures of ttockings and tapettry ;
11 miles E. of Anfpach.

Scuwawacn, a lordthip of Germany, united with

Mindel-

SCH

Mindelheim, and eight miles N.E. of it ; taking its name
from a cattle.

SCHWABEGG, a town of the duchy of Carinthia ;
5 miles W.S.W. of Lavamund.

SCHWABEN, atown of Bavaria; 14 miles W.N.W.
of Waflerburg.—Alfo, a town of Pruffia, in the province
of Samland ; 12 miles E. of Tilfit.

SCHWABMUNCHEN, a town of Bavaria, on the
Sinckel; 11 miles S. of Augfburg.

SCHWABSTEDT, a town of Denmark, in the duchy
of Slefwick ; 14 miles W.S.W. of Slefwick.

SCHWADORFF, a town of Auttria, at the conflux
of the Pietingpach and the Reifenpach; 9 miles S.E. of
Vienna.

SCHWAIGERN,.a town of Wurtemberg ; 6 miles
W.N.W. of Heilbron. N. lat. 49° 6’. E. long. 9° of.

SCHWALBACH, or Burg-Schwalbach, a town of
Germany, in the principality of Naffau Saarbruck Ufingen ;
8 miles N.W. of Idftein.

Scnwarsach, Little, a town of Germany, in the prin-
cipality of Solms Braunfels, with a medicinal {pring ; 5 miles
S.S.E. of Braunfels.

SCHWALBEA, in Botany, a Linnean genus, named
after Chriftian George Schwalbe, a phyfician and botanitt,
author of fome tracts on the Materia Medica, one of which
was entitled «« De China Officinarum,’’ which De Theis mif-
takes for Quina, or Peruvian bark.—Linn. Gen. 306.
Gronov. Virg. 92. Walth. Carol. 167. Schreb. 402. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 3. 201. Mart. Mill. Dict.v. 4. Juff. Gen. 123.
Michaux Boreal-Amer. vy. 2. 19. Purfhv. 2. 428. La-
marck [lluitr. t. 520. Gertn. t. 55.—Clafs and order,
Didynamia Angiofpermia. Nat. Ord. Perfonate, Linn.
Scrophularia, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
ventricofe, ftriated, obliquely four-cieft at its mouth; the
upper fegment very fhort; the lateral ones longer; the
loweft ftill longer, broader, emarginate. Cor. of one petal,
ringent ; tube the length of the calyx ; limb ere&; upper
lip ere&t, concave, undivided ; lower of equal length, ob-
tufe, cloven into three equal fegments. Stam. Filaments
four, two of them fhorter, thread-fhaped, about as long as
the corolla; anthers incumbent, if. Germen {fuperior,
roundifh ; ftyle in appearance like a ftamen ; {tigma thickifh,
recurved. eric. Capfule ovate, comprefled, of two cells
and two valves, with a folded partition. Seeds (according
to Gertner) numerous, chaffy, lanceolate, {mall.

Eff. Ch. Calyx four-cleft ; the upper divifion very {mall ;
the lower one large, emarginate.

1. S. americana. Linn. Sp. Pl. 844. (Euphrafia major
mariana, floribus {picatis amplis : tubis longioribus ; fummis
oris profunde incifis ; Pluk. Mant. 73. t. 348. £. 2.)—Native
of North America, in barren fandy ground, flowering in
June and July. —Root biennial. Stem quite fimple, quadran-
gular, downy. caves alternate, feffile, lanceolate, fringed
with hairs. Bradeas ovate, pointed. Flowers ftalked, fo-
litary, alternate, forming a f{pike, of a dark brownifh-red,
or yellowifh-brown.

SCHWALE, in Geography, a river of Holftein, which
runs into the Stoer.

SCHWALENBURG, or SwatrenserG, a town of
Weltphalia, in the county of Lippe, formerly the capital of
a county of the fame name; 19 miles S.E. of Detmold.

SCHWALM, a river of Hefle, which joins the Eder
near Felfberg.—Alfo, a river which rifes in the county of
Mark, and runs into the Wipper, 2 miles E.S.E of Bar-
men, in the duchy of Berg.

SCHWALMERN, a mountain of Switzerland, being

SCH

one of the group of mountains in the canton of Berne,
which on one fide borders the valley of Lauterbrunnm, and
on the other towers oppofite to the Niefs, at the commence-
ment of the valley of Frutingen. The mountains of this
group ftand ona bafe of argillaceous fchiftus, containing a
few petrifa€tions, which is rarely vifible but at certain eleva-
tons.

SCHWALUNGEN, a town of Germany, in the
county of Henneberg ; 2 miles Nvof Wafungen.

SCHWAMELWITZ, a town of Silefia, in the prin-
cipality of Grotkau; 4 miles S.W. of Ottmuchau.

SCHWAN, a town of the duchy of Mecklenburg, on
the Warnow ; 8 miles S. of Roftock. N. lat. 53° 58’. E.
long. 12° 14!.

SCHWANBERG, a town of the duchy of Stiria; rz
miles S. of Voitfberg.—Alfo, a town of Germany, in
the county of Wertheim; 11 miles S. of Wertheim.

SCHWANBERGER, Joun, in Biography, chapel-
matter to the duke of Brunfwick, was born at Wolfenbut-
tlein 1737. He ftudied under Graun, went to Italy, and
at Venice became the pupil of Latilla. We met and con-
verfed together at Hambro, and found him an enthufiaft
for Italian mufic. He had then (1772) compofed feve-
ral ferious operas, of which the vocal parts were in a very
refined tafte ; his melodies are graceful and natural, his ac-
companiments ingenious and judicious; and the clearnefs and
facility with which he writes, manifeft great experience, and
a happy feleGtion. His harpfichord pieces, as well as thofe
written for violins, are full of pleafing effe€ts, produced by
fair and warrantable means.

ScHWANBERGER Alben, Ober, in Geography, a mountain
of Stiria, 4 miles W. of Landfperg ; and Unter Schwan-
berger Alben, is a mountain of the fame duchy ; fix miles
S.8.W. of Landfperg.

SCHWAND, a town of Saxony, in the Vogtland; 6
miles S.W. of Plauen.

SCHWANDEN, a town of Switzerland, in the can-
ton of Glarus, at the union of the Linth and the Scernft ;
5 miles S. of Glarus.

SCHWANDING, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Culmbach ; 9 miles E. of Culmbach.

SCHWANDORF, a town of Bavaria, in the principa-
lity of Neuburg ; zo miles N. of Ratifbon.

SCHWANEBECK, a town of. Weitphalia, in the prin-
cipality of Halberftadt ; 5 miles N.E. of Halberftadt.

SCHWANNASTADT, a town of Auftria, on the
river Ager; 48 miles W. of Bavarian Waidhoven. N. lat.
48° 3!. ES long. 13° 443i

SCHWANSEE, a town of Germany, in the principa-
lity of Eifenach, near a lake of the fame name ; 5 miles E.
of Erfurt.

SCHWARA, in Commerce. See SWARA.

SCHWARBRUCK, in Biography, a German organ-~
builder, who erected the firft organ m the church of St.
Martin’s-in-the- Fields, with which it was furnifhed after the
building (which was one of queen Anne’s 50 churches)
was finifhed.

St. Martin’s being the king’s parifh, George I., foon
after his majefty’s arrival in his new dominions, was chofen
(probably by fome f{piteful jacobitical veltry-men) church-
warden ce his own parifh, and in order to get rid of fo trou-
blefome and inglorious an office, his majefty made the parifh
a prefent of the inftrument, which was ftanding in the church
till within thefe few years ; and the loyal part of the parifh,
probably as a mark of duty and refpe&, appointed Wel-~
don, organilt of his majefty’s own chapel, to play upon te

w

SCH

who at his deceafe was fucceeded by Kelway, Kelway by
Dr. Cook, and Dr. Cook by his fon.

SCHWARKSFELDT, in Geography, a town of Pruffia,
in the province of Bartenland; 10 miles S.E. of Bar-
tenftein.

SCHWARSTHAL, a town of Bohemia, in the circle
of Konigingratz, near which isa gold mine; g miles N.W.
of Trautenau.

SCHWARTAU, atown of Germany, in the bifhopric
of Lubeck ; 6miles N. of Lubeck. ;

SCHWARTSTEIN, a town of Pruffia, in Barten-
land; 4 miles E. of Bartenitein.

SCHWARTZ, Bertuo tn, in Biography, a native of
Friburg, in Germany, and a monk by profeffion, lived in
the thirteenth century. Being attached to the ftudy of che-
miftry, an accident revealed to him the compofition of that mix-
ture of nitre with fulphur and charcoal, which forms guzpow-
der; which fee. The invention was very foon perfected, and
its ufe in the art of deftru€tion fo quickly fuggefted itfelf,
that the Venetians, the French, and the Englifh made ule of
it in the art of war very early in the 14th century. It has
often and warmly been debated whether this difcovery has been
uleful or pernicious to the human race. The queftion may be
itated in fhort: ‘* there can be no doubt that the immediate
operation of gunpowder is more terrific and deftruétive than
that of any of the former inftruments of war, and that it has
added greatly to the means of offence. But as hoitilitics be-
tween nations are rarely terminated till the mutual mifchief
produced has rifen to a degree which caufes the evil to be fe-
verely felt, or till one of the parties is reduced to a neceflity of
fubmiffion, it is perhaps of {mall importance by what means
this {tate of things is brought about. Battles are apparently
not more bloody than formerly, and towns are not more fre-
quently laid in afhes, or countries made defolate. One of
its effects can fearcely be denied to be advantageous to fo-
ciety, namely, that it has given a decided fuperiority to civi-
lized over barbarous nations, by intimately conne¢ting the
progrefs of {cience with improvements in the art of war.”
Gen. Biog.

Scuwartz See, in Geography, a lake in the duchy of
Carinthia; 10 miles S. of Feltkirchen.

Scuwanrtz Wafer, a river of Silefia, which runs W.
into the Oder,.one mile E. of Maltf{ch.—Alfo, a river
of Silefia, which runs S.E. intothe Katzbach.—Alfo, a
river of Silefia, which runs S.W. into the Stober, near
Bielitz.—Alfo, a river of Silefia, which runs inte the Oder,
one mile S.E. of Breflau.—Alfo, a river of Saxony, which
runs into a lake near Torgau.

Scuwantz Graben, a river of Silefia, which runs into the
Oder, 3 miles N.N.E. of Wartenberg.

SCHWARTIZA, atown of Germany, in the county
of Henneberg ; 4 miles N.E. of Meinungen.

Scuwartza, Schwarzawa, or Swarta, a river of Mo-
ravia, which rifes eight miles W. of Ingrowitz, paffes
by Brunn, &c. and runs into the Iglau, before its union
with the Teya.

SCHWARTZACH, a river of Germany, which runs
into the Rhine, near Waldfhut.—Alfo, a town of Germany,
in the principality of Culmbach; 9 miles S.E. of Baytentic
—Alfo, a town of Germany, in the principality of Culm-
bach ; 4 miles W.N.W. of Culmbach.

SCHWARTZBACH, ariver of Germany, which rifes
sear Darmitadt, and runs into the Rhine two miles above its
union with the Main.—Alfo, a river of Carinthia, which
flows from the lake Schwartz Sce into the river Muehr, 5
miles W. of Muchra.—Alfo, a river of Saxony, which runs

Vor. XXXL.

Ss: C7

into the Mulda, near Duben.—Alfo, a town of Saxony,
in the circle of Neuftadt ; 5 miles N.N.E. of Neuftadt.—
Alfo, a river of Silefia, which runs N. into the river
Quies, £ mile N. of Briedberg.

SCHWARTZBERG, one of the group of mountains
mentioned under Schwalmern ; which fee.

SCHWARTZENA, a town of Pruffia, in the palati-
nate of Culm; 18 miles N. of Strafburg.

SCHWARTZENBACH, atown of Auittria; 16 miles
S.E. of Ebenfurth.— Alfo, a town of Switzerland, in the
county of Tockenburg.

SCHWARTZENBECK, a town of the duchy of
Lauenburg ; 11 miles N. of Lauenburg.

SCHWARTZENBERG, a mountain of Auttria ;
24 miles S. of Steyr.

SCHWARTZENBORN, a town of Germany, in the
county of Ziegenhayn; 7 miles E. of Ziegenhayn.

SCHWARTZENBURG, a town of Switzerland, in
the canton of Berne, and capital of a bailiwick, fituated
between the cantons of Berne and Friburg. The inhabit-
ants {peak the German language, and are all Proteftants ;
17 miles S.S.W. of Berne. !

SCHWARTZENFELS, a town of Germany, in the
principality of Hanau Munzenburg; 14 miles S. of Fulda.

SCHWARTZENITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Leitmeritz ; 20 miles N. of Prague.

SCHWARTZENPACH, a town of Carinthia; 7
miles S. of Pleyburg.

SCHWARTZORTZ, 2 town of Pruffia, in the pro-—
vince of Smaland, on the Curifch Nerung; 12 miles S. of
Memel.

SCHWARTZWASSER, or SrRuMIEN, a town of
Silefia, in the principality of Tefchen; 11 miles N.N-E. of
Tefchen.

SCHWARZA, a river which rifes in the principality
of Schwartzburg, and runs into the Saal, three miles be-
low Saalfeld.

SCHWARZACH, ariver of Bavaria, which runs into
the Danube, fix miles below Deckendorf.—Alfo, a river of
Swabia, which runs into the Danube, three miles below
Scheer. —Alfo, a river of Bavaria, which runs into the Alt-
muhl, fix miles S.W. of Berngries.—Alfo, a river of Ba-
varia, which runs into the Nab, four miles S. of Nabburg.—
Alfo, a town and abbey of the duchy of Baden; 8 miles
W.S.W. of Baden.

SCHWARZAU, ariver of Germany, which runs into
the Rednitz, 10 miles S. of Nuremberg.

SCHWARZBACH, atown of the duchy of Wurz-
burg, on the Maine ; 11 miles E. of Wurzburg.

Scuwanrzpacu, Ober, atown of the duchy of Wurzburg,
on the left bank of the Maine; 5 miles S. of Geroltzhofen,
N. lat. 49° so’. E. long. 10° 15).

SCHWARZBURG, a principality of Saxony, in Thu-
ringia, the fouthern or upper part being feparated from the
northern or lower part by a {pace of more than 20 miles.
The former is furrounded by the principalities of Coburg,
Altenburg, and Eifenach, and the territory of Erfurt ; the
latter by the circle of Thuringia, the eleGtorate of Saxony,
the counties of Stolberg, Hohenftein, Eichsfelde, and the
territory of the imperial town of Mublhaufen. The whole
principality contains 12 boroughs, with the half of two
others, 10 market-towns, 15 callles, and about 100,000 in-
habitants. The princes and their fubjeéts are Lutherans.
The prefent princes of Schwarzburg are divided into two
principal branches, viz. Schwarzburg-Sonderfhaufen and
Schwarzburg-Rudolitadt.—Alfo, a town and caftle of

47T Germany,

$C H

Germany, in the county of Schwarzburg-Rudolftadt ; near
which are mines of filver and copper; 8 miles S.W. of
Rudolftadt. F

SCHWARZENAU, atown of Germany, in the county
of Witgenftein, on the Eder; 5 miles E. of Berleburg.—
Alfo, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg, on the right
bank of the Maine, oppofite to Schwarzbach.

SCHWARZENBACH /ur /a Saale, a town of Ger-
many, in the environs of which are quarries of grey mar-
ble, ftained with yellow ; 6 miles S. of Hof.

SCHWARZENBERG, a town and caftle of Ger-
many, in the county of Schwarzenberg ; 26 miles N. of
Anfpach.—Alfo, a lordthip fituated between the bifhoprics
-of Wurzburg and Bamberg, and the marggravate of An-
{pach, about 18 miles long and 3 broad.—Alfo, a town
of Saxony, in the circle of Erzgebirg, near which are feveral
iron forges, and mines that yield both tin and lead ; 48 miles
S.W. of Drefden. N. lat. 50° 34’. E. long. 12° 38/.

SCHWARZENFELD, a town of Bavaria, in the
Upper Palatinate ; 5 miles S. of Nabburg.

SCHWARZENSTEIN, a town of the duchy of Stiria;
8 miles N.W. of Cilley.

SCHWARZHOFEN, a town of Bavaria; 15 miles
S.E. of Amberg.

SCHWATZ, atown of Bohemia, in the eircle of Leit-
meritz ; 12 miles W. of Leitmeritz.—Alfo,°a town of the
county of Tyrol, fituated on the Inn, near which is a mine of
filver and copper, that employs tooo men. It was difco-
vered in 1448, and was formerly very productive. Here
is likewife a good glafs-houfe; 14 miles E.N.E. of In-
{pruck. N. lat. 47° 21’. E. long. 11° 46/.

SCHWEDT, a town of Brandenburg, in the Ucker
Mark, on the Oder, which here divides it into two parts ;
46 miles N.E. of Berlin. N. lat. 53° 5’. E. long.
14° 28'.

SCHWEDTZ, a town of Pruffia, in Pomerelia, on the
Viftula; 5 miles N. of Culm.

SCHWEIDNITZ, a city of Silefia, and capital of the
principality to which it gives name. It rofe from the afhes
to which a fire reduced the greateft part of it in 1716 with
new beauty, and was built of ftone. The new town-houle
is an elegant ftruéture. In 1788 the number of inhabitants
was 8983. Its chief bufinefs is the manufacture of leather ;
26 miles S.W. of Breflau. N. lat. 50° 49’. E. long. 16°
25'.—Alfo, one of the largeft and moft populous principalities
of Silefia, and united with Jauer, equal to one-eighth of the
duchy. This country is furnifhed with wood, legumes, and
fruit, abounds with game and fheep, and has in feveral parts
of it coal. The linen and woollen manufaétures flourifh.
The whole principality contains fourteen towns.

SCHWEINBURG, or Scuwinspure, a town of the
principality of Hefle, on the Ohm; 9 ‘miles S.E. of
Marburg. :

ScuweinBurc, a town of Auftria; 2 miles S. of
Pirrawurth.

SCHWEINFURT, or Surrronn, a town of Bavaria,
on the Maine, over whichis a ftone bridge. It contains two
churches, an hofpital, and a college, founded by Guftavus
Adolphus, king of Sweden. Its territory, which is not
extenfive, produces excellent wine, and the chief articles of
its trade are cloth, linen, and feathers. The town was im-
perial antil the year 1802, when it was given to the ele&tor
of Bavaria; 28 miles N.N.E. of Bamberg. N. lat. 50° 5/.
E. long. 10° 25/.

SCHWEINITZ, a town of Saxony, on the Schwartz
Eliter; 12 miles E. of Wittenberg. N, lat. 51° 47/. E.

SCH

long. 13° 8.—Alfo, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Bechin; 12 miles S.S.E. of Budweifs.

SCHWEINSBACH, a town of Germany, in the prin-
cipality of Culm ; 2 miles S. of Munchberg.

SCHWEINSHAUPTEN, a town of the duchy of
Wurzburg, on the Baunach; 5 miles S.S.E. of Konigf-
hofen in der Grabfeld.

SCHWEIRA, a town of Germany, in the county of
Henneberg ; 4 miles N.N.W. of Smalkalden.

SCHWEIRBACH, a river of Germany, which runs
into the Fils, oppofite to Salach.

SCHWEITZ, or Scuwirz, a canton of Switzerland,
and one of the three to which the name of Schweitzerland,
or Switzerland, originally extended ; the other two being
Uri and Underwalden. Jt is bounded on the N. by the
canton of Zurich; on the E. by the bailiwick of Gaitter,
and the canton of Glarus; onthe S. by the canton of Uri;
and on the W. by the cantons of Lucerne Zug and Zurich ;
about 24 miles long and 18 broad. .Schweitz comprehends
326 {quare miles, and 23,000 inhabitants. The balliages
fubject to Schweitz and Glarus, are Gafter, Uznach, and
Gambs, including 149 fquare miles, and a population of
gooo perfons. This canton is mountainous, interfeGted with
fertile vallies. The air is pure and falubrious: the inha-
bitants are brave, hardy, warlike, and jealous of their liberty =
the chief article of commerce is cattle : the population is efti-
mated at 32,000 perfons, including about one-third of fuch as
belong to territories, purchafed and acquired, and now fub-
je&t to the canton. The religion is the Roman Catholic,
and its ecclefiaftical concerns are fubjeé&t to the dire@tion of
the bifhop of Conftance. The inhabitants trace their origin
to the Cimbrians, who, defeated by Marius the Roman
general, about 100 years before the Chriftian era, fled into
Helvetia. After fome refolute ftruggles in defence of their

privileges, which the inhabitants of this canton, in common ©

with thofe of Uri and Underwalden enjoyed, when the
greater part of Helvetia was fubje& to the empire, Albert,
the fon of Rhodolph, being elected emperor, refufed to
ratify the rights which they had poflefled, and, in order to-
tally to fubdue the people, placed over them two governors,
who committed many flagitious aéts of tyranny and op-
preflion. Under thefe circumftances, Werner de Staffach
of Schweitz, Walther Furit of Uri, and Arnold de
Melchthal of Underwalden, planned the famous revolution,
which took place January 13, 1308, and reftored liberty to
the three cantons; and Albert, as he was preparing to at-
tack them, was aflaflinated by his nephew, John of Hapf-
burg. In 1315, Leopold, duke of Auftria, marched againft
the confederate cantons, at the head of 20,000 troops, and,
endeavouring to force his way into Schweitz, at the pafs of
Morgarten, received a total defeat from 1300 Swifs potted
upon the mountains. Inthe fame year, the three cantons
contraéted a perpetual alliance, which was ratified at Brunnen,
and is the grand foundation of the Helvetic confederacy.
The government of Uri and Schweitz is entirely demo-
cratical, and nearly the fame. ‘The fupreme power refides
in the people at large, who are divided into feveral com-
munities, from which are chofen the councils of regency.
In the « Lands-gemeind,” or general aflembly, the Lan-
damman, and the principal magiftrates, are elected ; and
every burgher, at the age of fourteen in the cantons of Uri
and Underwalden, and of fifteen in Schweitz, has a right to
vote. The countils of regency in Uri and Schweitz confilt
each of fixty members, and retide at the capital burghs = in
thefé councils the executive power is vefted, and from their
bodies the principal magiltrates are chofen. ;
n

~ LY te & wis

SCH

In the year 1798, an affembly of deputies from the cantons
of Uri, Schweitz, Underwalden, and Glarus, determined to
maintain their independence, and to refiit the innovations of
the French. Even after the fubjugation of the other parts
of Switzerland, thefe intrepid mountaineers defended them-
felves with fuch fpirit, and made fuch havoc among the
French forces, that general Schwembourg engaged by
treaty to refpe& their territory, and accepted their promife
to accept the new Helvetic'conititution. When the French,
in procefs of time, continued to difunite the {mall cantons,
and feparately to complete their fubjugation, and obtained
from the diet of Arau a decree for impofing a civic
oath of allegiance to the new conititution, the cantons of
Uri, Schweitz, Underwalden, 2nd Zug, refufed compliance.
General Schwembourg threatened that, unlefs they com-
plied, he would inftantly march his troops into the re-
bellious diftri&s. Their anfwer deferves to be recorded
for its pathetic fimplicity. “ Receive, citizen-general, from
a people ever true to their engagements, who among their
ctaggy mountains have no comfort but their religion and
liberty, whofe only riches are their cattle; receive the
fincere aflurance that they will ever give the French republic
every proof of their devotion compatible with their liberty
and independence. Accept alfo, citizen-general, our folemn
promife never to take up arms again{t the great republic,
and never to joinits enemies. Our liberty is our only bleff-
ing; nor will we ever grafp our arms except to defend that
liberty.”’ This artlefs remonftrance had no effet: Uri,
Schweitz, and Glarus, deeming all refiftance unavailing,
took the civic oath; and the lower part of Underwalden,
which alone refufed, was left to its fate. According to the
divifion of 1798, the cantons of Uri, Schweitz, Underwalden,
and Zug, are comprehended under that of Wald{ftaatten,
and the chief town is Schweitz ; but in 1801 Schweitz was
made a feparate canton, according to its former extent, with
one reprefentative to the diet.

Scuweitz, a town of Switzerland, and capital of the
above-mentioned canton, fituated on the flope of a hill, at
the bottom of two high, fharp, and rugged roads, called
the “ Schweitzer-Hahen.” Its pofitionis extremely agree-
able. The church, which is a large magnificent building,
ftands in the centre of the place ; near it the houfes are con-
tiguous: but in the other part are prettily difperfed
about the gentle acclivities, in the midft of lawns and
meadows, and fheltered by groves of trees. The principal
objeé&t of curiofity in Schweitz is a complete collection of
the celebrated Hetlingin’s medals, poffeffed by his nephew:
the medals are all of the fine{t impreffions, and feveral ex-
tremely rare; 16 miles E.S.E. of Lucerne. N. lat. 46°
57 E long. 8° 26'. '

Scnwerrz, Lake of, the fecond branch of the Waldftet-
terfee, or lake of the four cantons.

SCHWELM, atown of the county of Mark, on a brook
of the fame name, near which are fome medicinal {prings ;
22 miles N.E. of Cologn.

SCHWENCKFELDT, Gasran nx, in Biography, a
religious enthufiaft, of a noble family in Silefia, was born at
the caltle of Offig, in the duchy of Lignitz, in 1490. After
pafling fome years with the mt to whom he was coun-
fellor, he began to learn the Greek language, and to ftudy
the fcriptures and fathers of the church. He joined the
Proteftant party; but upon examining the dosirines and
rites eftablifhed by Luther, he found many things which
ap d to him to be erroneous. He accordingly formed
opinions for himfelf, and began to propagate them in
Silefia, after which he went to Strafburg, Lenk, and
other imperial cities, every where inculcating his peculiar

SCA

tenets, and every where encountering the enmity of the
zealots of other-fe€ts. His morals were pure, his piety
fervent, and his fincerity unqueftionable; but he had a
great propeniity to fanaticifm, which induced him to be-
heve that he received the dotrines which he taught from
immediate divine infpiration. He differed from Lather in
three principal points: 1. With regard to the Eucharift,
he inverted the words * this is my body,’’ and would have
them underftood thus; “¢ my body is this, that is, fuch as
this bread which is broken and confumed; a true and real
food, which nourifhes and fatisfies the foul. My blood is
this, that is, fuch in its effects as the wine, which {trengthens
and refrefhes the heart.’? 2. With refpect to the efficacy
of the divine word, he denied that the external word which
is committed to writing in the {criptures, poflefles the power
of healing, illuminating, and renewing the mind; and he
afcribed this power to the internal word, which, according
to his notion, was Chrift himfelf. 3. He would not allow
Chrift’s human nature, in its exalted ftate, to be called a
creature, or a created fubftance, which denomination ap-
peared to him infinitely beneath its dignity. To thefe and
other myftical notions he was fo much devoted, that he
pailed a life of wandering and contention in propagating
them, and by means of his eloquence and zeal he obtained
a great number of followers. He died at Ulm, in the
year 1561. He had founded a church in Silefia. His
works have been frequently reprinted.

SCHWENKFELDIA, in Botany, was fo named by
Schreber, in memory of Cafpar Schwenckfelt, author of a
catalogue of the plants and foflils of Silefia, who died in
1609. ‘The fame genus was denominated by Aublet Sa-
BICEA; fee the explanation of that word in its proper place.
Its origin and con{tru€tion are, no doubt, barbarous, as well
as arbitrary ; and the Linnean laws, which we highly ap-
prove, induced Schreber to change it. In all fuch cafes we
fhould prefer the fubititution of a legitimate Greek or
Latin word ; at leaft to one whofe claims may be difputed,
and whofe harmony is, as in the prefent inftance, certainly
very far inferior to that of the rejeéted name.—Schreb.
Gen: 123. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.982. Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 4.
Swartz Ind. Occ. v. 1. 448.t. 10. (Sabicea; Aubl. Guian.
v. 1.192. Jufl. 207. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 165. Swartz
Prodr. 46.)—Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat.
Ord. Stellate, Linn. Rubiacee, Juil.

Gen. Ch. Cai. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, in five
deep, lanceolate, acute fegments, permanent. Cor. of one
petal, funnel-fhaped; tube much longer than the calyx,
thread-fhaped, hairy in the mouth; limb in five deep, lan-
ceolate, acute fegments. Stam. Filaments five, inferted into
the tube of the corolla; anthers linear, incumbent. Pi/?.
Germen inferior, roundifh; {tyle thread-fhaped, the length
of the tube; ftigmas five, oblong. Peric, Berry of five
cells, globofe, crowned with the permanent calyx. Seeds
numerous, minute, attached to crefcent-fhaped receptacles.

Obf. In fome cafes the Mowers are four-cleft and tetran-
drous. We do not fee the neceflity of admitting the invo-
lucrum into the generic character.

Eff. Ch. Corolla funnel-thaped, hairy within.
five. Berry of five cells, with many feeds.

1. &. hirta. Swartz Ind. Occ. v. 1. 450. Willd. n. 1—
Leaves ovato-lanceolate, pointed, hairy. Vlowers on fhort
ftalks.—Native of mountainous woods, in the weftern part
of Jamaica; flowering in April. A climbing /hrud, with
angular branches, hairy when young. Leaver oppofite,
ftalked, three or four inches long, and one or one anda half
broad, entire; paler beneath. Stipulas between the foot-
italks, large, rounded, entire, {preading, of a pale or —

47 2 ie,

Stigmas

SCH

hue. Flower-flalks axillary, fhorter than the footftalks, foli-
tary, each bearing an umbel of three ftalked, white, inodorous,
five-cleft flowers, fubtended by a large four-cleft involucral
leaf, or bra@ea. Permanent calyx ator gach leafy, hairy, as
is likewife the outfide of the corolla. Berry {now-white.

2. S. cinerea. Swartz Ind. Occ. v. 1. 452. Willd.
n.2. (Sabicea cinerea; Aubl. Guian. v. 1. 192. t. 75.)—
Leaves elliptic-oblong, acute, downy; hoarv beneath.
Flowers nearly feffile. Branches downy.—In the hedges of
Cayenne and Guiana.—Stem climbing, fhrubby, with round
downy branches. The /eaves are clothed with fine white
down at the back. Stipulas {maller, and more acute,. than
in the former. Flowers white, with very fhort, common,
as well as partial, falés, five-cleft ; their coro//e longer and
flenderer than the foregoing. Berry red, of five cells.

3. S. afpera. Willd. n. 3. (Sabicea afpera; Aubl.
Guian. v. I. 194. t. 76.)—Leaves elliptic-oblong, pointed,
rough; paler beneath. Flowers feffile. Stipulas lanceo-
Jate.—Gathered by Aublet on the banks of the river Sine-
mari in Guiana, bearing flowers and fruit in November.
Its habit is like the two other fpecies, but the /eaves, and
young branches, are rough with clofe-preffed briftles.
Flowers quite feffile, five, fix, or feven, together in the
bofoms of the leaves. Germen very briltly. Berry red,
hairy. Stipulas lanceolate, not rounded, and the braéeas, if
any, have the fame figure. Some of the flowers are occa-
fionally four-cleft. ‘The natives call this plant Sabi/abi, a
word refined by Aublet into Sabicea.

SCHWENKIA, fo named by profeflor David van
Royen, in honour of one of his countrymen, Dr. Martin
William Schwencke, a phyfician at the Hague, who died in
1785, aged 78. He publifhed a catalogue of the phyfic-
garden there, and two or three botanical traéts ; but has
not materially diftinguifhed himfelf in this line of fcience.—
Linn. Gen. 567. Syit. Nat. ed. 12. v. 2.61. Schreb. 18.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v.1. 106. Vahl. Enum. v. 1. 102. Mart.
Mill. Di&. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 1.43. Jufl. 123.—
Clafs and order, Diandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Luridz,
Linn. Scrophulariis affine, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
ftriated, itraight, five-toothed, permanent. Cor. of one
petal; tube cylindrical, the length of the calyx ; limb about
as long, nearly regular; inflated, and furnifhed with five
ftar-like plaits, at the mouth, which clofe the orifice, a
glandular body being immerfed in the outer angle: of the
plaits, the two uppermotlt of thofe glands longer than the
reft. Stam. Filaments five, three of which are fhorter than
the others, and without anthers, the two uppermoft being
the longeft, and perfect; anthers two, ovate, ereét (Linn.
MSS.), of two cells. Pf. Germen fuperior, globofe ;
ftyle fimple, the length of the perfeét ftamens ; {tigma obtufe.
Peric. Capfule globofe, a little comprefled, f{mooth, longer
than the enlarged calyx, of two cells and two valves. Seeds
numerous, minute, fomewhat angular, attached to a globofe
receptacle.

Eff. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Corolla nearly equal ; its
mouth plaited and glandular. Three mutilated itamens.
Capfule with two cells, two valves, and many feeds.

t. S. americana. Tropical Schwenkia. Linn. Gen. 567.
Willd. n.at. Vahl. on, 1. Ajit. n, 1. Schwenke in the
edition of his catalogue above-mentioned, printed in 1766,
p- 328, with a plate.—Native of the neighbourhood of
Berbice, in Guiana. M. Richard is alfo recorded by Vahl
as having found this plant in the dry fandy fields of Cayenne.
Thonning and Brafs have gathered it on the coatt of
Guinea. Seeds were received from the latter country, and
plants raifed, by Meffrs. Kennedy and Lee, in 1781, It ds

SCH

a flender inconfpicuous biennial herb, requiring to be kept
in a ftove, and flowering in Augult or September.—Stem
erect, branched, panicled, round, leafy, from one to two feet
high, nearly {mooth. Leaves alternate, ftalked, ovate, entire,
{mooth, various in fize. Flowers {mall, in long flender
clufters. Corolla pale violet, about half an inch long,
flender ; the tube greenifh. Cap/ule pointed, about the fize
of a hemp-feed.

This plant has nothing to recommend it to general notice,
either in appearance or qualities. As the firlt {pecimens
were brought to England from the Cape coatt ofa Africa,
and were miftaken for a Boerhavia, thofe who made that
miftake were loud in their complaints of the fpecific name,
americana; and concluded that Linnzus had made a
blunder in the native country of the plant. But this con-
clufion led only to a fimilar and equal incorre&nefs, in call-
ing it Guinea Schwenkia ; for it is aGually a native of both
thofe parts of the globe. The Linnzan appellation there-
fore, though, ‘like moft geographical fpecific names, liable
to exception, is neither falfe, nor abfurd.

SCHWERIN, Curt, CuristopHer, Count Von, in
Bisgrapiys a celebrated Pruflian general, was born of a
noble family in the year 1684. He was educated till the
age of 13 at home, under the direétion of able tutors; but
having lott his father in 1697, he was left to the care of
his mother and an uncle, the Heffian general Detlof von
Schwerin, who had diftinguifhed himfelf in the war in Bra-
bant. By the friendly affiltance of the latter, who fent for
him to the Hague, he was enabled to profecute his ftudies
at Leyden, and other places; but in the 17th year of his
age he relinquifhed {cientific purfuits, and entered into the
Dutch fervice, in the regiment commanded by his uncle,
and in which his eldeft brother, who was afterwards killed,
in 1704, in the itorming of Donaverth, held a commiffion.
In 1705 he was made a captain at the early age of 21, and
in the following campaigns ferved under prince Eugene, and
the duke of Marlborough, and from thefe able commanders
learned thofe principles of the art of war, which, in the courfe
of his military career, he practifed with fo much fuccefs.
About this time his uncle quitted the army with an intention
of {pending the remainder of his days in retirement, and on
this account the nephew refigned his company, and entered
into the feryice of the duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, in
which he obtained, in 1706, the rank of lieutenant-colonel.
In the following year he obtained a regiment, and by his
excellent conduct he gained the confidence fo completely of
his fovereign, that in 1712 he was difpatched on a miffion
to Charles XII. of Sweden. In 1718 he became a major-
general; and in 1719, during the difpute between duke
Charles Leopold and the Mecklenburg nobility refpeéting
their privileges, he was employed, and difplayed all the
energy and prudence which the bufinefs feemed to require.
His own property was fituated in Pomerania, which being
ceded to the king of Pruflia, he immediately entered into
his fervice, and obtained a regiment in 1722. -In confe-
quence of difturbances at Thorn, he was fent by the king
as envoy to the royal Polifh and eleGoral court of Fs
but being unable to accompliih the objec of his miffion, he
quitted Drefden, with the confent of his fovereign, and re-
figned his office to his brother. In 1730 he was made
governor of Peitz, and next year was promoted to be a
heutenant-general, and honoured with the order of the Black
Eagle. In 1733 he marched with three Pruffian regiments
to Mecklenburg, and took pofleffion of fome places in that
duchy, which were not reflored to the duke till 1787. He
now rofe into great favour with the king, Frederic Wil-
liam I., was his conftant companion, and accompanied him

to

EE

SCH

Yo all hisreviews. In 1739 he became a general of infantry ;
and at the funeral of the king, in 1740, bore the banner of
the kingdom. He was raifed the fame year to the rank of
count, as was alfo his brother, by Frederic II., and at
the fame time nominated a field-marfhal. On the death
of the emperor Charles VI. he was fent for by the king,
that he might confer with him on meafures necel-
fary to be purfued in regard to the approaching war; and
his regiment, which broke up in December, was the firft
that entered the Silefian territories. He fhortly after
reduced many ftrong places, and'in January 1741 attended
the king when he entered Breflau, and fhortly after advancing
and croffing the river Neifs, he occupied the important pafs
of Jablunka. In the month of February, having given up
his command, he proceeded to Breflau, and after making
fome important preparations and eftablifhing magazines, he
returned to the army. In the month of April he obtained
a great victory at Molwitz, which determined the future
fate of Silefia. On this occafion, though wounded feverely
and often, he never quitted the field, and by his ability and
great prefence of mind rallied the Pruffian troops, after they
had been thrown into diforder, which rendered the iflue of
the battle, at one time, extremely doubtful. On the break-
ing out of the fecond Silefian war, Schwerin conduéted a
part of the Pruffian army through the country of Glatz to
Bohemia, took poffeflion of many great towns, and levied
heavy contributions. He was very inftrumental in taking
Prague, and figned the articles of capitulation on the part
of the king of Pruflia. After this the king took a itep
contrary to the advice and opinion of his favourite marfhal,
which induced him to quit his command, and retire to his
eftate. The coolnefs that now fubfifted between the king
and Schwerin was not removed till 1747, when Frederic in-
vited him to Berlin, and he was afterwards placed in a very
confpicuous fituation in the feven years’ war. In 1756 he
attacked very fuccefsfully, with his advanced guard, a body
of Auftrians, and deftroyed the bridge on the Elbe at Schir-
fitz. About the fame time the king had been conqueror
in the bloody engagement at Lowofitz, and having {ent a
letter to the field-marthal to acquaint him with the victory,
the latter wrote him back that he heartily congratulated him,
but had the battle been fought by a fubjeét, initead of a
king, he would thereby have expofed his life to danger. In
1757, having now done wonders in the caufe in which he
had embarked, he joined the royal army encamped before
Prague. In this fituation the king determined to give the
enemy battle; the marfhal oppofed the plan, on account of
the unfavourablenefs of the place ; but when he found him
determined, he, at length, yielded. The battle was fought
on the 6th of May, and was one of the bloodieft in which
the king was ever engaged. ‘ The Pruffians,’”’ fays the
hiftorian, “ performed wonders, and difplayed a bravery
beyond all praife ; but in confequence of a molt deftruétive
fire of grape-fhot, and the difficulty of approaching the
enemy, they began to lofe courage and to give way.
Schwerin, who was pofted before a narrow pafs, feeing his
regiment giving way, fnatched the colours from an enfign
of the fecond battalion; placed himfelf in front of the
regiment, and calling out to his men, * Do you not fee the
enemy turning their backs,’ encourayed them by that
addrefs to advance.”” Searcely, however, had he proceeded
a few fleps, before he fell covered with wounds, in the 73d
year of Kis age. This lalt aét of the hero turned the fate of
the day, and fecured for the Pruffians a decided vidtory.
The field-marthal’s body was conveyed to a neighbouring
convent, to which the king went for the purpofe of viewing
it, and deploring the fate of his general. ‘To commemorate
1

SCH

the event, 2 plate was engraved by Berger, and the kin

caufed a ftatue of white marble to be ere@ed in William’s
Place at Berlin. Schwerin was a fevere difciplinarian ; he
enforced fubordination with great rigour; he poffefled a
mott delicate feafe of honour, which he made a great point
of maintaining. He knew how to preferve his dignity with
princes of the royal blood, and always obliged them to treat
him with refpe&t. He entertained an unfeigned reverence
for religion, and paid particular attention to thofe who were
actuated by the fame principles, and often ufed to fay that
a brave general ought to be a good Chriltian. Gen. Biog.

ScHWERIN, in Geography, a city of the duchy of
Mecklenburg, in which the dukes of the Schwerin line
ufually refide, fituated on a pleafant lake abounding with a
variety of fifh, and which, furrounding the greateft part of
the town, gavename toit. Itisnearly {quare, and confifts
of three parts, viz. Schwerin, the New Town, and the
Moor. The duke’s palace ftands on an ifland in the lake,
being fortified, and communicating with the town by means
of a bridge. This palace contains a colleGtion of very
valuable paintings; 54 miles E.S.E. of Lubeck. N. lat.
53° 40'. E. long. 11° 24’—Alfo, a principality about 20
miles long and 6 broad, furrounded by the duchy of Meck-
lenburg. It was founded in 1170 by Henry the Lion, duke
of Saxony and Bavaria, at the town of Schwerin, whence it
has obtained its name. At the peace of Weitphalia in 1648
it was, from having been a bifhopric, converted into a tem-
poral principality of the empire, and affigned to the dukes of
Mecklenburg of the Schwerin line, with rights of feats and
voice in the college of the princes of the empire, and like-
wife in that of the circle of Lower Saxony.

SCHWERTBERG, a town of Auttria; 10 miles E.
of Steyrege.

SCHWERTE, or Scuwierre, a town of Germany,
in the county of Mark, furrounded with walls in 1242; 64
miles E.N.E. of Duffeldorp. N. lat. 51° 24’. E. long.

Ria 2is
SCHWERZ, a town of Saxony, in the territory of
Leipfic ; 1 mile N. of Duben.

SCHWESNITZ, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Culmbach; 5 miles N.E. of Kirch Lamitz.—
Alfo, a river of Germany, in the principality of Culmbach,
which runsinto the Saal, near Kotzau.

SCHWETZ, atown and caftle of Pomerelia, on the
W. fide of the Viltula; 7 miles N. of Culm.

SCHWEYGEN, a river of France, which runs into
the Erbach near Deuxponts.

SCHWEYNINGEN, a town of Swabia, from which
the Auftrians were driven by the French in 1799.

SCHWIBUSIN, or Scuwixsus, a town of Silefia, and
capital of a circle, in the principality of Glogau; 40 miles
N.N.W. of Gros Glogau, N. lat. 52° 20/. E. long,
ie Azi.

SCHWIEBEDOWE, a town of Silefia, in the prin-
cipality of Oels; 4 miles S. of Militfch. ‘

SCHWINAU, ariver of Weltphalia, which runs into
the Ilmenau, near Ultzen, in the principality of Luneburg
Zelle.

SCHWINDL, Frepenic, in Biography, a very agree-
able and pleafing compofer for violins. ‘Che trios and fym-

honies of this author were fo admired in England, before the
Manheim and Vienna {chools were known, that Giardini
fcarcely played any other at his academia. But when he
went to Ncaby, they were wholly laid afide in this country.
Yet even 30 or 40 years ago, though Schwindl’s compo-
fitions were admired by dilettante in Germany, profeflors
who allowed the author to have genius, denied him talte,

force,

Sal
force, and correétnefs. He flourifhed chiefly from the year
1765 to 1786.

SCHWINE, in Geography, one of the mouths of the
Oder, which paffes into the Baltic, between the iflands of
Uledom and Wollin.

SCHWINEMUNDE, a town of Germany, on the
E. coalt of the ifle of Ufedom, built in 1775, and fituated
onthe Schwine ; 12 miles E. of Ufedom. N. lat. 53° 56’.
E. long. 14° 12!.

SCHWINGE, Swince, or Zwinge, a river of the
duchy of Bremen, which paffes by Stade, and runs into the
Elbe, four miles below it. /N. lat. 53° 38’. E. long.

eae

SCHWINGEN, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Culmbach; 6 miles S.E. of Culmbach.

SCHWITZ. See Scuweirz.

SCHWOCHAT,, a town of Auttria, on a river of the
fame name; 6 miles S.E. of Vienna.

SCHWOLBE, ariver of France, which runs into the
Erbach near Deuxponts.

SCHWOLMEN, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Natangen ; 8 miles N. of Heilfberg.

SCHWYB, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Sennaar ; 49 miles N. of Sennaar. ,

SCIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Greece, in the
ile of Eubeea.

SCIABONIS, in Geography, a town of Perfian Ar-
menia; go miles E.S.E. of Erivan.

SCIADEPHORI, oxen Pogary formed of cxiadsiz, an
umbrella, and ¢:w, I carry, among the Athenians, an appel-
lation given to the itranger women refiding in Athens, be-
caufe they were obliged, at the feitival Panathenza, to carry
umbrellas to defend the free women from the weather.

SCLENA, in Jchthyology, a genus of fifhes of the order
Thoracici, of which the generic charaéter is as follows ; the
head is covered with eles the feales are {trongly fixed ;
the gill-membrane with about fix rays; the covers are
fcaly ; it has two dorfal fins, frequently concealed in a lon-
gitudinal cavity. In Gmelin’s edition of Linnreus, 29
{pecies are defcribed. The fifhes of this tribe have their
{cales very minute, fmooth, and towards the back and belly
they are raifed and loofe; the jaws are of unequal length,
furnifhed with a great number of fharp and incurvated teeth,
covered with two thick lips; a fingle dorfal and anal fin,
with a loofe appendage beyond the rays; the ventral fins are
placed on the thorax, a little behind the peétoral, and fharp-
ened at the point. Many of the fifhes belonging to this
genus are black, and have obtained from the old naturalilts
the names of fea-crows, ravens, and umbres.

The name /ciena is of Grecian origin, derived from the
word cxix, a fhadow. The fith had this name from its being
of a dufky or fhadowy colour.

Species.

Capra. Sides of the head with a double row of f{cales.
It isan inhabitant of the Mediterranean.

Lipisma. In this the derfal fin is concealed between two
{caly leaves.

UNIMACULATA.
of each fide.

Umara ; Sea-crow. The body of this fpecies is varied
with black ; the ventral fins are very entire. It is found in
the Mediterranean and European feas. In fhape it refembles
a perch; the ventral and anal fins are as black as if dyed
with ink; the back is variegated with undulating lines of
dark brown and blue; the {nout is fharp ; the mouth capa-
cious, and inftead of teeth, it is roughened with {mall alpe-

This has a brown fpot on the middle

SCI
rities : around the roftrum there are various {mall apertures ;
thofe of the noftrils wide and placed near the eyes. On the
back are two fins fo clofely adjoining, that they appear fingle
and contiguous. Tt is a native of the Mediterranean, and
fold in great quantities in the markets of Rome, where it is
called ombrino.

Cirrosa. The upper jaw is the longer of the two, and
the lower one has a cirrus. It inhabits the European and
American feas, and is about a foot long. The body is
yellowifh; beneath it is fomewhat filvery, with oblique
blackith ftripes ; the tail is femilunar.

Hamrvur. This fpecies is red, with a coppery. glofs ;
the fins are more dufky ; the mouth is fubvertical; the
{cales are membranaceous at the edges. It is found in
Arabia ; the body is oblong, and the {cales are fniall.

VutvirLaAmMaA. This is yellowifh, with longitudinal
golden itripes ; the fides are marked with a black {pot ; the
dorfal fins convex.

Kasmira. Thisis a yellowith fifh, with four large ftripes
on each fide. It is an Arabian fifh, as are almoft all the
others.

Bouwar. Reddifh, with whitifh lines and clouds. The
body is oblong, coated with {mooth {cales ; it is of a doubt-
ful genus ; when alive, it has two large {pots on the back,
which difappear when the fifh is dead.

Gippa. Reddifh, dotted with white ; the back is gib-
bous ; the body is oval; the {cales are red, tipt with white.
The upper and middle teeth are contiguous ; the canine are
diftant, and twice as large as the others ; the dorfal and anal
fins are reGtangular behind. x:

Nicra. The body of this is black; the belly is of a
whitith-brown. The {cales are very entire.

ArGENnTATA. Scales above are blackifh, with filvery
edges and tips; beneath pale rufous, with pale edges ; it
refembles the S. bohar. The head is curved, with a blue
patch running under the eye towards the mouth.

Rusra. This is of a dufky red, beneath white, with
eight longitudinal reddifh-white ttripes on each fide, grow-
ing dufky towards the back. Its feales are a little fpinous.

Murpsan. Lips retufe ; body with a metallic fplen-
dour ; beneath it is paler. ‘The*bady is of an oblong oval ;
the fcales are broad and toothed, :

Sammara. The back of this f{pecies is red, with a braff}
glofs ; the fides are filvery, with ten darker ftripes on eac
fide ; the lateral fcales with a whitifh {pot furrounded with

black. Itis not more than’ two inches long, and beneath it
is filvery.
Sprnrrera. This fifth is red; the dorfal fins are con-

neéted ; the head is {pinous; the anterior gill-covers have a
very long fpine. It is about a foot long ; behind the eyes, on
each fide, and at the bafe of the pectoral fins, a dufky {pot ;
the {cales are broad and indented. In the crown are two
fafciculi of elevated lines behind the eyes; before the eyes
is along, deep, unequal cavity; the eyes are furrounded
with a {pinous bony ring ; the iris is red. ;

Guanam. Whitith; fides with a double white ftripe.
The gill-covers are {pinous. Parallel with the back is a
lateral line, with a white {tripe on each fide ; there is another
itripe, compofed of dufky quincuncal {pots, extending from
the crown to the end of the dorfal fin.

Jansua. This fpecies is of a filvery hue, with two
curved ftripes on each fide, meeting on the back, and form-
ing a ring ; the {pot on the middle of the back, aud two
bands on the front, black, Under the f{tripe, on each fide,
is a brown line, and beneath this is a yellowifh one.

Strivens. This is filvery-blue, with from three to five
brown longitudinallines on each Ode. It is about —

‘ inches

SC1

inches long, feeds on herbs, and when firft taken out of the
waters utters a low fhriek.

Gaterina. Blueifh-yellow, fpeckled with black, and
a few larger fpots. There is a variety of this fpecies which
has on its body four brown ftripes on each fide ; the fins are
yellow. © -

ArRcENTEA. Silvery, above fpeckled with black; the
fcales of this f{pecies are ciliate.

Nesciosa. The body of this fpecies is marked with
longitudinal blue and yellowifh-brown clouds ; a variety has
its body marked with obfolete longitudinal violet ftripes.
The head is floping ; fins filamentous, and the tailis forked.

Mausena. Body brown, lined, and with tranfverfe
waved filvery bands. The body is of an oblong oval; the
{cales are brown, with toothed ramifications.

Haran. Thisisof a greenifh colour; the fins are of a
pale red; beneath the lateral line is-a black linear fpot on
each fide. It very much refembles the laft.

Ramak. Greenifh-white, with obfolete longitudinal yel-
lowifh-violet lines ; the fins are reddith.

Graxpocuris. Blueifh; the lower lip is gibbous ;' it is
of an oblong-oval form, with obfolete lines.

Ciyerascens. This is of a greenifh-afh colour, with
longitudinal lines. The body is of an oblong-ovate fhape ;
the fcales are very entire and rhombic; they are whitifh,
with a rufty yellow {pot at the bafe on each fide.

SarcHa. Oblong, filvery, without fpots; the tail is
forked. The jaws are indented, the lower one is the longer
of thetwo ; the gill-covers are finely ferrate.

Armata. This isfilvery ; between the head and dorfal
fin is a rigid horizontal fpine ; the tail is forked. The body
is comprefied, oval, and pvinted. The fpine behind the
head points forwards ; the lateral line is ftraight, and the fins
are white ; the dorfal and anal fins.are tipt with black; the
tail is brown, and the inner edge whitifh. To the foregoing
may be added the following.

Lasrax, or bafle {ciena; of which the habit is that of
the falmon ; the fize is confiderable, growing, it is faid, to
the length of feveral feet. It is of a blueifh-filvery colour,
with a dufky caft on the back; the fecales are fmall; the
eyes are reddifh ; the mouth and gill-covers tinged with red ;
the tail is lightly forked ; the lateral line is nearly ttraight.
It is a native of the Mediterranean and Northern feas, and
often entering the rivers; it was knowr to the -ancients by
the names of abrax and /upus, and was much efteemed as an
article of food, particularly by the Romans.

Diacantua. This has longitudinal yellow lines, and
two {pined gill-coyers. It is about 12 inches long, and like
the labrax ; the fins are glaucous, but the pectoral, ventral
fins, and tail, are reddifh at the bafe; the tail is flightly
lunated ; the eyes are yellow, and the fealesare large. Itisa
native of the Mediterranean.

Uspecimaris. The abdomen of this is filvery, the dorfal
fins and tail brownifh. It is about a foot in length, is a native
of the American feas, and very,common about the coalts of
Jamaica.

Liseata. This has the habit of atrout, and is a native
of the Mediterranean.

‘j Piumient. With tranfverfe brown bands, and yellow lon-

gitudinal lines and fins; it has the habits of a perch, and is
a native of the American feas, and wan firft defcribed by
Bloch from a drawing by Plumier,
y Mavnitir. This e a brownifh back ; the firft dorfal fin
is fpiny, with nine rays. It is the fize of a perch, and has
the habit of a falmon ; it is like the labrax, except in fize ;
it is a native of Brafil, deferibed by Bloch from a drawing
by Prince Maurice.

S€1

FunvirLamMa. With five or fix longitudinal gold-co-
loured bands, and a middle black fpot. The firft dorfal fin
is dufky ; the fecond and other fins are yellow ; the gold.
coloured lines on the body are fometimes obfcure ; the teeth
are f{trong, diftant, and conic-fubulate.

Macroteripora. With tran{verfe brownith-violet bands
and {potted fins. It is about a foot long ; the head is fhort,
and floping rather fuddenly ; fcales pretty large ; the dorfal,
anal, and caudal fins {potted with brown ; the pectoral fins
are plain and tinged with violet ; ventral fins red, eyes blue,
and is a native of India.

Cyxiyprica. With feveral dufly girdles and fpotted fins.
It is fix inches long; the eyes are prominent, and fituated
near each other at the upper part of the head.

SCIAGRAPHY, or Sciocrarny, the profile, or fec-
tion, of a building, to fhew the infide of it.

Scracraruy, formed of cxx, /hadow, and yeado, I de-
feribe, in Aflronomy, &c. is a term fome authors ufe for the
art of finding the hour of the day or night, by the fhadow
of the fun, moon, ftars, &c. See Diat.

SCIAMACHIA, formed of cuz, and pox, TI fight,
the fighting with a perfon’s own fhadow, a fort of exercife
prefcribed by the ancient phyficians, in which the motion
of the arms, and other parts of the body, were of very

reat fervice in many chronic cafes.

SCIAMANTIA, Sciamancy, or Sciomancy, formed
from oxiz, /badow, ufed metaphorically for the foul, and
porte, divination, a kind of divination, otherwife called
p/ychomancy. Sciamancy, among the ancients, was the art
of raifing and calling up the manes or fouls of deceafed
perfons, to give intelligence of things to come. The
witch who conjured up the foul of Samuel, to foretell Saul
the event of the battle he was about to give, did it by
{ciamancy.

SCIAMAT, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Kerman; 18 miles E. of Sirgian.

SCIANDY, atown of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 10 miles
N.N.W. of Bahar.

SCIAPODES. See Scrorop®.

SCIARRI, in Natural Hiflory, the matter which runs
down in burning torrents from the craters of mount /Etna.

This matter, when cold and hard, is hewed and em-
ployed at Catania, and other places. It is chiefly ufed
for the bafements and quoinage of buildings. It probably
contains mineral and metallic particles, being a ponderous,
hard, grey ftone. Philof. Tranf. N° 481. p. 327, 328.
See STONE.

Some of the {ciarri are coarfe, and others fine, and

olifhed on the furface; fome of them are black, others

reddifh, and others of the colour of iron; and many of them
have coverings of pure fulphur over the whole furface, or
a part of it. Some very fine and {mooth ones, refembling
iron, but very light, are found in or near the mouths of
the eruption, and fome very bard and heavy, and of a
mixed nature, feeming to be the refult of many forts of
minerals melted together. 'Thefe latter, when the moun-
tains have poured out ftreams of fire, always remain in
the places, and are the fubftance that was on fire cooled
again.

At the time of the moft terrible eruptions of this kind,
thefe heaps of fciarri, which fometimes Rin to be folid
rocks of metalline matter, ave only a fort of covered arches,
under which the melted matter yet continues liquid and
runing, and bur{ts out at times in the feveral parts of their
fides or furfaces. The general appearance of a train of
thefe fciarri, left after the eruption of fuch a rivulet of fire,
is much like that of the Thames, or fome other fuch large

2 river,

Bed
river, in the time of a fevere froft, the rocks of fciarn
rifing above the general furface, like the clods of ice in
that fcene; the colour enly differing, the great quantities
of the fciarri, in thefe places, being of a deep blueifh hue.

It is remarkable, that the fubftance of thefe {ciarri, even
while melted and running in ftreams down the hill, is fo firm
and folid, that no weight will fink into it, nor any inftru-
ment make its way through the furface, any more than a
folid mafs of cold metal. It has been fuppofed by fome,
that the flowing water concreted into the common pumice
ftone, but that is a vulgar error, the pumice being a wholly
different fubftance. Philof. Tranf. N° 46.

SCIATHERICA, a name given to dialling.

SCIATHERICUM Texescorium, a horizontal dial
with a telefcope, adapted for obferving the true time, both
by day and night, to regulate and adjult pendulum-clocks,
watches, and other time-keepers. It is the invention of
the ingenious Mr. Molyneux, who has publified a book
with this title, containing an accurate defcription of this
inftrnoment, its ufes, and application.

SCIATHIS, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of the
Peloponnefus, in Arcadia, at the dittance of five ftadia from
Caphyes.

SCIATHUS, or Sciaruas, an ifland of the /Egean
fea, with a town of the fame name, according to Ptolemy.
Between this ifland and the coaft of Magnefia there was a
canal, which was a continuation of the fea, called Arte-
mifium. e

SCIATI, or Sxrati, in Geography, a fmall ifland in
the Grecian Archipelago; 18 miles N. of Negroponte.
N. lat. 39° 26’. E. long. 23° 38!.

SCIATIC, in Anatomy, an epithet applied to various
parts fituated about the ifchium ; as, the great fciatic nerve,
the {ciatic artery, ligaments, notches, &c.

SCIATICA, in Medicine, a fevere and obftinate fpecies
of rheumatifm, affecting the Aip-joint, and often improperly
denominated the Aip-gout. As the difeafe differs from the
other forms of chronic rheumati{m only in fituation, it re-
quires the fame method of treatment which has been re-
commended for that difeafe generally. See RugUMATISM.

ScraticaA Creffes, in Botany. See Cresses and Dir-
TANDER.

SCICHILI, in Geography, a town of Sicily, in the
valley of Noto; 30 miles S.W. of Syracufe. N. lat.
36° 37’. E. long. 14° 54!.

SCIDARIUM, in Ancient Geography, a promontory
placed by Plutarch on the coaft of Attica; in the Saronic

ulf, near the town of Megara.

SCIDRUS, or Scyprus, a town of Italy, fuppofed
to be fituated towards Laos or Sybaris.

SCIE.—Ffruille de Sciz. See Feviiie de Scie.

SCIELAT, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Nubia;
10 miles S. of Syene.

SCIENCE, formed from fcientia, of /cire, to know, in
Philofophy, a clear and certain knowledge of any thing,
founded on felf-evident principles, or demonftration.

In this fenfe, doubting is oppofed to fcience ; and ofinion
is the middle between the two.

The fceptics profefs to deny that we have any fuch
thing as {cience ; that is, any clear or certain notices of any
thing capable of producing abfolute convidtion.

Science of Conditionals. See ConpDITIONALS.

Science is more particularly ufed for a formed fyftem of
any branch of knowledge, comprehending the doétrine,
reafon, and theory, of the thing, without any immediate
application of it to any ufes or offices of life.

In this fenfe, the word is ufed in oppofition to art.

SCI

Indeed the precife notion of an art, and fcience, and
their juft adequate diftin@ion, do not feem to be yet well
fixed. See the Preface to this Work. See alfo Art.

As to the number and divifion of the fciences, Mr.
Locke limits them thus; all that can fall within the com-
pafs of human underttanding, is, firit, either the nature of
things, their relations, and their manner of operation : or,
fecondly, that which man ouzht himfelf to do as a voluntary
and rational agent, for the attainment of any end, efpecially
of happinefs: or, thirdly, the ways and means by which
the knowledze of both of thefe is attained and communi-
cated: upon which, fcience may be properly divided into
thefe three forts.

Firlt, the knowledge of things, their conftitutions, pro-
perties, and operations, whether material or immaterial.
This, in a little more enlarged fenfe of the word, may
be called Q:aix., or natural philofophy. The end of this is
bare {peculative truth, and whatfoever can afford the mind
of man any fuch, falls under this branch, whether it be
God himfelf, angels, {pirits, bodies, or any of their affec-
tions, as number, figure, &c. ,

Secondly, eoxrixr, the {kill of right applying our own
powers and actions for the attainment of things good and
ufeful. The moft confiderable under this head is ethics,
which is the feeking out thofe rules and meafures of human
a¢tions which lead to happinefs, and the means to prac-
tife them. The end of this is not bare f{peculation, but
right, and a condu& fuitable to it.

Thirdly, cxyewxn, or the dcGtrine of figns. The molt
ufual being words, this is aptly enough termed /ogic; the
bufinefs of which is to confider the nature of thofe figns
which the mind makes ufe of for the underflanding of
things, or conveying its knowledge to others. Things are
reprefented to the mind by ideas, and men’s ideas are com-
municated to one another by articulate founds or words.
The confideration then of ideas and words, as the great
inftruments of knowledge, makes no defpicable part of
their contemplation, who would take a view of humau
knowledge in the whole extent of it. }

This fe the firft; and moft general, as well as the
mott natural divifion of the objets of our underftanding :
for a man can employ his thoughts about nothing, but
either the contemplation of things themfelves for the dif-
covery of truth; or about the things in his own power,
which are his aétions, for the attainment of his own ends,
or the figns the mind makes ufe of, both in the .one
and the other, and the right ordering of them, for its
clearer information. All which three, viz. things as they
are in themfelves knowable, aétions, as they depend on us
in order to happinefs, and the right ufe of figns in order to
knowledge, being toto calo different, they feem to be the
three great provinces of the intelleGtual world, wholly
feparate and diftiné&t one from another.

Sciences, Academy of. See Acapemy. ;

SCIENDERGUR. in Geography, a fort of Hindooftan,
in Bahar; 10 miles S.S.E. of Rotafgur.

SCIENTIA Mepia, in Metaphy/ics, a kind of know-
ledge, which fome divines, in their controverfies about the
order of the divine decrees, attributed to the Deity, and
the poffibility of which other divines denied, while they
firmly maintained the diyine prefcience. (See Moxrnists.)
It was called /cientia media to dittinguith it from prefeience
(which fee); and by this f{cientia media was meant not
the knowing from eternity all things that fhall exift,
which is pela nor the knowing of all the conneions
and relation of things that exift or may be conceived,
which is /ciencey but a knowledge of things Seana

that

eee

wee ~~

Sc]

that never did nor fhall exift: e.g. the knowing of every
ation that would be done by a man who is barely con-
ceived, and fhall never be brought into exiftence. Againtt
the poffibility of the fcientia media, arguments may be
urged which cannot be applied to prefcience. Thus it
may be faid, that nothing can be known but what is true.
It is true that the future ations of a free agent fhall exitt,
and therefore, there is no impoffibility in its being known
that they fhall exift ; but with regard to the free ations of
an agent that never did nor fhall exift, there is nothing
true, and therefore nothing can be known. To fay that
the being conceived would certainly a& in fuch a way, if
placed in fuch a fituation, if it have any meaning, is to fay,
that his aGting in that way is the confequence of the con-
ception ; but this contradi¢ts the fuppolition cf its being
a free aétion.

Things merely conceived have no relations or conne¢tions
but fuch as are implied in the conception, or are confequent
from it. Thus, we conceive two circles in the fame plane ;
but if this be all we conceive, it is not true that thefe
circles are equal or unequal, becaufe neither of thefe re-
lations is implied in the conception: yet if the two cir-
cles really exifted, they muft be either equal or unequal.
Again, we conceive two circles in the fame plane, the dif-
tance of whofe centres is equal to the fum of their femi-
diameters. It is true of thefe circles that they will touch
one another, becaufe this follows from the conception:
but it is not true that they will be equal or unequal,
becaufe neither of thefe relations is implied in the con-
ception, nor is confequent from it. In like manner,
we can conceive a being, who has power to do an indif-
ferent action, or not to do it. It is not true that he
would do it, nor is it true that he would not do it, be-
caufe neither is implied in our conception, nor follows from
it; and what is not true cannot be known.

“ Although,” fays Dr. Reid, «I do not perceive any
fallacy in this argument againft a fcientia media, I am
fenfible how apt we are to err in applying what belongs to
our conceptions and our knowledge to the conceptions and
knowledge of the Supreme Being; and, therefore, without

ding to determine for or againft a {cientia media, I
only obferve, that, to fuppofe that the Deity prevents
what he forefees by his prefcience, is a contradidtion ; and
that to know that acontingent event, which he fees fit not
to permit would certainly Ean if permitted, is not pre-
fcience, but the {cientia media, whofe exiltence or poffibility
we are under no neceflity of admitting.” Reid’s Effays,
Eff. iv. See Necessiry.

SCIENTIFIC, or ScientiricaL, fomething relating to
the pure, fublimer feiences ; or that abounds in f{cience, or
knowledge.

A work, a method, &c. is faid to be fcientifical, when it
is founded on the pure reafon of things, or conduéted wholly
on the principles of them.

In which fenfe the word ftands oppofed to narrative,
arbitrary, opinionafive, pofitive, tentative, &c.

SCIERL » Lxsezy in Antiquity, a feflival in honour of
Bacchus, kept in Arcadia.

It was fo called, becaufe that god’s image was expofed
ime 7% cna, i.e. under an umbrella. At this time the
women were beaten with fcourges, in the fame manner with
the Spartan boys at the altar of Diana Orthia, which they
underwent in obedience to a command of the Delphian
oracle.

SCIGLIO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Calabria
Ultra, fituated on a rocky promontory, anciently called
* Scylla,” (which fee,) and noted for fhipwrecks. ‘The

Vor. XXXI.

SCI

town is partly fituated on the fhore, but the greater part
among the rocks above it : its ftreets are narrow, and nine dif-
ferent rows of houfes are obferved ftanding one above another,
and over the higheft of thefe, which are ftraight rows, are fix
or feven others in an oblique direction ; and from the rocks
rufhes a waterfall, fuppofed by Cluverius to be the Cratais
of Homer, the fabulous mother of Scylla. The earth-
quake in 1783 deftroyed fome churches and damaged others ;
and though moft of the houfes efcaped, a great number of
inhabitants perifhed. Mott of thefe, terrified by the fhock,
fled precipitately to the fea-fhore, which being thrown into
the fea by the agitation and refilition of the water, caufed
1450 perfons to be overwhelmed by the waves.

The ancient Scylla, a rock beautifully defcribed by
Homer, elevates itfelflike a round tower, with a breadth dif-
proportioned to its height, and giving it a deformed afpe& ;
and towards the fea it prefents a three-forked cliff, in
which are difcovered Homer’s three rows of teeth. The
fummit is not pointed, for a caftle belonging to the prince
of Sciglio has been built upon it ; ro miles N.N.W. of Reg-
gio. N. lat. 38° 14/. E. long. 16° 2'. See Scyzxa, and
alfo CHARYBDIS.

Scicuio di St. Maria. See St. Marta. ‘

SCILLA, in Botany, casarx of the Greeks, by which
was underltood a great bulbous-rooted plant, of the onion
kind, and of an acrid quality ; not to be fafely taken into
the ftomach without repeated boiling and dilution, and moft
famous, in the form of a cataplafm, for curing the bites of
ferpents. Our Scilla maritima appears really to be the plant
of Diofcorides. According to Dr. Sibthorp, it is common
in Greece, and ftill called cx/Adx. by the modern inhabitants
of that country.—Linn. Gen. 166. Schreb. 222. Willd.
Sp. Pl.v. 2.125. Mart. Mill. Di&. v.4. Sm. Fl. Brit.
364. Prodr. Fl. Grac. Sibth. v. 1.231. Ait. Hort. Kew.
v. 2. 262. Broter. Lufit. v. 1. 526. Desfont. Atlant.
v. 1.297. Juff. 53. Lamarck Illuitr. t. 238.—Clafs and
order, Hexandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Coronaria, Linn.
Afphodeli, Juli.

Gen. Ch. Cal. none. Cor. Petals fix, ovato-lanceolate,
{fpreading at the bottom, as well as at the extremity, fome-
times converging in the middle, deciduous. Stam. Filaments
fix, thread-fhaped, inferted into the petals, and half as long ;
anthers oblong, incumbent. Pi. Germen fuperior, round-
ith ; ftyle fimple, ere&t, the length of the ftamens, decidu-
ous; iftigma fimple. Peric. Capfule fomewhat ovate,
fmooth, with three furrows, three cells, and three valves.
Seeds feveral, roundifh, comprefled.

Efi. Ch. Corolla of fix petals, {preading at the bottom.
Filaments thread-fhaped. - Stigma fimple. Caphulh fuperior,
of three cells. Seeds roundifh. Calyx none.

Obf. The moft learned botanifts are puzzled to diftinguifh
this genus from Ornithogalum ; fee that article ; infomuch
that fome have declared they f{carcely knew a diftinétion,
but in the colour of the flowers, which in Ornithogalum never
incline to blue or purple. The dilatation of fome, at leaft,
of the filaments, in that genus, at their bafe, feems to us a
better mark; and the thicker ftigma may poflibly affift.
Scilla differs from Hyacinthus in having fix petals, inftead of a
monopetalous, tubular, more or lefs deeply divided, corolla ;
though we cannot but acknowledge their great natural affi-
nity, and the near approximation of certain fpecies of each,
Scilla i» but incompletely detailed in Willdenow, nor have
all the Linnwan f{pecies Beak perfeétly underflood by any
body. We hope to throw fome new hight upon them, as
well as to enrich the genus with feveral dilcoveries of recent
authors.

1. S. maritima. Officinal Squill, or Sea Onion. Linn

4 U Sp.

SCILLA.

So. Pl. 442. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. 1. Redout. Liliac.
t 116. Woody. Med Bot. t. 118. (S. radice alba;
Rudb. Elyf v. 2. 147. S. hifpanica vulgaris; Ger. Em. 171.
O-mthogalum Squilla ; Ker in Curt. Mag. t. 918.)—Root
globular ; fquarrofe at the top. Flowers much earlier than
the leaves, in a long, denfe, cylindrical clufter. Lower
braéteas elongated at the bafe.—Native of the fandy fhores
of France, Spain, Portugal, Sicily, Italy, and the Levant,
flowering in fummer. Sometimes it occurs far inland. The
root is ain of five or fix inches diameter, well known for its
medical qualities, which are of a diuretic kind. By inducing
naufea, it alfo promotes expetoration, and increafes the
ation of the whole abforbent fyitem ; fo as to prove a moft
valuable medicine in dropfical diforders as well as in com-
plaints of the cheft. Its outer coat is either pale and whitifh,
or of a purplith-red, F/owers extremely numerous, in a very
long, fimple, ftalked clufler. Petals elliptical, white, {pread-
ing widely throughout. dnthers green. Stigma quite fimple,
and not thicker than the fy/. The /eaves come long after
the flowers are gone, and are numerous, large, elliptic-oblong,

afcending, recurved.

2. S. Lilio-hyacinthus. Lily-rooted Squill. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 442. Willd. n. 2. Ait.n.2. Redout. Liliac. t. 205.
(Hyacinthus ftellaris, &c. ; Lob. Ic. ror. f. 1,2. H. ftel-
laris, foliis et radice lilii; Rudb. Elyf. v. 2. 35. f. 135.) tle
ftellatus latifolius; Ger. Em. 107.)—Bulb ovate, {caly.
Clufter of few flowers.—Native of Spain, the Pyrenées, and
the weltern parts of France, flowering infummer. The du/b
is very peculiar in this genus, confifting of large, whitifh, lax
{cales, hke that of aie but its whole dimenfions do not
exceed a walnut. Leaves feveral, obovate-oblong, bluntifh,
{preading and deflexed, four or five inches long, and above
one broad. Sta/é folitary, from among the leaves, eight or
ten inches high. FYowers from fix to nine, ereét, light blue,
moderately expanded, with narrow, awl-fhaped, membranous,
erect, tapering, folitary braGeas, about the length of the
partial ftalks. Willdenow, not having feen this fpecies,
any more than ourfelves, attempted to improve its {pecific
charaéter from the wooden cuts of Clufius, repeated in Lobel
and Gerarde; but the more finifhed reprefentation of Redoute
fhews their’s to be incorre&t as to the brad@eas. Linneus
might formerly have feen this Scil/a in Clifford’s garden, but
his own herbarium is deftitute of a fpecimen ; and though
Gerarde, it feems, cultivated the plant, miferable would be
the difappointment of thofe who fhould look for it in any of
the modern gardens of England. It has always been one of
our greate(t defiderata. Perhaps roots might now be procured
from Paris.

3. S. Jingulata. Tongue-leaved Squill. Desfont. At-
lant. v. 1. 298. t.85. f. 1. Redout. Liliac. t. 321.—Leaves
lanceolate, fpreading, flat; enveloped in a common mem-
branous fheath. Clufter denfe, conical. Braéteas awl-
fhaped, divided. Stalk ttriated, roughifh.—Native of culti-
vated fields in Barbary, from whence it was brought by
profeffer Desfontaines. Linnzus had fpecimens from Al-
giers, but Jeft them undetermined. The du/b is ovate, the
fize of a hazel-nut. Leaves about fix, two or three inches
long, broadly lanceolate, fomewhat tongue-fhaped, {preading
in the upper part, the lower half being confined in a peculiar
white membranous fheath, which we have not feen in any
other {pecies. In our dried fpecimen the ribs and edges of
the /eaves appear minutely rough, and the elevated lines of
the on which is four or five inches high, are more re-
markably fo. Floqwers from five to ten, rather fmall, mo-
derately fpreading, light blue. Partial flalks about as long
as the flowers, roughith, with two awl-fhaped bradeas, nearly
the fame length, of a thin membranous texture,

4. S. villfa. $airy-leaved Squill. Desfont. Atlant.
v. I. 299. t. 85. f. 2.‘ Leaves lanceolate, flat, villous.
Flowers corymbofe.’’—Gathered by Desfontaines in fandy
ground near Kerwan, in Barbary. Bulb twice the fize of
the laft. Leaves about fix, f{preading circularly, linear-
lanceolate, three or four inches long, clothed with copious
longifh hairs. Flowers about eight, large, blue, widel
expanded, forming a corymbofe clufter, their common ff
not fo long as the leaves. BraGeas lanceolate, concave, the
length of the partial ftalks. Desfont.

5. S. italica. Italian Squill. Linn. Sp. Pl. 442. Mant.
364? Willd. n.3. Ait. n. 3; excluding the reference to
Redoute. Curt. Mag. t. 663. Allion. Pedem. v. 2. 163.
Redout. Liliac. t. 304. (Phalangium n. 1212; Hall. Hitt.
v. 2. 102, excluding the fynenyms. Hyacinthus ftellaris
italicus; Befl. Eyft. vern. t. 42. f. 1. Hz. ftellatus, cine-
racei coloris ; Cluf. Hift. v. 1. 184. HH. ftelleris Someri;
Ger. Em. 108.)

8. §. lufitanica; Linn. Syft. Nat. ed. 12. v. 2. 2436
Willd. n. 12. Ait. n. 10. (Hyacinthus ftellatus czruleus,
ftaminulis e viridi luteis; Rudb. Elyf. v. 2. 34. f. 4.)—
Leaves numerous, linear, flat; triangular at the keel.
Clutter oblong, fomewhat conical. Braéteas two or three
together, linear.—Native of Piedmont, in ftony, but rather
rich and fhady places. Allioni. In meadows near Berne, in
Switzerland. Haller. Davall. Bulb oval, folid, fmooth,
the fize of a pigeon’s egg. Leaves a fpan long, flat, but
with an acute keel, making a fort of triangular channel above.
Stalk a foot high. Clufler denfe, of numerous flowers, of a
pale and afhy blue, often white. The dra&eas vary in length,
but are always narrow and membranous, dilated at the very
bafe only. Partial flalks twice or thrice the length of thé

flowers, almoft ere&t. Corolla widely expanded.—Such is

the original §. italica of Linnzus, which we obtained from
the Edinburgh garden, in 1782, by the name of S. hyacin-
thoides. Linnzus fubfequently miftook for this fpecies, a
luxuriant {pecimen of our verna, and having none but this
latter in his herbarium, defcribed a broadifh-leaved variety of
italica, which he then had in the Upfal garden, perhaps from
Portugal, under the name of /uftanica. This indeed has
fhorter éraGeas than ufual, but cannot be feparated from
italica, of which Rudbeck’s figure is even a better reprefent-
ation than of the faid variety. The learned editor of Hort.
Kew. has miftaken S. umbellata of Redoute for italica, mifled,
as it feems, by the luxuriant habit of his t. 166, which ap-
proaches to tab. 663 of the Botanical Magazine ; while, on
the other hand, Redoute’s t. 304, though undoubted italica,
has the flowers rather too {mall, and of too bright a fky-blue.
See the following {pecies.

6. S. verna. Vernal Squill. Hudf. 142, Fl. Brit. n. 1.
Engl. Bot. t.23. Willd. n. 11. Ait. n.g. (S. bifolia 5
Lightf. 181. Fl. Dan. t. 568. S. umbellata; Redout.
Liliac. t. 166. S. vincentina ; Hoffm. and Link. in Ann. of
Bot. y. 1.102? Ornithogalum hifpanicum minus; Cluf. Hitt.

vy. 1. 188. Ger. Em. 166. Hyacinthus parvus ftellatus ver-"

nus; Befl. Eyit. vern. t. 37. f. 4. H. itellaris minimus ;
Rudb. Elyf. v. 2. 36. £16. H. ftellaris vernus parvulus,
flore ex ceruleo cinereo ; Bauh. Hilt. v. 2. 581. )—Leaves
linear, channelled ; femicylindrical beneath. Corymb hemi-
fpherical, of few flowers. Bracteas folitary, ovate, concave,
with a bluntifh point.—Native of cliffs towards the fea, in the
Feroe iflands, ifles of Man and Anglefea, Hebrides, the coafts
of Wales, Cornwall, France, Portugal and Spain, as well as on
the Pyrenées. The du/d, as well as the whole plant, is fmaller
than in any of the foregoing ; but the herbage varies con-
fiderably in luxuriance, according to foil or culture. Hence
Redoute’s figure has been miftaken for S. italicas; and we

ourfelves

SCILLA.

eurfelves have long fuppofed that fome of the above fy-
nonyms referred to a different fpecies. We are now con-
vinced that Mr. Hudfon is corre in his citations; and that
S. italica of the Linnzan herbarium, which is not an original
fpecimen, is truly a luxuriant plant of verna. The channelled
round-keeled /eaves, and broad, concave, folitary braéeas,
as well as the richer deeper blue of the fowers, clearly dif-
tinguifh this {pecies, which ought to ftand next to italica,
Willdenow having mifplaced it. We fhould have no doubt
refpeG@ing Hoffmannfegg and Link’s S$. vincentina, were
not its bra&cas faidto bein pairs. ;

7. S. tetraphylla. Four-leaved Squill. Linn. Suppl. 200.
Willd. n. 4.—Leaves about four, ovato-lanceolate, fpread-
ing. Common ftalk none. Flowers numerous, cluttered,
with lanceolate bra&teas.—Gathered by Forfkall in the Le-
vant, and communicated by Fabricius to Linnzus. The
four or five broad, depreffed, widely-{preading, mbbed /eaves,
four inches long, and the central tuft of numerous ftalked

lowers, intermixed with long braéeas, give this f{pecies a
fingular afpe@, and diftinguifh it clearly from all others

hitherto known.

8. S. peruviana. Great Corymbofe Squill. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 442. Willd. n.5. Ait. n. 4. Curt. Mag. t. 749.
Redont. Liliac. t. 167. (Hyacinthus ftellatus peruanus ;
Befl. Eyft. vern. t. 41. f. 1. H. peruanus ; Ger. Em. 109.
H. indicus bulbofus ftellatus; Rudb. Elyf. v. 2. 37. f. 1.
Eriophorus peruanus; Cluf. Hift. v. 1. 173.)—Leaves flat.
Corymb many-flowered, denfe, conical. Bra¢teas tapering ;
broad at the bafe.—Native of Portugal and Spain; not of
Peru, unlefs it was originally brought from thence, for which
there is no good authority. It is hardy in our gardens,
flowering, though not very conftantly, in May. The bulbis
as big as afmall orange. Leaves many, dark green, {pread-
ing, oblong, an inch and half wide. Flowers extremely
numerous, dark blue, with purple ftamens and piltil, and
yellow pollen, tae a large, conical, ftalked tuft, and
making a very handfome appearance, though devoid of

fragrance.
9: ity or Japan Squill. Thunb. Jap. 137. Willd.
n. 6.— Flowers earlier than the leaves, in a level-topped

umbel. Petals tapering at the bafe.””—Native of Japan,
where it is called Kotjo. Thunberg fays he never faw any
faves on the flowering plant. The falk is four or five
inches high. Bra@eas on the ftalk, and under the flowers,
alternate, membranous, lanceolate, upright, clofe-prefled, the
length of the finger-nzil, fhorter than the intermediate fpaces.
Corolla pale purple ; its petals tapering at the bafe into claws.
Stigma capitate, lobed.—Thefe two laft charaéters lead us
greatly to doubt the genus of this plant, which is only
nown by dimes account.
10. S. amoena. Nodding Squill. Linn. Sp. Pl. 443.
Willd. n. 7. Ait. mn 5. Jacq. Auftr.t. 218. Redout.
Liliac. t. 298. Curt. Mag. t.341. (H. ftellaris byzan-
tinus; Befl. Eyft. vern. t. 45. f. 3. Ger. Em. 107.)—
Leaves flat, bluntifh, tapering at the bafe. Common ftalk
angular, racemofe. Partial ftalks about the length of the
flowers. Draéteas very fhort, obtufe. Petals widely {preading
from the bafe.—-Said to grow wild in the Levant. It is na-
turalized on the banks of the Danube, and even in the wett
of England, being an old and very general Lao plant,
flowering in Marchand April. The /eaves are feveral, linear,
broadith, and flaccid, above a foot long. Flowers of a fine
blue, from four to fix, flat, and turned vertically to one
fide, each about an inchin diameter. Anthers violet. Germen
yellowith-green.
11. 8. cernua. Cup-flowered Squill.
v. §. p. 298. (S. amoena; ibid. t. 130.

Redout. Liliac.
8. amoena Bs

Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 128.)—Leaves flat, bluntifh. Stalk
angular, about two-flowered, foon decumbent. Braéteas
very fhort, obtufe. Flowers drooping ; fomewhat bell-
fhaped at the bafe.—Native of the fouth of Europe. Com-
mon in the French gardens, but we have not noticed it in
England. Redoute, who, like other botanifts in general,
at firft confounded this with the laft fpecies, has fince
diftinguifhed it, by the Leaves being fhorter, broader,
and darker coloured; the /fa/é decumbent immediately
after flowering ; the flowers fewer, more drooping; and
the petals converging in their lower part into a_bell-
fhaped pofition, inftead of fpreading widely from the
very bafe. It blooms {till earlier than the true S. amoena.
—Whether S. fbirica, Andr. Repof. t. 365. Ait. n. 6.
(S. amoena fibirica; Curt. Mag. t. 1025.) be a variety of
the lait, or of the amoena, or intermediate between both,
proving them all one {pecies, we dare not prefume to de-
cide, but we confefs our doubts of its being a good {pecies.
S. precox, Willd. n. 8, is, it feems, by his own confeffion
in Schrader’s Journal for 1799, p. 1. 287, a variety, or
rather a ftarved plant, of difolia. We havea fimilar {peci-
men from the Levant, in the Linnean herbarium.

12. S. campanulata. Spanifh Squill. Ait. n. 7. Willd.
n.g. Curt. Mag. t. 128, 1102. (S. patuia; Redout.
Liliac. t. 225. S. hyacinthoides; Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 65.
Hyacinthus floribus campanule; Rudb. Elyf. v. 2. 27.
f. 9, 10.)—Leaves numerous, lanceolate, rather concave.
Clufter many-flowered, ereét. Flowers drooping, bell-
fhaped. Braéteas deeply divided, awl-fhaped.—Native of
Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, and Italy. Abundant in
the neighbourhood of Rome. Common in the Englifh
gardens, for 250 years paft, flowering in the {pring. he
bulb is round, folid, white, about an inch in diameter.
Leaves about half a dozen, a foot long, {preading, rather
flaccid, lightly channelled. Stalé taller than the leaves,
round, erect, bearing a fimple, nearly upright, denfe clufler
of numerous, deep blue flowers, all drooping and turned
to one fide. Braéeas ere&t, coloured, broad at the bafe,
ufually deeply divided, one fegment much longer than the
adjoining partial ftalk. The petals converge into a bell-
fhaped figure, and are recurved for about half their length.
Their ests varies to white, or a pale blufh. Linnzus at
one time confounded this with S. italica, and afterwards with
his Hyacinthus non feriptus. (See the next {pecies.) Some
Swifs botanifts have fallen into the latter miftake; and in-
deed it appears by Reynier’s herbarium, that our S. cam-
Sees is what grows in the places indicated by Haller for

isn, 1248, taken by him for the following.

13. S. nutans. Hare-bell Squill, or Wild Hyacinth.
Fl. Brit. n. 4. Engl. Bot. t. 377. (S. non {eripta;
Redout. Liliac. t. 224. Ker in Curt. Mag. under p. 1102.
S. feftalis; Salifb. Prodr. 242. Hyacinthus non {criptus ;
Linn. Sp. Pl. 453. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 166. Ait. Hort.
Kew. v. 2. 282. Curt. Lond. fafc. 2. t. 18. H. angli-
cus; Ger. Em. 111. H. oblongo flore cxruleus major ;
Rudb. Elyf. v. 2. 26. f. 1. H.cernuus; Linn. Sp. Pl.
453-)—Leaves numerous, linear, rather concave. Clulters
many-flowered, drooping. Flowers pendulous, cylindrical-
bell-fhaped, on very hort {talks, Braéteas in pairs, Abun-
dant in groves and thickets in England and France, flowering
in May. Differs from the laft in having much longer, more
cylindrical, flowers, narrower leaves, and a more nodding
potture in the upper part of the clufler, by which the flowers
become perfectly pendulous. The flamens are united to the
petals above half their length. The flowers have a light
fweet f{cent, more perceptible than in the preceding, and re-
fembling that of the Dark China Rofe, Rofa femperflorens.

4U 2 They

SCILLA.

They fometimes vary in colour to white or pale red, and in
the latter cafe the plant becomes the Linnzan Hyacinthus
cernuus. ad we been aware of this circumitance, we fhould
originally in Englifh Botany have named the prefent {pecies
S. eernua, inftead of nutans, that it might have been fup-
ported by a right of priority as well as fenfe. Non JSeriptus,
having a reference to the poetical and botanical hilto of
the Ayacinthus alone, 1s nonfenfe when applied to a Scilla.
It is curious that thefe two {pecies, which fo many botanifts
have confidered as the fame, fhould by fome writers be ftill
retained in different genera; though no one could ever find,
in the prefent plant, either one or the other of the effential
Linnzan charaéters of Hyacinthus. The corolla is not fex-
fida, but hexapetala,; nor are there any melliferous pores on
the germen! The corolla is more permanent in thefe two
laft-defcribed fpecies, and in peruviana, than in the gene-
rality of Scille.

14. S. bifolia. Two-leaved Squill. Linn. Sp. Pl. 443.
Willd. n. to. Ait. n. 8. FI. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot.
t. 24. Jacq. Auftr. t. 117. Curt. Mag. t. 746. Re-
dout. Liliac. t. 254. (H. ftellatus Fuchfii; Ger. Em. 106.
H. ftellaris bifolius germanicus; Rudb. Elyf. v. 2. 33. fete
Narciffus martius; Brunf. Herb. v. 1. 184. Star Hya-
cinth; Petiv. Herb. Brit. t. 67. f. 5.) — Leaves two,
lanceolate. Clufter fomewhat corymbofe, of a few erect
flowers, without braéteas.—Abundant in fhady groves of
Germany, France, Italy, and Greece, flowering in March
and April. It is faidto have been found alfo in the weft of
England, but we know not the precife {pot. In Italy this
plant and Anemone apensiee occupy the places of S. nutans
and A. nemorofa in England. (See Sm. Tour on the Con-
tinent, ed. 2. y. 2. 152.) We have never met with the
Englith Harebell in Italy, though S. campanulata is com-
mon in the fouthern parts. The prefent is a fmaller plant
than either, with only two, linear-lanceolate, channelled
leaves. Flowers ufually four or five, of a rich deep blue,
occafionally white or pink; their petals widely {preading.
Anthers dark. The two firft words of the fpecific chara&ter
in Hort. Kew. require to be expunged.

15. S. orientalis. Oriental Squill. Thunb. Tr. of Linn.
Soc. v. 2. 334. Willd. n. 13. (S. bifolia; Thunb, Jap.
138. )—* Leaves elliptic-fword-fhaped. Flowers racemofe,
erect.”?—Native of Japan. Radical /eaves feveral, tapering
at the bafe, fmooth, a fpan long. Sva/é two feet high,
ere&t, fmooth, with alternate fheath-like fcales. Thunb.
This truly feems to have little refemblance to S. bifolia, for
which it was originally miftaken in the //ora Japwte

16. S. Ayacinthoides. Hyacinthine Squill. Linn, Syft.
Nat. ed. 12. v. 2. 243. Suppl. 201. Willd. n. 14. Ait.
n. 11. Curt. Mag. t. 1140. Hoffm. and Link in Sims
and Kon. Ann. of Bot. v. 1. 105. Gouan Illuftr. 26.
Brot. Lufit. v. 1. 528. (Bulbuseriophorus; Cluf. Hitt.
y. 1.172. Ger. Em. 121.) — Leaves numerous, oblong,
nearly flat. Clufter very long. Partial {talks {preading,
fomewhat whorled. Braéteas minute, abrupt, a little dif-
tant.—Native of Madeira, Portugal, andthe Levant. The
bulbs, vshich multiply rapidly, and compofe denfe mailes,
are not rare in gardens, but they very feldom flower. The
leaves are an inch or inch and half wide, and from twelve to
eighteen long. Stalk three or four feet in height, round,
bearing an extremely long, cylindrical, dull purple, upright
clufter, of innumerable flowers, {preading vertically, on falls
four times their own length. Anthers greenih.

17. S. autumnalis. Autumnal Squil. Linn. Sp. Pl.

443. Willd. n. 15. Adjt. 0, 12. Fl. Brit. n. 3. Engl.
Bot. t. 78. Curt. Lond. fafc.-6. t. 25. Redout. Liliac.
t. 317. Cavan. Ic. t. 274. f. 2. (Hyacinthus autumnalis

minor; Cluf. Hift. v. 1. 185. Ger. Em. 110. @. Curt.
Mag. t. 919? H. autumnalis major; Cluf. Hift. v. 1. 185.
Ger. Em. 110.) — Leayes linear, channelled, recurved.
Clulter many-flowered. Partial ftalks curyed upwards,
without braéteas, as long as the flowers.—Native of funny,
grallys gravelly hills and paftures, in England, France,

pain, Italy, and Greece, flowering in autumn. The bulb
confifts of rather lax coats. The /eaves are numerous, yary-
ing in length and breadth. Flowers rather {mall, widely
expanded, of an elegant crimfon, with darker anthers
Redouté makes them too blue. ~

18. S. obtufifolia. Blunt-leaved Squill. Desfont. At-
lant. v. 1. 299. t- 86. Redout. Liliac. t. 190.—Leaves
tongue-fhaped, wavy, fpreading. Clufter many-flowered,
without braéteas. — Gathered by Desfontaines, near La
Calle, in Barbary. The ffowers accord pretty nearly with
the laft, infomuch that Linnzus, who had fpecimens, with-
out foliage, from Algiers, did not doubt their being his
autumnalis ; but the yery different /eaves of the prefent plant,
an inch in breadth, and but flightly concave, with wavy
edges, afford an obvious diftinétion.

19. S. parviflora. Smiall-flowered Red Squill. Def-
font. Atlant. v. 1. 300. t.87. (S. autumnalis; Curt.
Mag. t. 919?) — Leaves linear-lanceolate, acute, fmooth,
flightly concaye, erect. Clutter many-flowered. Braéteas
minute, awl-fhaped, deciduous.—Native of cultivated fields
about Algiers. The flowers refemble thofe of the two laft
in ftru€ture and colour, but the prefence of braéeas, ob-
ferved by Desfontaines, and in the Botanical Magazine,
though never, we believe, feen in the true §. autumnalis, are
charatteriftic of this {pecies, which is further diftmguifhed
by the greater breadth and flatnefs of its kaves. It flowers
in winter.

20. S. undulata. Wave-leaved Squill. Desfont. Atlant.
v. 1. 300. t. 88.—Leaves lanceolate, crifped at the margin,
{preading horizontally. Clufter lax, many-flowered. Brac-
teas awl-fhaped, minute. — Native of uncultivated hills in
Barbary. Very frequent about Tunis, Algiers, &c,
flowering in autumn and the beginning of winter. The
numerous, greatly undulated J/eaves, foc in a de-
preffed circle, are peculiar to this fpecies. The poe are
of a pale rofe-colour, twice the fize of the lait, and fade
before the foliage appears.

21. S. pumila, Dwarf Squill. Brot. Lufit. v. 1. 527.
(S. monophyllos; Hoffm, and Link, in Sims and Kon.
Ann. of Bot. v. 1. ieee folitary, lanceolate, chan-
nelled, recurved. Cluiter corymbofe, of few flowers,
Braéteas fhort, lanceolate.—Native of fandy thickets and
heaths in Portugal, flowering in February and March,
Our f{pecimen was gathered by the abbe Durand in Al. |

arvia. The bulb refembles S. autumnalis. Leaf three or
our inches long, almoft always folitary. Sva/é ereét, fome-
what comprefled, longer than the leaf, bearing from fix to
twenty blue flowers, not unlike thofe of S. difolia, but
rather fmaller, and accompanied by white, membranous,
lanceolate, acute Jra@eas, about one-fourth the length of
the partial ftalks.

This laft {pecies is very different from §, unifolia, Linn,
Sp. Pl. 443. Willd. n. 16. Ait. n. 13. Curt. Mag. t. 935,
which has feflile white flowers, with flat flaments, and is
properly referred, in the work lait cited, as well as in the
Ann. of Bot. vy. 1. 106, to Ornithogalum, to which genus
S. anthericoides, Desfont. Atlant. v. 1. 301, probably like-
wife belongs.

We are not acquainted with S. odorata, of Hoffmannfegg
and Link, in Ann. of Bot. v. 1. 105, which they fay comes
near to Rudbeck’s figure, quoted by Linnaus for the /uf-

: tanica.

SC 1

tanica. (See ourn. 5, 8.) Its elegant {weet-fcented blue
flowers adorn in {pring all the hills of Algarvia.

Sciixa, in Gardening, contains plants of the hardy bulbous-
rooted perennial kind, of which the fpecies cultivated are ;
the officinal {quill (S. maritima) ; the lily-rooted fquill (S.
lilio-hyacinthus ) ; the Italian {quill (S. italica) ; the Peruvian
fquill (S. peruviana) ; the nodding fquill (S.amoena) ; the
Spanifh {quill (S. campanulata) ; and the autumnal {quill
(S. apeannnalis)>

In the firft fort there are varieties with a red, and witha
white root.

In the fourth fort alfo there are varieties with a deep blue,
and with a white flower: this kind is often known by the
name of hyacinth of Peru.

With regard to the lait fort it is obferved, that moft old
writers diftinguifh a larger anda fmaller fort; but thefe
differ merely in fize; and fome have likewife noticed a
variety with white flowers.

~ Method of Culture.—Thefe plants may be increafed by off-
fets from the roots, and by feeds, but the firft is the better
mode. The off-fets may be taken off every other year, and
be planted out at the time the leaves and items decay.

But the feed fhould be fown in autumn, on light mould,
in fhallow boxes or pans, in the fame manner as in the hya-
cinth, the fame circumttances being attended to in the cul-
ture. The plants are long in flowering in this way, except
in the laft fpecies, which fhould have a dry loamy foil.

The firit fort, as being a native of the fea-fhores, cannot
be well propagated in other fituations, as the plants are apt
to be deftroyed by the frofts in winter, and to grow indif-
ferently in the fummer feafon for the want of falt-water.

The roots of moft of the different forts are durable, and
may be met with in the generality of the nurfery-grounds
about London.

They afford variety in the beds and borders of pleafure-
grounds, when properly planted out.

Scinva, in the Materia Medica. See Squiir.

SCILLITANA Coxonta, ps Sn in Ancient Geogra-
phy, an ancient town of Africa, fituated on an eminence,
fix — W.S.W. of Sufetula. Near it is a triumphal
arch. :

SCILLONEORTE, xara» ‘Eogin, in Antiquity, the
feltival of fea-onions. It was obferved in Sicily. The chief
part of it was a combat, in which youths beat one another
with fea-onions. He that obtained the viétory was rewarded
by the nafiarch with a bull.

SCILLUNS, or Scittunre, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Triphylia, on the bank of the river Chalchis, at
fome diftance oss the fea.

SCILLY Istanps, in Geography, a clutter of iflands, in-
cluded in, or belonging to, the county of Cornwall, England,
a in the Ex lifh Channel, at the diftance of nearly

thirty miles weltward from a point of the Cornith coatt, called
the End. They appear to have been known to the
ancients under the name of he Caffiterides, at a very remote
period. Diodorus, Strabo, Solinus, and other writers, men-
tion that the Phoenicians, and after them the Carthaginians
and Greeks, traded hither for tin, of which metal the Caffi-
terides are defcribed as poffefling many extenfive and valuable
mines. ‘ Thefe iflands,” obferves Strabo, in his Geography,
“ are ten in number, and lie contiguous toeach other. One
of them is defert, and uninhabited ; the others are peopled
by arace of men who wear black garments, and a long
robe reaching, down to their heels, and bound about their
wailts, and who walk about with long ftaves, refembling the
furies of tragedians. They have mines of tin and _ tery
which, together with hides, they exchange with merchants

Ser

for earthenware, falt, and brafs-work.’? Of this ancient
ftate of things ‘fearcely a veftige now remains. The iflands
have increafed to upwards of 140 in number, befides innu-
merable rocks, in confequence of the inundation of the low
lands by the ocean. “ The inhabitants,”’ fays Borlafe, « are
all new-comers ; not one old habitation, nor any remains of
Pheenician or Grecian art, in the ports, caitles, towns,
temples, nor fepulchres. All the antiquities here to be
feen are of the rudeft Druid times ; and if borrowed in any
meafure from the oriental traders, were borrowed from their
moft ancient and fimple rights.”” Thefe fas, however, do
not warrant the doubts entertained by fome as to the ftate-
ments in the ancient hiftorians, relative to the refort to, and
trade with, thefe iflands in very remote ages. There {till
exift in all of them abundant proofs of their having been
once fully cultivated and peopled. That they were inha-
bited by the fame race as the Cumraig Britons, is evident,
or very probable, from the numerous remains of rude pillars,
circles of ere& ftones, kiftvaens, and other monuments, which
are common in Cornwall and Wales; and from other relics
of Celtic colonization. Befides, even at this day, many of
the little iflets, and fome cairns, or karns, and creeks in the
larger ones, are defignated by Britifh names. It becomes,
therefore, a queition of curious fpeculation, to enquire how
the ancient inhabitants haye fo completely vanifhed, that the
prefent have no pretenfions to any affinity, or connection of
any kind with them, either in blood, language, or cuftoms.
Two caufes for this extinétion are fuggefted by Borlafe ;
the gradual advances of the fea, and fome fudden fubmerfion
of the land. Of the continual operation of the firft caufe,
there can be no doubt ; for even within the laft thirty years
the progrefs of the ocean has been very confiderable.. What
we perceive occurring in our own times, we may reafonably
conclude to have happened formerly : in fhort, it appears
clear that there has been a progreflive declenfion and diminu-
tion of the land, and a proportionate afcendency of the fea,
for many ages. This fac is {till further evidenced by the
circumftance of ruins and hedges being frequently feen
upon the fhifting of the fands, in the friths between the
iflands. In fome places thefe hedges have been diltin@ly
traced from one ifland to another, affording an undeniable
proof of their former union.

With regard to the fecond caufe of the extinétion of the
old race oF inhabitants, a fudden fubmerfion of the land,
though not fo evident as that firlt noticed, is neverthelefs
probable. The exiftence of tin and lead-mines in thefe
iflands, above two centuries before the Chriftian era, cannot
be queftioned ; yet no remains of fuch mines are now dif-
coverable. ‘To account for this faét, Borlafe thinks the

adual advances and flow depredations of the fea will not
uffice ; as it fuppofes a very extraordinary rife in the whole
mafs of the furrounding ocean.

It feems remarkable, that the ifland whence the whole
number derive their generic name fhould be one of the
{malleft among them; a fpot, “ whofe cliffs hardly eM
thing but birds can mount,’ and whole barrennefs almo
pen the poffibility of human habitation. ‘he apparent
fingularity of this circumftance, however, is eafily folved, by
adopting the very probable opinion of Borlafe, that all the
iflands and rocks adjoining anciently formed only one ifland,
having feveral headlands, of which Scilly was the “ higheft,
outermott, and confequently moft confpicuous.”” This ifland,
the fame author conjeétures, might have received the name

of Syllé, or Sulléh, (which, in Britith, fignifies flat rocks,
dedicated to the fun) ; and having fome fmaller iflands feat-
tered round it, imparted the fame appellation to them;

« whence, what were called by the Greeks Caffiterides, ye bi
name

SCILLY ISLANDS.

named by the Latin authors, Sigdeles, Sillinz, Silures ; and
by the Englifh, Sylley, Sulley, and Scilly ; though the ap-
pellation is not {pelt with the c in any ancient record.

At what period the Scilly iflands were firft occupied by
the Romans is not recorded ; but after that people had fub-
dued Britain, thefe infulated traéts appear to have been
afligned as a fort of Botany Bay, or place of banifhment for
itate criminals.

Athelftan, king of the Weft Saxons, fubdued them in the
tenth century ; from which time we hear nothing of them, till
the breaking out of the civil wars between king Charles I.
and the parliament, when they became of confiderable im-
portance. In 1645 they afforded a temporary afylum to
prince Charles, and his friends lord Hopton and lord Capel.
At that period fr Jolin Grenville was governor of the iflands,
which he fortified and held for the king; and occafioned
great annoyance to the parliament for fome years, by the
numerous captures made by his frigates. At length, how-
ever, he furrendered to an expedition under the command of
admiral Blake and fir George Ayfcue, having afcertained
that refiftance would prove unavailing.

The property of the Scilly iflands was beftowed by king
Athelftan, on ‘certain monks of the Carmelite order.’’
How long they held them is unknown, but they had reverted
to the crown in the time of king Henry I., who granted
* to Ofbert, abbot of Taviftock, all the churches of Sullye,
with their appurtenances, and the land, as the monks and
hermits held it in the time of Edward the Confeflor, and
Burgald, bifhop of Cornwall.” Inthe reign of Edward I.
they were held by Ralph de Blanchminfter, under the duchy
of Cornwall, by the annual render of 300 puffins at Michael-
mas. In the reign of Henry VJ. they were the property of
fir John Colefhill, from whom they pafled to the families of
Danvers and Whittington, and were purchafed from the latter
by Thomas lord Seymour, lord-admiral in the reign of Ed-
ward VI. In 1552 they were leafed to the family of Go-
dolphin ; and are now held under that tenure by the duke
of Leeds.

The only inhabited iflands in the clufter are St. Mary’s,
Trefcaw, St. Martin’s, St. Agnes, Sampfon, and Brehar.

St. Mary’s is the largeft of allthe Scilly iflands, and the
beft cultivated. It is about ten miles in circumference, and
contains a.population of 1271 perfons. On this ifland is
Hugh, or Heugh-town, the capital of Scilly, where nearly
half the inhabitants of St. Mary’s refide. It is fituated
upon the low land of the ifthmus that joins the main part of
the ifland to the high ground of the garrifon, and confifts
of one long ftreet, interfe&ted by two others of lefs extent.
Here is a cultom-houfe, to which belong a colleétor, fur-
veyor, and’fix other efficers; alfo a council-houfe and a
prifon. At the welt end of the town is the pier, which was
rebuilt by the earl of Godolphin about the year 1750. It
is 430 feet long, and is calculated to fecure veffels of 150
tons burden. In the vicinity are the remains of an old
fortrefs, with a mount, and likewife the ruins of feveral
block-houfes and batteries, {uppofed to have been conftrudted
during the civil wars. ‘The church ftands about a mile from
the town; and at the diftance of a quarter of amile further,
along the fhore, is Old Town, formerly the principal place
in the ifland. Adjoining this, on an eminence, are fome
veltiges of Old Town cattle, which is mentioned by Leland,
in his Itinerary, as being, in his time, a ‘* moderately {trong
pile, but difmantled.”? Giant’s Caftle bay, to the eaftward,
derives its name from an earthen work fo called, which
Troutbeck attributes to the Danes. Near it is one of thofe
monuments of antiquity called rocking-ftones; and on the
fummit of a hill oppofite, are the remains of a circle of

ftones. Some of thefe meafure 20 feet long, and 43 feet in
circumference. Exterior to the circle are feveral fepulchral
barrows. Another fimilar monument is fituated on Sullakee
downs ; and this alfo is furrounded by tumuli of different
fhapes and fizes. On the weftern fide of the ifland are the
barracks, and feveral batteries, likewife the king’s Star-
caftle, fo called from the figure of its plan, projecting every
way, like the rays of a ftar. This fortrefs commands a
profpe& of all the iflands, and the feas around them. Jt
was erected by fir Francis Godolphin, in the reign of queen
Elizabeth, and is now ufually occupied by the commanding
officer on the ifland, and a detachment from the barracks.
“Tt was in this caltle,” fays Lyfons, “that Dr. John
Battwick was imprifoned, by order of the court of ftar-
chamber, in 1637, after having loft his ears on the pillory,
for writing againit the church and ftate ; his fentence was
imprifonment for life, but he was liberated by order of par-
liament in 1640. The feverity of his fentence caufed t
odium again{ft the government ; and he and his fellow fuf-
ferers, Prynne and Burton, who had been fent to other
diftant prifons, were conduéted into London, on their return,
with much triumph and rejoicing.”’ .

Trefcaw, or Trefco ifland, the fecond largeft in the group,
lies two miles north from St. Mary’s. The capital village
here is called Dolphin, and confifts of the church and about
thirty houfes. The chief havens in the ifland are Old and
New Grimfby harbours. On the eaft fide of the latter ftand
the ruins of Cromwell’s cattle, as it is called, from its having
been built by the parliamentarians. It was repaired in 1740,
but is now completely gone to decay from negleé&t. Upon
an eminence to the north-eaft appear the remains of another
fort, named Old Caltle, which is defcribed by Leland as a
“little pile,’’ though it meafures 50 feet in length, and 30
in breadth; but it might probably be enlarged after his
time. On this ifland are fome veftiges of the conventual
church of St. Nicholas, of which there is a view given in
Borlafe’s Obfervations on the Scilly Iflands. This mo-
naftery was founded in the tenth century, and was fubfe-
quently enriched by feveral of the earls of Cornwall. Tref-
caw is little more than half the fize of St. Mary’s, and only
contains 465 inhabitants.”

St. Martin’s ifland, the third largeft of the Scilly iflands,
lies about a mile to the eaftward of Trefcaw. It is nearly
fix miles in circumference, and contains, by eftimation, 720
{quare acres. About 150 years ago it had not one inha-
bitant ; and even {fo late as 1756, there were only 18 refident
families, all of whom were related ; but the population has
now increafed to 235 perfons. On this ifland are feveral
cairns, and alfo fome {mall circles of ftones.

St. Agnes ifland is fituated three miles S.W. from Heugh-
town, and meafures about four miles round. Here are alfo
feveral ftone circles, and a fingular rock, denominated the
Giant’s Punch-bowl, which has a bafin excavated on its
upper furface, feven feet diameter and three feet broad.
But the moft promiment object on the ifland is the hght-
houfe, which is a ftone ftruéture, 72 feet high, and placed
upon a lofty eminence, whence it can be feen in every
dire&tion by navigators. The inhabitants on St. Agnes
ifland are 244 in number. ‘The other inhabited iflands,
Brebar and St. Sampfon, do not exhibit any obje& worthy of
notice. The former contains 111 perfons, and the latter
only 32.

In fine weather thefe iflands are eafily difcernible from the
coalt of Cornwall, “appearing hke a clutter of cliffs, or
fragments of ruined dies, round which the Atlantic rolls
in a vaft curve.’? The paflage from Penzance to thefe
lands is rendered extremely dangerous by numerous nee

SCI

of rock, one of which, called the Gulph or Wolf, fituated
about midway, has been the occafion of many fhipwrecks.
The climate here is mild and healthy; the cold of winter,
and the heat of fummer, being equally moderated by the
influence of the temperate breezes of the ocean.

With refpe@ to civil government, the Scilly iflands can
fearcely be {aid to have fuch, there being no legally contti-
tuted magiftrate in any of them. Previous to the reform-
ation, it appears that the proprietor kept the peace with the
affiftance of twelve armed men; and that there were fre-
quently quarrels between them and the king’s coroner, who
vifited the iflands occafionally, for the trial of the higher
offences. At prefent, perfons accufed of felonies are fent to
Cornwall to be tried at the county affizes; but all minor
crimes and civil fuits are cognizable by a court delegated by
the lord proprietor, whofe immediate authority for exercifing
the civil jurifdiGtion is derived folely from a patent granted
by king William. The court confifts of twelve of the
principal inhabitants, and fits monthly at Heugh-town, St.
Mary’s, for the decifion of caufes. Vacancies in this court
are fupplied by ele€tion ; but the whole may be diffolved,
and afrefh appointment made, at any time, by the lord pro-
prietor. ;

The inhabitants of the Scilly iflands are chiefly engaged
either in agriculture, in fifhing, or in the manufaéture of
kelp. Cattle are fed on moft of the iflands ; but they are
neither abundant, nor remarkable for fize. The corn pro-
duce confifts principally of barley, peas, and oats, with a
{mall proportion of wheat ; a few acres are fown with pillis ;
and potatoes are cultivated in great quantities, efpecially in
St. Mary’s. The procefs for making kelp was firlt intro-
duced here in 1684, by a Mr. Nance, whofe memory is, in
confequence, {till revered by the inhabitants. He refided
on the ifland of Tean, which is now unainhabited.—Anti-
quities, Hiftorical and Monumental, of the County of Corn-
wall, by William Borlafe, LL.D., F.R.S., folio. Lond.
1769. Borlafe’s Obfervations on the Iflands of Scilly, 4to.
Oxford, 1756. The Hiltory of Cornwall, by the Rev. R.
Polwhele, vol. iii. fupplement, 4to. Falmouth, 1803. A
Survey of the Ancient and Prefent State of the Scilly
Iflands, by John Troutbeck, 8vo. Sherborne, no date. A
Natural and Hiftorical Account of the Iflands of Scilly,
by Robert Heath, 8vo. Lond. 1750. Lyfons’s Magna
Britannia, Cornwall, 4to. 1814. Beauties of England and
Wales, vol. i. by John Britton and E. W. Brayley, 8vo.
1801.

Scitty J/lands, a group of iflands, or fhoals, in the South
Pacific ocean, reckoned extremely dangerous; fo named
by captain Wallis, in 1767. S. lat. 16° 28’. W. long.

155° $c

SCIMPODIUM, xprodcr, among the Ancients, a
{mall couch or bed, on which one perfon only could relt at
atime. It was on the {cimpodium that the Romans ufed
to lay themfelves when weary or indifpofed.

The fcimpodium was fometimes ufed inftead of the leética,
to carry both men and women, not only through the city,
but likewife in jourmies into the country.

SCINCOIDES, in Zoology. See Lizann.

SCINCUS, the Scink, the name of a fpecies of lizard,
called alfo by fome the land crocodile, crocodilus terrefiris,
and formerly well-known in the druggilts’ thops as an in-

edient in feveral compofitions. See Lizanp.

SCIND, or Sinxpy, in Geography, a country of Afia,
fituated between N. lat. 23° oad 27°, and E. long. 67° and
91°. Its general boundaries, according to the ftatement of
Kunneir, are the country of Cutch and the Indian ocean to
the S., the provinces of Marwar, Joudpore, and Jeflelmere,

9

SCI

to the E.; thofe of Bhakor, Moultan, and the dominions of
the king of Cabul, tothe N.; and on the W. Mekran and
the mountains of Balouchiftan. The river Indus, and its
branches, interfec&t this country, and increafe its fertility,
forming a delta, in length about 300 miles, along the coatt.
It has been afferted, in confequence of the inquiiies made by
Mr. Ellis in 180g, that this noble river and the Panjab form
a junction, a few miles S.W. of a place called Chafepoor,
ficuated N. lat. 28° 31’. E. long. 69° 55'. The colletive
waters are then faid to take a direction towards the W., and
to throw out many branches, which fertilize the country toa
great extent on both fides. About 15 miles to the S. of
Shikarpoor, the principal itream feparates into two channels,
the mott confiderable of which continues its courfe as far as
Sehwaun, where it again turns to the E., and after detaching
another {mall branch, about 12 miles to the N. of Hydrabad,
once more bends to the W., and enters the fea at a place
called Lahery Bunder, in N. lat. 24° 22'. E. long. 67°
23'. This is defcribed by the natives as an arm of the fea,
and navigable for large veffels as far as Dharaja Bunder,
three days’ journey from Lahery Bunder ; and here goods
are unloaded, and conveyed as far as Moultan and Lahore
in kantauls, or boats, which carry about 100 tons, are flat-
bottomed, but of great width, and when the wind is con-
trary, are either drawn along the banks of the river, or
pufhed forward with poles. ‘The moft eaftern branch, now
called the Nulla Suncra, is faid to be about a degree diftant
from the main ftream in the parallel of Hydrabad. It for-
merly entered the fea at Lukput Bunder, but is now, if the
report of the natives may be credited, entirely loft in the
fands. The Fuloolee branch, which we have already men-
tioned as feparating from the main ftream 12 miles above
Hydrabad, becomes again conne¢ted with it by an artificial
cut, about 20 miles on that city. This channel is feven
miles in length, and that portion of the waters which does
not flow through it into the principal {tream of the Indus,
enters the fea at Lukput Bunder, under the name of
Goonee. The courfe of the Goonee at Ali Bunder, in N.
lat. 24° 24', begins to be ob{tructed by thoals; and there is
reafon to apprehend, that in a few years it will, like the
Nulla Suncra, be abforbed by the fands. The principal
{tream is in general about a mile in breadth, and varying in
depth from two to five fathoms. The {welling of the Indus,
occafioned by the melting of the fnow in the mountains of
Cafhmire, ufually commences in the beginning of July, and
continues to increafe until the latter end of Auguit. But
to return from this digreffion ; Scind or Sindy is reprefented
by major Rennell as extending along the courfe of the Indus
from its embouchure to Behker, or Bhakor, on the frontiers
of Moultan, and may be reckoned at lealt 300 Britith miles
in length that way. Its breadth is very irregular; it ma
be about 160 miles in the wideft part. Onthe N.E. lie the
territories of the Seiks; and on the N. thofe of the king of
Candahar; on the W. is Mekran, a province of Perfia, whofe
prince is tributary to the king of Candahar. A fandy
defert bounds Sindy on the E., and extends the whole way
from the territory of Cutch to the confines of Moultan ;
being near 350 Britith miles in length, and from 100 to 150
wide, ‘This is the fandy defert mentioned by Herodotus,
as the ealtern boundary of India. The province of Sindy,
in many particulars of foil and climate, and in the general
appearance of its furface, refembles Egypt; it may be
termed a level country, interfected with rocky hills; the
lower partof it is compoled of rich vegetable mould, and
extended into a wide delta; while the upper part is a narrow
flip of country, confined on the Perfian fide by a ridge, or
ridges of mountains, and on the other by a eete defert 5
the

SCI

the river Indus, equal at leaft to the Nile, winding through
the midft of this level valley, and annually overflowing it.
It is fubje& to continual droughts ; and on this account, as
well as the vicinity of the fandy deferts bounding it on the
E., and not far remote on the N.W., the heats are fo
violent, and the winds from thefe quarters fo pernicious,
that the houfes are contrived fo as to be occafionally venti-
lated, by means of apertures on the tops of them, refem-
bling the funnels of {mall chimnies. The roofs are com-
pofed of thick layers of earth, inftead ‘of terraces. Few
countries are more unwholefome to European conrttitutions,
particularly the lower part of the De/ta, which fee. Not-
withitanding the circumftances already recited, as well as the
ignorance and oppreffion of the prefent rulers of Scind, who
have inclofed, and converted the moft fruitful diftriés into
gloomy and impervious forefts, for the amufement of hunt-
ing, itis till capable of cultivation, and continues to export
a confiderable quantity of rice and grain. The country is,
in general, ina {tate of culture, for 30 or 40 miles on each
fide of the river ; except at Sehwaun, where a great range
of mountains, on the weitern fide, approaches to within 15
miles of the principal ftream.

The internal government of Scind or Sindy is a military
defpotifm; and the fupreme authority is vetted in three
brothers, of a race originally fpringing from Balouchiitan ;
who divide the country in different proportions between
them. The population is principally compofed of Maho-
metan tribes from Balouchiftan. There is, however, a con-
fiderable number of Hindoos, who enjoy the confidence of
their prince, and are allowed the free exercife of their re-
ligion, according to Kinneir; but Rennell fays, they are
treated with great rigour, and not permitted to ereét any
pagodas, and other places of worfhip, fo that by this fe-
verity of their Mahometan governors, vaft numbers of them
are driven into other countries. They are chiefly employed
in commerce, while the Mahometans conttitute the military
order; and in peace become hufbandmen and artificers.
According to a treaty concluded in 1739, between Nadir
Shah and the emperor of Delhi, Scind is nominally fubje&
to the king of Cabul, and ought to pay a yearly tribute of
12 lacs ok atitiecas but this is never done, except when
payment is enforced by the advance of an army to the fron-
tiers. The ruling family can bring into the field a force of
36,000 irregular cavalry, armed with matchlocks, {words,
and fhields, and intended, at the fame time, to aét as infan-
try, whenever circumftances require it. Commerce and agri-
culture have rapidly declined; nor is this furprifing under
the prefent rulers, who levy on foreign and domettic trade a
duty equal to two-thirds of the capital of the merchant and
the mechanic. They monopolize the grain, which they
purchafe, by compulfion, at a low price from the culti-
vators, and retail at an exorbitant rate. The capital. of
Scind was formerly Tatta (which fee), but it is now Hydra-
had, the refidence of the Ameers, fituated in N. lat. 25°
22'. E. long. 68° 41', on an eminence, the foot of which is
wafhed by the Fuloolee branch of the Indus. This is
efteemed by the natives a {trong fortrefs., (See Hyprasap.)
The fuburb, together with the city, is faid to contain 14
or 15,000 Bris, comely Hydrabad yields, without much
encouraging induftry, a revenue of 60,000 rupees. The
artifans are numerous and fkilful, particularly the ar-
mourers. Amercote, the retreat of Humaioun, formerl
belonged to Scind, but is now in the pofleffion of the rafal
of Joudpore. Corachie, 57 miles from T atta, isthe only

ood fea-port in Scind. It lies 17 miles E. by S. of cape

onze, in N. lat. 24° 51! 15", and’E. long. 67° 16/, at the

head of a bay which affords good thelter for fhipping, and
12

SCI

veffels of 300 or 400 tons burthen may enter the harbour
at high water, from the beginning of September to the
latter end of May. The harbour is defended by a cattle,
built in 1801, where are mounted a few pieces of -ufelefs
cannon. The foil about Corachie is fandy and ftony, but
capable of cultivation during the rains. The fruit of the
date-trees never comes to perfeétion. Here are lemons,
mangoes, grapes, plantains, and alfo water and mufk me-
lons ; but, with the exception of the pumpkin and brinjal,
there are no vegetables at Corachie, The water is brackith ;
fuel and forage are fearce ; fheep are indifferent, but the
camels and draught bullocks are excellent. The population
at Corachie is eftimated at 8000 fouls, the majority being
Hindoos, chiefly engaged in commercial concerns. ‘The ex-
ports of the country confift chiefly of rice, glue, hides,
thark-fins, faltpetre, potah, affa-foetida, tatta-cloth, indi-
go, frankincenfe, and coarfe cloths. Thefe articles are con-
veyed, in the fair feafon, in « dingees,” or {mall coafting
veffels, with one maft and a very high ftern, to Bombay,
Guzerat, and the coaft of Malabar, from whence are re-
turned pepper and other fpices, iron, lead, fteel, elephants?
teeth, cochineal, with fandal wood and other woods. Boats
proceed up a {mall creek, in five or fix days, from Corachie.
The town of Gugah contains 600 inhabitants, and is fitu-
ated at the foot of a hill, at the bottom of which runs a’
{mall creek, in N. lat. 24° 45!. E. long. 68° 7!; and the
extenfive ruins of Bamborah, in N. lat. 24° 46, E. long.
67° 50!, are fuppofed to be thofe of the ancient city of Bra-
ninabad. There are many other {mall towns in the province
of Scind or Sindy. Rennell’s Memoir. Kinneir’s Mem.
of the Perfian Empire.

SCLNDALMOS, a word ufed by the ancients to exprefs
a fillure of the cranium, or of any other part.

SCINGOMAGUS, in Ancient Geography, a town fitu-
ated in the Alps, S.W. of Ocelum.

SCINTILLA Venrrts, a term ufed by Paracelfus to
exprefs a refolution of the limbs, a deprivation of motion
from a venereal caufe.

SCIO, anciently Chios (which fee), in Geography, an
ifland in the Grecian Archipelago, in extent fomewhat lefs
confiderable than “ Lefbos ;”? being in length from N, to S.
about 50 miles, and varying in breadth, on account of the
windings of the coaft, nearly 12 miles towards the S. part,
and 15 towards the N. part: feparated from Afia Minor bya.
channel eight or nine miles in width. Beyond the plain that
extends to the fouth of the capital, and in the whole fouth
part of the ifland, the lands are almoft every where fufcep-
tible of culture, although they are, in was of middling
quality. The ground is lefs elevated, lefs uneven than in
the N. part, and the population is there more confiderable.
According to the regifters of the government, the popula-
tion of Scio is to be eftimated at 110,000 inhabitants. In
the capital are reckoned 30,000, viz. 3500 Turks, 1 soo
Greek Roman Catholics, and 25,000 Greek fchifmatics ;
to which number may alfo be added about 100 Jews. In
the ifland are 68 villages, all inhabited by Greeks. Thofe.
villages which furnifh maftic, to the number of 21 or 2
are the moft populous and mott wealthy: the largelt of
is Pirghi, fituated to the W.; and next to this, Ninita,
Calamoti, and Calimiatia, towards the S. are the moft
confiderable of the ifland. Voliffo, fituated on the fea-
fhore, oppofite to Pfera, is remarkable for the rude and
almott favage air of its inhabitants. However, all the vil-
lages, whatever may be their extent and fituation, are tole-
rably well built, and have almoft all of them an inelofure
capable of fecuring them from a coup de main of a corfair.
The inhabitants of Scio are peculiarly diftinguifhed from mn

other

=

SCIO.

other Greeks by a decided inclination towards commerce, an
ardent tafte for the arts, and an eager defire of enterprife ;
by a (prightly, pleafant, epigrammatic wit ; and, occafion-
ally, a fort of mad and burlefque gaiety, which has given
rife to the following proverb: ‘ It is as uncommon to find
a green horfe as a prudent Sciot.”? Notwithftanding this
farcafm, there are many of the Sciots who know how to
combine the moft circumf{pe@ prudence with the moft ami-
able and the moft lively {prightlinefs. No other town, fays
Olivier, prefents fo great a mafs of information; no other
contains fo many men exempt from prejudices, abounding
with good fenfe and reafon, and blefied with a head better
organized. Some among them, however, may be reproached
with a ridiculous pride and a mifplaced fanaticifm. The
influence of the prieithood, it is obferved, is perhaps too
great in a country that wifhes to apply itfelf to agriculture
and commerce.

The women, notwithftanding their grotef{que drefs, are
more amiable than thofe of the capital, becaufe they are
more courteous, more gay, more lively, and more witty.
They are feen with tolerable freedom at their own home in
prefence of their relations; and they enjoy, more than elfe-
where, a liberty which they feldom abufe. They fpend, in
all feafons, part of the day in finging and working, playing
or amufing themfelves before their houfes. On the efpla-
nade, in the gardens, and round the town, you will meet on
Sundays and holidays, groups of young damfels, who are
free and playful, and pleafant both in addrefs and repartee.
But the married women are more referved ; and the females
of Scio in general are particularly circumf{peG and fhy with
regard to the Turks. There are not to be found, fays
Olivier, in any other country of the Levant, fo many mae
tiful women as at Scio; and yet, overpowered by a ba
tafte, they ufe too freely red, white, and black colouring,
which, fo far from adding to their charms, caufe that fot
nefs to difappear, conceal that delicate complexion, and de-
ftroy that bloom, which every where render women fo agree-
able and fo captivating. They frequent the baths much
more than the females of Smyrna and Conttantinople. The
whitenefs of their teeth is afcribed to their inceflant chewing
of mattic, or to their difufe of fmoking, in which the other
females find inexpreflible pleafure. They are diftinguifhed
by their habits of induftry; thofe of the poorer fort em-
slenienp themfelves in making-{tockings, caps, and purfes,
which they fell to paffengers or carry to dealers: and the
richer women embroidering handkerchiefs and other linen,
ahd working at fome fort of filk or cotton ftuff. Sweet-
meats, conferves of rofes and orange-flowers, fyrups of le-
mon and bergamot-citron, occupy a great number of women
of all ages and of all conditions. It is generally in the
country that they breed the filk-worm and fpin cotton.
Thole who apply themfelves more particularly to em-
broidery, give to the filks which they employ the colours
that they with. They obtain, among others, a gold yellow
colour with the branches of the celtis orientalis, or the
leaves of the henné or Egyptian privet ; a bright yellow
with the flowers of broom, and the ftems of the ilvery-
leaved daphne or tartonraira. The roots of the apple-tree
yield them a pale rofe colour. The wood of the quince.
tree furnifhes a very bright flefh-colour. They draw from
the branches of the peach-tree a bright green, and from the
leaves a deep one. They cut the ligneous fubftances into
little bits, teep them in water for two days, boil them the
third day till the liquor is reduced to one-half; they ftrain
it through a cloth, add a little alum, and fet it again over
the fire. As foon as the water boils, they fteep their filk

Vou. XXXI.

for a longer or fhorter time, according as they wifk to ob.
tain a colour more or lefs deep.

The red peelings of Onions yield them a tolerably bright
orange colour yellow: they fet them to foak in water for
four or five days, and boil them with a little alum: they
add a {poonfal of cochineal, or of kermes, when they with
to obtain a beautiful red.

The rind of the walnut, while green, which is taken off
when they pickle that fruit, affords them a green more or
lefs deep.

They alfo make ufe of the gallnut, of the cup of the
velani oak, of madder-root, and of all the colouring fub-
ftances employed in Europe.

In no ifland of the Archipelago, nor in any country of
Turkey, did we fee lands fo well cultivated, commerce fo
ative, and indultry fo great, as at Scio. Grounds the moft
arid and moft ftony, improve by degrees under the hand of
the Sciot, and become fit to receive fome feeds or fome
ufeful trees. There is no kind of traffic to which he is a
ftranger, no hazardous enterprife that he does not attempt.
Here no one is idle: he who is not a prieft, is molt cer-
tainly a merchant, manufacturer, artifan, mariner, or cul-
tivator.

If agriculture and induftry fearcely leave any thing to be
withed for in this ifland, it is becaufe there is no part of the
Ottoman empire that enjoys more effe€tual protection, or is
more favoured by the government. Here, through a con-
currence of fortunate circumitances, private intereft is in
unifon with public intereit. As the appanage of a fultana,
the ifland is under her immediate protection. A naib here
adminifters juftice for the molla of Conftantinople ; the lat-
ter has an intereft in watching over his fubftitute, and in
caufing him to be recalled, if the complaints made againft
him prove well founded. The fultan has granted privileges
to the moft populous part of the ifland, to all the villages
whofe inhabitants cultivate the ma{tic deitined for his fe-
raglio: he has withdrawn them from the rod of the mut-
felim, and granted them an aga, who particularly farms that
valuable commodity. The town likewife enjoys a great
number of privileges. Laitly, the governor, who at the
fame time farms the cuftom-houfe duties and taxes, applies
himfelf to make the moft of the one, by the protetion-and
the accommodation which he grants to the merchants and
cultivators; he does not fidialee himfelf with regard to
others in perfecutions, and ruimous exactions, which too
frequently overfet the fortune of the tributary fubjeéts in
the other towns. Here the poor man as well as the rich
one, the cultivator as well as the merchant, the villager as
well as the inhabitant of the town, are all alike protected,
all may alike prefer their complaints, all may demand and
obtain the removal of a man who fhould abufe too much the
authority intrufted to him,

The cultom-houfe duties and the taxes are moderate ; but
the ifland, like others of the Archipelago, is fubjeét to the
duty which the captain-pacha annually levies ‘on them.
Their manufactured ftuffs are fubje& to 2 mark or feal, af-
fixed by the mutfelim, under penalty of confifeation and
fine; and pay before they are fent out of the ifland a
certain duty. The ‘eres a capitation tax, is fixed for
the villages, in proportion to their population and the ex-
tent of their territory. In the town, all males, from the
age of puberty, and through abufe from ten to twelve years
old, are infcribed on a agian, and divided into three claffes :
thofe of the firft pay 11 pialtres, thofe of the fecond 54,
and thofe of the third 2} piaftres. Women are exempt from
this tax. Ladependently of thefe legitimate duties, the go-

4% vernor

SCLO.

vernor levies arbitrary and illegal taxes, not burdenfome to
individuals, but in the total amountjng to a large fum. One
of the nobleft privileges of the its, which ferves as a
dam againft the torrent of the judicial injuftice of the
Turks, is to have notaries of their religion, whofe acts,
in the Greek diale&t, are refpected by the Ottomans, and
received at their tribunal as authentic documents. The
Roman Catholics have one who aflumes the title of apof-
tolical notary. The Greeks, much more numerous, have
feveral. Next to this privilege, the greateft of all, is that
of nominating among them five primates, whofe funétions
confiit in defending with firmnefs the validity of thefe acs,
and in examining and judging all the litigious affairs of the
ifland, as to civil matters. The municipal jurifdiétion of
this ifland, very much refpected by the Turks, is compofed
of three Greeks and one Roman Catholic, and is entrufted,
for one year or more, frequently for two years, to none but
merchants, who join to a knowledge of commerce an un-
equivocal reputation for probity. The inhabitants of Scio
have likewife the privilege of ele&ting every year two in-
tendants of health, whofe number in cafe of the plague is
increafed. The lazaretto is contained in a vaft enclofure to-
wards the fea, to the north of the town. It confilts of
feveral piles of building, feparated from each other, intended
fome for the fick and others for the convalefcent. Notwith-
itanding this precaution they are occafionally great fufferers
from this diforder. The plague of 1788 carried off in a
little time 14,000 perfons. The fame intendants have the
infpeétion of the hofpital of lepers, fituated in a narrow
valley, N.N.W. of the town.

Muflulman toleration, which allows the Sciots the liberty
of having a police, tribunals, and particular judges, is {till
more indulgent in regard to their religion. The Greeks,
infinitely more numerous, more rich, and more powerful
than the Latins, poffefs about 700 churches in the ifland, a
calculation which will, no doubt, appear exaggerated, but
the exaCtnefs of which was warranted to Olivier by the bett-
informed perfons of Scio. Perfecuted by their adverfaries,
the weak Latins have no more than four at the prefent day,
a fingle one in the town, and three in the country. ‘The
number of priefts, as may well be imagined, is proportionate
to this aftonifhing number of churches. It is extremely
curious to fee them difplay, in the midft of the fanatic
Mufiulmans, all the pomp of the Greek and Roman reli-
gious ceremonies. ‘Their proceflions and interments attract
an innumerable train ; the priefts in their furplices, the papas
in their ftoles, traverie the ftreets of the town, preceded by
a long crofs, followed by a great number of faithful with a
wax-taper in their hand. he ftern Muffulman fees them
pafs without murmuring, provided they pay homage to the
mofques, provided they interrupt their finging at the fight
of that venerable place, that they detach the crofs from its
ftaff, and hold it humbly lowered.

The privilege of having bells to their churches is granted
only to the inhabitants of the maltic villages: they ferve for
calling them to prayers, to mafs, to work, to the gathering
of the mattic, to the parochial aflemblies: they are likewife
intended for giving the alarm in cafe of attack or fire.

The hiitory of Scio is loft in the obf{curity of time, and
is confounded with the errors of fable. At firft under the
rod of kings, next under republican agitation, then under
the odious tyranny of faétions, alternately independent and
fubjected, never perhaps free and happy, the inhabitants of
Scio have pafled fucceffively under the domination of the
Perfians, under thatof the Greeks, and under that of the
Romans. ‘The Venetians attempted to eltablifh themfelves

there, when the Europeans in a delirium were crowding toe
wards the oriental regions, in order to drive the infidel Muf-
fulmans from the Holy Land. The Greek emperors foon
after fold the ifland to fome Genoefe nobles, and that re-
public had rendered it the emporium of an extenfive com-
merce, when, in 1566, Soliman 1. made himfelf matter of it.

Favoured by the Catholics of the country, the Venetians
took pofleflion of Scio, in 1693, towards the end of the
reign of Achmet II.: they conduéted themfelves there in a
very indecorous and very impolitic manner, by perfecuting
the Greeks enemies of the Latins. The year after Mezo-
morto, a Turkifh admiral, had only to prefent himfelf to
beat them and expel them from the ifland. Since that
epoch, Scio has not ceafed to be fubjeét to the empire of
the crefcent.

Mattic mutt be confidered as one of the moft important
produtions of the ifland, and the moft valuable, fince to
this they owe many of their privileges, and the cultivators
their independence, their comfort, and, perhaps, their hap-
pinefs. (See Masric.) Scio turpentine is becoming daily
more and more fearce. The cotton which they grow,
though plentiful, is not fufficient for the fupply of their
numerous manufa¢tures; nor is the colleétion of filk ade-
quate to the confumption of the manufactories of the
town.

The ifland produces wheat, barley, wine, oil, and a few
legumes ; but the quantity of thefe commodities is fo dif-
proportioned to that required by the number of the in-
habitants, that they are obliged to draw them from all quar-
ters. The wheat is fcarcely fufficient to fubfift them for
three months. The wine furnifhes for the confumption of

feven or eight: it is, in general, {weet and {pirituous. That

which rich individuals make with care, is as good as Malaga,
Frontignac, and Cyprus wines, when they have acquired a
little age.

The oil fuffices for the wants of the inhabitants, in good
crops; they procure that article from Mitylene when thefe
are bad or indifferent : here, as well as throughout the Le-
vant, they falt a very great quantity of olives, according to
an eafy procefs.

Oranges, common lemons, wild lemons, and bergamot~-
citrons, which are brought during the winter and in the
{pring to Conftantinople, Adrianople, and Smyrna, are a
very important article of trade, which is eftimated, one year
with another, at 2,000,000 of livres (83,333/. iterling.) A
very agreeable fyrup, in great requett, 1s allo made with the
expreffed juice of lemons and cedrats: it is fet to thickén
over the tre, after receiving the addition of a little fugar or
honey. It is fent to Conftantinople, to Cairo, and into the
Black fea. The rinds of thefe fruits are preferved in fugar
or honey, and are diftributed all over the Levant. -

The galls, while yet green, of a {pecies of willow, falvia
pomifera, are in like manner preferved in fugar or honey.
This {weetmeat is very agreeable, much efteemed, and
highly ftomachic. The Sciots employ not only the galls of
the country, but thofe which they receive from the neigh-
bouring iflands.

The rofe-tree is allo an important article of culture,
either from the great quantity of conferve of rofes which
is there made, or from the eflential oil which is extracted
from it.

Dried figs are efteemed, and are almoft all fent to Smyrna
and to Conttantinople ; of thefe the merchants of Smyrna
difpatch to Europe, as well from Scio as from the coatt of
Afia, to the amount of 100,000 livres (4166). iterling).

In mott of the gardens is feen the febeiten, whole poe

it,

5's

fruit, a little fmaller than a common olive, contains an ex-
cellent glue, employed throughout the Levant for bird-
catching. ;

A plum-tree called verdaffer is here cultivated : its fruit
is large, oblong, of a pale-green, and of a very agreeable
taite. It ripens in July, and lafts fcarcely three weeks.
The inhabitants make it an article of trade: they peel the
plum, dry it in the fun, pack it up in boxes, and fend it to
Smyrna and Conitantinople, where it is fold as high as two
piaitres the oke.

The wax is not fufficient for the great confumption which
is made of that article in the churches of the country: the
inhabitants import it from Greece and Natolia: they alfo
import honey for fyrups, preferves, and {weetmeats which
they prepare ; that of Greece is the mott eiteemed.

It is reckoned that there are about 500 looms employed
in the manufature of {ilk ftuffs. The inhabitants of Scio
have fucceeded in imitating, in fome meafure, the Lyons
filks; but they have copied with more fuccefs the India
filks and cottons, which they alfo draw from Aleppo and
Damaicus. Thofe of Scio are at this day {uperior to thofe
of thefe two cities, the oldeft manufacturing ones of the
Ottoman empire. They alfo make a confiderable quantity
of gaitans, or filk loops, preferable to thofe of Conftanti-
nople and Burfa. They ferve for the edging and button-
holes of the Turkifh dreffes: they alfo plait fome in gold
and in filver for thofe of the women. There are much
fewer looms for the cottons than for the filks.

The trade of the various cloths manufaétured at Scio
is eftimated at upwards of 6,000,000 livres (250,000/.
iterling ).

There is nothing wanting at Scio to render its trade more
flourifhing but a good harbour ; that which exifts is neither
{pacious nor deep, and rocks obftruét its entrance; it can
receive none but {mall veflels; large fhips and men of war
anchor without in an open road, which has, at leaft, the ad-
vantage of affording the facility of going out with all winds.
Its entrance is indicated by two light-houfes ; and though it
was formerly fufficiently {pacious for the trade of the iftond;
and of all the Archipelago, it is daily becoming choaked up,
whillt the Turks will not be at the {malleit expence to re-
move the obftruétions and keep it in order. N. lat. 38° 23!.
E. long. 26°. Sonnini. Olivier.

Scio, the capital of the above ifland, is tolerably large
and well-built ; it is the work of the Genoefe, who for a
long time poflefied the whole ifland. The ancient town,
which, as well as the ifland, bore the name of Chios or Chio,
was placed on the fummit of a mountain. The modern
town is at the foot of the fame mountain, by the fea-fide,
and on this account its fituation is much more agreeable.
The ftreets are ftraight, paved, and tolerably clean; the
houfes are high, all in ot a the greater part of hewn
flone : fand-ftone, or calcareous ftone, is made ufe of in-
diferiminately. Fram a few diftriéts of the ifland is pro-
cured a hard, reddifh fand-ftone, with a very fine grain,
which is employed with advantage for the jams of the doors
and windows, for paving the ground-floor, and for building
the facades of the churches. It is, no doubt, this tlone
which was anciently diltinguifhed by the name of jafper, and
of which Strabo, Pliny, and Cicero have {poken.

It is the cultom at Scio to make, in the centre of the
houfes, a fpacions apartment, very lofty, which the inha-
bitants ufe in fummer during the heat of the day. They
breathe a pure air, evening and morning, on the terrace or
flat roof of the houfes, and at the fame time they enjoy the
ap of the country and of the fea.

The citadel, built. by the Genoefe, commands the har-

sci

bour: an efplanade, fomewhat extenfive, feparates it from
the town, and a ditch dug all round is intended to receive
the waters of the fea in cafe of fiege. The fortifications
are regular, although ancient: they are fallen into ruins in
feveral places, and the guns are at this day almoft with-
out carriages, with the exception of the battery.which de-
fends the entrance of the harbour. © The infide of the cita-
del is full of houfes, capable of lodging with eafe the 700
or 800 janizaries who conttitute the whole ftrength of the
ifland; but they are partly in ruins, and the Turks, as is
well known, have much more inclination to pull down than
to fet up.

The town is commanded, to the weft and to the north,
by fchiftofe, granitical hills, rather arid, but, neverthelefs,
fufceptible of culture. To the north-weit of thefe hills are
feen nothing but calcareous mountains, almoft naked, which
{carcely leave between them a few f{paces, that the rural in-
duitry of the inhabitants can turn to account. To the fouth
of the town, the eye extends with more pleafure over a
plain two leagues in extent, extremely fertile, covered with
beautiful country houfes, and adorned with gardens more or
lefs {pacious, in which are cultivated all the fruits of Eu-
rope, and mott of its legumes.

SCIOGRAPHY. See SctaGrapuy.

SCIOHAIR, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in the government of Sivas; 60 miles $.S.W. of Sivas.

SCIOLTO, Ital., in AZu/ic, implies unbound, detached,
articulate. On the flute and hautbois, every note to be
tongued: on the violin, tenor, and bafs, every note to be
bowed, and cut fhort, as if followed by a reit of half its
value.

SCIOMANTIA. See Sctamantia.

SCIONE, or Scion, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Thrace, near the Canaftreum Promontorium, according to
Steph. Byz., who fays that it was built by the Grecians
who returned from the fiege of Troy.—Alfo, a town of
Macedonia, in the Cherfonefus of Pallené, according to
Strabo. Mela fays that it was built by the Greeks after
their return from the Trojan war.—Alfo, an infular town
of this name in the /Egean fea.

SCLOPOD&, in Hiflory, the name given by Pliny, and
other of the old writers, to a nation of people which they
place in /2thiopia, on the burning fands ; and who, they
fay, when too hot, lie down upon their bellies, and fhadow
themfelves from the fun by lifting up their feet, which are
very large and broad, Sart it. Thefe are fome of the
gentes mirabilis figure of Pliny, and are worthy to ftand
among the monocoli, and other fuch montters.

SCIOPPIUS, Gaspaan, in Biography, a critic of con-
fiderable celebrity, was born at Neumarch, in the Upper
Palatinate, in the year 1576. He was trained to literature
from his earlieft youth, and made fo rapid a progrefs, that
he is faid to have been an author of note in the fixteenth
year of his age. When he had attained to years of man-
hood, he travelled twice into Italy, and was fo much pleafed
with the country, that he refolved to fettle in it ; and it ap-
pears that he made his principles bend to his convenience, and
as oa gag wetd {lep towards his fettlement in Italy, he ab-
jured the Proteftant religion, and adopted that of the pope:
aud as it appears to have been his with to ingratiate himfelf
with the court of Rome, he difplayed the bittereft enmity
again{t the party which he had quitted; and, to manifelt his
zeal, he wrote a work, entitled “ Claflicum Belli facri,’’ in
which he urged the total extirpation of the Proteftants by
force of arms. At the fame time he attacked, amon
others, in the molt abufive terms, king James I. of England,
for which he received a perfonal cafligation by the fer.

4X 2 vants

5 '€d

vants of the Englifh ambaffador at Madrid. He was alfo
the bitter enemy of the Jefuits, and wrote a number of works
againft them under different aflumed names. Scioppius and
Scaliger oppofed each other with great fury in a literary con-
troverfy, if fuch kind of virulence could come under the
denomination of literary difcuflion. They not only decried
the works of each other, but employed all their malignity in
abufing their perfons and families. Scioppius treated the
greateit authors of antiquity with no lefs rudenefs than thofe
of his own time; and pure latinity being a point in which
he greatly prided himfelf, he did not hefitate to charge
Cicero himfelf with barbarifms in writing his own language.
He had in the courfe of years made himfelf fuch a number
of enemies, that he fcarcely knew where to. take *fhelter.
His laft retreat was Padua; here he lived under the protec-
tion of the republic of Venice. Towards the clofe of life
he became an expofitor of prophecy, and fent fome of his
commentaries on the book of Revelations to cardinal Maza-
rin, who paid no regard to them whatever. He died, almott
univerfally hating and hated, in the year 1649. Of his
works, the number of which is faid to have exceeded that of
his years, the greater part is devoted to criticifm and con-
troverfy ; they are faid to contain proofs of extenfive learn-
ing and abilities, which, if directed by a better temper, might
have tranfmitted his name to pofterity with high honour.

SCIOPTIC Batt, or Ox-eye, as it is fometimes called,
a {phere or globe of wood, with a circular hole or perfora-
tion, in whicha lensis placed. It is fo fitted, that, like the
eye of an animal, it may be turned round every way, to be
ufed in making experiments of the darkened room. See
Camera Obfcura.

SCIORUM, in Geography, a mountain of Arabia, which
forms the fouthern boundary of Oman towards the fea.

SCIOT. See Srur.

SCIOTO, ariver of America, which falls into the Ohio,
in the {tate of Ohio, is larger than the Hockhocking, and
opens a more extenfive navigation. It is paflable for large
barges for 200 miles, with a portage of only four miles to
the Sandufky, a boatable water which falls into lake Erie.
Through the Sandufky and Scioto lies the moft common pafs
from Canada to the Ohio and Miflifippi, one of the moitt
extenfive and ufeful communications to be found in any coun-
try. Prodigious extenfions of territory are here connected ;
and from the rapidity with which the wettern parts of Ca-
nada, lake Erie, and the Kentucky countries are fettling,
we may anticipate an immenfe intercourfe between them.
The flour, corn, flax, and hemp, raifed for exportation in that
large country between the lakes Huron and Ontario, will find
an outlet through lake Erie and thefe rivers, or down the
Miffifippi. The ftream of the Scioto is gentle, and no
where broken by falls. At fome places,.in the {pring of
the year, it overflows its banks, providing for large natural
rice plantations. Salt-{prings, coal-mines, white and blue
clay, and free-ftone, eid the country adjoining this
river. Its mouth is in N. lat. 38° 4o!. W. long. 83° 30',
about three miles below Pittfburg, and it is navigable to its
fourcein canoes. This river is 250 yards at its mouth, and
100 yards wide at the Salt-lick towns, 200 miles above.—
Alfo, a county of the itate of Ohio, formed in the year
1803, 20 miles in extent from N. to S. and 30 from E. to
W., containiag g townthips, and 3399 inhabitants. It is
bounded N. on Rofs count¥, S. on the Ohio, E. on Gallia,
and W. on Adams. Its principal town is Portfmouth.

SCIPIO, Pustivs Corne tus, furnamed Africanus, in
Biography, one of the moft illultrious characters of the
Roman republic, was the fon of Publius Cornelius Scipio,
an eminent commander, who, with his brother Cneius, lolt

SC

his life in Spain during the fecond Punic war. ‘This fame
Publius was conful, and commanded at the battle on the Ti-
cinus, in the year 218 B.C., in which he was defeated by
Hannibal, and would have been killed, had he not been
refcued by his fon, the fubje@t of this article, who was
then a youth of feventeen only. This young man fulfilled
the promife of his early years by his conduét after the battle
of Cann, when, being informed that certain perfons of high
confequence in the {tate had adopted the defign of abandon-
ing their country, he repaired. with fome followers to the place
where they were aflembled, and compelled them, by the
threat of inftant death, to take an oath of never abandonin

the republic. He was appointed to the edilefhip, chrougle
the favour’of the people, at the age of 21, which was fome
years before the ufual age for that high office. In his 24th
year he was appointed proconful, for the fake of endeavouring
to retrieve the affairs that were in an unprofperous {tate in
Spain. he high character which he had already obtained,
he is faid to have rendered {till more the fubjeét of ad-
miration by practices, the refult partly of enthufiafm and
partly of artifice. He infinuated to the multitude that he
aéted frequently from divine infpiration, or by the admo-
nitions communicated to him by dreams; and he never un-
dertook any public bufinefs without repairing to the temple
in the Capitol, as if he were confulting the gods. Soon
after his appointment, he embarked a contiderable reinforce-.

‘ment of troops, and having, on his arrival, furprifed and

captured the capital of the Carthaginian dominions in Spain,
he became matter of a great number of prifoners, and im-
menfe treafures. Jt was upon this occafion he gave an exam-
ple of continence, for which he has been celebrated by every
hiftorian who has written on the fubjeét. A female captive
of fingular beauty was brought to him as part of his fpoil ;
he was not infenfible to her charms; but finding that fhe was
betrothed to a Celtiberian prince, initead of ufing the fup-
pofed rights of a conqueror, he fent for her parents and
lover, and furrendered her pure into their hands, at the fame
time beftowing the ranfom which they prefled upon him as
an addition to her marriage portion. This noble aét, which
deferved all the applaufe that has been beftowed upen it,
filled the Spaniards.with admiration, and not only the bride-
groom joined Scipio’s troops at the head of a body of
cavalry, but the whole province of Celtiberia came over to
the Roman party. In the next campaign Scipio marched
againtt Afdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, with whom
was Mafliniffa, the Numidian prince. He entirely routed
them, and took poffeflion of their camp, with a number of
captives. Among thefe was a youth of avery prepofleffin
afpect, who was the nephew of Maflinifla. Scipio nel
him with great kindnefs, and thus laid the foundation of
Maffiniffa’s attachment to the Roman caufe. He vigoroufly
purfued his advantages over the Carthaginians, and’ after
almoft entirely deitroying A{drubal’s army, obliged him
to fly to Africa, leaving Spain entirely in the power of thé
Romans. In the end the fuccefs of Scipio was complete,
and the Roman fenate being informed of the event, recalled
him to Italy, fending two froconfuls to take the command
in Spain. He arrived at Rome near the time of the confular
election, and though he was yet under the age preferibed for
attaining that dignity, the fplendour of his exploits caufed
him to be unanimoufly chofen by the people to the office of
conful. This was in the year 205 B.C. It was his with to
be fent to command in Africa, but, through the influence of
Fabius, he was appointed to a command in Sicily, with a
conditional power of paffing over to Africa with thirty
fhips. Being, in his own mind, determined to make that
country the theatre of war, be affiduoufly employed himfelf
in

EE

SCIPIO.

in preparations for the purpofe. The year of his confulfhip
being ended, he was continued in the command as proconful,
with the permiffion of carrying with him to Africa fuch of
the Roman troops in Sicily as he fhould think proper : he at
length embarked at Lilybeeum, amidit a vait concourfe of
fpectators, and with all the circumftances of folemnity that
might imprefs his foldiers with a fenfe of the magnitude of
the undertaking, and the hope of vidtory. Almoit _imme-
diately after his landing he was joined by Maflinifla, and
having obtained fome fucceffes, he proceeded to lay fiege
to Utica. This, however, he was obliged to abandon, and
he chofe a place for his winter quarters, where he could rea-
dily receive fupplies from Italy. In the mean time, his pro-
confular command having expired, it was continued to him
by the voice of the people as long as the war fhould laft.
Syphax, having married the daughter of Afdrubal, wasnow
fixed im the Carthaginian intereit, and lay with his army en-
camped. near that general. .Scipio opened the campaign
with furprifing by night and burning the Numidian and
Carthaginian camps, and with a great flaughter of their
forces. After this he defeated Afdrubal and Syphax, and
captured Tunis, and feveral of their other towns. The Car-
thaginians now fent deputies to Rome to treat fora peace,
and Scipio agreed to a fufpenfion of hoftilities till their re-
turn. They had, however, in the mean time, recalled Han-
nibal from Italy, as the only antagonilt fitted to oppofe their
fuccefsful invader. On his arrival ative hoftilities recom-
menced ; and the two great commanders met, at the head of
their colle&ted forces, near Zama, where a decifive battle
was fought. This ation, which happened in tne year B.C.
202, ended in a complete victory over the Carthaginians.
Peace was now reftored, but the conditions to Carthage were
extremely fevere: her territories were reftri€ted to Africa ;
her naval power was annihilated ; and a va{t fum was exaéted
from her by way of indemnification. With the ratification
of this treaty terminated the fecond Punic war. Scipio
returned to Rome crowned with glory, and was met at his
entrance by the whole body of citizens. A triumph was
decreed him by the united votes of the fenate and people,
together with the furname of Arricanus, by which he has
been diftinguifhed from all the other branches of his illuf-
trious family. Inthe year 199 B.C. he was nominated one
of the cenfors, and in 194 he was elected conful a fecond
time ; but nothing occurred during the year of his office that
ve him an opportunity of diltinguifhing himfelf. In 190
-C. his brother Lucius was oheten eat and Scipio pro-
poled to accompany him as lieutenant, fhould he be fent tu
command in Afia againft Antiochus the Great, in whofe
fervice his old antagonilt Hannibal was engaged. The offer
was accepted, and the two brothers, with their troops,
marched for the Hellefpont. They crojled the {trait without
oppofition, Africanus ftaying fome days after his brother,
on account of his being occupied as a prieft of the Salii in
certain religious ceremonies, of which he wav always very
obfervast. The fon of Africanus had been taken prifoner at
fea, and brought to Antiochus, who treated him in the
moft honourable way, and offered to reftore him without
ranfom, provided he might thereby fecure the good offices
of the father. Scipio rejected the offer, and advifed the mo-
narch to accept of peace upon any terms. Shortly after this,
or while lying upon a fick at Ela, was gratified
with the fight of his fon, reftored to him by Antiochus. The
decifive battle of Magnefia, foon after this, obliged Antio-
chus to fubmit to the conditions which the Roman fenate im-
poled on him. Upon the return of Scipio to Rome he ap-
to have retired to the repofe of private life, which,
wever, he was not penmktéd to enjoy very long unmo-

lefted. He was accufed of various mifdemeanors when in
office, and a day appointed for a hearing. After fome pre-
liminary enquiries, a fecond day was appointed ; on this,
when iilence was proclaimed, he rofe and faid, “ On this
day, tribunes and Romans, I gained a decifive victory over
Hannibal and the Carthaginians. Since, therefore, fuch a
day fhould be exempt from {trife and contention, I mean to
goand pay my devotions to Jove and the other gods who
prefide over the Capitol, and return them thanks that, as well
on this day as on many others, they have granted me the de-
fire and ability of doing great fervice to the republic. You,
my fellow citizens, to whom it is convenient, go along with
me, and pray that you may always poffefs leaders like myfelt:
for as from the age of feventeen, to advanced life, you have
outgone my years by your honours, fo I have anticipated
your honours by my aétions.”? He then proceeded to the
Capitol, followed by the whole aflembly, not excepting the
{cribes and apparitors, {o that the tribunes were left with no
other attendants than their flaves, and the public crier. A
more {plendid mode of defeating an impeachment was never
practifed, and Livy prefers the glory conferred upon Scipio
by his condué on this day, to his triumph over Syphax and
the Carthaginians. It was, however, but a temporary fuc-
cefs, for his enemies returning to the charge, cited him a
third time, but he refufed to fubmit to what he felt an indig-
nity, and retired to his country feat, his brother appearin
in his ftead, and pleading the excufe of ill health, which not
being confidered as tieiany. the bufinefs was adjourned
to another day. Tiberius Gracchus, father of the cele-
brated Gracchi, was one of the tribunes at this time, and
as he was known to be an enemy to the Scipios, his refu-
fal to put his name to this decree was thought a prelude to
fomething fill more fevere ; but it arofe from the molt ho-
nourable feelings: he declared that he would not fuffer
Scipio to be aecufed till he fhould return to Rome, and
would then even proteét him from the neceflity of pleading
his caufe ; adding fome ftrong and fevere refleGtions on the
public profecution of a man fo venerable, from the very high
fervices which he had performed for his country. This m-
terpofition was fuccefsful, and the generofity of Gracchus
was rewarded by the hand of Cornelia, the illuftrious daugh-
ter of Africanus: henceforth no mention is made of this
great man; he probably died very foon after, at or about
the age of 48. He defired to be buried at Linturnum, a
town onthe coaft of Campania, to which he had withdrawn ;
and he manifelted his difpleafare againit his countrymen, by
the epitaph which he ordered to be engraved on his tomb:
“ Ungrateful countrymen, you fhall not poflefs my bones.’”
Livy {peaks of him as‘a perfon more illuftrious in his con-
cerns in war, than for his conduct in peace ; and he remarks,
that little was added to his renown after the fecond Punic
war, the glorious termination of which was jultly afcribed
to him. ‘That the retirement of Africanus from public life
was owing to inclination rather than neceflity, may be in-
ferred from a faying of his recorded by Cicero, that “ he
was never lels'employed than when at leifure, nor lefs foli-
tary than when alone.” To this great general Hannibal,
when in exile, paid the following compliment, Being afked
his opinion as to the greateft commanders of his time, and
the order in which they fhould ftand: « The firtt,’’ faid the
Carthaginian, “ is Alexander, the fecond Pyrrhus, and the
third myfelf.’” And, faid Scipio, «If you had conquered
me, in what rank would you have placed yourfelf 2”? «In
the firft,’’ faid Hannibal.

Seirto, Puntivs Auminianus, called alfo the Younger
Africanus, was the younger fon of Paulus Aumilius, but
was adopted into the Cornelian family by Publius, fon ad

Zz the

SCI

the nrft Africanus. He ferved at the age of 17, in Mace-
donia, under his natural father; and during the war in
Spain, in the year B.C. 151, when the report of the hard-
fhips fuffered there deterred the Roman youth from enrolling
their names in the new levies, he mounted the rottra, and
in a fpirited {peech declared his own readinefs to go in any
quality that the confuls fhould appoint. This conduét pro-
duced fuch an effeét, that the levies were very quickly com-
pleted, and he accompanied them as a legionary tribune.
For his great fervices at this period, he obtained a mural
crown, being the firit in fcaling the wall of a befieged town,
and he flew in fingle combat a Spaniard of gigantic {tature.
The conful, Lucullus, then fent him to Numidia, where he
was when the third Punic war broke out, in the year B.C.
148; at the commencement of which, the Carthaginian
general, Afdrubal, obtained fome advantages over the Ro-
mans; and the whole confular army would probably have
been loft, had not /Emilianus, with a fmall body of horfe,
kept the force of the enemy in check, while the legions
were crofling the river. He afterwards, by his valour and
good conduét, faved a party which was furrounded by the
enemy ; and the whole of his conduét in this campaign was
fo extremely brilliant, that he gained univerfal reputation.
On his return to Rome he was chofen conful, being then
37 years of age; and the condué of the African war, which
ended in the deftruétion of Carthage, was committed to
him by a {pecial decree. (See CARTHAGE.) Scipio, on
his return to Rome, was honoured with a magnificent
triumph, and the name of the Second Africanus was con-
ferred upon him. He depofited an urn full of the athes of
Carthage in the temple of the Capitoline Jupiter, as the
mott acceptable offering he could make to the Roman god.
The integrity and difintereftednefs of this great man, on
the capture of the rival city, are univerfally acknowledged,
and highly applauded. On this occafion he convoked the
Sicilians, who had been expofed to the pillage of the Car-
thaginians, and promifed to reftore to each city every relic
of art, which fhould be recognifed as having belonged to it.
The Romans having kindled a war with the powerful city
of Numantia, in Spain, and broken a treaty which the
conful Mancinus had made with it, in order to fave his army,
ele&ed Scipio conful a fecond time, B.C. 134, and com-
mitted to his manayement the war again{t the Numantines.
In the courfe of the conteft, he clofely invefted Numantia,
which was fituated upon a hill, very difficult of accefs, and
rejecting the fubmiffive propofals of the citizens for peace,
refolved to wait till famine fhould oblige them to furrender
at difcretion. His vigilance was exercifed in obviating all
attempts fuggefted by valour, reduced to defpair; and
when at length they were unable to hold out any longer,
they {till refolved never to furrender themfelves to the dif-
ew of an inexorable foe, and fet fire to their town, at the
fame time deltroying themfelves and their families; thus
leaving nothing to grace the viétor but an empty triumph,
and the furname of Numantinus.

During the contelts carried on between the Gracchi and
patricians, Scipio inclined to favour the latter party, and
made himfelf unpopular by feeming to approve the ailaf-
fination of Tiberius Gracchus, though he was a very near
relation. After this he retired to his country retreat, near
Caieta, in company with his intimate friend, the fecond
Lealius, his conneétion with whom is {till more celebrated
than that of the firlt Lalius with the firft Africanus.
After a time he returned to Rome, where he oppofed fome
unconttitutional meafures of the tribunes, and fe which he
was accufed of afpiring to the di€tatorfhip. He was, how-
ever, fupported by the fenators and the great body of the

-a ferry between Scipio and Romulus.

SCI

people, and fome important event was on the eve of taking
place, when Scipio was found dead in his bed, in the year
129 B.C. He was fuppofed to have been affaflinated, but
the people would fuffer no inquiries to be made as to the
caufe of his death. He was a great general, a lover and
patron of letters, and a man of fingular public integrity and
private generofity. When he went to Africa, he was ac-
companied by the hiftorian Polybius, and the philofopher
Panetius ; and Terence is faid to have been the companion
of his retirement, and even to have fubmitted his comedies
to the correétion of him and Lzlius. He fhewed a total
difregard for wealth, and an excellence of difpofition, by
relinquifhing his inheritance in favour of his mother, his
brother, and fifters; and the whole property which the
conqueror of Carthage left behind him was only 32 pounds
weight of filver, and 24 of gold.

Scrrio, in Geography, a poft-townfhip of America, in
Cayuga county, on the E. fide of Cayuga lake; 11 miles
S. of Auburn, and 180 W. of Albany; incorporated in
1794, and comprehending that part of the lands referved to
the Cayuga nation of Indians, on the E. fide of Cayuga
lake. This is one of the moft populous and opulent farm-
ing towns in the wettern country. In the year 1810, the
population was 7100, the number of families 1104, and of
fenatorial ele€tors 468 ; and the taxable property, as valued
by the affeffors, 205,042 dollars. Acrofs the lake there is
The poit-village of
Aurora is finely feated on the lake, near the centre of the
weit line, has a flourifhing academy, about 50 houfes, a
pot-office, and a {mall library. The inhabitants of Scipio
are principally employed in farming. The Cayuga aca-
demy in this town is eligibly fituated. The Cayuga county
was erected from Onondago county in 1799, and is 70 miles
long from N. to S., and in its greateft breadth 20 miles:
the whole area is 845 {quare miles, or 540,800 acres. Its
population, in 1810, was 29,840; its fenatorial electors
2460. Its number of fheep 49,000, of looms 1360, which
produce annually 340,870 yards of cloth, woollen, linen,
cotton, and mixed. It fends three members to the aflembly.
Its chief town, Auburn, contains 500 inhabitants; and
Aurelius is the town in which the courts are held. ‘

Scipio, in Ancient Hiflory, a name given by the Romans
to a baton, or fceptre of ivory, borne by the confuls as a
token of their dignity. Under the republic, it was no more
than a rod without any additional ornaments. Under the
emperors, and principally thofe of Conftantinople, it was
furmounted with an eagle, and terminated by a-buft, which
reprefented the reigning emperor. .

SCIRA, 2xsex, a feftival among the Athenians, other-
wife called Scirrophoria.

SCIRAS, in Ancient Geography, a name anciently given
to the ifle of Salamine. Here was a temple of Minerva,
known under the name of Minerva Sciras. See Scirro-
PHORIA.

SCIRE Factas, in Law, a judicial writ, moft com-
monly ufed to call a man to fhew caufe to the court whence it
iffues, why execution of a judgment pafled fhould not be
made out. .

This writ is not granted till a year and a day be elapfed
after a judgment given.

Scire facias, upon a fine, lies only after a year and a day
after the fine levied. Otherwife, it 1s the fame with the writ
of habere facias feifinam.

There are alfo writs of /cire facias again{t bail to an ac-
tion, compelling his appearance ; and on fuch»writ, if the
bail thew a fuflicient caufe, or the defendant does not fur-
render himfelf on the day of the return, or of fhewing —

5 the

se i

the plaintiff may have judgment againft the bail, and take
out a writ of Capras ad /fatisfaciendum (which fee), or
other procefs of execution: and there is alfo a writ of this
kind, ad audiendum errores, or writs of error; in detinue,
after judgment, for delivery of goods; to remove an
ufurper’s clerk incumbent ; upon a recognizance in chancery
for extending lands, &c.; to repeal letters patent and
grants ; to repeal the grants of offices, for conditions broken,
non-attendance, &c.; and in appeal of murder ; and to re-
vive a judgment. See Blackit. Com. vol. iii. See Exe-
CUTION.

SCIRO, Scyro, or Shiro, in Geography, an ifland in the
Grecian Archipelago, about 60 miles in circumference ;
very mountainous, but producing wheat and barley fuffi-
cient for the inhabitants. The wine is excellent, and fo is
the cheefe, which is made of the milk of fheep and goats
mixed. Wax and maitic are colleéted by the inhabitants.
In this ifland is one town of the fame name, and it has about
300 families. The cadi is the only Turk in the ifland. N.
lat. 38° 52'. E. long. 24° 35).

Scrro Poulo, a {mall ifland in the Grecian Archipelago ;
6 miles W. of Sciro.

SCIRONA, a word ufed by fome of the ancients to ex-

refs the autumnal dews. ~ ;

SCIRPO-CYPERUS, in Botany, Mich. Gen. 47. t. 31,
was fo called by that author, becaufe, as he conceived, it
had the heads, or flowers, of a Scirpus, and the item of a
Cyperus. Micheli dittingnifhes thirteen fpecies of this fup-
pofed genus, all reduced by Linneus to Scirpus. See
that article.

SCIRPOIDES, Mont. Prodr. 17, with a figure, fo
called on account of a refemblance in the inflorefcence to
Scirpus, is a genus founded by Monti, on fome of the
aadrogynous Carices of Linnzus, as vulpina, muricata, &c.
See Carex.

SCIRPUS, a very old Latin name for the bull-rufh,
and other plants of that tribe, which, on account of their
foft flexible flems, deftitute of knots, were ufeful for tying
any thing together in bundles, or for making bafkets. The
German name of this genus, Bin/e, has the fame meaning.
De Theis derives Scirpus from cirs, which, he fays, is the
plural of the Celtic word cors, a rufh; whence comes our
cord, as well as the Latin chorda.—Linn. Gen. 30. Schreb.
41. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 290. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4.
Vahl. Enum. v. 2. 242. Sm. Fl. Brit. 48. Prodr. Fl.
Grac. Sibth. v. 1. 33. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 1. 130.
Brown Prodr. Nov. Fioll. v. 1. 223. Purfh v. 1. 54.
Joff. 27. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 38. Gertn. t. 2. (Ifo-
lepis; Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 221.)—Clafs and
order, Triandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Calamaria, Linn.
Cypervidee, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Glumes chaffy, imbricated every way,
ovate, flat, a little inflexed, uniform, all fertile, except oc-
cafionally a very few of the outermoft. Cor. none. Stam.
Filaments three, elongated gradually ; anthers oblong.
Pift. Germen fuperior, minute; ftyle thread-thaped, !ong,
fimple at the bafe, without a joint, at length dilated there,
ie gree ea off at, or near, the bottom; ftigmas three,
capillary. Peric. none. Serd folitary, triangular, pointed,
in feveral inttances furrounded with ion, fhorter than the

lume.

Eff. Ch. Glumes chaffy, imbricated every way, uni-
form, all fertile. Corolla none. Seed one. Style de-
ciduous.

Obf, Mr. Brown’s Isoveris (fee that article) differs in
havings co hairy. or briftles, beneath the feed. The exa-
mination of Scuanus, to which we alfo refer the reader,

SiG £

and its allies, has led us to doubt the propriety of fuch a
generic diftinétion ; becaufe we find fome fpecies that differ
in this refpe&, and yet are otherwife fo much more clofely
akin, than others which agree in having, or not having, fuch
briftles. Nor does the charaéter appear to be always with-
out uncertainty, in one and the fame fpecies. See ScHa@Nnus
rufus.

ray ted is a very numerous genus. Linneus has twenty-
feven {pecies in his Sp. Pl., and forty-one in the 14th ed.
of Syit. Veg. Willdenow has feventy ; Vahl ninety-four.
Mr. Brown defcribes five fpecies of New Holland Scirpi,
of which one only is new; but he has fix new fpecies of
L/olepis, belides as many more that were previoufly de-
{cribed by other writers. Mr. Purfh enumerates twenty-
three North American fpecies, three of which are new.
We fhall give examples of the five Linnean fetions, par-
ticularly defcribing all the Britifh fpecies, as ufual.

Se&. 1. Spike folitary.

S. palufiris. Marfh Creeping Club-rufh. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 7o. Willd. n.6. Vahl. n. 11. FI. Brit. n. 1. Engl.
Bot. 't. 137. Fl..Dan. t..273.' ‘eers t: 1) £3. -Purth
n. 3. (Juncus minor, capitulis equifeti; Ger. Em. 35.
1631.) —Stem round; fheathed at the bafe. Spike ter-
minal, nearly oval. Glumes acute. Root creeping. Stig-
mas two.—Common in ditches and pools throughout
Europe, as well as in North America, flowering in June
and July. The root is perennial, creeping horizontally.
Plant variable in fize, coniiiting of numerous, fimple, naked,
f{mooth flems, from fix to eighteen inches high, without any
foliage ; the bafe of each invelted with two or three clofe,
abrupt, ftriated fheaths, about an inch long. Spike eredt,
ovate, naked, of numerous brown acute /cales, with white
membranous edges. The feed is yellowifh-brown, bluntly
ovate, obfcurely angular, crowned with the thick triangular
bafe of the ffy/, which eafily breaks off, and accompanied
at the bafe, as Leers well obferves, by four flender dri/lles,
befides the permanent filaments. "The /ligmas are only two ;
three being by miltake reprefented in Engl. Bot.

S. multicaulis. Many-ttalked Club-rufh. Fi. Brit. n. 2.
Engl. Bot. t. 1187. Vahl. n. 10. Ait. n. 2. (S. aci-
cularis; Fl. Dan. t. 167. §. paluftris varietas; Linn. Fl.
Lapp. n. 19, 8. S. multicaulis, equifeti capitulis minori-
bus; Rel. Rudb. 28. f. 2.)—Stem round; fheathed at the
bafe. Spike ovate, terminal. Glumes obtufe, equal.
Root fibrous. Stigmas three.—Native of turfy bogs in
Lapland, Denmark, Germany, Scotland, Yorkihire, Nor.
folk, Suflex, and Cornwall, flowering in July. Differs
from the laft in having a {trong, fibrous, not creeping, root ;
blunter glumes; three fligmas; and a more decidedly tri-
angular feed, at whofe bale are fix rough érifles. One or
two of the lower flowers is often viviparous. The whole
plant is generally fmaller than the la{t, and the /pike of a
darker purplith-brown. The /eed is crowned, as in the
foregoing, with the large dilated bafe of th: SJyle, which
breaks off eafily, the relt of the ftyle having difappeared
long before. i

S. geniculatus. Knotty Club-rufh. Linn. Sp. Pl. 71.
Willd. n, 7. Vahl. n. 1g. (Juncus aquaticus yeniculatys,
capitulis equifeti, major; Sloane Jam. v. 1. 121, t. 81.
f. 3.) —Stem round, with frequent, unequal, internal, tranf-

verfe partitions. Spike ovate-oblong. Glumes rou dith-
ovate. —Native of Jamaica, in hollows where water ‘tands
after rainy feafons. Sloane. The root is probably annual.

Stems five or fix, two or three feet high, half an inch in
diameter, fmooth, Ancly ftriated, hollow, with very little
pith, Wut the cavity interrupted by frequent, more or lefa
complete, tran{verfe membranous partitions, which, in dried

{pecimens,

SCIRPUS.

fpecimens, make irregular prominent lines, Spike above an
inch long, flender, ere&. Glumes obtufe, pale, minutely
dotted with red.

S. ca/pitofus. Scaly-ftalked Club-rufh. Linn. Sp. Pl. 71.
Willd. n. 9. Vahl. n. z.. Fl. Brit. n. 3. Engl, Bot.
t. 1029. Rel. Rudb. 28. f..1.. Ehrh. Calam. toz.
(Juncus parvus montanus, cum parvis capitulis Iuteis;
Bauh. Hift. v. 2. 523. f. 2.)— Stem round, ilriated ;
fheathed, and invelted with numerous fcales, at the bafe.
Two outer glumes as long as the fpike. Seed furronnded
with about fix forked briftles.—Very common in molt parts
of Europe, on mountain mofly bogs or heaths, in a turfy
foil, varying extremely in fize according to the moifture of
the fituation, and flowering in July. Root ftrong, fibrous,
perennial, crowned with abundance of {mooth, concave,
pale, ovate, imbricated fcales, embracing the /lems, which
have befides a lax leafy pointed feale or two at the bafe of
each, and vary in height from two inches to a foot, or
more. Spike fmall, reddifh-brown. Two outer glumes
flightly unequal, as tall asthe whole fpike, each with a leafy
point. Thefe alone, for the moft part, perfect their /eed,
though all the reft are each accompanied by three /lamens
and one fyle. The feed is elliptical, triangular, {mooth,
brown, with green edges, and fix briltles at the bafe, whofe
points are cloven. The beak of the feed is much more
flender than in S. paluflris or multicaulis.

S. pauciflorus.. Chocolate-headed Club-rufh. Lightf.
1078. Fi. Brit. n.4. Engl. Bot. t. 1122. “ Hoft.
Gram. Auitr. v. 3. t. 58.7? Ait. n. 4. (S. Beothryon ;
Linn. Suppl. 103. Ehrh. Phytoph. 31. Willd. n. 10.
Vahl. n. 5. S. n. 13353 Hall. Hift. v. v. 176. S. mini-
mus, capitulo fquamofo breviore et crafliore fufco;
Scheuchz. Agr. 366. t. 7. f. 21. S. minimus, {pica bre-
viore {quamofa fpadicea; ibid. 364. t. 7. f. 19.)—Stem
round; fheathed at the bafe. Spike of few flowers, longer
than its outer glumes. Seed furrounded with feveral fimple
hairs.—Found on wet moors and heaths, efpecially in rather
mountainous fituations, in Sweden, Germany, Switzerland,
France, and Great Britain, flowering in Auguft. More
flender than the laft, with blackifh, tufted, fibrous, peren-
nial roots. Stems from three to fix inches high, each theathed
at the bafe by a tight abrupt reddifh membrane, without
the feales, fo remarkable in the ca/pitofus. There are fome
barren flems, like “eaves, taller than the others. Spike
fmall, reddifh-brown ; its outer glumes not above half the
length of the whole fpike, which neverthelefs confiits but
of four or five flowers. ae of the /eed numerous and
very flender. ‘The original {pecific name of Lightfoot ap-
pears to us admirable, and much better than the pedantic
one which Ehrhart, unknown to Linneus, printed in the
Supplementum, and which merely means a little Hd yet
Vahl prefers the latter as moit apt of the two. he plant
of which we are {peaking is certainly the fame as Dr. Roth
has fent us for his campefris ; fee Willd. n. 11; for which
Scheuchzer’s t. 7. f. 19, is quoted as a good reprefenta-
tion. So it undoubtedly is of our pauciforus, and we con-
clude thefe two plants to be the fame.

S. acieularis. Leaft Club-rufh. Linn. Sp. Pl. 71, ex-
cluding the incorreét reference to Scheuchzer. Willd. n, 16.
Vahl. n. 6. Fi. Brit. n.5. Engl. Bot. t.749. Fl. Dan.
t. 287. (Juncellus minimus, capitulis equifeti; Pluk. Phyt.
t. 40. f. 7.)—Stem quadrangular; with an abrupt fheath
at the bafe. Spike ovate, acute. Two outer glumes
largeft. Seeds without briftles. — Native of clear pools,
and marfhy places, in Sweden, Germany, Switzerland, and
England, but not common with us. A very flender deli-
cate {pecics, with a fibrous perennial root, and fquare /lems

from three to nine inches high, accompanied by a few fhorter
barren onesy or feaves. Spike very minute, of five or fix
brown flowers, with imbricated glumes, all nearly of equal
fize. Seed obovate, of an ivory white, femipellucid, with-
pe briflles at its bafe.

- fluttans. Floating Club-rufh. Linn. Sp. Pl. 91.
Willd. n. 17. Vahl. = 8. Fi. Brit. n. 6. Engl. Bot.
t. 216. Fl. Dan. t. 1082. (Ifolepis fluitans; Brown
Prodr. Nov. Holl. y. 1. 221. Gramen junceum clavatum
repens, foliis et capitulis pfyllii; Morif. fe@. §. t. 10.
f. 31.)—Stem branched, leafy, flaccid, floating. Flower-
flalks alternate, naked. Spikes folitary, terminal. Stigmas
two.— Native of ditches and pools in various parts of
Europe, flowering in July and Auguft. Mr, Brown found
it at Port Jackfon, New South Wales. Poflibly the feeds
might have been accidentally carried thither. The pale,
branched, floating, divaricated /fems bear numerous grafly
capillary /eaves, and many long ftriated tumid fowerfalks,
each tipped with a little roundiih pale head, of but few
flowers. The two outer giwmes are larger than the reft.
re long, feathery, only two. Seed without any

riftles. >

Se&t. 2. Stem round, with many Jpikes.

S. /acuffris. Common Bull-rufh. Linn. Sp. Pl. 72.
Willd. n.18. Vahl. a. 58. Fi. Brit. n. 7, excluding the
varieties. Engl. Bot. t. 666. Brownn.1. Purh n. 13.
Fl. Dan. t. 1142. (Juncus aquaticus maximus; Lob.
Ic. 85. Ger. Em. 35.)—Stem round, naked. Panicle
cymofe, repeatedly compound, terminal. Spikelets ovate.
Braéteas fhort.—Frequent in clear waters, and about the
borders of rivers, throughout Europe, flowering in July.
It oceurs alfo in North America, and New South Wales.
The roots are thick and ftout, creeping under water in the
deep mud. Stems four or five feet, or more, in height,
naked, {mooth, round, dark green, tough and pliant,
{pongy within, ufeful for package, thatching, and efpecially
for platting into the bottoms of chairs; their bafe invetted
with feveral fheathing {cales, partly ending in leafy points.
Panicle often doubly or triply compound, with comprefled
rough-edyed branches. Spikes very numerous, folitary or
crowded, of a rufty brown. Glumes concave, keeled,
pointed, fringed ; fometimes cloven, with a ferrated point
inthe cleft. Stigmas either two or three, in different flowers
ou the fame ftem. Seed obovate, broad, flat on one fide,
with five or fix briftles, rough with reflexed teeth, at its
bafe. ;

S. glaucus. Glaucous Club-rufh. Sm. Compend.
ed. 2. 10. Engl. Bot. t. 2321. (S. lacuftris 6; Fi.
Brit. n. 7. Vahl. n. 58. S. paluitris humilior ; Scheuchz.
Agr. 356. Juncus five Scirpus medius; Bauh. Theatr.
181.) —Stem round, naked, glaucous. Panicle cymofe,
not higher than the braétea. Spikes conglomerated, ovate.
Stigmas two.—Native of falt-marfhes, in England and Scot-
land, flowering in July or Auguft. Much {maller than the
former, not above two feet high, and diftinguifhed by its
glaucous hue. The panicle is lefs compound, not rifin
above its upper draéea, but the /pikes are more crowded,
darker in colour, with broader g/umes, whofe pale part is
dotted with purple. Stigmas never, as far as we can dif-
cover, more than two.

S. Holofehenus. Round-clufter-headed Club-rufh. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 72. Willd. n. 26. Vahl. n. 54. FL. Brit. n. 8.
Engl. Bot. t. 1612. Fl. Dan. t. 454. (Scirpoides mari-
timum, capitulis {parfis glomeratis ; Scheuchz. Agr. 371.
t. 8. f. 2. Juncus maritimus, capitulis rotundis ; Pluk.
Phyt. t. 40. f. 4. Rel. Rudb. 22. f. 1. t. 25. f. 3.)—Stem
round, naked. Flowers in round, feflile or ftalked, heads.

Bractteas

SCIRPUS.

BraGteastwo, unequal. Leaves channelled.—Native of the
fandy coafts of the fouth of Europe; rare in England, plen-
tiful in Greece; flowering late in autumn. Root peren-
nial, forming denfe tufts. Stems rufhy, firm, fmooth, two
or three feet high. Leaves radical, linear, narrow, with a
white channel along their upper fide. Stem crowned with
twe divaricated braGeas, exattly like the foliage, between
which the round brown Aeads, each formed of innumerable
Spikes, come forth laterally, either feffile, or upon unequal,
often fubdivided, {ftalks. The number of thefe heads varies
from one to fixty, or more, S. aufralis and romanus of Lin-
nzus being certainly but itarved varieties of this {pecies, as
was firft fufpeéted by Linneus, and publifhed in Fl. Brit.
in which opinion profeffor Vahl concurs. The glumes are
obovate, keeled, fringed. Stigmas three. We do not find
any briftles under the germen.—S. globiferus, Linn. Suppl.
104. Willd. n. 42. Vahl. n. 56, is the fame fpecies as this.

S. fetaceus.* Briftle-ttalked Club-rufh. Linn. Sp. Pl.
73, but not Mant. 2, 321. Willd. n. 31. Wahl. n. 26.
FL Brit. n.9. Engl. Bot. t. 1693. Fl. Dan. t. 311.
Leers t. 1. f. 6. (Juncellusomnium minimus ; Morif. feét. 8.
t. 10. f. 23. LIfolepis fetacea; Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl.
y. I. 222.)—Stem naked, briftle-fhaped. Spikes lateral,
generally in pairs, feffile, without bra¢teas.—Common in
gravelly or fandy watery places, in moft parts of Europe,
as well as in New Holland; flowering with us in July or
Auguft.—Root fibrous, annual. Stems feveral, flender,
round, from two to five inches high, with one or two fhort
fheathing /eaves at the bafe. Spikes ovate, directed to one
fide, a little below the top of the item. Glumes broad,
brown, edged with green. Stigmas three. Seed without

briftles.
S. delilis. Weak-ftalked Club-rufh. Purfh n. t1.—
Stem ftriated. Spikes roundifh-oval, feffile, crowded.

Glumes roundifh, membranous. Briftles twice as long as the
feed.—Native of wet meadows in Pennfylvania, flowering in
July and Auguft.—Root perennial. Stems round, ftriated,
a foot high or more. Spikes four to fix, thick. Glumes
broad, rather acute. Akin toS. fetaceus. Purfh.—Speci-
mens from the Rev. Dr. Muhlenberg, which an{wer to this
defcription of Mr. Purfh, are undoubtedly a {pecies not de-
{cribed by any other author. We had named this {pecies
lupulinus, from the tumid pale /pikes. It is abundantly dif-
ferent in chara¢ters, fize and afpeét, from /etaceus. The
feeds are obovate, blackifh, with five or fix briftles, nearly
twice their own length, and rough with deflexed teeth. This
plant is moft like the aa but effentially diftin.
ob aan Prottrate Club-rufh. ‘ Linn. Sp. Pl. 73.
Willd. n. 32. Vahl. n. 34. (Ifolepis fupina; Br. Prod.
N. Holl. v. 1. 221. Marifcus n. 1344; Hall. Hitt. v. 2.
180. Schenus junceus ; Willd. Sp. Pl. v.1.259. Phy-
togr. fafc. 1. 2. t. 1. f. 4.)—Stems {ftriated, each with a
fingle fheathing leaf. Spikes elliptic-oblong, feflile, crowded.
Glumes roundifh, membranous. Seed tranfverfely corru-
gated, without briftles.—Native of France and Switzerland ;
as well as of the Eaft Indies, Guinea, and Egypt, aocord-
ing to Vahl, who efteems this the S. /ateralis of Retzius,
though the latter is deferibed with a triangular fem. Mr.
Brown alfo met with §. /upinus at Port Jack{on, as well as in
the tropical partof New Folland. Our French and Swifs
fnecimens have fibrous roots, faid to be perennial. Stems
feveral, from three to nine inches long, fimple, tapering,
pale green, ftriated, apparently more or lefs decumbent, but
not conttantly fo. Each bears, towards the bottom, a fhort
theathing leaf. Spikes one, two or three, rather above the
middle of the flem, lefs turgidthan in S. debilis, variegated
with green and brown. Seeds obovate, triangular, whitifly
Vor. XXXII.

Jflem and braéea, more refembles that of lacuftris.

when full grown, but afterwards turning black, curioufly
marked with tranfverfe wrinkles, and without any briftles at
the bafe, having entirely the character of Dichromena ; nor
do we fee any reafon why Vahl did not refer the plant to that
genus; though we certainly could not aflent to {uch a mea-
fure, confidering its {tri€t natural affinity to the debilis, laft
defcribed, notwithitanding the want of briftles.

Se&. 3. Stemtriangular. Panicle leafle/s.

S. triqueter. Triangular Bull-rufh, or Club-rufh. Linn.
Mant. 29. Willd. n. 46. Vahl.n. 62. Fl. Brit. n. ro.
Engl. Bot. t. 1694. (Juncus acutus maritimus, caule tri-
quetro, maximo, molli; et procerior noftras; Pluk. Phyt.
t. 40. f. 2.)

8. S. mucronatus ; With. ed. 2. 50. Hudf. 20, «. (Jun-
cus acutus maritimus, caule triquetro rigido, mucrone pun-
gente; Pluk. Phyt. t. 40. f. 1. I. acutus maritimus, caule
triangulo ; Bauh. Theatr.175. Morif. fect. 8. t..10. f. 20.
Rel. Rudb. 22. f. 2, 3.)—Stem triangular, ftraight, naked,
fharp-pointed. Spikes lateral, feffile or ftalked. Stigmas
two. Seedeven, polifhed, pointed.—Native of the muddy
fea-fhore, and banks of great rivers expofed to the tide, in
England and the fouth of Europe, flowering towards au-
tumn. With usit israre, chiefly occurring in the Thames,
above and below London.—Root creeping, perennial.
Stems ere&t, three feet high, dark green, with three acute
angles. Spikes near the top, lateral, leaflefs, except an
occafional {mall fharp draéea. They vary much in number,
as well as in the length of their ftalks ; and in our variety 6,
are almoft all feffile, crowded clofe together. This variety
has formerly been taken for the Linnzan mucronatus, here-
after defcribed. Thefe /pikes have a few fcales between them,
and are ovate ; their glumes reddifh-brown, keeled, pointed,
with a pale, dilated, jagged margin. Stigmas two. Seed:
pale, polifhed, fubtended by three rough briftles, alternate
with the filaments.

S. carinatus. Blunt-edged Bull-rufh, or Club-rufh. Sm.
Compend. ed. 2.10. Engl. Bot. t. 1983. (S. lacuftris y ;
Fl. Brit. n. 7. Wahl. n. 58. Juncus aquaticus medius,
caule carinato; Dill. in Raii Syn. 428.)—Stem bluntly
triangular upwards, naked; round at the bafe. Panicle cy-
mofe, terminal. Bra¢tea upright, pungent, channelled.
Stigmas two.—Native of the margins of great rivers in the
fouthern parts of Europe, flowering in July. Mr. I. Mackay
obferved it alfo near Ardbigland, in Galloway. The gene-
ral habit of the plant, as wellas the roof, and the roundnefs
of the flem at its bafe, accord with S. lacuflris ; but more
than the upper half of the fem differs materially, being tri-
angular, with rather convex fides. There is alfo a ftrong,
erect, pungent, concave, leaf-like braea, approaching to
the nature of the extended point of the flem of S. triqueter,
to which the prefent {pecies is moft naturally allied, each
but two fligmas, while dacuffris has moltly three. The panicle
however of our carinatus, rifing high above the top of the
There are
feveral briftles under the feed.

S. mucronatus. Sharp-pointed Bull-rufh, or Club-rufh,
Linn. Sp. Pl. 73. Willd. n. 47. Vahl. n. 33. Dickf.
Dr. Pl. 26. (Scirpo-cyperus, panicula glomerata, ¢ {picis
imbricatis compofita ; Scheuchz. Agr. 404. t- g. f 14.
Herb. Sherard.)—Stem triangular, with concave fides,
naked, fharp-pointed. Spikes lateral, feflile, crowded.
Stigmas three. Seed tranlverfely wrinkled.—Native of
ditches and pools in Italy and Switzerland, as well as the
ifland of Mauritius, and New South Wales, flowering in
July and Auguft. The flems are of a finer grafa-green than
in §. triqueter, with which this {pecies has often been cons
founded, and their angles are more acute, the intermediate

re {paces

Sie ae

{paces being little concave. The pointrabove the flowers is
generally fomewhat reflexed ; often very much fo. © There
are no bradeas. The /pikes are ovate, or rather cylindrical,
many together, in a denfe perfe@tly feffile head. Glumes
tumid, ovate, broad, acute, keeled, light green, with fer-
ruginousedges. Seed blackith, of a fhort, obovate, fome-
what heart-fhaped, comprefied figure, with feveral rough
briltles at the bafe. Here again we meet with the precife
feed of a Dichromena, but accompanied with briftles. (S.
fupinus has the fame feed without briftles.) The three
Jfigmas, and the corrugations ef the feed, clearly diftinguifh
this fpecies from the trigueter, whofe /eed is quite {mooth,
pale, highly polifhed, and lefs obtufe than in the mucronatus.
Haller’s n. 1338 mult, by the defcription, be S. triqueter ;

et Mr, Davali found the true mucronatus wild in the Pays
d@’Aigle. We know not what to make of Vahl’s pungens,
n. 32 3 but as he fays it has, as well as mucronatus, the fruc-
tification of ¢rigucter, and we have fhewn the /eeds of the
two laft named to be fo effentially different, according to a
principle of his own, and the one to have two, the other
three /ligmas, he cannot be fuppofed to have examined the
matter with attention, and his pungens may be a variety of
one or the other.

S. americanus. _American Triangular Buli-rufh. Purfh
n.16. (S. triqueter; Michaux Boreali-Amer. v. 1. 30.)
—Stem triangular, ftraight, naked, fharp-pointed. Spikes
lateral, feffile. Glumes ftrongly beaked. Stigmas two.
Seed obtufe, opaque, quite even.—Frequent in the falt-
marfhes of North America, flowering in July and Augutt.
Purfh. We have Carolina fpecimens from the late Mr.
Frafer. The /fem is acutely triangular, not above half the
diameter of S. trigueter, and the /pikes are fewer, larger, of
a darker brown than in that fpecies, their g/umes all tipped
with a firm rigid beak, half as long as the glume itlelf.
Stigmas very deeply feparated. Sved roundifh-obovate, ob-
tufe, or abrupt, black when ripe, its furface peculiarly
even, though not polifhed. Brij/f/es at the bafe about three,
Mender, rough, the length of the feed. This {pecies feems
to us really diftin@® from ¢trigueter, as.it certainly is from
mucronatus. Its fpikes, taken feparately, have more the
afpeét of maritimus, but they are few, and all feffile. In all
thefe fpecies the /eed is tipped with the fhort permanent
bafe of the /fyle, which is not dilated or triangular, but
rectilinear.

Sect. 4. Stemtriangular. » Panicle leafy.

S. maritimus. Salt-marfh Club-rufh. Linn. Sp. Pl. 74.
Willd. n. 55. Vahl. n. 61. Fl. Brit. a. 11. Eng). Bot.
t. 542. Curt. Lond. fafc. 4. t. 4. Ehrh. Calam: 12.
(Gramen aquaticum cyperoides vulgatius; Ger. Em. 22.
Cyperus rotundus littoreus ; ibid. 31. C. longus inodorus
latifolius ; Morif. fe&. 8. t. 11. f. 25. C. rotundus inodorus
aquaticus feptentrionalis ; ibid. f. 9.)—Stem triangular ;
leafy at the bottom. Panicle cluitered, terminal, leafy.
Glumes pointed, torn into three fegments. Stigmas three.
Seeds obovate, bluntly triangular, very {mooth and polifhed,
with a few briftles at the bafe. Native of falt-marfhes and
muddy fea-coalts, throughout Europe. The root is perennial
and creeping, occafionally knotty, as im fome of the figures
above cited. Svems from one to three fect high. Leaves
very long, linear, keeled, grafly, rough-edged ; fome
fheathing the bafe of the item; others accompanying the
panicle. The /pikes are ovate or cylindrical, hable to vary

reatly in length, of an uniform, rufty, rather fhining
aoa Anthers yellow. Seeds remarkably fmooth and
polifhed, appearing as if dotted under a magnifier.

S. fylvaticus. Wood Club-rufh. Linn. Sp. Pl. 75.
Willd. vn. 58. Vahl. n. 65. FI. Briten. 12. Engl. Bot.

3

SUC

t.g19. Fl. Dan. t. 307. Leerst. 1. f.4. “ Hoft. Grant.
Auttr. v. 3. t.68. Ehrh. Calam. 131. “(Cyperus grami-
neus miliaceus ; Ger. Em. 30. C. longus miliaceusinodorus, '
locultis plurimis brevioribus ; Morif. fe. 8. t. 11. f 1g.)
—Stem triangular, leafy. Panicle cymofe, leafy, repeatedly
compound; the partial ftalks naked. Spikes cluftered.
Styles three, deeply feparated. Seed fmooth, with many
briftles at its bafe.—Native of moift woods, in various parts
of Europe, but not very frequent in England, flowering in
June and July. The root is fibrous, perennial. Stem three
or four feet high, {mooth, clothed with fheathing /eaves, of
which thofe only that accompany the panicle are rough-
edged. The /pikes are extremely numerous, {mall, greenifh.
Seed orbicular, with three angles, compreffed, whitifh, fub-
tended by fix or eight briftles twice its own length.

Se&. 5. Stem triangular. Spikes in a terminal head.

Of this feétion S. Aotientottus, Linn. Mant. 182, appears
to be a Fuirena, as Vahl makes it, by the lefs uncouth fpe-
cific name of Airta, Enum. vy. 2. 387. 8. antar@icus, ibid.
181, has dittichous glumes, and feems rather to be a Cyperus.
S. argenteus, Willd. n. 68, is a Fimbriftylis. S. monander,
Willd. n. 69, we have not examined. 8. cephalotes; Linn.
Sp. Pl. 76, is a plant of fo fingular an afpeét, that- we
fhould hefitate to guefs at its genus, but we fufpeé it to be-
long rather to Schenus. The glumes are imbricated in fome-
what of a fpiralmanner. The /eed is wedge-fhaped, dotted
moft beautifully with innumerable oblong, minute, reddifh
excavations, and is tipped with a broad flat grey beak,
nearly twice its own length, difplaying the charaé&ter of Rhyn-
chofpora very ftrongly. Accordingly this plant is R. cepha-
lotes of Vahl. Enum. v. 2. 237. Its figure may be feen in
Rottboll, t. zo, where feveral rough briftles, as long as
the flamens, are reprefented under the feed. hele we find
alfo in our f{pecimen. It feems that only one or two /eeds are
perfected in each /pike, or /pikelet.

SCIRRHO-CONTRACTED Recrum, in Surgery.
See Rectum. : .

SCIRRHOMA, Gee han’

SCIRRHOSIS, Va particular hard tumour.

SCIRRHUS, from cxijjow, to harden. The term feirrhus
was formerly ufed, ina vague and extenfive manner, to de-
note almoft any kind of {welling which was accompanied
with confiderable hardnefs. At prefent, furgeons appear
to be almoit unanimous: in reitri€ting the application of this
name toa difeafed hardnefs, in which there 1s a propenfity
to cancerous ulceration, and a greater backwardnefs to re-
cede than exiftsin any other kind of difeafed hardnefs. We
are of opinion, that the accuracy of this {tatement is not at
all affected by a few particular cafes of {cirrhi, in which the
{kin remains unbroken during life, and in which the indura-
tion even admits of being difperfed. 'Thefe inttances are to
be confidered only as unufual deviations from the general
courfe of the difeafe. :

The difpofition of a {cirrhous tumour to be converted
into an open cancer, it is true, cannot always be difcovered
until the change has actually taken place; a circumftance
that fometimes throws confiderable obfcurity over the diag-
nofis: for modern practitioners all agree, that there are
many ordinary indolent tumours and indurations, which may
ultimately change into cancer, notwithitanding the quiet
form in which they firit prefent themfelves; and there are
alfo fome obfervations in Mr. Abernethy’s furgical works,
proving that farcomatous and encyited tumours may end in
moft malignant difeafes, and fuch as are quite as bad as
cancer. ‘The furgeon, however, is to recollect that, in all
thefe examples, the changes which precede the cancerous and
malignant ulceration are not at all like the genuine Bie

eC

SCIRRHUS.

he puckering of the fkin, the dull leaden colour of the
integuments, the knotted and uneven feel of the difeafe, the
occafional darting pains in the part, its fixed attachment to
the fkin above and mulcles beneath, form fo ftriking an af-
femblage of fymptoms, that, when they are all prefent,
there cannot be the fmalleft doubt that the tumour is a
{fcirrhus, and that the difeafe is about to acquire, if it has
not already acquired, the power of contaminating the fur-
rounding parts and the lymphatic glands, te which the ab-
forbents of the difeafed part tend.

But we are not to conceal, that the diagnofis is frequently
more obfcure. In fome cafes, a fcirrhus is moveable, and
not fixed to the fubjacent parts; and the difeafe may be in-
dolent, without much pain, or without difcolouration of the
fkin. In the female breait, the part firft affeted may be
very {mall, and feel like a loofe pea under the fkin ; in other
inftances, it may be more extenfive, and deeply fituated.
Neither is the {welling always irregular and craggy. A
late writer defcribes it as being generally roundifh and
renitent. He reprefents the fkin as being at an advanced
period {mooth and fhining, and having a reddifh hue, in-
clining to purple. He tells us alfo, that an external ftrongly
marked cancer, when much diftended, and tending to ul-
ceration, but not a¢tually ulcerated, may be compared with
a hard prominent carbuncle, before it floughs; for they
both have a fimilar hardnefs, with a fhining prominence ;
and if the cancer is adherent to a broad bafe, there is pof-
teriorly a fimilar firmnefs and immobility. Howard Praé&.
Obf. on Cancer, p. 19—22.

The progrefs of fcirrhus, before ulccration takes place,
is generally flow ; but when this laft procefs commences,
the ravages of the difeafe moftly {pread with great rapidity.
Sometimes, inftead of a€tual ulceration, an exudation oc-
curs upon the fkin, followed by an excoriation and f{eab.

We thall next proceed to treat more particularly of the
charafters, by which fcirrhus may be diftinguifhed from
other difeafes.

A {cirrhous induration is not prone to acquire the mag-
nitude, which almoft all other tumours are apt to attain,
when their growth is not interrupted.

Other tumours are commonly more moveable than {cirrhi,
efpecially when they have never been affected with active
inflammation. —,

If we except the fungus hematodes, other tumours do
not inyolve every kind of ftruéture, fkin, mufcle, cellular
fubftance, &c.; and the integuments feldom become af-
feéted before the diftention, produced by the fize of fuch
{wellings, becomes very confiderable. In {cirrhous cafes,
on the contrary, the fkin generally foon becomes contami-
nated, difcoloured, and puckered.

Some few tumours may be harder and heavier than a few
fcirrhous fwellings, but the reverfe is ufually the cafe.

In a fcirrhus of the brealt, the part affected is generally
hard, heavy, and conneéted with the mammary gland; and
when moved, the whole gland moves along with it. Obf.
on Cancer, by Sir E. Home, p. 156.

As other indurations and tumours may aflume the can-
cerous action, and even end in cancerous ulceration ; aud as
fome true {cirrhi, when not irritated by improper treatment,
may continue ftationary for years; the occurrence of actual
carcinoma cannot prove, that the preceding {tate was that
of fcirrhus. The only criterion of the latter difeafe, which
we poffefs, is deduced from the affemblage of charaéters al-
ready 1, i for, except the peculiar puckering, and
Speedy leaden difcolouration of the fkin, no other appear-
ances, confidered feparately, form any line of difcrimina-
tion,

In parts which have become {cirrhous, the itructure
ufually coniiits of a very firm. light brown fubftance, inter-
feGted’ by membranous or ligamentous fepta, which run in
various dire€tions. The membranous fepta are more nu-
merous, and of greater thicknefs, in fome cafes than in
others. A cartilaginous fub{tance is occafionally blended
with this ftru@ture. The whole texture fometimes refembles
very much a piece of common cartilage, foftened by ma-
ceration in a‘diflolving fluid. Cyfts, containing a thin fe-
cretion, are fometimes formed in {cirrhi, particularly in
thofe.of the teiticle and breaft ; but they are alfo frequently
abfent. A fubftance, pofleffing the common characters of
a {cirrhus, has been known to be couverted into a kind of
bony matter. (Dr. Baillie in a Letter inferted in Adams’s
work on the Cancerous Brealt.) When a feétion of a
{cirrhus is made in an early ftage, the centre is found to be
more compaét, harder to the feel, and of a more uniform
texture, than the reft of the tumour, and is nearly of the
confiftence of cartilage. This middle part is not larger than
a filver penny, and. from this are feen white ligamentous
bands, pafling to the circumference of the difeafe, like rays,
in every direCtion. In the interitices between thefe bands,
the fubftance is different, and Iefs compa away from the
centre. Tranf{verfe ligamentous bands, of a fainter appear-
ance, are likewife perceptible, forming a fort of net-work,
in the mefhes of which the new-formed fubftance is in-
clofed. .

When the difeafe is more advanced, the whole mafs has a
more uniform texture; no central point can be diftinguiihed ;
the external edge is more defined, and the ligamentous bands
are more vifible, running with great irregularity. :

When the difeafe has proceeded to cancerous fuppuration
(which, however, does not invariably occur previoufly to the
formation of an outward fore), a {mall irregular cavity is
formed, filled with a bloody fluid, and having ulcerated,
jagged, and fpongy fides. Beyond thefe there is a radiated
appearance of ligamentous bands ; but the tumour, towards
the circumference, is more compact, aud confifts of diftiné
portions, each of which has a centre, furrounded by liga-
mentous bands in concentric circles.

In fome inftances, there is no appearance of fuppuration
nor ulceration in the centre of a {cirrhus; but a cyft is
found filled with a tranfparent fluid, and having a fungus
projecting into the cavity. Home on Cancer, p. 157—159.

The moft charaéteriftic mark of a f{cirrhus is this inter-
feétion of its {truéture with white ligamentous bands. It
is to be regretted, that the exiftence of fuch texture cannot
be deteed till the difeafe has been removed. Lvery fur-
geon fhould be well apprifed that thefe membranous fepta
frequently extend a good way into the furrounding fat ; for
the circumftance diétates, in the {trongeft manner, the pro-
priety of removing a confiderable portion of the fub{tance
at the circumference of every {cirrhous {welling.

Sometimes cylts of moderate, or even of very minute
fize, containing a tran{parent fluid, and fuppofed by Dr,
Adams to be hydatids, are found in the fubftance of {cirrhi;
but they are not fo frequently attendant on the complaint,
as to form any eflential part of its character. In geueral,
the fuperficial veins have a dilated tortuous appearance,

The difeafed fin, covering a carcinomatous tumour, ge-
nerally ulcerates before the {welling bas attained any very
great magnitude. A large chafm is then produced in its
fubftance, partly by a floughing and partly by an ulcerating
procefs. A copious difcharge of sd fetid fanious matter
follows. The ulcer becomes irregular in ite figure and
unequal on its furface. The edges are thick, indurated,
and extremely painful: they often exhibit a ferrated ap

: cx 2 pearance,

SCIRRHUS.

pearance, being fometimes retorted, at other times inverted.
The ulcer fometimes fpreads with rapidity to a great extent,
and its progrefs produces frequent hemorrhages, which,
added to the irritation of the difeafe, reduce the patient to
the loweitt itate of debility. Granulations generally grow
on the ulcerated furface, when the ravages of the diforder
feem to undergo a temporary ftop; but this apparent at-
tempt at reparation only ends in the formation of an invete-
rate fungous fubftance.

While the fkin remains entire, without ulceration, the
health is in general not much impaired, unlefs the tumour
be very large and the diftention great. During the progrefs
of the difeafe, fome patients fuffer diftrefling attacks of
ficknefs and vomiting, with fymptoms of indigeftion. As
foon as ulceration of a fcirrhous breaft happens, the altera-
tion of the health is in many cafes immediate. But this
fudden change does not conftantly happen, much depending
on the quicknefs or flownefs of the difeafe, its magnitude,
&c. In every cafe, however, fooner or later after ulcera-
tion has taken place, the countenance changes for the
worfe ; debility, lofs of appetite, a cough, with tightnefs of
the chett, and difficulty of breathing, come on; the bowels
are fometimes conttipated, fometimes relaxed, and very dif-
trefling ficknefs and vomiting affe&t many patients, who at
length fink into the extreme ftate of emaciation aud weak-
nefs. Howard, p. 25. ,

The time when the lymphatic glands become affected is
fubje&t to great variety. Carcinoma of the brea{t is mott
apt to contaminate the axillary glands, and the difeafe of
thefe parts fometimes caufes a {welling of the whole arm.
Occafionally, the lymphatic glands, towards the clavicle,
are the only ones affected; and, in a few cafes, thofe to-
wards the fternum are alone difeafed. In advanced cafes,
the difeafe moftly extends to the pectoral mufcle. There are
inftances, in which the cancerous difeafe of the brea{t ex-
tended to the lungs. The preflure of a difeafed lymphatic
gland on one of the axillary nerves has been obferved to
caufe moft excruciating agony. A fever has been known
to occalion a mortification of a cancerous breaft, and, had
the fphacelus embraced all the contaminated parts, and the
patient been lefs reduced, it feems probable that a cure
might have followed the event. For cafes proving the fore-
going ftatements, fee Obf. on Cancer by fir E. Home,
P- 55- 59- 64. 76. 86. or.

The treatment of {cirrhus embraces two objets, the dif-
perfion and the removal-of the tumour. When the hardnefs
1s fo fituated as to be eafily removed by the knife, no delay
fhould be occafioned by attempting to difperfe a fwelling of
this nature. The operation ought to be performed early,
as the chance of effeétual extirpation is then the greatedt.
On the other hand, the attempts at difperfion rarely Freceedls
the means employed are tedious in their operation, often in-
jure the health, and when of an irritating nature, and in-
cautioufly applied, convert the {cirrhus into a cancer. Pru-
dence will only allow the operation to be poftponed, and dif-
cutient remedies tried, when the hardnefs is below its ufual
degree ; when the pain of the difeafe is not fo great as to
indicate a tendency to ulcerate and f{pread with rapidity, and
when the fwelling, induration, &c. have already feemed in-
clined to undergo a diminution.

The internal plans of treatment ordinarily tried, confift
in giving fome of the following medicines, together with a
light fluid diet ; conium, belladonna, digitalis, preparations
of mercury, arfenic, tinctura ferri muriatis, muriate of ba-
rytes, the mineral alkali, &c.

Living altogether on milk, or on a regimen juit fufficient
to fupport life, has been found to retard the malady. Ve-

10

getables for food, and diftilled waters for drink, have alfo
been reprefented as having a good effe&. (See Reports on
the Effects of a peculiar Regimen on Scirrhous Tumours,
&c. by W. Lambe, M.D.) Juftamond was ttrongly in fa-
vour of arfenical medicines. Carmichael has praifed various
preparations of iron, as the carbonate, oxyphofphate, fub-
oxyphofphate, &c. The dofes are from thirty to fixty
grains in a day, aloes being given to obviate the centtipation
arifing from fuch medicines.

In all cafes of cancer, fevere pain is to be moderated by
opium, and the bowels fhould be kept in a regular ftate
by means of faline purgatives.

Electricity and a courfe of emetics have alfo had their
advocates. The aqua laurocerafi, in dofes of thirty or
forty drops, has proved in fome isitances ufeful.

Retaining a fcirrhus in an equal temperature, and de-
fending it from external irritation, by a ptece of fwan’s
down, or rabbit’s fkin, cannot be too highly commended as
a general plan. .

In certain cafes, local applications, containing cicuta and
belladonna, have been of fervice. Indeed, thefe are the
mott fafe topical applications ; fer mercury, gum ammoniac,
and feveral others occafionally employed, are dangerous,

_becaufe they are too irritating.

But it is not to be denied, that tumours, fomewhat re-
fembling cancerous {wellings, have now and then been dif-
perfed by the external ufe of f{pirit of wine, camphor, a
the liquor plumbi acetatis, in different proportions, as well
as by mercurial ointment of different degrees of f{trength.
(Home’s Obf. on Cancer, p. 154.) Repeated bleeding with
leeches is faid to be often of fervice. Tumours arifing from
cold, yield moft readily to this method, while thofe which
are more indolent, and conneéted with a languid conttitu-
tion, give way to hemlock or mercury. Howard on Cancer,

25
: ne ounce of the fulphate of iron, diffolved in a pint of
water, has been recommended by Mr. Carmichael as an ap-
plication to feirrhi.

Knowing, as we do, the ftructure and inveterate nature
of true {cirrhi, we are obliged to regard every ee in-
ftance of cure, by internal or external remedies, as applicable
in reality to another kind of difeafe. Applying cauttics
may indeed have cured cancerous difeafes, but then this was
by extirpation, and not by any medicinal effet. We may lay
it down as a maxim, that, as foon asa difeafe is afcertained
to be a fcirrhus, the earlier its extirpation is attempted the
better. Even when the difeafed part appears to be adherent
and immoveable, its removal is not contra-indicated, if all
the contaminated parts can be taken away.

The beft mode of removing a {cirrhous tumour is with
the knife.

Even when a cancer has proceeded to ulceration, if the
difeafe is not too extenfive, and the patient not too much
reduced, the operation ought to be practifed without delay.
If it is too late, the treatment can only be palliative, and
fome of the above remedies multrbe prefcribed.

The moft common external applications are preparations
of lead, arfenic, folutions of iron, or of the hydrarg. mur.
the carrot or fermenting poultice, pure oil, and the car-
bonate, arfeniate, phofphate, &c. of iron, made into a pafte
with water. Effays on Cancer by J. Carmichael.

The operation itfelf may prove an exciting caufe of car-
cinoma, and will certainly be fo, if the fcirrhous part 1s not
completely removed. The portion left behind will inevi-
tably become cancerous. The chance of fuccefs depends
on the entire extirpation of the difeafe; and, in no opera-
tion is celerity more dangerous. In performing this opera-

tion,

sCcI

tion, the maxim of /at cito, fi fat bene, fhould never be out
of the furgeon’s mind. Above all things, a free removal
of the ‘kin covering and adjoining.the fituation of the tu-
mour, and taking away a quantity of the furrounding fat,
are advifeable.

Even when the difeafe has to all appearances been moft
completely cut out, together with a large portion of the
furrounding fubftance, the wound fometimes changes into a
cancerous ulcer ; and every prudent furgeon, therefore, al-
ways enfures his own reputation, by making a guarded
prognofis.

With a view to the prevention of relapfes, Mr. Aberne-
thy ftrongly urges the propriety of endeavouring, after the
operation, to quiet the nervous fyftem, and keep the di-
geftive organs in as healthy a ftate as poflible; and he re-
commends a mere vegetable diet, with as much milk, broth,
and eggs, as is juft fufficient to hinder the patient from
lofing ftrength. Surgical Works, vol. ii. p. 93.

After the removal of a clufter of difeafed glands from
the axilla, a {welling of the arm has been known to enfue,
and occafion the patient’s death. Home on Cancer, p. 62.
See Cooper’s Firft Lines of the Praftice of Surgery,
ed. 3.

pales of the Teflicle. See SARCOCELE.

Scirruvus Hepatis, in Medicine, a term applied rather in-
definitely to indurations of the liver. See Liver, Chronic
Difeafes of the.

SCIRRONES, a name given to a fort of {mall lice
breeding under the fkin.

SCIRROPHORIA, SxsjjoQcez, in Antiquity, an anni-
verfary folemnity at Athens, upon the twelfth day of the
month Scirrophorion, in honour of Minerva, or, as fome
fay, of Ceres and Proferpine. The name is derived from
Sciras, a borough between Athens and Eleufis, in which
was a temple dedicated to Minerva, furnamed Sciras.

SCIRROPHORION, LxippoPogswry in Ancient Chronology,
the twelfth and lafi month of the Athenian year. It*ton-
tained twenty-nine days, and anfwered to the latter part of
our May and beginning of June.

It had its name from the feaft Scirrophoria, kept in it.

SCIRTIANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Mace-
donia, between Lychnidum and Caitra, according to the
Itinerary of Antonine.

SCIRTONIUM, a town of the Peloponnefus, in Ar-
cadia, according to Steph. Byz. and Paufanias. The latter
fays, that it belonged to the Egyptians, and that it was one
of thefe places, whofe inhabitants peopled Megalopolis.

SCIRTUS, Dai/an, a {mall river of Afia, in Ofroene,
which had its fource in the mountains N.W. of Edefla,
and after watering that town, which it occafionally much
por purfued its courfe towards the S.E. and difcharged
itfelf into a lake.

SCIRUS, a borough of Attica, at the mouth of the
Cephifus, which is faid to have taken its name from that of
a prieft or prophet of the foreft of Dodona, who inter-
preted the oracles of that grove. Near this borough was
the tomb of Céphifidor, an Athenian diftinguifhed for his
courage, who was famed for having formed a league be-
tween the Athenians, Attalus king of Myfia, Ptolemy
king of Egypt, the AZtolians, the Rhodians, and the Cre-
tans, and for engaging the fuccour of the Romans to deliver
his country from the oppreffions of Plulip, the father of
Perfeus. The Romans, under a pretext of fuccouring the
Athenians, fent Paulus Emilius, who defeated the Lacedx-
monians, made Perfeus prifoner, and conquered Macedonia.
oo. places the borough of Scirus between Athens and

“leufis.

SCI

SCISSA, a town of Spain, according to Polybius, who
fays that the Carthaginians were for the firft time defeated
by Scipio at this place.

SCISSIMA, in Botany, a name given by fome authors
to the beech-tree.

SCISSORS. Mr. Monro has given us the figure and
defcription of a pair of {ciffors, the blades of which are
crooked on the flat fides. Thefe fciflors are very ufeful for
taking off excrefcences from hollow parts, or for cutting in
curve lines, which the common {fciflors cannot eafily be ap-
plied to. Med. Eff. Edinb. vol. v. art. 41.

SCITAMINEA, in Botany, a very natural and im-
portant order of plants, the eighth among the Fragmenta of
Linnzus, and equivalent to the Cann of Juffieu. Its name
alludes to the aromatic qualities of moft of the fpecies, and
particularly to the ufe made of fome of them in cookery or
in medicine ; _/citamentum being expreflive of any thing ren-
dered grateful to the palate, by feafoning or other prepara-
tion. Accordingly, the ginger, turmeric, zedoary, and va-
rious forts of cardamoms, belong to this order. It ftands
between the OrncHIDEH and SPATHACER, fee thofe articles;
but is perhaps moft related to the former, though effentially
diftin& from both, in many decifive refpects.

The genera referred to this order by Linnzus are Mu/a,
Heliconia, Thalia, Maranta, Globba, Coftus, Alpinia, Amo-
mum, Curcuma, Kempferia, Canna, Renealmia and Myrofma;
to the laft a mark of doubt is annexed, but without reafon.
Before we proceed further it is neceflary to remark, that
Mufa and Heliconia have really little to do with the Scita-
minee ; nor are they aromatic, any more than Cagna, which
lait, with Thalia, Maranta, and Myrofma, compote a fection,
at leaft, of the order before us, if not a feparate order, to
which the name of Canne, or Cannee, may properly be ap-
plied. Mr. Brown has made this feparation in his Prodr.
Noy. Holl. v. 1. 307, adding, to the four Linnean genera
juft named, Willdenow’s Purynium ; fee that article. All
thefe plants, as Mr. Brown remarks, differ from real Scita-
minee in having a fimple anther, no vitellus, and very little or
no aromatic qualities.

The order of Scitaminea, including the Cannee, sea
at the very threfhold of the Linnzan artificial fyitem, an
being in themfelves very attraétive, curious, and rare, have
particularly engaged the attention of feveral diftinguifhed
botanilts, but with very unequal fuccefs. No plants have
been lefs underftood, by Linneus and his immediate fol-
lowers, with regard to their genera, and the principles upon
which thefe ought to be founded. None of thele writers
indeed have been furnifhed with fufficient materials for the
purpofe. Koenig, who had accefs to many more {pecies
of this family in a living ftate, than any other Linnzan bo-
tanift, has contented himfelf with drawing up full deferip-
tions of each, without adverting to principles of arranges
ment. His defcriptions, publithed by Retzius in his third
fafciculus of Ob/ervationes Botanica, are a fund of ulefal
matter ; and the contemplation of them feems to have fug-

efted to Retzius an idea of the only true principle by

which the genera of thefe plants can, with any certainty,
be diftinguithed, which is derived from the fhape of the
ftamen. The writer lalt-mentioned has, neverthelefs, not
turned this principle to any account. The ingenious pro-
fellor Swartz, who has fo well illuftrated the Orchidee, and
whofe attention was called to the Scitaminee by their near
affinity to that tribe, as well as by the great obfcurity in
which he found them involved, has not thrown any light on
their generic diflribution. On the contrary, he afferts that
their genera are fo nearly akin as hardly to be diltinguifh-
able by botanical charaéters. The French botanifts have
done

SCITAMINE. j

done abfolutely nothing to clear up this family, but have
adopted the ideas, and all the miftakes, of Linnzus.

The moft unfortunate attempt, relative to the genera of
the Scitaminee, was made by Gifeke, in his edition of the
leG&tures of Linneus upon the Natural Orders of Plants,
printed at Hamburgh in 1792. This writer, working with
other people’s materials, and deftitute of practical ex-
perience, boldly undertook to new-model the whole order.
But as Gulliver’s mathematical tailor of Laputa, having
made a miftake in the beginning of his calculation, brought
him home a whole waggon-load of clothes; fo Gifeke, fet-
ting out on erroneous principles, has prefented us with a
rumbling waggon-load of new hard-named genera, difmem-
bering the old ones, not only by infufficient characters, but
by characters that do not exift; and eftablifhing new ones
with as little {cruple or fuccefs.

Mr. Rofcoe of Liverpool (fee Roscora) has firit fug-
gefted a method of reducing the genera of the Scitaminee to
regular order, by eflential characters derived from the itruc-
ture of the itamen, particularly its filament. This principle
is found to be the only one which, while it is clear and pre-
cife in defining technical effential charaCters, leads to the
eftablifhment of natural genera; for the infloréfcence, of
which Adanfon had firft fhewn the importance in this refpect,
though not admitted by Mr. Rofcoe into his characters;
goes along with, and confirms, them all. The labours of
Gifeke feem not to have come under the infpection of this
ingenious writer, nor would they, certainly, have yielded
him any affiftance. He reviews the attempts of other pre-
ceding botanifts, and after fhewing the infufficiency, or un-
certainty, of other modes of generic definition, propofes his
own, according to which he defines all the known genera of
this natural order, ranging under each all the {pecies of
which he could difcover any certain indications. His trea-
tife on the fubje&t may be found in the Tranfaétions of the
Linn. Soc. v. 8. 330.. Before we detail the charaéters of
his genera, we fhall give an account of the lateft obfervations
on the fubjeét under confideration, that-have reached us.
Thefe are Mr. Brown’s, in his Prodr. Nov. Holl v. 1. 305.
This learned author thus defines the true Scitaminee, fepa-
rating from them the Cannee, as above mentioned. - It mutt
be obferved that he follows the hypothefis of Juflieu, in not
allowing a corolla to thefe plants, inafmuch as they are mo-
nocotyledonous.. We fhall for the prefent adopt his phrafe-
ology in this point.

Perianth fuperior, double, both tubular; the outer (pro-
bably acceflory) fhorteft, its margin fomewhat three-lobed:
inner with a double limb ; the oufermo/ in three deep, nearly
equal, fegments, the anterior fegment (which, by the re-
verfed pofition of the flower, often becomes potterior) fome-
times differently fhaped from the reft ; the innermof diffimi-
lar, deeply three-cleft ; its larger fegment, or lip, inferted
between the lateral divifions of the outer limb, and often
two or three-lobed ; its Jateral fegments {maller, fometimes
diminutive, like little teeth, or fcarcely difcernible.

Stamen one, inferted into the throat, within the anterior
fegment of the outer limb, and therefore oppofite to the
lip. Filament moftly dilated, and refembling a petal, often
extended beyond the anther, in a fimple or divided form,
Anther clofely attached lengthwife, except at its bafe, to
the filament, of two diftinét parallel lobes, each lobe of
two cells, burfting longitudinally, the inflexed edges of their
future being originally conneéted with their internal parti-
tion, which laft finally difappears; the bafe of each lobe is
often not attached to the filament, and oceafionally ends in
afpur., Pollen globofe, {mooth,

Corpufcles two, which are in fa& barren ftamens, fmall,

nearly cylindrical, clofe to the bafe of the ftyle, fometimes
combined, rarely wanting.

Germen of three, fometimes incompletely feparated, cells,
with the rudiments of many feeds in each, which are in-
ferted, ina double row, into the inner angle of the cell-
Style thread-fhaped, received into a channel of the filament.
Stigma dilated, hollow. ;

Capfule with three cells, three valves, occafionally be-
coming pulpy, and many feeds. Partitions almolt always
central, inferted into the axis of the valve, frequently fepa-
rated therefrom at length, and of a different fubftance..

"Seeds roundifh, generally becoming angular by mutual
preflure, either tunicated or naked. Albumen farinaceous,
of a radiated fubftance, deficient at the fear. Vitellus flethy,
fomewhat funnel-fhaped, contrary to the fear, moitly, per-
haps always, perforated at the bafe, for the tranfmiifion of
the radicle. Embryo fheathed by the vitellus, but not at-
tached to it, monocotyledonous, nearly cylindrical. Radicle
reaching almoft as far as the fear, for the moft part naked,
and not enclofed either in the vitellus or albumen. ?

Thefe are aromatic herbs, of rather a peculiar habit,
growing chiefly between the tropics, and fcarcely reaching
{fo far as the thirty-fourth degree of latitude. The root is
perennial, moftly tuberous, creeping. Stem fimple, fome-
times very fhort. Leaves fimple, with a fingle midrib, fend-
ing off, at acute angles, very numerous, crowded, perfely
fimple veins ; the footftalk fheathing, fplit at one fide, and
either naked at the f{ummit, or crowned with a membranous
appendage, as in grafles, which is fometimes entire, form-
ing a lefler fheath above the infertion of the leaf itfelf Jn-
Jflorefcence either a denfe {pike, or a clutter, or fomewhat of
a panicle, terminating the ftalk or ftem, rarely lateral;
fometimes, from the extreme fhortnefs of the ftalk, almolt
radical. Common Braéeas either permanent or deciduous ;
partial ones {pathaceous, hooded, mott ufually two-flowered,
one flower earlier than the other, which laft is fometimes
aboxtive. :

The difcriminative characters of the order confift in the
double perianth; folitary ftamen; two-lobed anther; aud
feeds furnifhed with a vitellus.

Such is Mr. Brown’s accurate and full general defcrip-
tion of the true Scitaminee, the Cannee being, as above
faid, excluded. We poftpone this able writer’s obferva-
tions upon the VirELLus, as well as his elucidation of the
fruit of TuHaria, till we come to thofe articles in their
proper place hereafter.

Mr. Rofcoe’s ideas of a fcitaminean flower are exa@ly
confonant with Mr. Brown’s, except that he confiders the
inner perianth of the latter as a corolla with a double limb,
which is the mott obvioufly natural mode of confidering it,
and in which we, without hefitation, concur, as may be
feen in our defcriptions of any of the genera_of this tribe ;
fee GLoppa, Hepycnrum, K®mpreria, and Roscora ; as
well as MARANTA, one of the order of Cannee. Some
have called the largeft fegment of the inner limb, which
ufually makes the mott confpicuous and beautiful part of
thefe flowers, the lower lip of the ne@ary, and the filament
its upper lip, But there is lefs reafon than ufual for adopt.
ing the term netary here. It is quite unneceflary, and with
regard to the filament, certainly erroneous; for that has no
conneétion, nor f{carcely any thing in common, with the
other ; which laft indeed, on account of its peculiar form,
fituation, and appearance, is {till commodioufly denominated
the . of the flower, without any implication of its being
a nectary or not. ‘The two {mall bodies, more or lefs dif-
cernible, which Mr. Brown has fo ingerioufly and fatisfac-
torily fhewn to be incomplete ftamens, in this tribe, as well

as

SCI

isin the Orchidee, have by fome botanifts been termed nec-
taries, but without any thing to warrant fuch phrafeology.
Their prefence ferves beautifully to preferve the analogy of
both thefe orders with other monocotyledonous plants, in
which the ftamens are ufually three or fix, and the other
parts of the flower correfpondent with them in number ;
while in the dicotyledonous tribe the numbers five and ten
moit ufually prevail; even in the calyx and eorolla of thofe
flowers whofe ftamens are profufely abundant, though their
piltils perhaps, or the cells of their fruits, are moftly re-
ftri€ted to the number which prevails in the two coverings
of the flower, and often to fimple unity.

The Scitaminez, as well as the Cannee, are properly placed
in the Monandria Monogynia of the Linnzan fexual fyitem.
. The late profeflor Vahl, whofe Enumeratio Plantarum, im
two odtavo volumes, fo well illuftrates the two firit claffes
of this fyitem, with the firft order of the third, has omitted
thefe plants altogether in their proper place, and has in his
preface, p. 9, declared his opinion that they belong to the
clafs Gynandria._ The ingenious author was doubtlefs glad
to get rid, for the prefent, of the extreme difficulty he
would have found, in determining their genera and fpecies,
according to his ufual plan of aétual obfervation and exa-
mination, fo well difplayed in what he has accomplifhed.
The idea of their being gynandrous is fupported by no
reafon or argument whatever, but a flight conneétion, not
always exilting, between the margins of the ftamen and ftyle
in Canna; nor can we form any conception how the able
French botaniit Richard, who is recorded to have carefully
examined “¢ numerous plants” of this order, (where he ob-
tained them in fuch profufion we know not,) could form fo
erronecus an opinion as the above for which he is cited by
Vahl.

Mr. Rofcoe arranges as follows, in the form of a table,
all the genera of the true Scitaminee known to him, as well
as the others which Linnzus and Juffieu included in that
order, but for which Mr. Rofcoe retains Juffieu’s name of
Canne.

Casnz. Anther fimple. Style ere, not embraced by the anther.

$c#. 1. Anther united with the petal-like filament.
Style club-fhaped ; ftigma obtufe. Canna.
Style petal-like ; itigma triangular. Maranta.
Sc. 2. Anther borne by a proper filament.
Style deprefied ; ftigma deprefled, perfo-
rated, ringent. ~ P Thalia.
Filament St ocd, fhort. Style thick, in- '
clined towards the anther. Phrynium.
Style thick, depreffed, cloven lengthwife ; .
itigma gaping. Myrofma.

Sciramine®. Anther double. Style received into the channel

betaveen the lobes of the anther.

Sra. 1. Sp not elongated beyond the anther.
Filament woolly at the bafe. Style thick,

ereét ; ftigma capitate. Philydrum.
» Filament bent. Style twice as long as the
filament and its anther. ; Hedychium.
Style ercét, the length of the filament and
anther. Alpinia.
Sc. 2. Filament extended beyond the anther.

Apex of the filament *awl-fhaped, with a

furrow. Zingiber.
Apex of the filament ovate, flat. Coflus.
two-lobed. Kampferia.
three-lobed, with ap-
pendages at the bafe of the filament. Amomum.

sci

Apex of the filament three-lobed, the mid-

dle lobe bearing the anther.

Apex of the filament with an. appendage.

Style very long. . Globba.

It muit be obferved that Mr. Brown removes Philydrum,
juftly we believe, from the Scitamince, referring it, not with-
out hefitation, to his Juncee. Hellenia of this author, and
of Willdenow, Sp. Pl. y. 1. 4, is to be added to the fecond
feGtion of true Scitaminee, having a very fhort, fimple or
cloven, rounded lobe, or extenfion of the filament, a little
way beyond the anther.

To the firft feGion are to be added Roscora, which the
reader will find in its proper place; and a probably new
genus confifting of the Leffler Cardamom, -4momum repens
of Sonneraty of which a complete defcription is given by
Mr. White, furgeon at Bombay, in Tranf. of Linn. Soc.
v. 10. 229. This laft was referred by the writer of the
prefent article to-A/pinia, from an examination of very in-
different dried fpecimens; and not without hefitation, on
account of the panicles being radical, inftead of terminal.
Dr. Maton, V. P. L. S. in a learned critical and. botanical
note to Mr. White’s paper, has called this genus E/ettaria,
from Eletari, the Malabar name of the plant. But this
being of barbarous origin, we fhould greatly prefer the
name of Matonia, which we believe it is Mr. Rofcoe’s in-
tention to adopt. The effential character has not yet been
clearly made out; for the tran{verfe pair of appendages to
the lip, very ftriking in the figure, occur alfo, more or lefs
confpicuoufly, in A/pinia. . The triangular, fcarcely dilated,
fligma may perhaps affilt, but the itigma of lpinia is not
fo concave or cup-fhaped as in many other Scitaminee. We
can perceive no diftin@ion in the filament or anther; nor
can we allow “the fituation of the inflorefcence, to offer
more than a prefumptive character, however {trong with re-
{pect to habit.

SCITE. See Site.

SCITHA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Thrace, near
Potidea.

SCITUATE, in Geography, a poft-town of America, in
Plymouth county and ftate of Maflachufetts, on the bay of
that name; incorporated in 1637, and containing 296g in-
habitants ; 30 miles $.E.-of Boiton.—Alfo, a townfhip of
Rhode ifland, in Providence county, between Fofter and
Johniton, containing 2568 inhabitants; 27 miles N.W. of
Newport.

SCIURIS, in Botany, appears to have obtained that
name from the refemblance of its curved {pike of flowers,
at leaft in Aublet’s figure, to a {quirrel’s tail; and not, as
De Theis imagines, from the fhape of the upper lip of the
corolla, which could fearcely have fuygelted any idea of
this animal.—Schreb. Gen. 24. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 153.
Vahl, Enum. v. 1. 101. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. (Rapu-
tia; Aubl. Guian. y. 2. 670. Jull. 421. Lamarck Mluttr.
t. 10.)—Clafs and order, Diandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord.
unknown.

Gen. Ch. Gal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, fhort,
with five acute teeth. Cor. of one petal, many times longer
than the calyx, tubular, incurved, two-lipped ; upper lip
three-cleft, its middle fegment rather the longeft; lower
fomewhat fhorter, in two fimilar oblong divifions. Stam.
Filaments two, fhort, inferted into the bottom part of the

Curcunae

upper lip, with two fcales at the bale of each; anthers ver-
tical, oblong, fhorter than the corolla, cloven at the bale.
There are three longer abortive filaments, inferted into the
bafe of the upper i fhorter than the anthers of the per-

feét {tamens, and hairy at their origin. Pi, Germen fu-
perior, pentagonal, furrounded by an annular gland; ftyle
incurved,

sCcI

incurved, thread-fhaped, about as long as the corolla; flig-
ma rather depreffed, three-lobed. Peric. Capfules five, con-
nected, depreffed, rounded externally, with one cell and two
valves, burfting towards the inner angle. Seeds folitary,
oblong.

Eff Ch. Calyx five-cleft, fhort. Corolla five-cleft, two-
lipped. Stamens five; three of them abortive. Capfules
five, combined, of one cell and two valves. Seeds folitary.

1. S. aromatica. Willd. n. 1. Vahl. n. 1. (Raputia
aromatica; Aubl. t. 272.)—Native of the forefts of Orapu
in Guiana, bearing flowers, as well as ripe fruit, in Augult.
The fruné of this fhrub is about two feet high, and two or
three inches in diameter, with a fmooth, whitifh aromatic
bark. The wood is white. Branches oppofite, leafy. Leaves
oppofite, on long ftalks, ternate. Leaflets equal, nearly fef-
file, three inches long, elliptic-lanceolate, pointed, entire,
firm, fmooth, full of pellucid dots, vifible when oppofed to
the light. Spikes axillary, folitary, ftalked, many-flowered,
about three inches long, ftrongly curved downward, their
common ftalk channelled along the upper fide. Flowers
placed in two rows, on the edges of this channel. Corolla
greenifh, about a quarter of an inch long. The kernel of
the /eeds is greenifh and aromatic. Nothing is recorded of
the qualities or ufes of any part of the plant. Juffieu fuf-
pedis its affinity to MonnierrA; fee that article. The /aves
indeed are fimilarly dotted, but lefs copioufly than in Mon-
nieria, whofe foliage moreover is alternate, and hairy, and
whofe inflorefcence is totally different. There is no aro-
matic flavour remaining in the bark of Aublet’s {pecimen,
but merely a flight bitternefs, perhaps with fome degree of
acrimony.

SCIUROSTA, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Kerman; 9g miles S.E. of Sirgian.

SCIURUS, the Squirrel, in Zoology, a genus of animals
of the clafs Mammalia, and order Glires. The generic
character is, that it has two fore-teeth, of which the upper
are wedged, the lower are acute: there are five upper
grinders on each fide, and four lower ones; the clavicles
are perfe& ; the tail is fhed on each fide; the whifkers are
long. The animals compofing this elegant genus are re-
markable for the livelinefs of their difpofition, the celerity
of their motions, and the general beauty and neatnefs of
their appearance. They inhabit woods, live entirely on
vegetable food, and take up their refidence in trees, where
they prepare their nefts. Some fpecies are furnifhed with
an expanfile lateral fkin, reaching from the fore-legs to the
hind ; by the help of which they are enabled to faa to
a greater diftance than the reft of their genus, and to tranf-
port themfelves occafionally from one tree to another; but
this momentary fupport in the air is all that they are capable
of; and though called, from this circumftance, flying {quir-
rels, they are unable to continue that aétion in the manner
of bats. There are two divifions in this genus, containing
about thirty fpecies, of which we fhall now give fome ac-
count.

A. The Squirrels of this Divifion have Climbers, but no flying
Membrane.

Species.

* Vurcanis, or Common Squirrel. The ears of this
fpecies are bearded at the tip; the tail has the fame colour
with that of the back : it is large, with lively black eyes ; the
head, the body, the legs, and the tail, are of a bright red-
difh-brown ; the breaft and belly. are white; the hair on
each fide of its tail is flat. It isa native of almoft all parts
of Europe, as well as of the northern and temperate parts

scr.

of Afia; but it is obferved to vary in the caft of its colours
in different climates, and in the northern regions it becomes
grey in winter, It varies in its fize; but the general mea-
fure of the European fquirrel is about eight inches from
the nofe to the root of the tail, and the tail is nearly as
long. In the fpring thefe animals feem peculiarly aétive,
purfuing one another in the trees, and exerting various
efforts with great agility. They appear to dread the heat
of the fun; for during the day they commonly remain in
their nefts, making their principal excurfions by night.
Their habitation is fo contrived as to be perfeétly clean,
warm, and impenetrable to the rain; and it is compofed
of mofs, dried leaves, and other things of a fimilar na-
ture. It is fituated in the fork of two branches, havin

only a {mall aperture near the top, which is of a ential
ferm, fo as to throw off the rain. The f{qnirrel generally
produces three or four in number. It feeds on the buds
and young fhoots of trees, and is faid to be particularly
fond of thofe of the fir and pine: it colleéts likewife great
quantities of nuts, which it depofits in the hollows of trees
for its winter food, together with beech-maft, acorns, &c.
Thofe that inhabit Siberia colle& various kinds of fungi
for this purpofe. In a ftate of captivity, nuts form its
principal food, but it will eat ether vegetable fubftances,
and is delighted with fugar and other fweets. In fome
parts of Siberia the {quirrel is found entirely white, with red
eyes: in other parts, and particularly at Baikal, it is often
perfe@ly black. In this country, and other parts of
Europe, it is found with a tail milk-white, the other parts
are of the ufual colour. From thefe circumftances the
varieties of this fpecies are enumerated as follow: 1. The

‘upper parts are reddifh-brown; the breaft and belly are

white. 2. The tail of a pure and beautiful white. 3. Thofe
that are, in winter, blueifh-afh, in fummer red and the bell

white. 4. Uniformly black. 5. Entirely white, but wit
red eyes. 6. Glofly filver-grey. The fquirrel, if it has

more food than it can eat, hides the remainder: it drinks
but little: it is faid to pafs rivers upon a piece of bark or
wood, ereéting its tail for a fail: the flefh is efteemed in
fome places as fit food: it is preyed upon by vermin, fer-
pents, and many other animals: the fkins are valuable; it
brings forth young twice a-year, and is gravid a month.

Axpires; White-legged Squirrel. The ears of this
{pecies are flightly tufted; the body above is’ reddifh-
brown, beneath it is white ; the tail is dufky. It inhabits
Ceylon: the tail is fhorter than that of the laft.

Nicer; Black Squirrel. This is without ears; the
body is black. A variety has the nofe, neck, and tip of
the tail white. It is entirely of a fhining black, except
that the muzzle and the tip of the tail are fometimes white:
{pecimens have alfo been feen with a white ring round the
neck, It inhabits North America and New Spain: it
is gregarious very mifchievous to fields of maize; tail
fhorti 7
Vutpinus, or Cat Squirrel. This is faid to be equal
in fize to the grey fquirrel, which comes next in order.
The ears are not bearded ; the body is tawny, mixed with
afh, and large. In a variety the general colour is white ;
the throat, infide of the legs, and thighs black, It in-
habits North America, and is the fize of a {mall rabbit ;
the fur is coarfe ; ears at the tips and tail tawny. .

Cinereus; Grey Squirrel. The ears of this are not
bearded; the body is cinereous, the belly is white. This
{pecies is confined entirely to North America, in many
parts of which it is extremely common. In its general
form, as well asin its way of life, it refembles the European
{quirrel. It is about half the fize of a full-grown rab rt

the

a

SCIURUS.

the whole animal is of an elegant pale grey, with the in-
fides of the limbs, and the under parts of the body, white ;
the ears and tail are fometimes tinged with black; in fome
f{pecimens a yellowifh cait prevails. It is frequently fo
numerous as to do incredible mifchief to plantations of corn;
henee it isa profcribed animal, and fo much as three-pence

per head have been given for every one killed, and at this

rate, it is faid, that in the year 1749, eight thoufand pounds
were paid in rewards. The grey {fquirrel refides principally
among trees, in the hollows of which it makes its neft.
The great dexterity which it exhibits in changing its place
on trees, renders it extremely difficult to kill. It is readily
tamed, and in that ftate will affociate with other domettic
animals.

Hupsonius; Hudfon’s Bay Squirrel. Ears naked;
back dark grey; belly afh-coloured; tail dark grey, an-
nulate, and tipt with black. It is a native of the colder
parts of North America, and particularly of the region

m whence it takes its ame. It is found in the pine-
forefts of that ccuntry, and feeds chiefly on the cones. It
is fmaller than the common European fquirrel, and the
tail is neither fo long in proportioa nor fo’ full of hair. It
does not alter its colour during the whole year. In winter
it keeps in its neft, and makes its appearance on the return
of the warm feafon. ;

Carotinensis; Carolina Squirrel. Ears naked; body

ixed grey, white, and rufty ; beneath white ; tail brown,
mixed with black and edged with white. Inhabits Caro-
lina, as its name imports. It is the fize of the laft, and
has by Dr. Shaw been confidered as a variety of it.

Vinernitanus; Virginian Squirrel. he body is a
mixed dirty-white and black; the fur is coarfe. It is
anative of Virginia, and is about the fize of the S. cinereus.
The throat, infides of the legs, and thighs, are black; the
tail is fhort, dull, andvyellow.

Persicus; Perfian Squirrel. The ears are plain; the
body dark, fides white, belly yellow ; the tail is mixed with
black and afh, with a white ring. It inhabits the higher
mountains of Perfia. It refembles the S. vulgaris, but
does not vary incolour. It is an inhabitant of the moun-
tainous parts of Perfia.

Asomatus ; Georgian Squirrel. Ears plain, rounded;
body above yellow, mixed with brown, beneath it is dark
tawny; the tail is the fame as the upper’ parts. It isa
native of Georgia in Afia. Its mouth is white; the nofe
is black at the tip; thé cheeks are yellow; whifkers and
orbits brown; the ears are flame-coloured, and within
whitith.

Bicoror; Javan Squirrel. Ears plain and acute; the
body above is black, ‘beneath tawny; the thumb-claw of
the fore-feet is large and round. It is found at Java, and
is about a foot long.

ExyTurevs; Ruddy Squirrel. Ears flightly bearded
at the tip ; the body above is mixed yellow and brown, be-
neath red, mixed with tawny; tail the fame, with a longi-
tudinal dark ftripe. It inhabits India, is larger than the
§. vulgaris; a large warty protuberance inftead of the
thamb. . .

Macnovnus; Ceylon Squirrel. The tail is grey, and
twice as long as the body. It is a native of Ceylon, and
is thrice as large as the §. vulgaris.

Maximus; Great Squirre). This is the largelt among
all the known fpecies of {quirrels, it being the fine of the
common cat. It is a native of India, and was firft de-
feribed by M_ Sonnerat, who fayo it is found in the
Malabar country, where it feeds on fruits, and is particu-
larly fond of the milk of the cocoa-nut, which it pierces

VoL. XXXII,

when it is ripe, in order to obtain the liquor. The fur on
the whole animal is long and full; the top of the head, ears,
back, and fides, ‘are ferruginous; and a {mall band of a
fimilar colour commences beneath each ear, paffing along
the neck towards the fides. This animal is faid to be eafily
tamed, and is called about the coaits of Malabar by the
name of the great wood-rat.

Axyssinicus ; Abyflinian Squirrel. Body above rufty-
black, beneath cinereous ; tail about eighteen inches long.
It is, as its {pecific name imports, a native of Abyfiinia,
and has been thought to be only a variety of the maximus.
It is very good tempered and fportive.

Ixpicus; Bombay Squirrel. Ears tufted; body above
dull purple, beneath yellow ; tail orange at the tip. It is
fixteen inches long, and is a native of Bombay.

Fravus; Fair Squirrel. Ears plain, roundifh; body
pale yellow; tail round. It inhabits near Carthagena, in
America, It is a very {mall animal; the hair is white at
the tips; the fore-thumb confifts of only a fmall'nail.

ParmARuM; Palm Squirrel. Body greyifh, with three
yellowifh ftripes; tail annulate, with whitifh and_ black.
This is an inhabitant of the hotter parts of Afia and Africa.
It feeds on cocoa-nuts, and is extremely fond of the wine
made from the palm-tree. It is not more than three inches
long ; the tail is eret, not fhadowing the body ; the ears
are fhort, broad, hairy, roundifh.

Gerutus; Barbary Squirrel. The body of this animal
is brown, with four whitifh longitudinal ftripes. It in-
habits Barbary, and is about five inches long.

Bansine ; Plantane Squirrel. The body is of a pale
chefnut colour, with a yellow ftripe along the fides. It is
a native of Java, and is very fhy.

Srriatus; Striped Squirrel. Body is yellowifh, with
five longitudinal brown ftripes of a blackifh colour. This
is a native of the colder regions of Afia and North America,
and it has been found, but not very~frequently, in fome
parts of Europe. It differs from the major part of the
{quirrel tribe in its manner of life, which rather refembles
that of the dormoufe. It refembles fome of the moufe tribe
in this that it is provided with cheek-pouches for the
temporary reception of food, a peculiarity not to be found
in any other fpecies of {quirrel. Its general length is not
fix inches, and its tail is about the fame. On the upper
parts its colour is a reddifh-brown, and on the under white ;
down the ridge of the back runs a black ftreak; and on
each fide the body are two others; the included {pace be-
tween each being of a pale yellow tinge; the tail is marked
with circular f{paces, like that of a moufe, but the fur
fpreads {lightly on the fides, as in other fpecies. Thefe
animals are extremely common in Siberia, inhabiting the
maple and birch woods of that country, and generally
forming their nefts near the root of fome tree. They never
afcend trees in the manner of other {quirrels, unlefs fud-
denly furprifed or purfued, when they will climb with
great expedition, and conceal themfelves among the
branches. They colleé& their flores during the autumnal
feafon, and on the fetting in of the winter conceal them-
felves in their burrows, the entrances of which they {top,
and pafs the greateft part of the cold weather in fleep, and
in feeding on their colleéted flores; but if, by the great
length of the winter, their provifions happen to fail, they
then fally out in quelt of frefh fupplies, and will occa-
fionally make their way into granaries, and even into houfes.
They are very choice in their food, always yt the
{uperior grain, as wheat to rye or barley. ‘They are very

wild, and not cafily reconciled to a {tate of captivity, con-
tinuing extremely timid, and manifetting no fymptoms ,of
4Z attach-

eee

SCIURUS.

attachment to their owners. They are caught merely on
account of their fkins, which are highly efteemed by the
Chinefe. It has been doubted, whether thofe found in
America be really of the fame {pecies with the European
and Afiatic kind.

ZEstuans; Brafilian Squirrel. Body grey above, be-
neath yellow; a white ftripe along the belly; the tail is
round, annulate, black, and yellow. A variety is de-
feribed, as having a body mixed dufky and yellow; the
fides marked with white ftripes; the tail is black. It is
a native of Brafil and Guiana. It is eight or nine inches
long, and the tail is {till longer ; the ears are roundifh and
plain ; the fur is foft.

Dscuinscnious; Carnatic Squirrel. Body brick-duft
colour ; lateral itripes and orbits white ; the tail is black.
It inhabits the Indian Carnatic, and is larger than the S.
vulgaris. $

Variecatus ; Varied Squirrel. Body above variegated
with black, white, and brown; belly yellow. It is a
native of New Spain. Burrows and colleés ftores of
grain under the roots of trees, and is twice as large as the
S. vulgaris. Of this fpecies the ears are fhort, plain,
white ; the mouth is alfo white ; the head is orange-colour,
mixed with the other colours; the whifkers are long and
black ; and the claws are black.

Decus; Chilefe Squirrel. Body is of a dufky yellow,
with a black line on the fhoulders. It inhabits, as its
trivial name imports, Chili, in large focieties. Burrows
and lays up ftores of fruits and roots for winter provifion.
It does not become torpid. The flefh is fometimes eaten
by the natives. It is larger than the black rat.

Mexicanus; Mexican Squirrel. The body of this is
of a brownifh-afh, with from five to feven whitith longi-
tudinal ftripes. This animal is known only from the figures
and defcription of Seba. It is much fmaller than the
vulgaris, and is of a moufe-colour, with feven white lines
or ftreaks on the back, extending to fome diltance down
the tail.. The female has only five Streaks. It inhabits
New Spain. There is a variety of this fpecies, in which
the body is uniform in colour: the ferotum is large and
pendulous.

Bancrort1; Guiana Squirrel. Body above is of a pale
yellowifh-brown ; the fides and belly are white; the tail is
long, hairy, and {potted. It is anative of Guiana.

GuaJAnensis; Cayenne Squirrel. Body reddifh, and
very {mall. It inhabits Cayenne ; lives folitary on trees;
feeds on feeds ; it is naturally very fierce, but may be tamed ;
it brings forth two young once a year ; it is the fize of a rat.

Mapacascarensis ; Madagafcar Squirrel. Middle toe
of the fore-foot naked, very long ; thumb-nail of the hind-
feet rounded. This {pecies is found on the eattern fide of
the ifland of Madagafcar ; it lives under ground, is floth-
ful, timid, flow ; it feeds on worms, which it extraéts, by
means of its claws, from the hollows of trees.

Capensis ; Cape Squirrel. ‘The body above is of a pale
ruity colour, mixed with black ; it has a white line from the
fhoulder down each fide ; the tail is black in the middle, the
fides are hoary ; the ears are {carcely vifible. This fpecies
inhabits the northern mountains beyond the Cape of Good
Hope ; it lives in burrows ; never climbs ; feeds on bulbous
roots, and is very tame.

B.. Containing Squirrels with a flying Membrane.
Species,

VoLucetia ; Virginian flying Squirrel. The membrane
is of a moderate fize ; the tail is long and hairy. This

{pecies is much {maller than the volans, from which it differs
in colour, being of an elegant brown, or fub-ferruginous
moufe-colour above, and yellowifh-white beneath ; the edges
of the flying membrane, as it is called, are of a darker or
blacker tinge than the reit of the fur, contrafting with the
white border of the under part; a few dufky undulations
are found about the back and fhoulders ; the tail is of a
flattened fhape, or with the hair {preading towards each
fide, and the extremity fomewhat fharpened ; the eyes are
large, and the ears rather fhort, almoft naked, and reser
rounded. It is not more than five inches long to the tail,
and the tail itfelf meafures four inches. It is a native of
the temperate parts of North America, and has been found
alfo in fome of the fouthern parts of the American conti-
nent. Itis an animal of great beauty, and is frequently
kept in a ftate of captivity, being readily tamed, and fhewin
a confiderable degree of attachment to its poffeffor. It is
naturally of a gregarious difpofition, and may be feen flying,
it is faid, to the number of ten or twelve together, from tree
to tree. It is chiefly a noéturnal animal, lying concealed
during the day, and commencing its a¢tivity in the evening.
It prepares its neft in the hollow of trees, with leaves, mofs,
&c.; feveral of them will inhabit the fame neft. Thefe
animals refide conttantly on the upper parts of trees, and
never willingly quit them for the ground. They are capable
of {wimming, in cafe of neceflity, in the fame manner as
other quadrupeds, and after leaving the water, can ex
their power of flight as readily as before. They produce
three or four young ata time. A variety has its membrane
including the chin and ears; the body above is reddith ;
beneath of a yellowifh-afh colour. It is a native of Vir-
inia.
; Hunsonius. The membrane of this does not include the
fore-legs ; the body above is reddifh-brown ; beneath it is
of ayellowifh-white ; the tail is flat and hairy. It is found
in North America, about Hudfon’s bay.

Vorans; Lapland flying Squirrel. This has a large
membrane, extending to the bafe of the fore-feet ; the tail
is rounded at the hairy end. ‘This is the European flying
{quirrel of Pennant, and is the only one of the kind that has
been difcovered bélonging to this quarter of the globe ; and
this is extremely rare, being found chiefly in the more nor-
thernly regions, as in Finland, Lapland, &c. It alfo occurs
in fome diftriéts of Poland. It 1s more common ia many
parts of Afia, and abounds chiefly in the birch and pine
woods of Siberia. It has, by fome authors, been con-
founded with the S. volucella, but is a totally diltinét {pecies.
On the upper parts it is an elegant pale or whitifh-grey, and
on the under parts milk-white. It is not fo large as the
S. vulgaris, is thickly furred, of a flightly flattened form,
and rounded at the extremity. Previoufly to the obferva-
tions of Dr. Pallas, little more was known of this animal
than its general form and manner of flight, or rather of
{pringing, which is performed by means of an expanfile
furry membrane reaching from the fore-feet to the hind.
For the better management of this part, the thumb of the
fore-feet is ftretched out to a confiderable length within the
membrane, fo asto appear in the fkeleton like a long bony
procefs on each of the fore-feet. The flying fquirrel gene-
rally refides in the hollows of trees towards the upper parts,
and it prepares its neft of the fineft moffes. It is a folitary
animal, and is {een in pairs only during the bres feafon.
It rarely makes its appearance by day, emerging only at the
commencement of twilight, when it may be feen climbing
about the trees, and darting with great velocity from one
to the other. It feeds chiefly on the young fhoots, buds,
and catkins of the birch, as well as on thofe of the oe

12 a

———————

a a F

In winter it remains in its neft, coming out occafionally in
mild weather ; but it does not become torpid during that
feafon. This animal is faid to {pring to the diftance of full
twenty fathoms, and by this motion to convey itfelf from
the top of one tree to the middle of another, to which it
direéts its flight, which is always with a declination. It
feldom defcends to the furface, and, when taken and placed
on the ground, it runs or fprings aukwardly, with its tail
elevated, and as foon as it gains a tree, inftantly begins to
climb with great a€tivity, fometimes elevating, and fometimes
depreffing the tail. The young are produced about the
beginning or middle of May; they are at firft blind, and
almoft entirely void of hair ; and the parent foiters them by
covering them with her flying membrane, leaving her nelt
only at the approach of evening, and carefully concealing
the young with the mofs of the neft. The young begin to
acquire their fur when about fix days old, but they continue
blind for the {pace of about thirteen days. Thefe animals
bear confinement with great difficulty, and for want of the
proper food are rarely preferved any great length of time.
In their manner of fitting and feeding, as well as in the a&tion
of wafhing their face with their paws, they refemble the
common iquirrel. Their voice refembles that of the moufe.
The fur of this fpecies, though foft and beautiful, is not
much efteemed, on account of the flightnefs of the fkin,
and its want of durability.

Sacitta ; Javan flying Squirrel. The body of this is
tufty brown above, beneath it is paler; the tail is much
flattened and truncate. Itis found chiefly in Java.

Peraurista. The body in this f{pecies is of a deep
chefnut, beneath it is pale rufty; or above black, beneath
hoary ; the tail is longer than the body, very hairy, round,
blackifh, ruity inthe middle. It inhabits the iflands in the
Indian ocean, and is about eighteen inches long. The head
is rounded ; whifkers and claws black; it has fix pe¢toral
and abdominal teats; the pupils, like thofe of the cat, are
long and narrow, and adapted to climbing animals.

usTRALIS; Southern flying Squirrel. - It inhabits New
South Wales, and it is the largeft and moft elegant of the
tribe.

Norrotcensis. Body above dark grey, beneath white,
a dufky black dorfal line from the nofe to the tail; the ears
are fhort, tail long and bufhy. It inhabits Norfolk ifland,
and is nine or ten inches long.

SCKABAD, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Khorafan; 288 miles N. of Herat.

SCKAT, atown of Auftrian Poland, in Galicia; 36
miles §.S.W. of Halicz.

SCKOZOW, or Sxatscuau, a town of Silefia, in the
principality of Tefchen ; 6 miles N.E. of ‘Tefchen. N. lat.
49° 48'. E.long. 18° 43/.

SCLAFANI, atown of Sicily, in the valley of Mazara ;
30 miles S.E. of Palermo.

SCLAREA, or Scartea, in Botany, a word whofe
— or meaning we cannot trace; fee Saxvia Sclarea;

in the preceding line read “there are feveral Cape
f{pecies befides.””

SCLAVI, or Stavi, in Ancient Geography, a wild and
wandering people of obfcure origin, but of very extenfive
_ through the northern nations of Europe and part of

They were comprized by the Greeks and Romane
under the comprehenfive and indefinite denomination of Scy-
thians and Sarmatians. Poland, Pruffia, Lithuania, and the
fouthern parts of Ruffia, were probably the ancient feat of
the Slavi. Hence they diffufed Aon Fe to Dacia, to
Germany, and to the countries lying beyond the Danube.
The unqueftionable evidence of language, fays Mr. Gibbon,

SCL

attefts the defcent of the Bulgarians, (fee that article,) from
the original ftock of the Sclavonians, or more properly
Slavonian race; and the kindred bands of Servians, Bot-
nians, Rafcians, Croatians, Walachians, &c. followed either
the ftandard or the example of the leading tribe. From the
Euxine to the Adriatic, in the ftate of captives, or fubjects,
or allies, or enemies, of the Greek empire, they overf{pread
the land. Pretorius and Jordan deduce the name of thefe
people from the term “ Slava,’’ denoting prai/e or glory ;
whilft others derive the word from /lave, referring to the
condition of the Sclavonians, when they were opprefled and
abufed by their conquerors, the Venetians. Thus de-
grading, fays Gibbon, the national appellation of the Staves,
either by chance or motive, from the fignification of glory
to that of fervitude. This converfion, he adds, of a na-
tional into an appellative name, appears to have arifen in the
8th century, in the Oriental France, where the princes and
bifhops were rich in Sclavonian captives, not of the Bohe-
mian, (as Jordan exclaims, ) but of the Sorabianrace. From
thence the word was extended to general ufe in the modern
languages, and even of the lait Byzantines. The confufiop
of the ¥:g@a0, or Servians, with the Latin Servi, was ftill
more fortunate and familiar. It was in the year 495, when
the Heruli, being routed by the Longobards, marched
through the territories of the Sclavi, and on occafion of this
event, that this nation is mentioned in hiftory under that
name. The name Sclavi, indeed, appears in the Armenian
hiftorian Mofes of Chorene, who is commonly thought to
have lived in the middle of the 5th century, and in the epi-
tomifer of Strabo ; probably alfo in Ptolemy ; but the paf-
fages of thefe hiftorians, that relate to the fubject, deferve
(fays Schleetzer, cited by Mr. Tooke,) a more accurate in-
veltigation. Procopius and Jornandes, two contemporary
hiftorians of the 6th century, are the firit by whom they are
diftin@ly named. At an early period of the Chriitian era,
the Vandals, being ftraitened for room in their own country,
took their route eaftward, and entered the country lying
between the Bofphorus Cimmerius and the Tanais, inha-
bited at the time by the Sclavi, whom they drove out, and
feizing on their country, aflumed the name of the ancient
inhabitants, calling themfelves Sclavi. Some of thefe, feveral
ages after, in the reign of Mauritius, which began in 586,
fettled in Dalmatia and Illyrium, which from them were
called Sclavonia. It was in the age of Juftinian I., about
the year 527, that the Slavi on the Danube began their
attack on the Roman empire; but they foon returned to
their feats on the northern fide of the Danube ; and did not
begin to fettle on the fouthern fide of the river until about
the year 602. Acomplete hiltory of the Danubian Slavi, from
the year 495 to 1222, is given by Mr. Stritter of Mofcow,
from the Byzantine writers, in his celebrated work entitled
“ Memorize populorum, olim ad Danubium, &c. &c.”> See
our two next articles.

SCLAVONIA, in Geography, a country of Europe,
bounded on the N. by the rivers Drave and Danube, which
feparate it from Hungary ; on the N.E. by the river Save,
which divides it from the provinces of Servia and Bofnia
on the §.W.; and by Stiria and Croatia on the W.; about
150 miles long, and from 25 to 45 broad. This is a fine,
level, fertile country, where it 19 cultivated ; but having
been for many years a frontier province againft Turkey, and
fubjeét to the ravages of the Chriftians as well as the Turkifh
armies, it has epadnsea but little corn or wine. The eaftern
divifion of the country is inhabited by the Ralcians ; and
the natives in general are of a good ftature, a brave hardy
race, foldiers from their infancy ; their country having been
long and often the feat of war. ‘The ancient Sclavonia, as

4 Z3 we

SCL

we have already obferved, (fee ScLAvi,) contained many
larga countries; or, at leaft, the Sclavi or Sclavonians
over-ran many extenfive territories, and ferved to increafe
their population. Sclavonia derived its name from the
Sclavi, who took poffeffion of it in the reign of Juftinian.
The Venetians conquered it, and reduced the natives to a very
degraded and fervile ftate. The Hungarians and Venetians
poffefled this country alternately. The king of Hungary
was fovereign of it, when Solyman the Magnificent invaded
and fubdued it in 1540; and the Turks continued in poffef-
fion of it until the year 1687, foon after which they lott this
and all the territories which the Auftrians poffefs N. of the
Save and Danube.

SCLAVONIANS, or Stavontans, in Ancient Hiftory,
a numerous people, called alfo Sc/avi or Slavi, who migrated
from the northern parts of Afia, and eftablifhed many co-
lonies in different countries, or rather blended themfelves
with the original inhabitants. The Slavonian ftock is faid to
be one of the moft remarkable and molt widely extended in
the world. Next to the Arabians, who formerly prevailed
from Malacca to Lifbon, there are no people on the globe
who have diffufed their language, their dominion, and their
colonies, to fo furprifing an extent. From the fhores of the
Adnatic, northwards as far as the coaft of the Frozen
ocean, and from the fhores of the Baltic through the whole
length of Europe and Afia, as far as America and to the
neighbourhood of Japan, we every where meet with Slavonic
nations, either governing or governed. Of their fuppofed
origin, which is dark and doubtful, becaufe it is very ancient,
fee Sctavr and Scyruta. Towards the middle of the
fourth century the Sclavonians, which before that time had
over-run the half of Europe and Afia, were fubdued by Er-
manarik or Hermanric, whofe dominions extended from the
Baltic to the Euxine, and incorporated with the Ottrogoths
into oné government. Soon afterwards, both the dominant
Oftrogoths, and the fervile Sclavonians, were fubje& to the
victorious Huns. In the courfe of the fucceeding century,
when the difturbers of the world were either exterminated
or driven to the farther fide of the Danube, the Sclavo-
nians began to fhew themfelves in Dacia, prefled between the
Ungres and the Gepidz, and occupied a part of the northern
fhore of the Danube. Here they blended themfelves with
the barbarians who menaced from the north the downfall of
the declining Roman empire; hence they plundered the
Roman provinces, commencing their attack in the time of
Juftinian I. (fee Sctavi): and hence they rufhed like a
torrent on the country of the Gepidz, who had been almott
entirely extirpated by the Longobards and Avari.. The
s\vari arrogated to themfelves a kind of fovereignty over the
various Sclavoniantribes, and occafionally extorted from them
atribute; but thefe people were at length fwallowed up
by the Bulgarians, who extended themfelves over all Dacia.
Forced by their oppreflions, the Dacian Sclavi for the mott
part abandoned their dwellings, and retreated (probably
about the middle of the feventh century) from the Danube
tothe North. Some tribes withdrew to Poland, others to
Ruffia, and fome of them remained on the Danube. In
this manner were the countries juft mentioned peopled by
Slavonian colonies; who, continually {preading further and
further, and foundin governments in every place, occa-
fioned the moft fignal revolutions in the north of Europe.
All the branches of the grand Slavonian ftock, who formed
peculiar ftates, may be ranged by their prefent condition in
feven clafles, viz. Ruffian, Polithy Bohemian, German, Illy-
rian, Hungarian, and Turkifh Sclavonians, Inevery age the
fame race of Sclavonians appears to have maintained the pof-
feflion of the fame countries, ‘Their numerous tribes, how-

sc L

ever diftant or adverfe, ufed one common language, and
have been known by the refemblance of their form, which
deviated from the {warthy Tartar, and*approached without
attaining the lofty ftature and fair complexion of the Ger-
man. Four thoufand fix hundred villages, according to the
ftatement of Mr. Gibbon, were {cattered over the provinces of
Ruffia and Poland, and their huts were haftily built of rough
timber, in acountry deficient both in ftone and iron ; and fitu-
ated in the mid{ft of forefts, on the banks of rivers, or at the
edges of moraffes. The fertility of the foil, rather than
the labour of the natives, fupplied the ruftic plenty of the
Sclavonians. Their fheep and horned cattle were large and
numerous, and the fields which they fowed with millet and
panic, afforded, in the place of bread, a coarfe and lefs
nutritive food. The inceflant rapine of their neighbours
compelled them to bury their treafure in the earth; but on the
appearance of a ftranger, it was freely imparted by a people,
whofe unfavourable charaGer is qualified by the epithets of
chafte, patient, and hofpitable. As their fupreme god,
they adored an invilible matter of the thunder, The rivers
and nymphs obtained their fubordinate honours, and the
popular worfhip was expreffled in vows and facrifices. The
Sclavonians difdained to obey a defpot, a prince, or even a
magiftrate ; but their limited experience, and headftrong paf-
fions, would not allow their forming a fyitem of equal law or
of general defence. Some voluntary refpeét was paid to
age and valour; but each tribe or village exifted as a fe-
parate republic, and all muft be perfuaded where none
could be compelled. They fought on fovt, almoft naked,
and, except an unwieldy fhield, without any defenfive armour.
Their. weapons of offence were a bow, a quiver of {mall
poifoned arrows, and along rope, which they dextroufly
threw froma diftance, and entangled their enemy in arunning
noofe. In the field, the Sclavonian infantry was dangerous
by their fpeed, agility, and hardinefs ; they {wam, they dived,
they remained under water, drawing their breath through a
hollow cane; and ariver or lake was often the fcene of their
unfufpeéted ambufcade. But thefe were theachievements of
{pies or ftragglers ; the military art was unknown to the
Sclavonians ; their name was obfcure, and their conquefts
were inglorious. For the name and nation, the fituation
and. manners, of the Sclavonians, we refer to Procopius,
Goth. l. iis c. 26. lL. iii. c. 14. The precife boundaries of
the Sclavonians, and alfo of the Bulgarians, who were people
of the fame origin, cannot be precifely afcertained ; nor do
the people themfelves feem to have been reftrained within
any definite and fixed limits. Their importance depended
on their vicinity to the Roman empire: and in the time of
Juftinian, the level country of Moldavia and Walachia was
occupied by a Sclavonian tribe, denominated Antes, whence
Anticus is one of the titles of Juftinian and of his fucceffors.
Againft the Antes he ereéted the fortifications of the Lower
Danube; and laboured to fecure the alliance of a people
feated in the direé&t channel of northern inundation, an inter-
val of 200 miles between the mountains of Tranfylvania
and the Euxine fea. But the Antes wanted power and in-
clination to ftem the fury of the torrent; and the light-
armed Sclavonians, from an. hundred tribes, purfued with
almoft equal fpeed the footiteps of the Bulgarian horfe.
The payment of one piece of gold foreach foldier procured
a fafe and eafy retreat through the country of the Gepide,
who commanded the paflage of the Upper Danube. Three
thoufand Sclavonians, who divided themfelves into two bands,
pafled the Danube and the Hebrus, vanquifhed the Roman
generals who dared to oppofe their progrefs, and plundered
with impunity the cities of Ilyricum and Thrace. But
whatever praife the boldnefs of the Sclavenians may deferve,
it

| |

SCL

it-is fullied by the wanton and deliberate cruelty which they
are accufed of exercifing on their prifoners. Without dif-
tinGion of rank; age, or fex,.the captives were impaled or
flayed alive, or fuipended between four pofts, and beaten
with clubs till they expired, or inclofed in fome fpacious

building, and left to perifh in the flames, with the fpoil and.

cattle which impeded the march of thefefavage victors. Such
is, as we tru{t, the exaggerated relation of the cruelty of
thefe people given by Procopius; but for their mild and
liberal behaviour to their prifoners, we may appeal to the
fomewhat more recent authority of the emperor Maurice.
(Stratagemata, 1. ii.c.5.) Perhaps, fays Mr. Gibbon, a
more impartial narrative than that of Procopius would
reduce the number, and qualify the nature, of thefe horrid
a@s; and they might fometimes be excufed by the cruel
laws of retaliation. In the fiege of Topirus, fituated
near Philippi in Thrace, or Macedonia, oppofite to the
ifle of Thafos, whofe obftinate defence had enraged the
Sclavonians, they maflacred 15,000 males ; but they {pared
the women and children: the moft valuable. captives were
always referved for labour or ranfom; the fervitude was not
rigorous, and the terms of their deliverance were {fpeedy and
moderate. The Sclavonians and Finns (fee Finns) were the
aborigines of Ruffia. (See Russia.) Guibbon’s Hitt. Decl.
and Fall Rom. Emp. vols. vii. and x. Tooke’s Ruffian
Emp. vol. i.

SCLAVONIC, or Stavonic Language, the language
of the Sclavi, an ancient people of Scythia Europxa, who,
about the, year 518, quitted their native country, ravaged
Greece, and eftablifhed the kingdoms of Polandand Moravia,
and at laft fettled in Illyria, which thence took the name of
Sclavonia ; which fee.

The numerous tribes who {poke this language preferved
their ancient name of Venedi, long after their invafion of
Germany in the fifth or fixth century, though they were
alfo called Slavi or Sclavi. Their fucceffors enabled them to
reach the Saxons and Franks, but their conque(ts were ter-
minated by the oppofition of Charlemagne, and their inceffant
civil feuds. See Sctavi and ScLavonians.

The Sclavonic is held, after the Arabic, the molt exten-
five language in the world; it isfpoken from the Adriatic
to the North fea, and from the Cafpian to the Baltic, by a
great variety of people, who are all the defcendants of the
ancient Sclavi, viz. the Poles, Mufcovites, Bulgarians, Ca-
rinthiaas, Bohemians, Hungarians, Pruffians, Swabians, &c.
each of whom, however, have their particular diale&t, only
the Selavonic is the common mother of their feveral lan-
guages, viz. the Polith, Ruffian, Hungarian, &c.

he Sclavonie is one of the great ftocks, of which the
— of the North and weftern regions of Europe feem
to be ramifications ; the other two being the Celtic and the
Gothic. The prefent Ruffian is thought to be the moft
faithful {pecimen of the original Sclavonic, which prevailed
in thofe parts of Europe where the ancients placed the
Sarmatz. See SARMATIANS. ,

By a Latin chronicle of the Sclavi, compofed by Hel-
mond, a prieft of Bofow, and Arnold, abbot of Lubec,
and corrected by M. Leibnitz, it appears that the Sclavi
anciently inhabited the coafts of the Baltic fea, and were
divided into the eaftern and weftern ; in the latter of which
were the Ruffians, Poles, Bohemians, &c. and in the former
the Vandals. .

Dom. Maur. Orbini Raufer, abbot of the order of Malta,
in an Italian hiftory of the Sclayi, intitled “11 Regno de gli
Sclavi,” printed in 1601, will have them to be originally of
Finland, in Scandinavia, Laur. Pribero, a Dalmatian, in
an exprefs difcourfe on the origin of the Sclavi, maintains

6

S'CaL

them to be originally of Thrace, and the dame with the
Thracians, the poiterity of Thyras, who was the feventh
fon of Japhet. Theod. Polycarpowitz, ina Greek, Latin,
and Sclavonic di€tionary, printed at Mofcow in 1704,
obferves, that the word Sclava, whence Sclavonic is formed,
fignifies in their language glory.

SCLEINS, in Geography, a river of Auttria, which
runs into the Danube, oppofite Tulln.

SCLERANTHUS, in Botany, derived from cxreo:,
hard, and woc, a flower, on account of the dry and juiceleds
texture of its calyx.— Linn. Gen. 224. Schreb. 302.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v.2. 660. Mart. Mill. Di&.v. 4. Sm. Fl.
Brit. 457. Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth. y. 1.278. Ait. Hort.
Kew. v. 3. 73. Jufl. 314. Purfh v. 1. 281. . Lamarck
Illuftr. t. 374. Gertn. t. 126,. (Knawel; Dill. Gen. 94.
t..3.)—Clafs and order, Decandria Digynia. Nat. Ord.
Caryophylleiz, Linn. Portulacee, Jufl. :

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
contraéted at the neck, permanent, cloven half way down
into five, acute fegments. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments
ten, awl-fhaped, ere&t, very fmall, ftanding on the calyx ;
anthers roundifh. Pi/?. Germen fuperior, roundifh ; ityles
two, ere€t, capillary, the length of the ftamens; itigmas
fimple. Peric. none. Seeds generally two, ovate, enclofed
in the hardened tube of the calyx.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of one leat, inferior.
‘Seeds two, enclofed in the calyx.

1. S. annuus. Annual Knawel. Linn. Sp. FI. 580.
Willd. n. 1. Engl. Bot.t. 351. Fl. Dan. t. 504.—Calyx
of the ripe fruit with fharp {preading teeth. Stems fpread-
ing.— Extremely common throughout Europe, efpecially in
Great Britain; in fallow fields and a fandy foil; flowering
about the middle of fummer.— Root annual, fibrous, fmall.
Stems numerous, much fpreading, round, fomewhat downy,
leafy, branched at the upper part, of a brown or reddith
colour. Leaves oppofite, united and fringed at the bafe,
linear, acute, of a grafly-green, not glaucous nor filvery.
Flowers of the fame colour, feffile, in terminal, leafy
clufters.—The Swedes and Germans we are informed by
Withering, ufe a decoétion of this fpecies to relieve the
tooth-ache.

2. S. perennis. Perennial Knawel. Linn. Sp. Pl. 580.
Willd. n. 2. Engl. Bot.t.352. Fil. Dan. t. 563.—Calyx
of the ripe fruit with btn incurved teeth. Stems prof-
trate.—Native of Europe, but by no means fo common in
this country asthe laft. It is found on the drieft barren
heaths of Norfolk and Suffolk, flowering in the autumn.—
Root perennial, long, fibrous. The whole plant greatly
refembles the former fpecies in habit, but its lems are
proftrate. The herbage is glaucous and rather fhining,
when old affuming a reddifh-brown colour. Leaves fome-
times downy. Withering truly {lates that «the Polifh cochi-
neal (Coccus polonicus) is ‘ary er the roots in the fummer
months ; hence Camerarius, Bauhin, and other authors have
a variety of this fpecies, under the name of Polygonum
cocciferitm.”” .

3. S. polycarpus. Many-fruited Knawel. Linn. Sp. Pl.
581. Willd. n.3. Polycarpus; Dalech. Hitt. 444. f. 1.
Vermiculata; Column. Ecphr. 294. f. 1.—Calyx of the
fruit much {preading, {pinous. * Stem rather villous. — Native
of France and Italy ; found alfo in Greece by Dr. Sibthorp.
—Root annual. Stem branching and procumbent, a little
villous and afh-coloured, ao are the leaves. Flowers termi-
nal, whitifh. Calyw flightly membranous. Anthers twice
as large as in the firlt {pecies, but the whole plant is con-
fiderably {maller. Lightfoot appears to have been mif-

taken when he confidered thiv plant av a native of Scotland.
SCLERIA,

Corolla none.

sc L

SCLERIA, was fo named by Bergius, in the Stockholm
Tranfa@tions for 1765, from cxAvego:, hard; becaufe of the
ftony hardnefs and polifh of the feed, refembling Litho/-

rmum.—Schreb. Gen. 626. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 312.
Stare. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1.
240. Purfh v.1.45. Swartz Ind. Occ. v. 1. 86. t. 3.
Lamarck Illuftr. t. 752. Gertn.t. 2.—Clafs and order,
Monvecia Triandria. Nat. Ord. Calamaria, Linn. Cype-
roidee, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Male and female flowers in the fame fpikelet,
or panicle.— Male /pikelets folitary, or androgynous. Cal.
Glume of from two to fix valves, many-flowered ; valves
ovate, acute, keeled, concave, beardlefs, permanent. Cer.
Glumes numerous, oblong, beardlefs, longer and thinner
than thofe of the calyx, feparating the ftamens. Stam.
Filaments one or three, within each glume of the corolla ;
anthers linear.

Female fpikelets folitary, either axillary, terminal, or in-
ferted between the glumes of the male ones.—Ca/. Glume
of from two to four valves, fingle-flowered ; valves ovate,
acute, beardlefs, keeled, concave, permanent. Cor. Petals
none. Neétary a three-lobed feale at the bafe of the germen,
permanent. Pl. Germen fuperior, roundifh, tapering at
the bafe; flyle thread-fhaped, the length of the glumes,
either undivided or three-cleft ; ftigmas capillary, reflexed.
Peric. none. Seed. Nut nearly globofe, or oblong, coloured,
polifhed ; kernel roundifh. ’

Efl. Ch. Male, Calyx of feveral valves, many-flowered.
Corolla a fingle beardlefs glume, to each flower.

Female, Calyx of feveral valves, fingle-flowered. Nectary
a three-lobed fcale, beneath the germen. Nut coloured,
nearly globular.

Obf. The analogy of the true grafles induces us to ufe
the term netary, according to the pra¢tice of Linnzus in that
tribe, for what Gertner denominates a corolla, and Brown
afcale. The latter remarks that there is, in moft {pecies, a
little exterior undivided “ /cutellum,”’ or difk, which remains
along with the {pikelet, after the nut, and /cale at its bafe, are
fallen.

Willdenow defines twenty-three f{pecies of Scleria, to
which Mr. Brown adds five new ones from New Holland.
The following will ferve to illuftrate the genus.

S. Flagellum. Rough Scleria, or Negroes’ Scourge.
Swartz Ind. Occ. v. 1. 88. Willd. n. 1. (S. Flagellum
nigrorum; Berg. in Stockh. Tranf. for 1765. 144. t. 4.
Scheenus lithofpermus; Linn. Sp. Pl. 65. Carex lithofper-
ma; Syft. Nat. ed. 12. v. 2. 618. Cyperus maximus ame-
ricanus, lithofpermi femine; Morif. fe&. 8. t.11. f. 16.
Gramen cyperoides fylvaticum maximum geniculatum afpe-
rius, femine milii folis; Sloane Jam. v. 1. 118. t. 77. f. 1.)—
Stem with three very rough angles, climbing. Edges and
mid-rib of the leaves rough with reverfed prickles. Panicles
lateral and terminal, corymbofe, hairy.—Native of woods
in the Weft Indies. The harfh texture, and cutting edges,
of the flems and /eaves, render this a choice inftrument for
the punifhment of refraétory negroes. Some perfons may
perhaps think Providence had planted it in the Weft Indies
on purpofe; for an Englifh lady once obferved to the
writer of the prefent article, that the negroes there were
exactly in the place of horfes in Europe, and to be treated ac-
cordingly. The /eaves are from one to two feet long, and
an inch or more in breadth, flat, with many ribs; their bafe
fheathing, with a very rough keel. Panicles twice compound,
at firft ere&t, then fpreading ; their ftalks triangular, hairy,
mottly brownith. Bradeas briltle-thaped, triangular, rough,
much longer than the flowers. Sreds not quite fo big as

s-€ L
hemp-feed, white or brown, highly polifhed, refembling

porcelain.

S. braéeata. Briftly-fpiked Scleria. Cavan. Ic. v. 5.
34. t. 457. Willd. n. 5.—Leaves rough-edged. Panicles
terminal and axillary. Braéteas tapering, many times longer
than the female fpikes. Nut dotted.—Native of places near
the fea, that are frequently overflowed, at Panama, flower-
ing in November and December. The /lem is nearly fix feet
high, triangular. Radical /eaves a yard long, half an inch
broad; rough at the edges and keel ; their fheaths downy,
Braéteas {preading, above an inch long. Nut globofe, its
whole furface covered with minute excavations.

S. fumatrenfis. Sumatra Scleria. Retz. Obf. fafe. 5. 19.
t.2. Willd.n.9.—Stem {mooth. Leaves rough-edged.
Panicle terminal, repeatedly compound, many-flowered. Nut
corrugated.—Native of Sumatra. Stems tall and ftout,
triangular, leafy. Leaves one-third of an inch broad.
Panicle about fix inches long. Braéeas fhort. Seed very
black, tranfverfely wrinkled. Retzius.

S. filiformis. Slender Scleria. Swartz Ind. Occ. v. 1.
gi. Willd. n. 15.—Stem fimple, flender, {mooth. Leaves
awl-fhaped, feffile. Clufter nearly fimple. Braéteas capil-
lary. Nut {mooth, rather pointed. Native of very dry
{tony places, in Jamaica and Hifpaniola. The /lems are only
one or two feet high, growing in tufts, lax, acutely trian-
gular. Leaves linear, keeled, feffile, not fheathing, minutely
ferrated with cartilaginous teeth, fmooth. C/ufters (rather
than /pikes) terminal, with from two to four alternate ftalks,
and thofe bearing a few whitifh alternate fpikelets. Nut
oblong or roundith, bluntly triangular, white, very hard.

S. hirtella. Little Hairy Scleria. Swartz Ind. Occ.
y.1.93- Willd. n.18. Purfhn. 4.—Stem fimple, flender,
downy as well as the leaves. Spikes cluftered, naked.
Glumes briftly. Nut fomewhat elliptical, pointed, fmooth.
—Native of mountainous woods in Jamaica; Swartz: of
dry woods, on flate rocks, in Virginia and Carolina, flower-
ing in June; Pur/h. .The fmalleit fpecies known, fcarcely
afoot high. Stem triangular, lax, ftriated, downy. Leaves
very narrow, diftant, hairy, flightly fheathing at the bafe.
Spike terminal, fimple, hairy, with awl-fhaped hairy dra@eas,
a little longer than the flowers.

S. pauciflora. Little Wrinkled Scleria. Willd. n. 21.
Purfh n.6. (S. oligantha; Michaux Boreali-Amer. v. 2.
167.)—Stem fimple, flender. Leaves linear, channelled,
rough-edged. Tufts few, of very few flowers. Nut glo-
bofe, pointed, with tranfverfe pointed wrinkles.—Found by
Michaux in low grafly places, in the woods of Carolina:
by the Rev. Dr. af cilen berg near Lancafter in Pennfylvania.
Root of a few pale fibres. Stem hardly a fpan high, ereé,
leafy, ftriated; {mooth in our f{pecimens ; illdenow
defcribes it rough. Leaves very narrow. Tufts of flowers
three or four, alternate ; one of them terminal ; each of two
or three fpikelets. Mut {mall, white, fhining, with copious
tranfverfe acute elevations, of a very elegant appearance
under a magnifying glafs.

Screrta, formed of cxAngos, hard, a word ufed by me-
dical writers to exprefs a hardnefs of the inner part of the
eye-lids.

SCLERIASIS, or Sctrroma, in Surgery, a hard
tumour.

SCLEROCARPUS, in Botany, fo named from cxAnposy
hard, and xagxos, fruit, in allufion to the hardnefs of the
calyx, after flowering, when it enclofes the ripe feeds. —Jacq.
fil. in A&. Helvet. v. 9. 34. t. 2. fi. Murr. in Linn,
= 409 Veg. ed. 14. 783. Schreb. Gen. 575. Willd. Sp.
Pl. v. 3.2261. Mart. Mill. Di&.v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew,
v. 5-137. Jufl, 186. Lamarck Iluite.t. gor. Gaertn.

v. 2

.

re.

ttre te ae

SCL

v. 2. 428.—Clafs and order, Syngenefia Polygamia-fruftranea.
Nat. Ord. Compofite difcoidee, Linn. Corymbifere, Juff.
Gen. Ch. Common Calyx roundifh-ovate, furrowed, of
feveral oblong, thick, keeled, ere&t, converging fcales, ex-
ternally ftriated and rough, one to each floret, permanent ;

’ thofe of the fertile florets at length hardened, gibbous, con-

cave, embracing the feeds. Cor. compound, radiated. Florets
of the difk about eight, perfe&, tubular, ere&, of one
petal, funnel-fhaped, with five teeth, externally hairy ; thofe
of the radius very few, from one to four, their limb ligulate,
rounded, emarginate, {preading. Stam. in the perfeé florets,
filaments five, very fhort; anthers five, united into a tube,
fhorter than the petal. Pi/. in the ligulate florets, germen
thread-fhaped, very long, hairy, without ftyle or ftigma,
abortive; in the tubular ones, germen half-obovate, obtufe,
comprefled; ftyle thread-fhaped, longer than the petal;
ftigmas two, revolute. eric. none, except the hardened,
involute fcales of the calyx, each clofely enfolding one
feed. Seeds to the perfe& florets only, half-obovate, com-
prefled, black, fhining, obtufe, without any down, wing
or border; acute at the bafe. Receptacle naked, very
{mall.

Eff. Ch. Receptacle naked. Seeds without down or
border, each enclofed in a hardened concave fcale of the
calyx. Florets of the radius roundifh, very few.

Obf. We have taken our charaéters of this genus from
profeflor Jacquin’s original defcription, compared with the
plant itfelf. Schreber, like Juffieu, appears to have been
unwilling to confider the hardened fcales which enfold the
feeds, as any thing elfe than belonging to the receptacle,
and has therefore given the name of calyx to what feems to
us floral leaves. He is followed by Willdenow and Aiton,
whofe effential generic chara€ter will therefore not accord
with our’s.

1. S. africanus. African Sclerocarpus. Willd. n. 1.
Ait. n.1. Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 176.—Leaves ovate, ferrated.
Native of Guinea. Seeds were fent to Kew in 1812, by M.
Thouin. The plant is annual, requiring heat to raife it, and
fome fhelter Sebi It has little beauty to procure
general attention. he /lem is branched, {preading, about
two feet high, hifpid, clothed with alternate, ftalked, ovate
leaves, tapering at each end, coarfely ferrated, rough and
hairy on both fides, an inch and half or two inches long,
with the afpect of many ofthe Sun-flower tribe. Flowers
folitary, terminal, yellow, inconfpicuous, except for the
round florets of their radius, which are but fmall. Calyx
tran{verfely rugofe, hifpid, furrounded with various unequal
leaves.

2. S. gracilis. Slender Sclerocarpus. — Leaves linear-
lanceolate, entire. Flower-ltalks leafy.—Gathered by Mr.
Menzies, on the welt coaft of North America. Root an-
nual, fimple, tapering. Stem erect, fimple, leafy, round,
purplifh, hairy, abouta foot high. Leaves fcattered, feflile,
narrow, obtule, an inchor inchand half long, clothed with
fhort rough hairs. Flowerlalls four or five at the upper
part of the ftem, alternate, diltant, moftly fingle-flowered,
clothed with feveral {mall {cattered leaves, fcarcely half an
inch long. lowers about a quarter the fize of the laft.
We have not feen the corolla. The calyx of the fruit is
pale, hairy, the keel of each feale befet with prominent
glandular briltles. We perceive feveral fears at the bafe of
the calyx,awhere floral leaves appear to have been, but none
remain, to enable usto judge of their figure.

3. S. exiguus. Small Sclerocarpus.—Leaves linear-lan-
ceolate, entire. Flower-ltalks naked, thrice the length of
the leaves. —Brought by Mr. Menzies from the fame country
asthe laft. An annual plant, three or four inches high,

Sv

with the habit, and numerous hairy ‘eaves, of a Myo/otis.
At the top of the fimple fem are about three fimple, leaflefs,
hairy fla/és, an inch and half long, each bearing one {mall
flower, whofe feed-bearing fcales are very tumid and hifpid,
but about which we perceive no floral leaves, nor any traces
of fuch, though the corolla is not fallen. We prefume this
circumttance confirms our’s and Jacquin’s idea of the generic
charater, and that the fcales are the real calyx.

SCLERODERMA, from THANO<» hard, and deeucey Rin
—Perf. Fung. 150.—Clafs and order, Cryptogamia Fungi.
Nat. Ord. Fungi, Linn. Juff. Fungi dermatocarpi, Per-
foon.

Eff. Ch. Peridium with a corky, hardifh, fomewhat
teffellated coat, burfting irregularly. (The powder is
either purplifh, brown, or rufty-coloured. )

Perfoon enumerates twelve {pecies of this genus, one of
which is fubterraneous. We fhall notice the whole, feveral
of them being curious, or important.

1. S. piftillare. (Wycoperdon pittillare; Linn. Mant.
313.)—Saffron-coloured, club-fhaped, with a twilted ftalk.
—Found by Koenig in the Eaft Indies. A fpan high, the
Jfialk making about one-third of the whole, and being about
one-third of an inch in diameter, of a fibrous {piral tex-
ture, ovate at the bottom. Head four times as thick, ere&t,
ovate-oblong, obtufe ; its fkin faffron-coloured, full of
rulty powder. The whole is of the fame rufty brown when
dried.

2. S. herculeum. (Lycoperdon herculeum; ‘ Pallas’s
Travels, German edition, v. 1. 553.’’)—Whitifh, with a
drooping head. Stalk fcaly, with ftraight fibres. Our
imperfect Englifh edition of Pallas will not enable us to
fay, where he met with this curious fungus: He defcribes
it as often a foot high, externally white ; the /fa/é gradually
{welling upward into a drooping, rather obtufe head, as big
as the fit. When ripe this head difcharges a tawny
brownith powder, by irregular fiflures.

3. S. carcinomale. (Lycoperdon carcinomale; Linn.
Suppl. 453. Thunb. de Medicina Africanorum, 5.)—
Club-fhaped. Peridium burfting at the bafe.. Stalk cylin-
drical, with ftraight fibres. —Native of argillaceous ant-hills
at the Cape of Good Hope. The powder is black, and
is efteemed good for cancerous ulcers. Thunberg.

4. S. tinéorium. (Lycoperdioides album tin&orium,
radice ampliffima ; Mich. Gen. 219. t. 98. f. 1.)—White.
Stalk cellular, branching downwards. Head roundifh,
{mooth. Powder in large mafles.—Native of heaths, barren
ground, and fallow fields, in many places about Florence,
efpecially fuch as are rather hilly, inautumn. A fpan high;
the fla/k above an inch, and the head near three inches, in
diameter.

5. S. arrhizum. (lycoperdon arrhizon; Scop. Del.
Infub. v. 2. 40. t. 18. Rom, and Ulter. Mag. v. 1. 66.
t. 2. f. 1—5.)—Rufty-coloured, cellular. Cells filled with
a fpongy filamentous fubftance. Powder yellow or tawny,
in ie of various fizes.x—Found by Scopoli near Moz-
zate, in the north of Italy, in Augult. About two inches
high, and the head one and a half in diameter; the /a/é
about an inch thick. The grains, or mafles of powder,
are {malleft in the lower part, and in the upper 72, and
more tawny.—Albertini and Schweiniz, in their learned
and elaborate Con/pedtus Fungorum, p. 82. t. 1. f. 3, have
e(tablithed a genus named Pi/olithus, which is founded on
this {pecies, or one very near it; to which they would alfo
refer our §. tindorium. The charaéter of this new genus
confifls in the numerous partial, or feparate peridia, within
the common one. See Lycoperdon capfuliferum, Sowerb.

Fung. t. 425.
6. S.

;

Sc'LE

6. S. aurantium. (Lycoperdon’ aurantium; Linn. Sp.
Pl. 1658: Bulliard. Pung. v. r. 158. t. 270.)—Globofe,
yellow, teflellated orfealy, with a fhort ftalk. Head plaited
and pierced at the lower part. Native of woods in France,
in autumn. The internal fubftance, at firft yellowifh and
flefhy, changes to a black powder: ‘The orifices through
which the powder efcapes, appear to be caufed by infects,
or other accidents, the fkin being fo tough, that it fearcely
burits fpontaneoufly. Bulliard.

7. S. citrinum. (Lycoperdon defoflum; ‘¢ Batfch Fung.
cents 2. 126. L. cervinum; Bolt. Fung. v. 3. 116.
t. 144.)—Roundifh, ftalked, pale yellow, very flightly
{caly.—Found in oak woods, chiefly on the ground, or on
old mofly trunks, in autumn. Lycoperdon pertufum, Sowerb.
Fung. t. 412. f. 2, feems akin to this, as difcharging the
powder by holes that appear to be the work of infe¢ts, but
its texture is more flaccid and delicate, and the colour a
brownifh-white. Bolton confounds. S. citrinum with our
n. 12.

8. S. verrucofum. (Lycoperdon verrucofum ; Bulliard.
Fong. v. 1. 157. t. 24. Vaill. Paris. t. 16. f 7.)—
Nearly globofe, reddifh-brown, minutely and regularly
fealy. Stalk elongated.—Native of woods and dry fitua-
tions in France, in fummer and-autumn. It varies in fize.
The flail is nearly as tall as the head. Bulliard fays this
fungus is reported to be a deadly poifon, and that the dutt
is very hurtful to the eyes.

9. S. fpadiceum. (Lycoperdon {padiceum ; Scheff.
Fung. v. 4.129. v.2. t: 188. Dickf. Crypt. fafc. 1. 25.)
—Cluttered, irregularly globofe, fomewhat dotted, {mooth,
light reddifh-brown. Root hard, fibrous. — Found in
fummer about the trunks of beeches. Perfoon. On heaths
in England, but rare. Dick/on. Nearly akin to S. citri-
num, fo that Perfoon fufpeéts it may be only a variety.
About the fize of a chefnut, rather depreffed at the top.
The powder is collected into irregular {mall maffes, of a dark
brown, nearly black. © Stalk variable in length, from near
an inch to almoft nothing, with many ftrong fibrous radicles.

10. S. Cepa. (Lycoperdon cepz facie ; Vaill. Paris.
123. t. 16. f. 5,6. Tuber folidum; With. v. 4. 372, ex-
cluding the reference to Schzffer.’) — Roundith, depreffed,
nearly {mooth, polifhed. Stalk fhort, tapering, with {carcely
any root.—Found by Vaillant in Auguft, at Marli, and in
the foreft of Fontainbleau. Dr. Withering met with it
under an oak-tree; by the pool, in his own grounds at
Edgbafton, near Birmingham. Very like the lait, but in-
ternally of a blue-black when young, turning fubfequently
brown. The outfideis a little rough in the upper part ; its
colour a dirty white.

1. S. polyrrhizum. (Lycoperdaftrum rotundum majus
leucopheum, pulpa fordidé caerulea; Mich. Gen. 219.
t. 99. f. 1.)—Globofe, pale, without a {talk. Coat fplit-
ting {tar-wife, into equal fegments. Root much branched,
with many fibres.—Gathered by Micheli in autumn, in barren
or fallow fields, and on heaths, in Tufcany. About three
inches diameter, with innumerable denfe roots. Coat re-
volute, in a number of acute fegments, fomewhat like the
ftar puff-ball.

12. S. cervinum. (Lycoperdon cervinum; Linn. Sp.
Pl. 1653. Lycoperdaftrum tuberofum arrhizon fulvum,
corticé duriore craffo ct granulato, medulla ex albo purpu-
rafcente, femine nigro ‘craffiore; Mich. Gen. 220. t. 99.
f.4. Tuber cervinum; With. v. 4. 371.)—Subterraneous,
round or oblong, hard, granulated, without ftalk or root.
—Found distally: in fir woods, inthe earth, jut below the
furface. Not rare in Germany and Italy, though lefs fre-
quent in England. Its fize and fhape refemble a chefnut.

SCL

The outfide is tawny, minutely granulated ; the coat hard.
Inner fubltance whitifh or purplifh, with black feeds.

Lycoperdon feabrum, Willd. Prodr. Berolin. 409, is fup-
pofed by Perfoon to be a rather fmaller, rougher, or more
{caly variety of this.

SCLEROLANA, from OHANGOSs hard, and xiawa, @
covering ; becaufe of the indurated calyx, which makes an
outer coat to the feed, or a fort of {purious pericarp.—
Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 410.—Clafs and order,
Pentandria Digynia, near Chenopodium. Nat. Ord. Hole-
racee, Linn. Atriplices, Jull. Chenopodee, Decandolle,
Brown.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of one leaf, five-cleft.. Corolla none.
Stamens inferted into the bottom of the calyx. Seed verti-
cally comprefled, without albumen, witha fimple fin, tuni-
cated, enclofed in the dry hardened calyx. Embryo curved.
Radicle fuperior. :

A genus from the fouth coaft of New Holland, compofed
of {mall, ufually hoary, or fomewhat woolly, /orubs. Leaves
alternate, linear, narrow. Flowers axillary, folitary or
aggregate.

1. S. paradoxa.—Flowers capitate. Calyx of the fruit
connate ; its fegments tipped with {pines.

2. S. biflora—F lowers in pairs. Leaves linear, femi-
cylindrical.

3. S. uniflora.—Flowers folitary.
what club-fhaped, imbricated.

We prefume the word fo/iis muft have been accidentally
omitted in Mr. Brown’s definition of the third {pecies.

4. S. divaricata.—(Anifacantha divaricata ;_Brown ibid, )
—Flowers four-cleft. Calyx of the fruit with unequal
dorfal {pines. From the fame country. We prefume to
unite the Ani/acantha of our learned friend with his Sele-
rolena, as differing only in the number of the parts of
fruétification, and in the {pines of the calyx being dorfal,
not terminal. ‘The famens are three or four. This is a
fmooth little /brub. Leaves alternate, femi-cylindrical.
Flowers axillary, feflile, without bra@eas.

SCLEROPHTHALMIA, from cxango:, hard, and
ofharuocy the eye, in Surgery, an inflammation of the eye, in
which there is an unufual drynefs and hardnefs of this
organ.

SCLEROSARCOMA, a hard excrefcence on the gums.

SCLEROSIS, a hard tumour.

SCLEROTHAMNUS, in Botany, a genus of papi-
lionaceous plants with feparate ftamens, eftablifhed by
Mr. Brown in addition to thofe, by the writer of the pre-
fent article, publifhed in the firft volume of Sims and
Konig’s Annals of Botany, and in the ninth volume of the
Linnean Society’s Tranfa@tions. The name is compofed
of THANEDSy hard, and Scopvos, a fhrub, expreffin the habit
of the only known fpecies.x—Brown in Ait. Frott, Kew.
vy. 3. 16.—Clafs and order, Decandria Monogynia. Nat.
Ord. Papilionacee, Linn. Leguminofe, Jull.

Eff. Ch. Calyx five-cleft, two-lipped, with a pair of
appendages at the bafe. Corolla papilionaceous ; keel the
length of the wings. Germen italked. Style afcending,
pares per Stigma fimple. Legume turgid, with two
eeds.

1. S. microphyllus. Small-leaved Sclerothamnus.— Ob-
ferved by Mr. Brown, on the fouth coait of New Holland.
It was fent to Kew, in 1803, by Mr. Peter Good, and
flowers from April to June, being treated as a greenhoufe
fhrub. We have feen no {pecimens.

SCLEROTICA, in Anatomy, from cxdrngos, bard, the
external denfe and firm membrane of the globe of the eye.

See Err.
SCLE-

Leaves linear, fome-

SCL

SCLEROTICS, medicines proper to harden and ¢on-

folidate the flefh, &c. of the parts to which they are ap-
lied.

SCLEROTIUM, in Botany, 2 genus of parafitical
fungi, fo named by Tode, from cxAngornc, hardne/s or rigidity,

in allufion to its texture—Tode Fung. fafe. 1. 2. t. 1.
Perf. Fung. 119.—Clafs and order, Cryptogamia Fungt.
Nat. Ord. Fungi, Linn. Juffl. Fungi farcocarpi, Perfoon.

Eff. Ch. Simple, oblong, varioufly fhaped, firm ; inter-
nally {mooth and uniform ; filled with minute feeds.

1. S. crocorum. Perf. n.1. (Tuber parafiticum; Bul-
fiard Fung. v. 1. 81. t. 456.)—-Subterraneous, tuberous,
polymorphous, reddifh, cohering by long fibrous roots.—
This grows parafitically on the roots of the cultivated Saf-
fron, Crocus fatioxs, in France, and is fo pernicious as to
have acquired the name of /a mort du Saffran. Duhamel,
who has written on the fubje&, in the Memoires de ’ Acad.
Royale for 1720, has obferved the fame fungus, as he
believed, on the roots of A/paragus officinalis, and Sambucus
Ebulus. YFougeroux de Bondaroy has alfo given a paper
on this noxious fungus, in the Mem. de l’Acad. for 1782.
It is very deftruGtive to Saffron, foon caufing the whole
bulb to perifh, and fpreadmg with great rapidity over a
whole field of that valuable crop, if not fpeedily ftopped
by a trench, fifteen to eighteen inches deep, to cut off the
communication between the infe&ted and the found plants.
The {malleft quantity of earth from an infected field is faid
to be capable of communicating this plague, even if the
ground were not planted with Saffron till twenty years after-
wards. Hitherto this deftruGtive parafite has not been
heard of but in France. The plants are of an irregular
knobbed figure, from half an inch to an inch long, of a
light reddifh-brown, f{carcely burfting ; granular and paler
within. Long, branching, red, capillary roots are fent off
in all directions, propagating the plant very extenfively and
rapidly, by offsets, which attach themfelves to the faffron,
and multiplying in the fubftance of the bulbs, foon deftroy

m.
2. S. fungorum. Perf.n.2. (S.fubterraneum 2; Tode
Fung. fafc. 1. 4. t. 1. f. 5, c, d, e.)—Subterraneous, irre-
comet lobed, pale.—Found on the roots of decaying fungi;

questly undermining that of Agaricus tuberofus, Bull.
t. 256. The plants are whitifh ; at firft the fize of muf-
tard-feed, but fubfequently three to fix lines long, and un-
equally {welling ; the internal fubftance white.

3. S. mufeorum. Perf. n.3. (S. fubterrancum a; Tode
Fung. fafe. 1. 3. t. 1. f. 5, a, b.) —Subterraneous, roundifh,
bright yellow, fomewhat tuberculated.—Found attached to
the roots of mofles in fummer. Each plant is two or three
Hines long, at length varying in fhape, of the fame golden
hue within and without; its fubftance rather fucculent.

S. lacunofum. Perf. Difp. Meth. Fung. 15. t. 3. f. 7.
—Subterraneous, nearly round, channelled, black.— Found
by Perfoon in autumn, adhering, like a root, to the bafe of a
remarkable Agaricus, called by him racemofus. This fpecies
is the fize of a {mall pea.

5- 5. durum. Perf. im Uft. Ann. fafc. 11. 41.—Ovate,
hard, fornewhat ftriated, of a dull black.—Found in autumn
and winter on the dried ftems of umbelliferous, and other
large, herbs.—Generally ovate, but often indeterminate in
Aigare, clofe preffed to the ftem on which it grows, and
° covered by the cuticle. [ts fubltance is firm, inter-
nally white ; and the furface is marked with oblong furrows.

6. &. complanatum. "'Tode Fung. fafc. 1, 5. t. 1. f. 9.
Perf. v. 6.—Ere&, pale, fomewhat pear-fhaped, compreffed,
with a thort ftalk.—Found in winter, adhering to rotten
hay or ftraw in danghills, When young it is white, and

Vor. XXXI,

SCL

feareely compreffed. Afterwards it generally becomes in-
verfely heart-fhaped, and of a pale dirty hue.

7. S. radicatum. ‘Fode Fung. fafe. r. 5. t. 1. £8.
Perf. n. 7.—Obovate, black, with numerous long roots.
Found in September, growing on the earth, in moiit fhady
places. Each plant is about the fize of a pea, nearly glo-
bular, half immerfed in the ground, of a compaé& rather
juicy fubftance, with a very black fmooth /fin, finally burtt-
ing inthe centre. The roofs are fimple, numerous, longer
than the fungus itfelf.

8. S. brafice. Perf. Difp. Meth. Fung. 15.—Oblong,
deprefied, black ; dotted with black internally.—Found in
winter among rotten cabbage-leaves, laid by in cellars.
Two or three lines broad, flattened, thin.

g. S. varium. Perf. n. 9. (* Elvela braffice ; Hoffm.
Veg. Crypt. fafc. 2. #8. t. 5. f. 2, excluding fome of the
fynonyms.”’ Per/.)—Roundifh, or oblong, fomewhat lobed,
rugofe, variable. White when young ; then brownifh, and
black.—Upon the ftems, and ribs of the leaves, of cabbagea
in winter.—This confifts of little tuberous bodies, cither
folitary or from three to fix crowded together, at firft ap-
pearing in the form of minute {now-white er then
becoming oblong, or kidney-fhaped, obfcurely lobed, various
in fize, changing to brown and black.

to. S. Semen. Tode Fung. fafc. 1.4. tex. £6. Perf.
n. 10. (Spheria braffice; Dickf. Crypt. fafc. 1. 23.
Bolt. Fung. t. 119. f. 2.)—Cluftered, fpherical, blackifh-
brown, finally wrinkled; internally white.—On the rotten
cabbages and parfneps; as well as, according to Perfoon,
on decaying ftems of potatoes, when heaped up in the
fields, in autumn and fpring. About one or two lines in
diameter, rather foft, and white, when young; becoming
wrinkled by drying. This fungus has been taken for the
Jeed of cabbages, a truly wonderful mode of propagation,
worthy the confideration of thofe who want an argument
againft the fexes of plants, aad as good as many that have
been advanced !

11. S. pubefcens. Perf. n. r1.—Cluftered, globofe, pale,
villous at the bafe-—Among the gills of a rotten Agaric,
late in autumm About a line broad, fometimes flightly
deprefled in the centre.

12. S. Eryfiphe. Perf. Obf. Mycolog. fafc. 1. 13.
(Mucor Eryfiphe; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1656.) — Granules ag-
Bregate, brownifh-black, attached by white down to the
eaves of plants.—This is found on the leaves of various
plants in autumn, which thence appear to be fprinkled with
a white meally powder, and aflume a languid condition ;
except only hazel-leaves, on whofe backs it fometimes oc-
curs, without injuring them. The fungus itfelf ia very
minute, globofe, at firft fmooth and yellowifh, then brown,
finally rugged and nearly black. Some fpecimens, efpe-
cially thofe which grow on the hazel, are hollowed, and
fomewhat villous, at the fummit, evincing an affinity to the
Praize.

13. S. quercinam. Perf. Difp. Meth. Fung. 15.—Nearly
hemifpherical, convex, f{mooth, of a dirty or blackifh hue,
feattered over the leaves of plants.—Found on dry fallen
oak leaves in fummer. About a line and a half broad,
Por attached to the leaves by about half its fur-

ace,

14. S. populneum. Perf. Obf, Mycol. fafe. 2. 25.—~
Crowded, partly funk in the leaves of plants, roundih,
or angular and confluent ; reddifh flefh-coloured ; at length
black.—Found on the backs of dead leaves of the black

oplar, in autumn and winter, and on alpen leaves in (pring,
t appears in the form of little black warts, covering the

leaves, and giving them a rowgh or fealy appearance.
5A Wheo

sco
When moiftened, the dried fungus refumes its original flefh-

coloured hue.

15. S. purpureum. Tode Fung. fafc. 1. 2. t. 1. f. 2.

Perf. n. 15.—Scattered, minute, oval, perpendicular, very °

{mooth.—Found once only by Mr. Tode, early in March,

on a fallen branch of oak, under the cuticle. It was vifible

by the help of a magnifier only. The furface was very

Pes i and of a fomewhat fhining purple ; the fub{tance
ard.

16. S? fphaeroides. Perf. n. 16. — Cluttered, . fmall,
roundifh, or elongated and angular, flattifh, black.—On
young branches of Populus tremula, buriting out of the
bark, like a Spheria, one-third or half a line in dimentfions,
white internally, tumid and flightly flefhy, furrounded with
the broken cuticle of the bark ; its difk minutely wrinkled.
The infide being neither hollow, nor filled with jelly, Perfoon
could not refer this fungus to Spheria, though he allows that
its habit, and mode of growth, are not exactly fimilar to
other f{pecies of Sclerotium.

SCLOBODA, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the

alatinate of Braclaw ; 52 miles W. of Braclaw.

SCLOPETOPLAGA, from /elopetum, a gun, and plaga,
a wound, in Surgery, a gun-fhot wound.

SCNIPS, in Natural Hifory, a name given by authors
to the {mall fpecies of gnat, always found about the oak-
tree, feeding on the juices of its leaves, which it fucks by
means of its fharp trunk.

It is fuppofed by fome to be hatched of the {mall oblong
white worm, that inhabits the oak-apples.

SCOBS, a word ufed by fome authors to exprefs the
rafpings of ivory, hartfhorn, or other hard fubftances.
Some alfo have ufed it to exprefs the fcorie of metals ; and
fome as a name for the cineres clavellati, or pot-afhes ufed in
foap and glafs-making.

SCOCHETTO, in Biography, an Italian mufician, con-
temporary and friend of Dante ; and not only a poet, but an
able muficiau, as is concluded from the title of an ancient
MS. of a ballatella, which informs us, that the words were
by Dante, andthe tune by Scochetto: “ Parole di Dante, e
fuono di Schochetti.” Crefcimbeni, If. della Volg. Poefia,

- 409.
i SCODEGHINO, a name given by chirurgical authors
to a peculiar fpecies of incifion-knife, deferibed by Scul-
tetus, and ufed by Rouflet in performing the Czfarean
operation.

SCODINEMA, a word ufed by fome medical writers
to exprefs a heavinefs of the head.

SCODRA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Illyria,
upon the Drino.

SCODRI, a people of India, near the north of the river
Indus.

SCOENUS, a river of Thrace.

SCOLARI, Giusrppr, in Biography, an excellent com-
pofer, who flourifhed in the laft century, between 1745 and
1766; during which period he produced twelve or fourteen
operas, ferious and comic, for different theatres, which were
chiefly fuccefsful. He was fufficiently high in the opinion
of the public, to be futfered to wrettle with Piccini, in new
fetting the “ Buona Figliuola maritata’’ of Goldoni.

SCOLD, Common, Communis rixatrix, 11 Law, 1s
deemed a public nuifance to her neighbourhoed ; for which
offence fhe may be indiéted, (Mod, 213.); and if convicted,
fhall be fentenced to be placed in a certain engine of correc-
tion, called the trebucket, cafligatory, or cucking-ttool,
which, in the Saxon language, is fard to fignify the {colding
fool; though now it is frequently corrupted into ducking-
ool, becaule the refidue of the judgment is, that when fhe

sco

is fo placed therein, fhe fhall be plunged in the water thrice,
as fome fay, for her punifhment. 1 Hawk. P.C. 198. 200,

Inft. 219. See Cuckine-Stool.

SCOLECIA, inthe Materia Medica of the ancients, a
name given to a kind of verdigris.

Of this there were two fpecies, the one found native in
the earth, the other fiétitious.

_ The latter kind was prepared by rubbing a quantity of
vinegar in a brafs mortar, with a brafs peftle, till it became
thick and ropy: when it was in this condition, a {mall
quantity of alum and fea-falt, or nitre, were added to it,
and it was fet in the fun in the heat of the dog-days. It was
to ftand thus till it became ropy, thick, and of a green
colour; and then being drawn out into long threads, and
dried, it had the refemblance of worms in fhape, and thence
had its name.

SCOLEX, in Natural Hiffory, a genus of the Vermes
Inteftina clafs and order. The generic charaéter is, body
gelatinous, yarioufly fhaped, broadifh on the fore-part, and

pointed behind; fometimes linear and long, fometimes _

wrinkled and fhort, round, flexuous or deprefled ; the head
is protraétle and retractile. There are two

Species.

Prevronectipis. Head with four auricles. It is found
in the inteftinal mucus of the turbot, plaife, fole, gwiniad,
and lump-fifh, It is rarely vifible to the naked eye.
Head pellucid, with two oblong fhining red dots behind ;
the auricles plaited in various forms; the neck is pellucid,
fhort, with a lunate margin, which is red while the worm
is in a living ttate.

Lopuu. This is found in the inteftinal mucus of the
Lophius pifcatorius. The body is minute, and hardly
vifible to the naked eye, and is generally fuppofed to be a
variety of the latt.

SCOLIA, in Entomology, a genus of infeéts of the order
Hymenoptera. The generic charaéter is as follows: mouth
with a curved fharp mandible, crenate within; jaw com-
prefled, projecting, entire, and horny ; tongue infle&ted and
trifid, very fhort; the lip is projecting, membranaceous at
the tip, and entire; the feelers are four, equal, fhort, and
filiform, fituated in the middle of the lip ; antenne thick and
filiform, the firft joint longer than the reft. There are
thirty-nine fpecies defcribed in the Syitema Nature.

Species.

Arrata. Hairy, black; wings ferruginous, tipt with
violet. It is an inhabitant of the South American iflands.
The antennz of the male are long and cylindrical, of
the female fhort and incurved; the abdomen is ovate,
feflile.

Nierira. The f{pecies is black; the wings are white,
with a black rib, It inhabits Africa. A {pecimen of it is
in fir Jofeph Banks’s mufeum.

Quapri-mAcuLATA. Hairy, black; abdomen with
fulvous {pots. It inhabits North America. The abdomen
is oblong ; the feeond and third fegments are marked with
two round yellow f{pots; the edges of the fegments are
ciliate ; the wings are brown, with a violet glofs.

Fravirrons. Black; front yellow; abdomen with
four yellow fpots, It is an European infect. The antenns
are black or veritas ; the front is yellow, with a brown
{pot in the middle; the thorax is black, with two yellow
dots on the fc..tel.

Sex-macuLata. Hairy, black; the abdomen is marked
with three pair of yellow fpots. This is found in divers

parts of Italy. The eyes have a yellow {pot before and
behind ;

SCOLIA.

behind; the wings of the male are teftaceous, tipt with
blue, .

Hezmorrworpalis. Hairy, black; abdomen with two

yellow bands; fore part of the thorax and tail with ferru-
ginous hairs. It inhabits Saxony. The wings are fub-
teftaceous, tipt with brown.
_ Rusicixosa. This is black; the third fegment of the
abdomen with two fulvous fpots; the hind ones with fer-
ruginous hair; the tail is three-toothed. It inhabits the
Eaft Indies. The wings are blue.

Rurtcornis. Black; antenne fulvous; wings blue.

This is an African infe&t, and found in Senegal. It is of a

large fize; the firft joint of the antennz is black.

Variecata. Black, {potted with yellow ; the firft feg-
ment of the abdomen is yellow; the fecond, third, fourth,
and fifth, with two yellow fpots; the reft immaculate ; the
tail is three-toothed. It inhabits Cayenne, and is large.
The antennz are black; the head and lips are yellow; the
thorax is black f{potted.

Brtacuata. This infe&tis hairy and black ; the abdo-
men is marked with two yellow fpots; the antenne are
yellow. It inhabits North America and Spain. The firft
joint of the antennz is black; the wings are tipt with
brown.

Ciurata. Black; fegments of the abdomen with a
ciliate fulvous margin. Inhabits Spain. This is a large
infe@ ; the legs are black, covered with golden hair.

Aurea. This is a hairy infe@, of a ferruginous colour ;
the head is black; the wings dufky. It inhabits Barbary.
Tail entire. .

FerruGinea. This alfo is a hairy infe&t, and of a fer-
ruginous colour ; the wings are tipt with brown. It in-
habits New Holland. A {pecimen is preferved in fir Jofeph
Banks’s mufeum. The wings are ferruginous; the body is
covered with ferruginous hair.

Scurettata. Black ; the thorax is fulvous, and flightly
toothed behind; the abdomen is marked with four Bias
fpots. It is found at Naples, and is the fize of the lait.

he thorax is black before, and fulvous behind ; the margin
is nearly five-toothed ; all the legs are black.

Raputa. Black, hairy; the abdomen is marked with
four yellow bands.

Tripens. Thisalfo is black, but the abdomen has three

ellow bands; the tail is three-toothed. It inhabits Italy.
Foredee of the thorax is yellow on each fide.

Horrorum. Black; abdomen with two yellow bands ;
the wings are ferruginous, tipt with blue. It is found
chiefly in Spain.

Unuipasciata. Hairy, black; abdomen with a yellow
band; wings ferruginous at the bafe, and brown at the tip.
This is found in Barbary, as is the next.

Maura. Deep black; wings blackifh, but the tips are
paler; tail three-toothed.

Coxcanis. Hairy and black; the crown, fore part of
the thorax, and two bands on the abdomen, are cinereous.
It inhabits Spain. The wings are of a deep black.

Quimtrasciata. Hairy; abdomen blue, with five
yellow bands; the tailisthree-toothed. It inhabits Africa.
Sir Jofeph Banks hasa {pecimen. The antenna are black ;
the head and thorax are downy and cinereous; the wings
are brownifh; the legs are of a hairy brown; the fore-
thanks are yellow without.

Bicincta. Hairy, black; abdomen with yellow bands ;
the wings are of a blackifh-blue colour. It inhabits Ame-
rica. The fecond abdominal band is fometimes inter-
rupted.

‘Norata. Black; abdomen with two yellow bands,
the firft with a black dot on each fide. It inhabits Italy.
The head is marked with two yellow {pots on the front, the
lateral ones lunate ; the abdomen is marked with a pair of
{mall yellow dots behind the bands ; the wings are blue.

QuintcincTa. Cinereous, hairy ; the fore-edge of the
thorax and fcutel yellow; abdomen blue, with five yellow
bands; the tail is three-toothed. It inhabits Italy, and
refembles the quini-fafciata.

VerticaLis. Hairy and black; the crown is fulvous.
It is a native of New Holland. A fpecimen of this, and
alfo of the next, exilts in the mufeum of fir Jofeph Banks.
The crown has three ftemmata; the wings blueifh.

Quapri-pusTuLata. . Black; abdomen with four ru-
fous dots; the wings are blue. It inhabits Malabar.

Quini-punctaTa. Black; abdomen rufous in the
middle, the tip black, with five white dots. It is a native
of Germany, and fmall. The antennz petiolate; the head
with a {mall white dot in the orbits; the thorax is marked
with a white dot on each fide ; the abdomen with five white
dots, the middle ones very {mall ; the legs are fhort.

Octo-curratTa. Black; abdomen with two tranfverfe
white dots; the wings are black. It is found chiefly in
Spain, on the Allium cepa.

Quapri-cuTrata. Black; abdomen with four white
dots ; the wings are hyaline. It inhabits Germany. The
antennz are ferruginous beneath; the head is black; the
front white.

Sex-cutTaTa. Black; the abdomen is marked with fix
white dots; the wings are hyaline. It inhabits Germany,
and is fmall. The wings are white, with a black coftal
dot.

Prisma. Black; abdomen with three yellow bands,
the firft and laft interrupted, and a {mall yellow dot at the
tail. - This is a {mall infe€@t, and a native of Saxony.

Quapri-punctaTa. Black; abdomen with four white
dots ; wings ferruginous, tipt with brown. This is found
chiefly in Italy, and is fmall. The body is hairy; the ab-
domen is marked with two dots.

Sex-cincta. Black, {potted with yellow; abdomen
black, with fix yellow {treaks. It is a hative of the South
American iflands. The head is black, and tip ferruginous ;
thorax black, fpotted with yellow; the legs are ferra-
ginous.

Interrupta. Black, with cinereous hair; abdomen
black, with fix yellow bands, the three upper ones inter-
rupted ; the tail is three-toothed. This is an Italian infec.
Lip with a yellow line on each tide at the bafe ; the thorax
is marked with three yellow dots on the feutel ; the fourth
band of the abdomen with a black dot on each fide ; the legs
are black; the four fore-fhanks yellow above; winge
whitifh, the rib of the upper pair ferruginous.

Senixis. Cinereous-hairy ; tail five-toothed and brown,
It is a native of Barbary. Lip yellow, with a black fpot
in the middle; the wings are iyalite, with a ferruginous
rib. :

Serrem-cincra. Cinereous-hairy; the abdomen is
blueith, with feven yellow bands; the tail is three-toothed,
It is found in New Holland. A {pecimen is in the mufeum
of fir Jofeph Banks. The tail has a fhort recurved tting ;
the wings are brown.

Cytinpaica. This is a black infe&; the edge of the
fegments of the abdomen and lateral dot near the edge are

ellow. It inhabits Italy, In the yellow lateral dot is a
mall black one; the legs are black; the fore-fhanks yel-
low ; the fling fhort and recurved.

5A 2 BieascraTa.

sc O

Brrascrata. Black; the fcutel and the two dots on
the thorax are ferruginous; the abdomen is marked with
two interrupted ferruginous bands. It is a native of New
York.

VespirorMis. This is ferruginous; the five fegments
of the abdomen are black on the fore part ; wings are of a
coer yellow, with a black bafe and tip. It inhabits
China.

Scorta, or Songs of the Ancient Greeks. Vocal mufic is
of {uch high antiquity, that its origin feems to have been
coeval with mankind; at leaft, the lengthened tones of
pleafure and pain, of joy and affi€tion, muft long have pre-
ceded every other language, and mufic. The voice of paf-
fion wants but few articulations, and muft have been nearly
the fame in all human creatures ; differing only in gravity or
acutenefs, according to age, fex, and organization, till the
invention of words, by particular conventions, in different
focieties, weakened, and, by degrees, rendered it unintel-
ligible.. This primitive and inftin@ive language, or cry of
nature, is ftill retained by animals, and univerfally under-
ftood, while our artificial tongues are known only to the
{mall part of the globe, where, after being learned with
great pains, they are fpoken. ‘* We talk of love and of
hatred,” fays M. de Voltaire, “¢ in general terms, without
being able to exprefs the different degrees of thofe paffions.
It is the fame with refpe& to pain and pleafure, of which
there are fuch innumerable f{pecies. The fhades and grada-
tions of volition, repugnance, or compulfion, are equally
indiftin& for want of colours.”? This cenfure fhould, how-
ever, be confined to written language; for though a word
can be accurately expreffed in writing, and pronounced but
one way, yet the different tones of voice that can be given
to it, in the utterance, are infinite. A mere negative or
affirmative may even be uttered in fuch a manner, as to con-
vey ideas diametrically oppofite to the original import of
the word. ‘

Mufic, confidered then as the language of the paffions, is
moft expreflive, when its movements are leaft impeded by
difficult articulations; and this accounts for the preference
of one language to another, for mufical purpofes; for the
pleafure we receive from initrumental mufic, of the moft
exquifite kind; and from divifions in airs that are well exe-
cuted by the voice.

It has already been obferved, that fongs preceded the ufe
ot letters, and ferved not only for amufement, but fupplied
the place of hiftory in after-ages. Laws were originally
fung, to be the better retained m memory ; and prayers of-
fered up to the gods were chanted, in order to add to their
folemnity and energy. The firft public ufe, therefore, of
mufic was the fervice of religion; and the firft private ufe,
to alleviate labour and care, or to exprelfs hilarity during
focial happinefs.

Theurgic hymns, or fongs of incantation, fuch as thofe
afcribed to Orpheus, which were performed in the myiterics
upon the mott folemn oceafions, were the firlt and moft an-
cient of which we have any account in Greece; and thefe
are fuppofed to have originated in Egypt.

The fecond fpecies confifted of poetical and popular
hymns, that were fung at the head of an army, or in praife
of fome divinity, during the public worfhip of the gods in
temples ; and thefe were diftinguifhed by particular appella-
tions, according to the deities to whom they were addrefled ;
as Pzans to Apollo and Mars, and Dithyrambics to Bacchus.
Hymns, however, of this kind, in procefs of time, were
lavifhed upon heroes, kings, and generals.

There was {till a third clafs, ditin& from thefe, which

sCcO

may be denominated philofophic, or allegorical hymns, it
which the attributes of the Supreme Being, as the apologifts
for Paganifm pretended, were celebrated under fome fable
or virtue perfonified,

Of all the different kinds of f{colia, or feftive fongs, that
were in ufe among the inhabitants of Greece, and that were
diftiné from religious hymns, thofe of which we have any
remains are chiefly fuch as were fung at table, during the
time of banquets, or repafts. We are told, however, by
Plutarch, Athenzus, Lucian, and other Greek writers,
that in the firft ufe of thefe, they were real pxans, faered
canticles, or hymns, fung by the whole company to fome
divinity. It afterwards was the cuftom for each of the
guefts to fing one of thefe fongs alone, holding a branch of
myrtle in his hand, which he pafled about to his next neigh-
bour, as we do the bottle ; and this may be called the fecond
manner of performing thefe fongs.. The third was to the
accompaniment of the lyre, and required profelled muficians,
fingers, and cithareedilts ; for mufic was now arrived at 2
greater degree of perfection among artifts, who made it
their chief employment, than gentlemen who employed them-
felyes in it, among other exereiies in the general courfe of
education, only as an amufement.

As there were three feveral ways of performing thefe
{colia, the fubje€ts upon which they were compofed may be
likewife arranged under three claffes. The firft clafs con-
fifted of moral fongs, of which feveral are preferved by
Athenzus.

In the following fcolium, Timocreon gives his opinion
of riches.

s¢ Vile riches fhould no favour find,

By land or fea, among mankind ;

But fhould be fent with fiends to dwell,

Down in the deepeft, blackeit hell:
For ’tis from them, ere fince the world began,
The greateft ills have {prung, which torture man.””

And Plato, Athenzus, and Lucian, have all quoted a
fong upon the pre-eminence of worldly bleflings, that is
afcribed to Simonides :

«“ The firft of human gifts is health,
The next on beauty’s power attends ;
The third, poffeffing reheat wealth ;
The fourth is youth, enjoy’d with friends,””

Phocylides has given the fame fentiment, in different
words. And Ariftotle, having brought it from Delphos,
has done it the honour to place it at the head of his Moral
Writings. Anaxandrides, however, according to Athenezus,
was not fo partial to it; but, on the contrary, difputed the
fentiments it contained.

«© That health is the firft of all bleffings below,
Is a truth which no logic can fai confute ;
But the fecond on perfonal charms to beltow, —
And on riches the third, I beg leave to difpute :
Next to health, give me riches; for beauty, though
bright,
In hunger and rags is a villainous fight.”

The fecond clafs of {colia comprehends mythological
hymns, and hiftorical fongs. Of thefe we fhall give the fol-
lowing, from Athenus, as {pecimens merely of the fenti-
ments which thefe kinds of compofitions contained ; for as
to the meafure and mufic, they are now equally irre-
coverable.

To

Sco

To the Divinities that prefide over Riches and Abundance.

«: Ar the genial board I fing
Pleafures which from plenty {pring :
While the wreath adorns our brows, :
Ceres well deferves our vows.
Plutus too, thy name [’ll join,
And thy fifter Proferpine.
Ye our focial joys augment,
From your bounty flows content.
Blefs our city with increafe,
And our fong fhall never ceafe.””

On Latona and her Offspring.

©

Latona once, on Delos’ ifle,
Gave to the world a matchlefs pair ;
Apollo, who makes nature {mile,
Whofe fhoulders glow with golden hair:
And Dian’, goddefs of the chace,
Whofe fhafts unerring ever fly; -
Sole fov’reign of the female race,
Noéturnal emprefs of the fky.”’

On Pan.

O Pan, delight of nymphs and {wains,
Prote¢tor of Arcadian plains,

Who lead’ ft the frolic dance;
The laughing fair, who play the prude,
But fly fen thee to be purfu’d,

Their favours to enhance.

They love thy ruftic oaken reed ;

They know thy vigour, force, and fpeed,
And feign a modeft fear.

Our ioehed {trains fhall {well for thee,

And render, by their mirth and glee,
Thy name for ever dear.”

Among the hiftoric or patgiotic fongs, there are none
more frequently mentioned by ancient authors than thofe
~ Harmodius and Ariftogiton. See Harmopius. See

o Hymy.

The third and laft clafs of {colia, concerning which we
fhall fpeak, was upon common and mifcellaneous fubje&ts,
peculiar to no age or country. The greateft number, and
the belt of thefe, were upon love and wine. ‘ Love in-
fpires mufic and poetry :” this was a memorable maxim
among the Greeks, and the fubjeét of one of Plutarch’s
Sympofiace.

Scolia, written by the greateft poets of antiquity, are
mentioned by ancient authors; and Atheneus has preferved
{pecimens and fragments of a great number. It mutt, how-
ever, be owned, that moft ~ them appear now to be un-
meaning and infipid. And Athenzus cither has not felected
them with talte and judgment, or it would encourage a
belief that the genius of che Greeks could not ftoop to ele-

ce in trifle. Indeed, with refpeét to fongs upon the
ubjedts of love and drinking, thofe of Anacreon have been
soe regrroed as ttandards of excellence. They are diftin-
guithed, by their native elegance and grace, 'from every
ether kind of poetical compofition; and the voluptuous
gaiety of all his fonys is fo charaéteriftic, that his ftyle and
manner have had more imitators than Pindar. Avnacreontics
are expected to be as joyous and fportive, as Pindarice
daring and fublime. « His {miling and flowery images,”
fays M. de la Nauze, “ are the more certain to inte ae

they are all feleéted with tafte and difcerament, and faith

sco

fully copied from nature.” Much lefs can be faid, how-
ever, in behalf‘of the moral purity of his fentiments ; for
mutt be owned, that their lcentioufnefs is the more dan-
gerous, in proportion to the art and infinuating delicacy
with which they are clothed, See ANACREON.
Unfortunately, the mifcellaneous and moral fcolia have
the leaft merit of all thofe that are preferved in Athenzus,
Indeed, the fimplicity of many of them will not bear an
Englifh drefs, unlefs it be very much laced and embroidered
by the tranflator; for fo little of the ancient genius of
Greece appears in them, that nothing but a mixture of mo-
dern poetical images is likely to procure them a perufal,
The following {colium, for inftance, when literally and fairly
tranflated, can afford no pleafure to a modern reader;
« Son of Telamon, warlike Ajax! they fay you are the
braveft of the Grecians who came to Troy, next to

Achilles !”?__And this is called a fong!

Nor is either the poetry or morality very exalted of this
«¢ He who does not betray his friend, has great honour both
with gods and men—in my opinion.” ' But we muit not
further purfue the fubje& in this place.

SCOLIASIS, in Surgery, a diftortion of the fpine,

SCOLION, among the Ancients, a kind of bacchanal
{ong ufed at entertainments.

SCOLLIS, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Tri-
phylia, in the northern part, N. of the river Peneus.—
Alfo, a mountain of the Peloponnefus, in Achaia Propria,
in which was the fource of the river Lariflus.

SCOLOPAX, in Ornithology, a genus of birds of the
order Gralle. This genus is chara¢terized by a roundifh
bill, which is obtufe and longer than the head ; the noftrils
are linear; the face covered; the feet are four-toed, the
hind toe confifting of many joints. There are about fifty
fpecies enumerated by Gmelin, which are feattered over
different parts of the globe; of thefe, fifteen, as will be
found, belong to our own country. This genus includes
the curlews, the {nipes, woodcocks, godwits, whimbrels,
and green and yellow fhanks,

Species.

Guaravuna; Brafilian Whimbrel. Billarched, yellowith;
legs brown ; head brown, itreaked with white. This is a
native of South America, and is twenty-one inches long.
The bill is brown, with a yellow bafe ; feathers of the head
and neck brown, with a whitifh edge; the back and
body beneath chefnut ; fhoulders, wing-coverts, rump, and
tail brown, with a green glofs; quill-feathers brown, the
outer edge glofly green.

Borgaris; Efquimaux Curlew. Bill and legs black ;
the body is brown, {potted with grey, beneath pale ochre,
This inhabits the moift and inundated meadows of Hudfon’s
bay ; it is lefs than the common curlew ; it feeds on worms
and berries.

Arricana; Cape Curlew. Billarched, blackifh-brown;
legs brown; body cinereous, beneath it is white, aud the
breaft is marked with rafty {pots. This inhabits the Cape
of Good Hope, and is the fize of a fnipe. The face and
rump are white; the edges of the wings are white mixed
with grey ; the quill-feathers are brown, with white fhafts ;
the fecondary wing-coverts tipt with white.

*Pyomea; Pigmy Curlew. Arched bill and legs
black; the body is varied with ferraginous, brown, and
white; beneath it is white. It is fometimes found in this
country, though not at all common: it is the fize of a lark 5
the rump-is white ; the quill and outer tail-feathers are edged
with white,

Mapagascarensis; Madagafear Curlew. Arched bill

and

SCOLOPAX.

and legs reddifh ; the back with brown rhomboid fpots.
It inhabits Madagafcar: in its fize and appearance it re-
fembles the arquata, except that the bill is lefs arched ; the
chin is white ; and the fpots on the body are more diitin@.

* Arquata; Common Curlew. Bill arched, blackifh ;
legs blueifh; wings blackifh, with fhowy fpots. This
fpecies inhabits moift and fenny places in our own country,
and in divers parts of Enrope, Afia, and Africa, in flocks ;
it feeds on worms and marth infeéts; lays four eggs ; it is
of an olive colour, with brown fpots ; the flefh is very good.
It is alfo defcribed as having the lower mandible reddifh at
the bafe ; the body above and breaft are marked with dufky-
brown ftreaks ; the chin, rump, belly, and vent white; the
quill-feathers are black ; within {potted with white; the legs
are blueifh ; toes flat and broad, and it is nearly two feet
long. There is a variety which is varied with rufous and
black ; beneath pale rufous; the legs are black ; the wings
are black, with reddifh {pots. It inhabits North America.
The body is lefs; and the bill longer than thofe of the
other.

Luzonrensts; Luzonian Curlew. This fpecies is white ;
the head and neck with black ftreaks; the belly and tail
with black bands; the back is brown, with white {pots ;
the crown is black. It inhabits Luzonia, and is lefs than
the latt.

Tauitiensis; Otaheite Curlew. The bill of this is
brown, reddifh at the bafe ; legs blue-grey ; crown brown ;
eye-brows pale; body reddifh-white, with dufky ftreaks and
fpots ; the back is black, waved with white. This, as its

“trivial ngme denotes, inhabits Otaheite ; it is twenty inches
long. 5 quill-feathers are dufky, with paler edges ; the

tail is of a dirty yellow near the bafe, with {pots, the reft .

with dufky bars.

LevucocepHALA; White-headed Curlew. The bill in
this is red; legs black, cinereous; head and neck white ;
the body is blue; and the quill-feathers black. ‘This is a
native of the Cape of Good Hope.

*Puxopus; Whimbrel. The bill of this is arched and
black ; the legs are blueifh; the back is marked with
rhomboid brown fpots ; the rump is white ; lower mandible
reddifh at the bafe ; the body above and breaft are brownith,
with dufky brown {treaks ; the chin, rump, belly, and vent
are white; the tail is brown, with dufky bars; the quill-
feathers are black, {potted with white on the infide. It is
about half the fize of the common curlew, but agreeing
with it in appearance and habits. Although found in this
country, it is rare.

Hunpsonica; Hadfonian Curlew. Billblack; legs blue;
body brown, fpotted with white; the belly is white; the
crown is of a chefnut-brown colour, with a longitudinal
white line in the middle. It inhabits Hudfon’s bay ; is the
fize of the laft. The eye-brows are white, and the rump
is the colour of the back.

Fusca; Dufky Snipe. Bill bent in at the tip; body
black, waved with white; the rump and wings beneath
are white. It inhabits the north of Europe, and is twelve
inches long. It migrates; the bill is black ; the legs are
brown; the lower part of the back and rump are white;
the quili-feathers are brown, fpotted with grey ; the tail-
feathers are brown, tranfverfely ftreaked with white.

Cancrea; Terek Saipe. The bill of this fpecies is
black 5 the legs are reddifh-brown ; the body cinereous, be-
neath white ; wings with a whitifh tranfverfe band, This
is about the Cafpian fea, is nine inches long, and gregarious 5
the bill is a little recurved, and black ; throat and breatt
ftreaked with cinereous; the feathers are brown in the
middle ; the firft quill-feathers brown ; fecondary cinereous.

Suparquata. This has an arched bill, and black ; head,
neck, and fpurious wings brown, waved with pale rulty ;
the body above is cinereous, beneath pale and rufty ; the
chin, vent, and rump, are white. This inhabits the Caf-
pian fea, and is about eight inches long. In this {pecies
the lower mandible is the fhorter of the two; the tongue
is long, arrow-fhaped, entire; the eyes are brown; the
orbits whitifh ; lores brown ; the rump and vent are marked
with brown fpots; the tail is rounded, and of a brown-afh
colour. “

Incana; Afh-coloured Snipe. Bill black ; legs yel-
lowifh-green ; the body is cinereous; {pot behind the bill
and eyes, chin, throat, and middle of the belly, white.” This
is a native of Palmeriton ifland, and is eleven inches long $
the bill is a little incurved at the tip; the chin is marked
with brown ftripes.

GrisEA; Brown Snipe. The bill, legs, wing-coverts,
and quill-feathers, brown; the head, neck, and fhoulders
are brown-ath, {potted with black ; the back and belly are
white. It inhabits the fea-coalts of New York, and is eleven
inches long; the band between the bill and eyes, and
{tripe on each fide above the eyes, white; the fecondary
quill-feathers edged with white ; the breaft is varied with
white and brown; tail and rump with black and white
lines ; the back toe is high and long. '

Novesoracensis; Red-breafted Snipe. This is varied
with black, cinereous, and red; the back and belly are
white ; wings cinereous; the tail is barred with white and
black. It is a native of New York. ‘The bill and legs are
brown ; the fore-part of the neck is ferruginous, with black
{pots. ‘
Nicra; Black Snipe. The bill and legs of this are
red; the body is black. This fpecies inhabits the iflands
of the northern countries of Afia and America, :

Nurans; Nodding Snipe. The bill is black ; the legs
greenifh ; the body cinereous ; crown and upper part of
the back dufky red, ftreaked ; lower white, {potted with
black. This {pecies inhabits Labradore, and is feen con-
tinually nodding its head. The cheeks are cinereous, {treaked
with black ; the neck and brea{ft mixed with cinereous and
rulty, with dufky {pots ; the belly is white ; the leffer wing-
coverts cinereous, greater dufky edged with brown ; +
quill-feathers are dufky, the fecondary tipt with white; the
tail with black and white lines, and reddifh at the tip.

Fravires; Yellow Shank. Bill black; legs yellow;
body whitifh, fpotted with black; the throat and breaft
varied with black and white; the belly and tail-coverts are
white. This is found at New York in the autumn of the
year, and is eleven inches long; the bill is a little bent at
the tip; the lefler wing-coverts are brown; primary quill-
feathers dufky ; the tail is marked with brown and white
lines.

MeLAno.euca ; Stone Snipe. Bill black; legs yellow;
body varied with black and white. It inhabits, during the
autumn, the fandy fhores of Labradore, and is twice as
large as the S, gallinago, to be hereafter defcribed: this is
perpetually nodding its head. The tail and rump are marked
with black and white lines; the primary quill-feathers are
dufky.

SemI-PALMATA; Semi-palmated Snipe. Semi-palmate ;
legs and bill dufkky ; the head and neck are ftreaked black
and white; the breaft is white, dotted with black; the
back is cinereous, with black arrow-fhaped {pots. This in-
habits New York. It is fourteen inches long ; the belly is
white; the flanks are white, with tran{verfe black lines ; the
primary quill-feathers are dufky, with an oblique white

band ;

SCOLOPAX.

band; the fecondary are white; the middle tail-feathers
cinereous, with black lines; the outer ones are white.

_ * Rusticora ; Woodcock. Bill ftraight, reddifh at the
bafe ; legs cinereous ; thighs covered; the head has a black
band on each fide. Four varieties are noticed by Gmelin:
1. Body white. 2. Very pale ftraw-colour. 3. Head
reddifh ; body white; wings brown. 4. The body is
{potted ; the wings are fnowy. It is fifteen inches long,
lays four or five eggs, rufty, with brown fpots; the flefh,
and eyen the inteftines, are good. The woodcock is rec-
koned very fine food, and is found in this country, and
other northern parts of Europe, Afia, and Africa. In
the fummer thefe birds retreat, in France, to the loftier
mountains, and thofe of our own country towards the
mountainous regions of Norway and Sweden. Few birds
are more widely fcattered over the whole continent than
the woodcocks. They are found in great plenty as far
fouth as Smyrna and Aleppo; and in the fame feafon in
Barbary, where the Africans call them, from their uncouth
fhapes, the affes of the partridge. Towards the Eaft they
are found as far as Japan, where they are common. In
the fummer, they are found in Canada and Cape Breton in
fuch numbers, as renders it highly probable that the greater
part of thofe that frequent Great Britain and Ireland come
from that quarter of the globe. On the weft of Scotland
they are far more numerous than on the eaft, and on the
weftern coaft of Ireland the obfervation is {till more juit.
They arrive there in fuch vaft quantities, and are fo com-
pletely exhauited by their long flight, that they may fome-
times be taken by the hand.

Both in its native country, and during its migrations, the
woodcock feeds upon {mall worms, which it obtains by
means of its Jong bill in foft ground and moift woods.
When thefe birds migrate, they generally fly in flocks, and
take the advantage of the night, or of cloudy weather. They
are, in fome refpects, night birds, for they feed moft bufily
in the evening, and then their flights are moft diftant and
rapid. Their neits are carelefsly conftru€ted of {mall twigs
mixed with withered grafs, built generally on the ground,
at the root of atree, and in them are found four or five
white eggs, of a brownifh-grey, marbled with deeper {pots
of the fame colour. The young run as foon as they leave
the fhell, and fly when they have fearcely any other
feathers than thofe of their wings.

Mixon; Little Woodcock, Bill ftraight ; legs brownith;
front cinereous ; hind-head black, with four tranfverfe yel-
lowith lines ; chin white; body above black, waved with
tawnyith ; beneath yellow. It inhabits America ; is nearly
a foot long ; the fleth is reckoned a great delicacy. The
lower mandible is much the fhorter; from the Dill to the
eyes is a dufky line; the greater wing-coverts are marked
with black and red Sailah Lines, the inner are ferruginous ;

imary quill-feathers dufky; the tail is black, with a

rown tip.

Patuposa ; Savanna Woodcock. Bill and legs brown ;
lores and ecye-brows black ; the body is black, varied with
rufous above, beneath with whitith. It inhabits the favannas
of Cayenne. The body beneath is varied with black
{pots.

' * Mason; Great Snipe. Of this the legs and crown
are black ; the latter with a pale divided line down the
middle, a pale ftreak above and beneath the eyer; the body
varied above, white beneath ; the bill like that of the wood-
cock ; the lower feathers of the body, except the middle
of the belly, edged with black ; quill-feathers dufky ; tail-
feathers reddith, aad, excepting the two middle ones, with
10

black lines. It fometimes is found to weigh eight ounces ;
it is fixteen inchés long. It inhabits Siberia.

CayEnnensis ; Cayenne Snipe. Bill dufky, witha reddifh
bafe ; the legs are brown; the body above afhy-brown,
{potted with yellow; beneath it is white. It inhabite
Cayenne, and is thirteen inches long. The greater wing-
coverts are whitifh, the lower ones varied with a dufky kind
of white ; the quill-feathers are brown, the bafe, and fome
at the tip, are white ; the throat is alittle fpotted; the rump
is white, the tailis marked with dufky lines and tip.

Gatiinaco; Common Snipe. Bill ftraight, tuber-
culate; legs brown ; body varied with blackifh and tawny ;
beneath it is white; the front is marked with four brown
Imes. The weight of this fpecies is feldom more, or indeed
fo much, as four ounces, though the whole length is about
twelve inches. It is met with in marfhy fituations in almoft
every part of the world, and is, in fome feafons, rather
plentiful in our own ifland.. When there is very much rain,
and for a long continuance, it reforts to the hills, but in
general it is found in marfhy grounds, where it can penetrate
with its bill in queft of worms. Some tew remain with us
the whole year, and breed in marfhes and bogs. The neft
is formed of the materials eafily fupplied by the neighbour-
hood, fuch as coarfe grafs, or heath; it is placed on a dry
{pot near a {wampy place ; the eggs, like thofe of the lap-
wing, being much pointed, are inyariably placed with their
{maller ends inwards. In the breeding feafon the {nipe
changes its note entirely. . The male will keep on the wing
for an hour together, mounting like a lark, uttering a thrill
piping noife, and then defcend with great sdocttyqmabing
a bleating found, fomething like that of an old goat, whic
is alternately repeated round the {pot poflefled by the female,
efpecially while fhe is fitting upon her neft. The young will
run off almoft immediately after they are freed from the
fhell ; but the parent bird attends them till their bills have
acquired a fufficient firmnefs to enable them to provide for
themfelves. When undilturbed in its retreat, the fuipe walks
leifurely, with its head ere&t, and it keeps moving the tail
at fhort intervals. It is, however, rarely obferved in this
{tate of tranquillity, being extremely watchful, and per-
ceiving the {portfman, or Fis dog, at a great diltance, and
then concealing itfelf, or, as it happens more frequently,
{pringing and taking flight beyond the reach of the gun.
When firit difturbed, it utters a feeble whiltle, and gene-
rally flies againft the wind. From its vigilance and manner
of flying, which is in a zig-zag direétion, it is extremely
difficult to fhoot. It is very highly etteemed, and indeed
very delicious food, and though ufually very fat, it rarely
difagrees even with the weakett {tomach.

Gaviinania ; Finmark Snipe. The bill of this {pecies
is {traight and tuberculate ; the legs are yellow; the head
is grey, and the body is variegated, It inhabits, as ite
trivial name denotes, Finmark.

* Gauuinuta ; Jack-fnipe. The bill in this {pecies is
ftraight, tuberculate ; the body is variegated ; the legs are
greenith ; the lores are brown; the rump is varied with
violet. It is found in various parts of Europe, Alia, and
America, and is eight or nine inches loug. ‘The bill is
black ; the body is variegated with tettaceous, black, violet,
and glofly green; the head is of a pale yellow, and black
lines reaching from the bill to the hind head; the breatt ia
fpotted ; the belly and vent are white.

Beroica. This isan inhabitant of the Netherlands. Ita
bill is very ftraight, tipt with black ; the head, neck, and
brealt are ferruginous ; the belly is white; the back, wingay
tail, and lege are black. It feeds on laud infects.

Onscuras

SCOLOPAX.

OzscurA. The bill of this {pecies is ftraight and purple.
The legs are of a flefli-colour ; the head is cinereous; the
quill-feathers are black-grey. It inhabits the fhores of the
Cafpian fea.

Fepoa ; American Godwit. This is found in and about
Hudfon’s bay, and is full fixteenincheslong. The bill is tipt
with black ; the ¢ye-brows are white ; the lores are dufky ;
the cheeks and chin are white ; the head and neck are varied
with dufky and pale brown; the breait is marked with
black lines ; the belly is brown; the back and wing-coverts
are varied with ferruginous and dufky ; the quill-feathers
are ferruginous without ; the tail is marked with pale brown
and black lines.

* Giortis; Green-fhank. This inhabits Afia, America,
and Europe, and is fourteen inches long. The bill is black,
the lower mandible bends a little upwards; the eye-brows and
lower part of the back white; the head, neck, and back
pale cinereous ; the fhafts of the feathers are fpotted with
brown ; the quill-feathers are dufky, {potted within with
white ; the tad is white, with dufky lines ; the legs are very
long. This {pecies is fometimes found in {mall flocks, on
our coa(ts in winter, as alfo in marfhes and fers contiguous
to the fea. Some few are fuppofed to remain with us all
the fummer, and to breed in our fens. The greater part,
however, retire northward to breed, and are found in
Sweden, Ruflia, and Siberia. Their flefh, like that of the
reft of the genus, is well-flavoured and reckoned good eating.

* Caxipris; Red-fhank. The bill is ftraight and red;
the legs are fearlet ; the fecondary quill-feathers are white.
It inbabits Europe and America, and is twelve inches long.
The bill is black towards the tip ; the irides are of a reddifh-
hazel colour ; the head and neck above are cinereous; the
back and fhoulders are of a greenifh-brown; the wing-
covert’ cineréous, mixed with dufky brown and fpotted
with whitifh ; the fecondary quill-feathers, except the two
immer ones, aré white towards the tip ; the primary ones are
dufky, the four or five inner ones are tipt with white ; the
lines over the eyes are white ; between the bill and the eyes is
a dufky fpot ; the chin and throat with fhort dufky ftreaks ;
the body beneath and the rump are white, with {mall dufky
fpots; the tail-feathers have each F2 or 13 tranfverfe black
lines. There is a variety of this fpecies of which the body
above is grey, beneath it is white ; the neck beneath and fide
of the brealt fpotted with blackifh ; the rump and tail are
barred with black and white. Tt inhabits China. The
éalidris is common in many parts of England, in the fens; it
lays four eggs; is of a folitary difpofition, moitly feen

one.

* Totanus; Spotted Snipe; called alfo the red-legged

odwit, or {potted red-fhank. This is blackifh, with white
fons j it is white beneath ; the lines on the brealt, and bands
6n the laterab tail-feathers, are blackifh, and the legs are
red. Jt inhabits this country, and other parts of Europe ;
feeds on the fmaller fhell-fifh and vermes, It is rather rare
in this country.

* Liwosa; Leffler Godwit. Bill a little bent back, red
at the bafe ; the body is of a grey-brown, varied with rufous,
beneath it is white, the quill-feathers are white at the bafe,
the firft four without fpots; the tail is white at the bafe.
Is inhabits Enrope, and is feventeen inches long. It is gre-
garious, and is but feldom feen in Beitain.

Capensis; Cape Snipe. The bill of this is ftraight, and
with a line on the crown of a reddifh colour; the band on
the breaft is black ; the line on each fide the back is white,
OF this {pecies there are faid to be four other varieties,
t, Olive-green; neck black; crown and throat ferrugi-

3

nous ; the orbits, fcapulars, and belly white; quill-feathers
and tail with tawny fpots. 2. This is waved with cine-~
reous, grey, and black ; the head and neck are rufous; the
orbits, chin, fcapulars, and belly white ; the petoral band
and eye-brows black ; wings and tail with yellow {pots.
3- White; head and neck black, wings and back green ;
primary quill-feathers {potted with red. 4. The upper part
1s- marked with black {pots and lunules ; the back is blueifh ;
the wings are of a chefnut colour; the lower part of the
breaft is black; the cheeks, chin, and belly white ; orbits
and line on the fhoulders yellow. They are all found at
the Cape of Good Hope.

Srnensis ; Chinefe Snipe. This is variegated with
blueifh, brown, rufous, and black; the eye-brows, line on
the crown, chin, and belly white. It inhabits, as its name
imports, China, and is about ten inches long.

MaparaspaTana 3 Madras Snipe. The bill is reddith ;
the body above is varied with tawny and blackifh ; beneath
it is white ; the ftreak on the middle of the crown and each
fide the head black-brown; the throat is tawny, {potted
with blackifh. It inhabits Madras.

InpicA ; White Indian Snipe. Bill and legs black; the
body is of a dirty grey, waved with brownifh; beneath
whitifh; the band acrofs and beneath the eyes is grey. It
inhabits divers parts of the Eaft. Indies.

* Lapponica; Red Godwit. The bill is a little re-
curved, yellowifh; the legs are black, the body beneath
reddifh-rufty. In a variety of this fpecies the head and ~
neck are cinereous ; the chin and belly are white. It ins
habits Europe and America, and is about eighteen inches
long. Though found in this country, it is by no means
common. ’

* JEGocEPHALA ; Common Godwit. The bill is ftraight,
reddifh-yellow ; the legs are greenifh; the head and neck
reddifh ; the three quill-feathers are black, with a white ~
bafe. This is found in many parts of Europe, Afia, and
Africa, as well as in this country. With us it continues
the whole year, and reforts to the fens in {pring for breed-
ing. Inthe winter it is found on our’fhores, particularly
at the mouths of large rivers and inlets, where the mud and
fand become bare at low water, where it feeds on infe&s.
It is highly efteemed by epicures, and fells very high. It
is caught in nets, to which it is allured by a ftuffed bird in
the fame manner, and at the fame feafon, as the ruffs and
reeves.

* Leucopn#a ; Godwit. This is brown, edged with
whitifh ; the neck is whitifh, with {mall brown fpots ; the
chin and belly are white, the quill-feathers are marked with
black band The bill is a little turned up, brown with a
purple bafe ; the tail-feathers are white ; the two middle ones
wholly, the reft barred with brown on the outer fide. This
fpecies is found in many parts of Europe as well as in our
country. They are all migratory, appearing in this ifland
in September, and continuing the whole winter. They are
taken in the fens of Lincolnfhire with nefts, and fattened for
the London market with bread and milk, hemp-feed, &e.

* Canescens; Cinereous Godwit. Legs long, cine-
reous; head, neck, and back varied with cinereous and
white ; the chin and breat{t are white, and {potted with ath,
Found chiefly in Lincolnhhire.

* CantaApnicrensis ; Cambridge Godwit. Legs orange;
the bill is red; the body above 1s of a brown-afh colour ;
beneath it is white ; the wing-coverts and tail-feathers barred
with black. This is found chiefly in Cambridgethire.

Canpipa ; White Red-thank. Straight, bill and legs
orange ; the body is whitith; tail-feathers white, —

wi

sc Oo
with grey. This inhabits Hudfon’s bay, and is eleven
inches long.

Curonica. This is fpotted with grey; the wings and
bill are blackifh ; the lower mandible from the bafe to the
middle fearlet ; the legs are of a brick-duft colour.

Marmorata ; Marbled Godwit. ‘This is variegated
with blackifh and pale rufous {pots ; the middle of the belly,
eye-brows, and chin whitifh ; the breaft is waved with brown ;
quill-feathers reddifh, the firft four without are tipt with
black. This inhabits Hudfon’s bay, as does the next.

Houpsoyica ; Hudfonian Godwit. . Brown, with white
fpots, beneath rufty chefnut, with brown bars; the eye-
brows, chin, rump, and bafe of the tail white. Of this
fpecies the bill and legs are blackifh; the tail is fhort and
black, with a white bafe. _

Scoropax, in Ichthyology, a {pecies of Centrifcus ;
which fee. See alfo Trumpet-Fif. ;

SCOLOPENDRA, in Natural Hiftory, a genus of in-
fe€ts of the order Aptera : the generic charaGter is, antennz
fetaceous ; feelers two, filiform and united between the jaws ;
lip toothed and cleft ; body long, deprefled, confifting of
numerous tranfverfe fegments: the legs are numerous ; there
are as many on éach fide as there are fegments of the body.
There are thirteen fpecies, fcattered over different parts of
the globe. three of which are common to this country. In
the Latin language they have obtained the name of centipes,
from the number of their feet or legs: one of the fpecies
has literally a hundred legs on each fide, for fo numerous are
the fegments into which their bodies are divided. Of this
hideous race, fome live beneath the bark of decayed trees,
or are found below ftones and garden boxes ; others inhabit
frefh and falt waters; and they are all remarkable for the
quicknefs of their motions: they prey on other infects.

Species.

*Lacura. This fpecies has twelve legs on each fide;
the body is oval ; the tail has a white pencil of hairs. It
inhabits Europe, under the bark of old trees. The body
= ‘brown; the head black; the fides with nine tufts of

irs.

Corxortra. Legs long, and fourteen on each fide;
the body is fcutellate. It is found in many parts of Europe.
The antennz are yellow, as long as the body ; the thighs are
prickly ; the fhanks are rough.

*Forricava. Legs fifteen on each fide, the laft longer
than the reft, and turning backwards, form a forked tail ;
the body is of a dun colour, fmooth, and compofed of nine
fealy fegments, without reckoning the head. It is found
in divers parts of Europe and America, as well as in this
country, generally under ftones and flower-pots.

GIGANTEA. Lith feventeen on each fide ; tail with two
hooked ftyles. Thisis an American infe&.

Moxsirans. The legs are twenty on each fide; the
eyes are eight in number. It inhabits various parts of the
Paft Indies. This is faid to be the moft venomous of the
whole tribe.

Fennucinea. Legs twenty-two on cach fide ; the body
is ferruginous. Itinhabite Africa. The body is divided into
twenty fegments ; the legs are of a pale yellow.

Dorsatis. Legs thirty on each fide ; the body is brown,
with a ferruginous dorfal line. It inhabits Tranquebar,
and is a large infect.

Cryrvara. This has thirty legs on each fide; the body
is brown and rough; the head thielded. This alfo is found
in Tranquebar, and is lefs than the dorfalis. The body is
divided into fixteen narrow fegments, which are fubftriate
and rough, with raifed dots; the head ia covered with a

Vor. XXXII.

OO

rounded entire fhield; the antenne are fhort and pale; the
tail is emarginate ; the legs are pale.

* Exectrica. This fpecies has feventy legs on each
fide; the body is linear. It inhabits Europe, and our
own’ country, in decayed wood, and fhines in the dark.
The body is very flat, tawny, with a black line down the
back.

PHospHoreEA.* This has feventy-fix legs on each fide. {t
isan A fiatic infeét, and fhines like a glow-worm in the dark :
it has been known to fall from the air into a veflel failing on
the Indian ocean, a thoufand miles from any land. ‘The
head is ovate, yellowifh, with two grooved lines, and ano-
ther tranfverfe one; the antenne are fubulate and ferru-
ginous, with fourteen articulations; the body is filiform,
and about as thick as a goofe-quill, purplifh, with two pa-
rallel lines. ‘

Occipextatis. This has one hundred and twenty-three
legs on each fide. It inhabits America. The body is fer-
ruginous ; the antennz have fourteen articulations.

Gasrietis. This fpecies has one hundred and forty-
eight legs on each fide ; the body is yellowifh. It inhabits
Italy, and is four times as large as the S. eleétrica. The
antennz are fhort, of fourteen articulations ; the tail is femi-
oval, with an appendage and two fhort {tyles,

Marina. The number of legs in this {pecies is doubt-
ful; the body is pale, with a rufous dorfal line. » It inhabits
the Atlantic ocean. In fhape it refembles, in a confiderable
degree, the leech ; and it builds {mall edifices, of a brittle
and porous texture, on the fhore at low water. Thefe little
maffes are compofed of a number of [mall funnels, each
having the aperture clofed with a covering of fand, to pro-
te&t the inhabitant from danger.

It is faid that in the Balt Indies, and alfo in America,
there are {colopendrz from four to fix inches long, and as
thick as the finger: when of this bulk, they appear truly
hideous, and their bite, particularly in hot climates, is
reckoned dangerous. Some of thefe animals are faid to be
without eyes, and to direét their courfe by means of two
feelers, that extend beyond the head. It has been aflerted
too, that in fome of them, when cut to pieces, the feg-
ments, like thofe of the polypi, are capable of reproducing
entire animals, but the fa& is not at all certain.

This remarkable infe&, taken in the Irifh fea, is evidently
the fame animal defcribed by Oligerus Jacobus, in the
Agta Medica Haffnenfia, under the name of vermis aureus,
or eruce marina fpecies rarior. Phil. Tranf. N° 224.

Dr. Peyffonel defcribes a marine {colopendra of very {mall
bulk, and fquare figure, whofe body and head were formed
of eighty rings, and which had a power of occafionally
throwing out its inteftines. ‘The four fides of this animal
were armed with prickles, and every ring had four bundles
of them, which are fometimes f{pread out like fans: thofe
under the body ferved the infec as feet. Thefe fcolopendra,
eit placed upon the fingers, thruft a great number of their
prickles into the fkin, and caufed a fharp pain, refemblin
the effeét of fire, of fome continuance. Phil. Tranf. vol. hi.
art. 6.

Mr. Maloct relates the hiflory of a man, who for three
years had a violent pain at cher bere part of the forehead,
near the root of the nofe; at length he felt an itching, and
afterwards fomething moving within his noltril, whieh he
brought away with his finger: it way a worm of the centiped
kind, an inch and a half long, which ran {wiftly. It lived five
or fix days among tobacco. ‘The patient was free of his pain
ever after.

Mr. Littre mentioned a like cafe, in 1708, of a larger
centiped voided at thenofe, after it had thrown the woman,

5 B in

Sco

in whofe frontal finus it was, into convulfions, and had almoft
taken away her reafon. Hift. Acad. Scienc. 1733.

ScoLoPpENDRA Scutata, the name of an animal of the
infe&t kind, found in the year 1736, by Klein, in Pruffia,
and at the fame time by Mr. Brown, in fome parts of
Kent.

It was met with in Pruffia in vaft abundance, in the places
where they take cray-fifh, and_having not been met with
there before, furprifed the people employed in that fifhery fo
much, that they brought home many of them.

In Kent, its appearance was attended with greater fingu-
larity. Mr. Brown found it in a pond on Bexly Common,
where the country people had obferved vaft numbers of them
for five or fix weeks before. This pond was quite dry on the
24th of June that year, but being filled by the thunder
fhower on the 25th of the fame month, the pond was ob-
ferved to {warm with them in two days, by a farmer watering
his cows there; and what is very obfervable is, that there
appears no channel into this pond that could convey them
from any other place.

The creature is about an inch and a half in length, and
fomewhat lefs than an inch in breadth, and though fo fmall,
yet bears a great refemblance, in many of its parts, to the
great Moluccacrab, called by fome the buckler crab. When
the back is viewed, it is feen to be covered with a cafe or
fhield, fo that it in fome meafure refembles a tortoife, only it
is remarkably gibbous, or prominent all along the middle of
the back, and has a triangular opening in the fhell near the
tail. On the head it has two fhort horns, ftanding in the
common place of the antenne. Whenthe cafe or fhell is
taken off, the rings on the body are found to be about thirty
in number. The legs are very extraordinary ; they areforty-
two on each fide; the twenty that itand next the head are
nearly of the fame fize, but then they grow gradually
fmaller towards thetail. The feet confilteach of five mem-
branaceous claws; thefe are flat, and have a {tiff rib in the
middle, and are befet at the edges with hairs, in the manner
of the legs of a crab. The whole ftruéture of the legs
feem calculated for fwimming rather than walking. Pbhilof.
Tranf. N° 447. p. 151.

SCOLOPENDRITES. Sce Ecurnvs.

ScotorenpritEs Lapis, a name given by fome authors
to a f{pecies of the /apis /yringoides, or pipe-ftone, the tubules
of which they fuppofe to refemble the figure of the body of
the feolopendra.

SCOLOPENDRIUM, in Botany, a name applied by
the ancients to feveral herbs, whofe long hairy items, or
reots with numerous fibres, bore fome refemblance to the
infe& called Zxcrexw3;2, Scolopendra, or Forty-foot. It has
remained with the fern called Lingua Cervina, or Harts’-
tongue, as a {pecific name, and is retained as a generic one
for the fame plant, on its being feparated from 4/plenium, by
the writer of the prefent article —Sm. Mem. de 1’Acad. de
Turin, y. 5. 410.t. 9. f. 2. Tra&ts, 236.t.1.f.2. Fi.
Brit. 1133. Swartz Fil. 89. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 5. 348.
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 518.—Clafs and order, Cryptogamia
Filices ; {e&. annulate. Nat. Ord. Filices dorfifere.

Eff. Ch. Fru@tification in fcattered double lines, between
two veins. Involucra originating from each vein, con-
tinued, folding over each other ; at length feparating longi-
tudinally.

1. S. vulgare. Common Hart’s-tongue. Sym. Syn. 193.
Engl. Bot. t. 1150. (Scolopendria vulgaris ; Trag. Hilt.
549. § officinarum; Swartz. n. 1. Willd.n. 1. Afple-
nium Scolopendrium ; Linr. Sp. Pl. 1537. Bolt. Fil. 18.
t. 11. Curt. Lond. fafc. 1. t. 67. Woodv. Suppl. t. 272.
Phyllitis; Ger. Em. 1138. Matth, Valgr. v. 2. 186,

5

SCO

Camer. Epit. 579.)—Frond fimple, tongue-fhaped ; heart-
fhaped at the bafe ; {mooth at the back.—Common in moilft
fhady places, on rocks, walls, or banks; but more efpe-
cially about the mouths of caves, deferted mines, or the
borders of wells, where there is a current of cold or moitt
air. It is perennial; the fronds annual, bearing fru@tifica-
tion in fummer. Root {caly, tufted, fomewhat creeping.
Fronds numerous, erect, twelve or eighteen inches high, of
a full grafs-green, {mooth, pliant, lanceolate, acute, waved ;
occafionally cloven, or even branched and comofe, at the
top ; their flalks, and back of the rid, fcaly. Cap/ules in
an oblique feries of parallel lines on each fide the mb, each
line covered with the folding white membranous involucrum,
and at length {welling fo much, as to turn that covering back
oneach fide. Cap/ules innumerable, ftalked, globofe, bound
by a vertical jointed ring. The name vulgare, previoufly
publifhed in Fl. Brit. ought to have been preferred by fubfe-
quent writers to that of offcinarum, as the plant is deftitute
of medicinal qualities, and out of ufe.

2. S. Ceterach. Common Scaly Spleenwort. Sym,
Syn. 193. Roth. Germ. v. 3. 48. Fl. Brit. n.2. Engl. Bot.
t. 1244. (Scolopendria vera; Trag. Hift. 551. Ceterach
officinarum; Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 5.136. Grammitis Cete-
rach; Swartz Fil. 23. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 503.
Afplenium Ceterach ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1538. Bolt. Fil. 20.
t. 12.. A. five Ceterach; Ger. Em. 1140. Afplenium ;
Matth. Valgr. v. 2.251. Camer. Epit. 640. )—Frond pin-
natifid, lanceolate ; {caly at the back.—On old walls, or
limeftone rocks; mot frequent in the north and weft of
England. Common and very luxuriant in the Levant.—
Root fibrous, black. Fronds numerous, from four to ten
inches high ; {mooth,. and rather glaucous, above ; covered
beneath with innumerable, lax, lanceolate, tawny, or fhining +
brown, fcales, which cover the lines of cap/ules. On the
moft careful examination, we formerly thought we difco-
vered a continued entire involucrum, at each fide of the lines
of frutification, but Dr. Swartz and Mr. Brown in Hort,
Kew. refer this fern to Grammitis, whofe charater is to have
no involucrum. However this may be, no one furely will
adopt Willdenow’s new genus of Ceterach, founded merely
on the lines being more or lefs oblique. We have not exa-
mined Ceterach cunarienfis nor afpidioides of this writer.
Ajplenium Hemionitis of Linneus, referred to Scolopendrium
by Swartz, Cavanilles, and others, has nothing of the cha-
racter of the genus, except when two lines, originating in
different lobes, or rudiments of lobes, rarely and accidentally
meet in oppofition to each other. By an attention to this
circumitance, ie may always be known from Darea,
the Cenopteris of Bergius, See Darga, and corre& the
error of the prefs, line 22, to Cenopteris.

SCOLOPIA, cxsi072, having the form of a feolopendra ;
from cxorol, a fharp flake, in allufion probably to the
numerous ftrong thorns of this fhrub.—Schreb. Gen.
335- Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 981. Mart. Mill. Di&. y. 4.
(Limonia; Gertn. t. 58. Scopolia; Lamarck Iluftr.
t. 423.)—Clafs and order, /cofandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord.
Aurantia, Juil.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in three or
four deep, ovate, obtufe, concave, {preading, permanent
fegments. Cor. Petals three or four, oblong, rather coria-
ceous, obtufe, {preading, permanent, twice the length of
the calyx. Stam. Filaments numerous, thread-{haped,
{preading, permanent, inferted into the calyx, as long as
the corolla, flattened below, villous at the bafe; anthers
linear. Pf, Germen fuperior, roundifh; ttyle cylindrical,
{traight, longer than the ttamens ; itigma thick, three-lobed,
with three little depreflions at the top. Peric. Berry

roundith,

sco

roundifh, crowned with the permanent ftyle, of one cell,
with three prominent internal ribs. Seeds fix, roundifh, fome-
what quadrangular, tunicated ; the tunics membranous, thin,
pulpy, angular, attached in pairs to each rib of the berry.

Obf. The ribs eafily feparate from the berry, and part
into fix unequal threads, from whofe fummits the tunics are
fufpended.

Eff. Ch. Calyx inferior, in three or four deep fegments.
Petals three or four. Berry crowned with the ftyle, of one
cell, with fix tunicated feeds.

1. S. pufilla. Willd. n. 1. (Limonia pufilla; Gertn.
v. I. 279.)—Native of Ceylon. We know nothing of the
habit of this plant, except that Gertner conjeGtures, from
the Ceylon name, Khatu-Kurundu, attached to the {pecimen
he deferibed at Leyden, and which means Thorny Cinna-
mon, that the plant is fimilar in leaves, and general habit, to
Cinnamon, differing in having thorns. If fo, the fynonym
of Plukenet, quoted by Gzrtner, which belongs to Rheede’s
Hort. Malab. v. 4. t. 14,-can have nothing to do with the
Scolopia, but is to be referred to the Limonia acidiffima of
Linnzus, which perhaps is the fame as Roxburgh’s crenulata;
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 43. Both of them have pinnate
leaves, with a winged common footffalk. After all, Koenig’s
opinion, quoted by Linnzus, of the Limonia acidiffima being
a Crateva, induces a {trong fufpicion of its being our iden-
tical Scolopia, which would not ill accord with his probable
ideas of the charafter of Crateva. Its parts of frutifica-
tion however appear effentially different from thofe of either
of the above Limonia, in Roxburgh, Rheede or Rum-
phius.—Lamarck, who copies Gertner’s figure, has by
accident changed Scolopia to Scopolia.

SCOLOPOMACZERIUM, in Surgery, an incifion-
knife.

SCOLOSANTHUS, in Botany, a name of Vahl’s, de-
rived by profeflor Martyn from cxoacl, a thorn, or rather a

Sharp flake, and «z50:, a flower. ° De Theis deduces it from
cxorioz, oblique, or twifled, fuppofing it alludes to the re-
curved fegments of the corolla. ‘The former of thefe ex-
planations moft fatisfies us, as the author evidently alludes to
a circumftance mentioned in his defcription, that the thorns
themfelves, with which the branches are copioufly befet, as
with fharp and ftrong palifades, fometimes bear the flowers.
—Vahl. Eclog. v. 1.11. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.607. Mart.
Mill. Diét. v. 4.—Clafs and order, Tetrandria Monogynia.
Nat. Ord. Rubiacee, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, in four
deep, equal, linear-lanceolate, acute, permanent fegments.
Cor. of one petal, tubular, feveral times longer than the
calyx; tube quadrangular; limb in four equal, deep,
ovate, revolute fegments, about the length of the tube.
Stam. Filaments four, awl-thaped, ereét, lightly conne&ted
with the corolla aad with each other, hairy at the bafe;
anthers linear, ereét, the lengthof the tube. Pif. Germen
inferior, roundith ; ftyle capillary, a little longer than the
corolla ; fligmas two, {mall, obtufe. Peric. Drupa globofe,
{mooth, fucculent, crowned with the enlarged calyx. Seed.
Nat oblong, hard, of one cell.

Eff. Ch. Calyx four-cleft, fuperior.
“we quadrangular, tubular, with a revolute

rupa’with one feed.

1. §. werficolor. Vahl. Eclog. v. 1. 11.t. 10. Willd.
n. 1. (Catefbwea parviflora; Lamarck I[lluftr. t. 67. f. 2.)
—Native of SantaCruz. A branched /hrub, two feet high.
The young thorns generally bear flowers, after the fall of
which they grow to their full fize. Thofe flowers, however,
that are produced by the thorns, are purple and abortive ;

Corolla of one

border.

SCO

the axillary ones, of a faffron colour, are perfe&t, and ripen
their fruit, which is of a pure white.

Vahl diftinguifhes from this the Cate/bea parviflora of
Swartz Ind. Occ. v. 1. 236. See Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.
608.

SCOLUS, in Ancient Geography, a town placed by
Strabo in the vicinity of Olynthus.

SCOLYMUS, in Botany, cxoduyo:, the ancient Greek
name of a large plant of the thiftle kind, ufually fuppofed
to be our Artichoke, fee Cynara, is adopted by Tourne-
fort and Linneus, for a genus of the fame tribe.—Linn.
Gen. 407. Schreb. 536. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 1630.
Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v.4. 471. Sm.
Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. 2.147. Juff. 171. Tourn.
t. 273. Lamarck Iiluftr. t. 659. Gertn. t. 157.—Clafs
and order, Syngenefia Polygamia equalis. Nat. Ord. Com-
pofite femi-flofculofe, Linn. Cichoracee, Juil.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx imbricated, ovate, of numerous
lanceolate, fharp-pointed, lax fcales. Cor. compound, im-
bricated, uniform; florets numerous, all perfe&, equal,
each of one ligulate, linear, abrupt petal, with five minute
terminal teeth. Stam. Filaments five, capillary, very fhort ;
anthers united into a hollow cylinder. Pi/?. Germen oblong ;
ityle thread-fhaped, longer than the ftamens ; ftigmas two,
reflexed. Peric. none, except the unchanged calyx. Seeds
folitary, rather oblong, triangular, pointed at the bafe;
down none. Recept. chaffy, convex ; fcales roundifh, flat,
three-toothed at the fummit, longer than the feeds, which
they feparate from each other.

Eff. Ch. Receptacle chaffy. Calyx imbricated, fpinous.
Down fearcely any.

Obf. S$. grandiflorus only has briftles at the top of each

feed.
1. S. maculatus. Annual Golden Thiftle. Linn. Sp.
Pl.1143. Willd. n. 1. Aiten. 1. Sm. Fl. Grac. Sibth.

t. 824, unpublifhed. (S. chryfanthemus annuus ; Dodart
Mem. 613. t. 29. S. Theophratti narbonenfis ; Cluf. Hitt.
vy. 2.153. Carduus chryfanthemus narbonenfis; Ger. Em.
1155.)—Stem winged, toothed. Upper leaves even, and
nearly fmooth. Flowers from the forks of the branches.
—Native of the fouth of Europe and north of Africa, on
funny fandy banks, and among rubbifh, flowering in fum-
mer. The roost is annual. Stem much branched, three feet
high, winged with feveral rows of a leafy border, furnifhed
with copious f{pinous teeth; the ribs and edges white.
Radical leaves obovate, flightly lyrate, roughifh, bordered
with nearly uniform {pinous teeth ; /lem-leaves fatay. under
each branch, feflile, recurved, pinnatifid, {trongly {pinous.
Flowers from the forks of the crowded upper branches, foli-
tary, an inch and half broad, befet with copious f{pinous
leaves. Corolla of a golden yellow. Calyx-/cales bordered
with white.

2. S. hifpanicus. Perennial Golden Thiftle. Linn. Sp.
Pl.1143. Willd.n. 2. Ait. n.2. Sm. Fl. Grac. Sibth.
t. 825, unpublifhed. Mill. Ic. t. 229. (S. Theophralti
hifpanicus ; Cluf. Hilt. v. 2.153. Carduus chryfanthemus
hifpanicus; Ger. Em, 1155.)—Leaves rough, with minute
briftles, decurrent ; the midrib hairy, Flowers at the ends
of fhort leafy branches.—Native of the fouth of Europe
and north of Africa. Dr. Sibthorp found this f{pecies ex-
tremely common in Greece, and ae circumjacent iflands ;
and judged it to be the exorupos of Diofcorides, fuch being
its Frenne et varioufly corrupted, among the prefent
inhabitants of Greece. The root is Kehennial Willdenow
thought it biennial, though he docs not appear to have feen
italive. ‘The /lem is not fo much branched, immediately from

. Due the

Sco

the bafe, as in the laft ; the eaves are rougher, ftrongly de-
current, in a tapering manner, the branches not being fo uni-
formly and uninterruptedly winged. F/owers much like the
former in fize and colour, numerous, each at the end of a
{mall lateral branch, not axillary.

3. S. grandiflorus. Large-flowered Golden Thiftle.
Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 240. t. 218. Willd. n. 3.—Stem
fearcely branched, villous, winged. Flowers lateral, foli-
tary, feffile—Native of Egypt and Barbary, very common
in uncultivated fields, flowering early in the fpring. Root
perennial. Leaves narrower than in either of the former.
Flowers twice as large. Seeds crowned with two or three
brittle deciduous briftles, an exception to the generic cha-
racter. The plant is milky. The Arabs eat the ftalks,
either raw or boiled.

Scotymus, in Natural Hiflory, a {pecies of Murex ; which

SCOLYTES, in Entomology, a fpecies of Boffrichus,
which lodges under the bark of the elm, and is very de-
itructive.

SCOMBER, the Mackarel, in Ichthyology, a genus of
fifhes of the order Thoracici, of which the generic character
is; head comprefled and fmooth; body fmooth; the late-
ral line carinate behind; between the dorfal fin and tail are
frequently feveral {purious fins. There are twenty-two {pe-
cies, in three divilions, which are diftinguifhed either by
having or not having fpurious fins; and thofe that have
fpurious fins are divided into thofe that have them didin&
and conneéted.

A. Spurious Fins diflind.
Species.

* Scomser ; Common Mackarel. This has five {fpurious
fins; is marked with numerous tranfverfe black lines; and
has a filvery abdomen. This very beautiful fifh is a native
of the American feas, generally appearing at {tated feafons,
and fwarming, in vaft fhoals, round particular coafts ; but
its great refort is within the artic circle, where it refides in
innumerable troops, grows to a larger fize than elfewhere,
and is fuppofed to find its favourite food, confifting chiefly
of marine infe&ts, in far greater plenty than in the warmer
latitudes. In the feverity of winter it is faid to be imbedded
in the foft mud, beneath the vaft crufts of ice furrounding
the polar coaits, being thus fufficiently proteéted from the
effeéts of the froft; and on the return of fpring, it is ge-
nerally believed to migrate in enormous fhoals, of many
miles m length and breadth, and to vifit the coafts of more
temperate aed in order to depofit the fpawn. Its route
has been defcribed as fimilar to that of the herring, pafling
between Iceland and Norway, and proceeding towards the
northern part of our ifland, where a part throws itfelf off
into the Baltic, while the grand column pafles downwards,
and enters the Mediterranean through the flraits of Gi-
braltar. It muft, however, be noticed, that this theory is
fubje& to difpute, and by fome writers it is thought more
probable that the fhoals which appear in fuch abundance
round the more temperate European coafts, in reality refide
during the winter at no very great diftance ; immerfing
themfelves in the foft bottom, and remaining in a {tate of
torpidity, from which they are awakened by the warmth of
the returning f{pring, and gradually recover their former ac-
tivity. In proof of this theory, it is faid that at their firft
appearance their eyes are obferved to appear remarkably
dim, as if covered with a kind of film, which pafles off as
the feafon advances, when they are feen in their full perfec-

eco

tion of colour and vigour. The length of the mackarel is
from ten to fifteen inches; but in the Northern feas it is
ftill larger: the colour of this fifh, on the upper parts, as
far as the lateral line, is a rich deep blue, accompanied by a
varying tinge of green, and marked by numerous black,
tranfverfe {treaks, which in the male are nearly ftraight, but
in the female beautifully undulated ; the jaws, the gill-
covers, and abdomen, are of a bright filver-colour, with a
flight varying caft of gold-green along the fides, which are
generally marked by a row of long dufky {pots ; the feales
are very {mall, oval, and tranfparent ; the {purious fins are
{mall, and five innumber, both above and below. The fhape
of the mackarel is fo elegant, as to be regarded as one of
the moft beautiful of European fifhes. As an article of
food, its value has been maintained through a long fucceffion
of ages. It was highly efteemed by the ancients, who pre-
pared from it the particular fauce known to the Romans by
the name of garum, and which was made by falting the
fifh, and after a certain period ftraining the liquor from it.
This preparation is now, and has been for a long time, fu-
perfeded by the introdudtion of the anchovy for fimilar pur-
pofes. ‘The garum is, however, {till in fafhion at Conftan-
tinople; it was formerly prepared from various kinds of
fifhes, but that procured from the mackarel was always
deemed preferable: the beft was faid to be manufactured
at Carthagena, vaft quantities of mackarel being taken near
an adjacent ifle, called from that circumftance Scombraria.
(See Garum.) The mackarel is eafily {nared by a variety
of baits; but the capture is faid to fucceed beit in a gentle
gale of wind. See Fisurry. : ’

Contras. The body of this fpecies is varied with fine
green and blue. It inhabits about the coafts of Sardinia.
It is nearly allied to the common mackarel, but is {maller.

Japonicus, or Blueifh Mackarel, with five {purious
fins. It is alfo nearly allied to the common mackarel, fo
much fo as to lead authors to doubt if it be a diftiné
{fpecies. It inhabits near the Japan iflands; is fhaped more
like a herring, and is not above eight inches long ; the f{eales
are very fall each jaw is ciliate with teeth, and the head
is filvery.

Auvratus. This is denominated the gold-coloured mac-
karel, with five {purious fins. It is very like the common
mackarel, but differs in colour, as well as in the number of
rays in the anal fin, which amounts to fix only. It is a
native of the Japanefe feas.

AxvatunGca. The pectoral fins are very {mall; it has
feven {purious fins. It inhabits the Mediterranean, appear-
ing in confiderable fhoals, and is in high eftimation as an
article of food: it is periodical and migratory.

Prevamis. The fpurious fins in this fpecies are feven ;
the body has four black lines on each fide. It inhabits be-
tween the Tropics and the Atlantic.

* Tuynnus; Thunny or Tunny. In this the fpurious
fins are from eight to eleven. It is found in moft feas, and
is from two to ten feet long ; the body is {pindle-fhaped and
filvery ; above it is of a {teel-blue colour, and a little convex ;
it is extremely voracious, and {wims with great velocity ; it
{pawns in May or June, and periodically frequents the fhores
of the Mediterranean in vatt fhoals, {wimming in a regular
parallelogram, and making a prodigious hiffing noife. It is
an Siial of great ftrength and fiercenefs, preying on all
kinds of fmaller fifhes, and is faid to be the peculiar perfe-
cutor of the mackarel and the flying-fifh. Its fleth is coarfe,
but was much efteemed by the ancient Greeks and Romans,
who eftablifhed their tunny fifheries, as in modern times, on
many parts of the Mediterranean coaits, where this fith {till

6 continues

se oO

contiaues to be taken in great plenty, more efpecially round
the ifland of Sicily. In the Britifh feas it is rarely obferved
in fhoals ; the individuals which occur being rather confi-
dered as accidental ftragglers. In the Indian ocean this
{pecies is faid to be feen of an enormous fize, and to aflem-
ble in vaft fhoals. According to Pliny, the-fleet of Alex-
ander the Great was impeded in its progrefs by a fhoal of
tunnies, and fo ftrongly wedged together, that he found it
neceflary to. difpofe his fhips in battle array, in order to force
through the oppofing phalanx of fifhes. The tunny fifhery
is of equal importance to the inhabitants of the countries on
the Mediterranean coafts, as the herring fifhery is to thofe of
the more northern parts of Europe. The fmaller fifhes are
chiefly fold frefh, while the larger are cut to pieces, {alted,
and barrelled up for fale.

The general colour of the tuuny is a dark or dull blue
on the upper parts, and filvery, with a cait of flefh-colour, on
the fides and abdomen; the firft dorfal fin and the tail are
of a deep grey, the fecond, together with the pectoral, ven-
tral, anal, and {purious fins, eae: the peétoral fins are of
a lanceolate fhape, and the tail pretty ftrongly lunated ; the
fpurious fins vary in number, in different fpecimens, and
confequently can afford no fpecific mark.

Corpyra. In this the {purious fins are ten in number ;
the lateral line is mailed with bony plates; it inhabits the
American coafts; the body is compreffed and broad,

Futyvo-cuttatus. This has a tingle two-rayed {purious
fin before the anal. It is found on the Arabian coats; the
body is of a fhining pale blue, with golden fpots at the
fides; the crown is hollow before the eyes; the iris is
golden ; from the head to the dorfal fin is a polifhed, naked,
glaucous membrane ; the lateral line is arched at the begin-
ning ; the firft dorfal fin, when folded, is hid in a cavity; the
ventral is approximate ; the tail is very widely arched in an
obtufe angle.

B. The Fifbes of this Divifion are without fpurious Fins.
Species.

Guiaucus. The fpecific charaéter of this is, that the
dorfal fpines are recumbent. It is found chiefly near
Afcenfion ifland, hence it is named by fome naturalifts S.

afcenfionis. The fecond ray of the dorfal fin is extremely
long.
peciosus. Pale golden; bands on the crown oblique ;

on the body are feven black alternate bande. This is found
on the coaitsof Arabia; the body is oval-lanceolate, it has
no teeth, above it is brown, beneath pale; the {cales are
fmall, entire, deciduous; the crown is convex, naked,
{mooth ; the iris is filvery and golden on the fore-part; the
lips are equal, obtufe, the upper one is protractile; the
gill-covers are of three pieces, the anterior 1s {caled and the
pofterior naked ; the lateral line nearer the back is arched
at the beginning, and ftraight from the fifth band; the fins
are yellow and the tail bifid.
erDAv. This is oblong-oval, filvery, with golden dots
on the fides; the body is marked with five obfolete tranf-
verfe brown bands. ‘There is a variety of this {pecies, of
which the peétoral fins are hyaline. It inhabits Arabia;
the body above is blueith ; the {cales are {mall and deciduous.
Iononitis. Silvery; the back is blueith; the pectoral
and ventral fins are reddifh. It inhabits Arabia; the {cales
are {mall and deciduous; before the anal fin there are two
fpines, conneéted into a {purious fin; the potterior {pine is
twice as large as the firft.
Sansum. Shining filvery, without fpote; the tail with
an elevated equal ridge. [t inhabits Arabia, and very much

oe Cam |

refembles the S. fulvo-guttatus. The crown has branched
veins ; each jaw with a row of teeth, the upper with nu-
merous fetaceous ones behind them ; the ventral and pectoral
fins are white, the reft brown; the dorfal one is black on
the upper edge; the anal and caudal are yellow on the lower
edge. :

Axsus. White; fides and tail yellow. This inhabits
the Red fea; the body is lanceolate, covered with fixed
Tcales; before the anal fin there are two fpines connected
into a {mall fin; the hinder fpine is the longer.

Fatcatus. Body rhomboidal; the fecond dorfal and
anal fins are falcate. This fpecies is found in the Red fea ;
the body is half as long again as it is broad; it is {mooth,
filvery, and the upper part is brown; the fcales are thin,
fixed, elevated at the tip; under the fkin in the middle of
the back are a few {pines reaching to the dorfal fin, and be-
fore them a ftrong horizontal {pine turned forwards and
fometimes hidden under the {kin, and before the anal fin are
two fpines.

Fizamentosus. The breait of this is naked ; the feeond
dorfal and anal fins are filamentous. Jt inhabits Sumatra ;
the body is filvery ; above it is blueifh ; the fcales are {mall
and fixed.

C. In this Divifion the fpurious Fins are connedied.

Species.
* Tracuurus; the Scad, or Horfe Mackarel. The
dorfal {pine is recumbent; the lateral line prickly.. This

fith inhabits the European, American, and Pacific feas, and
is from four inches to two feet long; the body is filvery ;
the front and back is of a mixed green and blue colour; the
fifh is long, comprefled, and covered with thin, round, foft
feales; the flefh is eatable, but tough. It is found frequently
on our own coatts.

Hiepos. Gill-covers with a black {pot on the hind-part ;
the pofterior dorfal fin is red; the ventral and anal are yel-
low. This fpecies inhabits Carolina and Otaheite. ‘The
teeth are in one row, the two front ones are larger; the la-
teral line bends very much; it is fomewhat {piny or mailed
as it approaches the tail; the dorfal fin is red; the ventral
and anal are yellow.

Curysurus; Yellow-tailed Mackarel. The fpurious
fins are of a pale yellow, the mouth is without teeth. It
inhabits Carolina; the {pines before the anal fin are remote.

Amita. The lait ray of the potterior dorfal fin is the
longer.

Pevacicus. The fpurious fins and dorfal, in this {pecies,
are conneéted into one.

SCOMBRARIA, in Ancient Geography, a promontory
of Spain, in the Tarragonenfis, upon the coatt of the Conte!-
tani, between New Carthage and the mouth of the Tader.
Ptolemy.

Scomprania, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Mediter-
ranean, at the entrance into the harbour of Carthagena.

SCOMBROARIA, or Scomprania, in Ancient Geogra-
phy, an ifland on the coaft of Spain, 80 {tadia from New
Carthage. :

SCOMIUS, the name of a part of mount Hamus, in the
vicinity of Rhodope, and N. of it. The river Strymon took
ite fource in this mountain.

SCONCES, {mall forts, built for the defence of fome
pafs, river, or other place.

Some fconces are made regular, of four, five, or fix baf-
tions; others are of {maller dimenfions, fit for pafles, or
rivers; and others for the field. See Fort.

SCONE, or Scoon, in Geography, a village in a parifh ef

the

SCONE.

the fame name, in Perthfhire, Scotland, is fituated at the dif-
tance of a mile and a half north from the town of Perth.
Though reduced to comparative infignificance, it was an-
ciently of great diftin@tion, the chief featof the Scottifh
monarchs, and the place where the ftates of the nation met
to deliberate on all important occafiens. Some writers affert,
that it was alfo the capital of the Pi&tifh dominions. Ken-
neth IT. removed hither from Argyle the {tone chair which
the kings of Scotland occupied during the ceremony of coro-
nation. Onatumulus ftill in exiftence they held their courts
of juftice, and promulgated laws. Here they fat to deter-
mine the pleas of their barons, whence the hill was deno-
minated ** Mons Placiti de Scona, Omnis Terra, or the Mote
Hill of Scone.” It is ufually called by the vulgar Boot-
hil, from a tradition that at the “ coronation of a king,
every man who affifted, brought fo much earth in his boots,
that every man might fee the king crowned ftanding on his
own land.”? It has been faid that Malcolm II., feated in the
inaugural chair on this mount, “* gave and diftributed all his
lands of the realm of Scotland among his men, and referved
nothing in propertie for himfelf, bot the royall dignitie,
and the Mutehill in the towne of Scone.”? This diftribution,
however, as Guthrie jultly remarks, ought to be taken in a
limited fenfe, it being incredible, that any prince fhould to-
tally divett himfelf of all his royal demefnes. It is moft pro-
bable, therefore, that it referred to fome general ccnfirma-
tion to his barons of the grants of their lands, which before
that they probably held precarioufly, and at the will of the
crown.

An abbey was founded at this place by Alexander I., in
the year 1114, and was dedicated to the Holy Trinity and
St. Michael ; but long previous to that period, Buchanan
and other authors affirm, that its {cite was occupied by a
Culdee monaftery, and their ftatement is far from impro-
bable, as it does not feem likely, that a place of fo much
celebrity as Scone fhould have been deftitute of fome reli-
gious eltablifhment till the era of Alexander’s foundation.
The inmates of the new building were canons regular of the
order of St. Auguftine, and were entrufted with the cuf-
tody of the « fatal ftone, the palladium of the Scottifh mo-
narchy,”’ which was carried off by king Edward I. and ftill
remains in Weftminfter Abbey church. The annual revenues
of this abhey, even fo late as the time of the reformation,
were very confiderable, amounting to 1140/. 6s. 6d. Scots,
befides “ 16 chaldrons and 2 firlots of wheat, 73 chaldrons,
13 bolls, 2 firlots, and 2 pecks of beave; 62 chaldrons of
meal, 18 chaldrons and 3 bolls, and 1 laft of falmon.”” The
buildings of the abbey were very extenfive and magnificent.
Connected with them was the palace where the Scottifh
monarchs refided when at Scone ; the whole being enclofed
by a wall comprifing within it an area of twelve acres. Both
the abbey and palace were burnt to the ground by a fanatical
mob, during the fury of the reformation ; fo that fcarcely
any traces of them can now be difcovered, and even the {cite
of the palace is uncertain, It is fuppofed, however, that
part of it at leaft lies under the prefent palace, the feat of
the earl of Mansfield. This ftructure was begun by the earl
of Gowrie, and was finifhed by fir David Murray of Gof-
patrick, (the favourite of king James VI.), to whom that
monarch had granted it ; and the new pofleflor, in gratitude,
put up the royal arms in feveral parts of the houfe. It is
in the mixed {tyle of archite€ture generally prevalent in the
feventeenth century, both in England and Scotland. The
length of it in front is abuut feve nty yards, and its depth
about thirty. The gallery, which looks towards the eatt,
meafures one hundred and forty feet long, and has a ceiling
of arched timber-work. On the one fide of it is painted

the hunting of a ftag in all its different ftage$; on the other
are reprefented the exercife of hawking, the hunting of the
wild boar, and the wild bull. It is faid that king James VI.
appears in every fcene; and that the groups of figures
attending him are the nobles of the court, and that all of
them. are exaét reprefentations of the originals. The {paces
between the different fcenes are filled up with the arms of
the family, with fruit and flower-pieces, and other orna-
ments.”? In a chamber adjoining this gallery, on the north,
is a canopy of ftate, ufed by the fecond earl of Mansfield,
when ambaflador at the court of Verfailles ; and in another,
called the king’s room, is a curious old bed of orange-
coloured damafk fattin, and feveral antique chairs. A third
room, on the weft fide of the houfe, is named the queen’s
room, and contains a bed of flowered crimfon velvet, faid to
have been the work of Mary queen of Scots, while a prifoner
in the caftle of Loch Leven. All thefe chambers are deco-
rated with hangings of fine tapeftry, and with portraits of
the anceftors of the family, and other perfonages of cele-
brity. In the dining-room, a {pacious and elegant apart-
ment, are two full-length portraits of their prefent ma-

jetties.

The pofition of this houfe is in the midft of an extenfive
lawn, floping gradually towards the river Tay, which flows
gently beneath. Except on the fouth-welt, it is fhaded by
a grove of young trees, intermixed with fome old ones,
which rank among the largeft in Scotland. On all fides,
but particularly to the weftward, it commands very fine
profpects. ‘ On the left hand, at the diftance of two or
three miles, the hills above the Tay and the Earne feem to
unite, forming a vatt theatre decorated with plantations and
corn-fields. On the right, at the diftance of fifteen miles,
the Grampian mountains affume a fimilar form, and in the
middle, induiftry and fkill have given a gay and cultivated
afpeét to a very extenfive tract of country.”

Some years after the deftruction of the abbey, an elegant
parifh church was ereéted on the top of the Mote-hill, by the
firft vifcount Stormont ; but that {tru€ture being much out
of repair, and too fmall for the parifh, the prefent church
was ere¢ted about thirty years ago in the village. In an
aifle of the old church, which is {till ftanding, are feveral

‘handfome monuments to the memory of members of the

Murray family. One of them, commemorating the founder,
merits defcription. It is compofed wholly of marble, and
feems to have been defigned to reprefent the interior of a
chapel. In the middle, towards the lower part of it, is a
ftatue of his lordfhip as large as life, clad in armour, kneel-
ing on a cufhion before an altar, a book lying open.before
him, and the palms of his hands joined, as if earneftly en-
gaged in devotion. On each fide ftands the figure of a man
in armour, fomewhat fmaller than the life; the one faid to
be the marquis of Tullebardine, and the other the earl
marefchall; above thefe are feveral emblematical figures ;
towards the top are the arms of the family, and over all, the ,
figure of an angel.

Scone parifh extends three Englifh miles in every direc-
tion, comprifing about 4600 Scots acres, of which 3000 are
under tillage, and zoo planted. The foil, loth various, is
in general extremely fertile ; and the air is fo dry and falu-
brious, that Scone has been {tyled the Montpellier of Perth-
fhire. Here are feveral quarries of excellent free-ftone for
building ; alfo an extenfive bleaching-field, called Stormont
Bleach-tield, which is connected with the Tay by a canal
three miles in length. ‘The other principal employment of
the inhabitants, befides agriculture, is the linen manufacture,
which gives work to about feventy weavers. According to
the late parliamentary returns (1851), this parifh contains

318 houfes,

Se) O

$18 houfes, and 1953-inhabitants, of whom 500 refide in the
village, which confiits of two wide interfecting ftreets, and
feveral lanes.

The remains of antiquity here, independent of thofe above
mentioned, are two ftone circles, placed within fourteen yards
of each other, near the ealtern boundary of the parith; a
part of the Roman military way from the camp of Ardoch
to the foot of the Grampians ; the foundations of the ancient
town of Bertha, and a fortification called Silver Caftle, the
hiftory of which is unknown. The veftiges of the houfe of
the famous John Hay, chief of the Hays, are ftill religioufly
preferved, and are poiated out by the inhabitants with ex-
ultation, that their parifh fhould have given birth to a man,
whofe heroic condu@t, aided by that of his fons and followers,
retrieved the difafters of the field of Lancarty, and changed the
inglorious flight of the Scottifh army into a decifive victory.
—Scone alfo boafts of having been the birth-place of the
celebrated earl of Mansfield, lord chief juitice of the court
of king’s bench.

For.notices of the more important hiftorical events which
have occurred at Scone, the reader is referred to the article
Scortanp.—The Statiftical Account of Scotland, by Sir
John Sinclair, Bart. vol. xviil. 8vo. 1796. Pennant’s Tour
through Scotland, vol. iii. 4to. Lond. 1790. Beauties of
Scotland, vol. iv. 8vo. 1806. Carlifle’s ~Topographical
Diétionary of Scotland, 2 vols. 4to. Lond. 1813.

SCOODIAK, a river of America, which bounds the
province of Maine on the fide of New Brunfwick, and runs
into the Paflamaquady bay, N. lat. 45° 10!. W. long. 67°.

SCOONIE, a town of Scotland, in the county of Fife ;
1o miles S.W. of St. Andrews.

SCOOP, in Sea Language, a {mall hollowed piece of
wood, or a {mall box open at one end and at top, with a
long handle fixed obliquely into its clofed end; and ufed to
throw water out of a boat into the fea, ufually called bailing
the boat ; or on other cccafions, when it is required to empty
any hole or place of water.

Scoop-Wheel, a machine ufed in China for lifting water
upon the banks of rivers for agricultural purpofes. Thefe
wheels, which are common in the fouthern provinces, are
made entirely of bamboo ; they are put together without a
nail, and are from fifteen to forty feet in diameter. They
come nearelt to the Perfian or bucket-wheel, but are ma-
terially different in the principle and con{truétion. A wheel
thirty feet in diameter will lift, in the courfe of twenty-four
hours, near 70,000 gallons of water. Sir George Staunton
has given a figure of it in the folio volume of plates annexed
to his ** Chinefe Embafly.”’

SCOPAMENE, in Geography, a town of the department
of Liamone, in the ifland ot Corfica, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftriet of Sartene.

SCOPARIA, in Botany, fo called from /cope, a broom,
becaufe the plant is uled, in the Welt Indies, for making
brooms.—Linn. Gen. 58. Schreb. 77. Willd. Sp. Pi.
v. 1.652. Mart. Mill. Di&.v. 4. Aut. Hort. Kew. v. 1.
257- Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. y. 1. 443. Jufl. 118. La-
marck Lilultr.t. 85. Gaertn. t. 53.—Clafs and order, 7¢-
trandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Perfonate, Linn. Scrophu-
daria, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, concave,
in four deep, narrow, rough, equal fegments. Cor. of one
petal, wheel-(haped, a Sg concave, in four deep tongue-
fhaped, obtufe, equal fegments ; bearded at the throat.
Stam. Filaments four, equal, awl-thaped, fhorter than the
corolla; anthers fimple, roundish. Pi, Germen fuperior,
globofle ; ftyle awl-fhaped, the length of the corolla; ttigma
abrupt. Peric. Capfule nearly globular, pointed, with two

sco

cells and two valves; partition membranous, parallel with
the valves, bordering the central column. Seeds feveral,
minute, obovate.

Eff. Ch, Calyx in four deep equal fegments. Corolla
wheel-fhaped, deeply four-cleft. Capfule globular, with
two cells, two valves, and many feeds.

t. S. dulcis, Sweet Scoparia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 168.
Willd. n. tr. Ait.n. 1. Br.n.1. Jacq. Amer 17 (Ve-
ronica americana erecta frutefcens et ramofa, folio verbene ;
Herm. Parad. 241, witha plate. V. fruticofa erecta dulcis,
hexangulari caule, flore dilute ceruleo ; Sloane Jam. v. 1.
195. t. 108. f. 2.) Leaves three together. Flowers
ftalked. — Common throughout the Weft Indies, in wafte
ground, dry fields, &c. Mr. Brown met with it alfo in the
tropical part of New Holland. The plant has long been
known in our greenhoufes or ftoves, but being an annual,
of no great beauty, is not generally cultivated. It flowers
all fummer long. The /fem is very bufhy, angular. Leaves
ftalked, an inch long, light green, {mooth, coarlely and
bluntly ferrated, tapering at the bale. Flowers very nu-
merous, axillary, folitary, on fhort flender ftaiks, fmall,
white. Capfule the fize of hemp-feed. Sloane fays the
leaves have a fweet taite, like liquorice, whence the name of
Wild Liquorice, or Sweet Weed, by which this herb is
known in Jamaica. He adds, that three fpoonfuls of the
expreffed juice of thefe leaves, evening and morning for three
days, is counted an infallible remedy for any cough.—Mr.
Browne fufpeéts this to be the only genuine fpecies of its
genus. The two following are referred to the fame by
authors.

2. S. procumbens. Procumbent Scoparia. Jacq. Amer. 18.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 168. Willd. n. 2.—Leaves four together.
Flowers feffile.—Native of the fandy fea-coatt near Cartha-
gena. Scarcely fix inches long, like the former in habit, but
the lems are forked, and nearly procumbent. Leaves {mall,
four together, awl-fhaped, rather rigid; the two oppofite
ones interior, and a little the fhorteft. Flowers {mall,
white, feflile, axillary, and in the forks of the ultimate
branches. ‘Tube of the corolla fringed in the upper part,
but there are no hairs at the bafe of the fegments ; otherwife
the fruétification agrees in character with the foregoing.
Jacquin.

3. S. arborea. Tree Scoparia. Linn, Suppl. 125. Willd,
n. 3. Thunb. Prodr. 29.— Leaves oppofite, nearly entire ;
hoary beneath. Panicle corymbofe, repeatedly compound,
many -flowered.—Found by Thunberg, at the Cape of Good
Hope. A ¢ree, with the habit of an Olea or Phillyrea.
Branches quadrangular. Leaves certainly oppofite, what-
ever Thunberg or the younger Linneus may fay to the
contrary, each two or three inches long, entire, or obfcurely
crenate, {talked ; {mooth and fhining above; white and
downy beneath. Panicle terminal, of innumerable {mall
flowers. Stalks angular, braéteated, hoary as well as the
calyx, which has four angles, and four expanded teeth.

SCOPAS, in Biography, an eminent Grecian artilt of the
ifle of Paros, flourifhed in the year before Chrilt 430. He
was equally diftinguifhed as a ftatuary and fculptor, and was
the author of many works which placed his name ona level
with thofe of Phidias and Praxiteles. One of the columns
in the temple of Ephefus was his performance ; allo one of
the four fides of the famous tomb of Maufolus. Rome pof-
feffed feveral fine works the produétions of Scopas, amon
which the molt admired was the great group ot Neptune, ae
other marine deitics in the Flaminian circus, which, of them-
felves, might, according to Pliny, have been the labour of
a whole life. The fame writer {peaks of a Venus the work
of Scopas, furpafling that of Praxiteles. Horace, in are

°

SCO

of his odes, refers to Scopas as an artift at the head of his
profeffion :

“se

Divite me fcilicet artium

Quas aut Parrhafius protulit, aut Scopas
Hic faxo, liquidis ille coloribus

Solers nunc hominem ponere, nunc Deum.”’

Horat. Od. 8. lib. iv,

SCOPELISMUS, cxorsAisuo-, an audacious crime prac-
tifed by fome villains among the Arabians.

lt confifted in placing a certain number of ftones upon the
farm or field of perfons thefe mifcreants had a pique at ;
which ftones ferved as a denunciation of utter deftruétion to
thofe, who for the future fhould attempt to till the ground
on which they were laid. And fuch terror attended this
malevolent and clandeftine threatening, that none ever ven-
tured to till fuch fields.

SCOPELO, and more commonly written Scopoli, the
Scopelos of the ancients, in Geography, the principal of a
group of iflands in the Grecian Archipelago, fituated near
the coaft of Great Greece. It is fertile, and would be an
agreeable abode, if it ceafed to lofe, through the vicioufnefs
of its adminiftration, the favours lavifhed on it by nature.
The wine of Scopoli is ttill one of the beft of the Archi-
pelago ; but a {trong flavour of tar renders it unpalatable to
many. Off the town, or rather the village, fhips find a
harbour, which is not very fafe; they in general prefer the
anchorage of a great road, formed by a few fhoals, and the
ifland oF Setpake N. lat. 39° 26’. E. long. 23° 52!

SCOPELOS, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of the
fEgean fea, near the coaft of Macedonia, 2 leagues from
Sciathus, and 6 leagues N. of the ifle of Eubcea.

SCOPELUS, a town of Afiatic Sarmatia, upon the river
Varadanus. Ptolemy.

SCOPEN, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the palati-
nate of Culm; 12 miles S.E. of Culm.

SCOPER-HOLES, or Scurer-notss, in a Ship. See
ScCUPPERS.

SCOPIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Greece, in
Theflaly, according to Polybius.

SCOPIUS, a mountain of Macedonia.—Alfo, a river
of Afia, in Bithynia.

SCOPOLIA, in Botany, was named by the writer of this
article, in memory of his worthy friend John Anthony Sco-
poli, the celebrated author of the Flora Carniolica, Entomo-
logia Carniolica, Delicia Infubrice, and many other learned
works in every department of natural hiftory. Jacquin and
Linnzus, who well knew his merits, had long ago infcribed
a plant to his honour, which proved a {pecies of Hyo/cyamus.
The younger Linnzus chofe another, which on more careful
examination was found to be a Daphne. The Scopolia of
Forfter has been changed by himfelf, or his fon, to Grif-
linia, becaufe the latter fuppofed the genus of the younger
Linnzus to be well founded. The poffeflor of the Linnzan
herbarium therefore, in publifhing the Scopolia of the Su pple-
mentum by the name of Daphne pendula, P). Ic. ex Herb.
Linn, t. 34, was anxious to eftablifh another ; and felected,
for that purpofe, what Juflien and Lamarck had called by
an infufferably barbarous, as well as inappropriate, name,
Toddalia, and Schreber had dedicated to profeffor Crantz,
though Swartz had already publifhed a Crantzia. In pub-
lifhing this prefent Scopolia, occafion was taken to comme-
morate the unfortunate fate of Scopoli, who, after fome
domeftic chagrin, and much public perfecution, died Pro-
feflor of Botany at Pavia, May 8, 1788. He had been con-
cerned with all the moft eminent men of that univerfity,
Volta, Fontana, and others, in deteéting the mifconduét of

SCO

their colleague, the celebrated Spallanzani, who had robbed
the public mufeum. But the emperor, loth to difmifs fo
able a profeflor, contented himfelf with a perfonal rebuke at
Vienna to the culprit, and his accufers were filenced, ina
manner which honeft men could ill brook, and which was
{uppofed to have caufed the death of Scopoli. The fur-
vivors told their ftory, as explicitly as they durft, in a circular
letter to the learned of Europe.—Sm. Pl. Ic. ex Herb.
Linn. fafc. 2. p. 34. Willd. Sp. Pl. vy. x. 1115. Ait.
Hort. Kew. v. 2. 23. (Crantzia; Schreb. Gen. 143. Tod-
dalia ; Juff. 371. Lamarck Di@. v. 7. 692. Lluftr. t. 139.)
—Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Tere-
bintacee, Jufl. Rather perhaps Rutacee.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of one leaf, inferior, fmall,
in five deep, ovate, acute, concave, fpreading, permanent
fegments. Cor. Petals five, oblong, feffile, ereét, bluntith,
concave, keeled at the upper part behind. Neétary none.
Stam. Filaments five, awl-fhaped, ereét, oppofite to the
petals, and rather longer, dilated and triangular at the bafe ;
anthers roundifh, incumbent. Pf. Germen fuperior,
roundifh, with five furrowed lobes ; ftyle fearcely longer
than the germen, furrowed lengthwife, {welling in the mid-
dle ; ftigma three-lobed, obtufe. Peric. Capfule of five
cells, nearly globofe, dotted, with a fucculent coat, fome of
the cells isften abortive. Seeds folitary, oblong, fomewhat
kidney-fhaped.

Eff. Ch. Calyx inferior, five-cleft. Petals tive. Nec-
tary none. Stigma capitate. Capfule fucculent, of five
cells. Seeds folitary.

1. S. aculeata. Prickly Scopolia. Sm. as above. Willd.
n. 1. Ait.n. 1. (Paullinia afiatica; Linn. oF Pl. 524.
Jacq. Obf. fafe. 3. 11. t.62.f.1. Kaka-toddali; Rheede
Hort. Malab. v. 5. 81. t. 41.)—Stem prickly. Leaflets
obovate, bluntly pointed. Panicles axillary.—Native of the
Eaft Indies, the ifle of Bourbon, &c. A itove plant, intro-
duced at Kew by fir J. Banks, in 1790. We faw it at
Meflrs. Lee and Kennedy’s in 1792. The dranches, and often
the footfalks, are armed with hooked prickles, like thofe of
arofe. Leaves alternate, ternate ; /eaflets equal, aninch and
half long, obfcurely crenate, fmooth, coriaceous, rather
glaucous, when bruifed {melling like rue. Panicles axillary,
often in pairs, alternately branched; their partial ftalks
moftly umbellate. Flowers {mall, white, faid to be ftrongly
{cented. Fruit brown, acrid. Every part of the plant is
befprinkled with glandular dots.

2. S. inermis. Blunt-leaved Scopolia. Willd. n. 2. (Tod-
dalia paniculata; Lamarck Dié. n. 2. Illuftr. f. 2.)—
Stem without prickles. Leaflets obovate, obtufe, entire.
Panicle terminal. Flowers four-cleft.—Native of the ifland
of Mauritius. A /brub, refembling fome of the Cape fpecies
of Rhus. Fruit with four furrows. The above character
fhews the differences between this fpecies and the former.
We have feen no {pecimen.

. S. lanceolata. Lanceolate-leaved Scopolia. (Tod-
dalia lanceolata; Lamarck Di&. n. 3. Vepris inermis 5
Commerfon MSS. )—Stem without prickles. Leaflets lan-
ceolate, taper-pointed. Panicle terminal. Flowers four-
cleft. —Native of the iflands of Mauritius and Bourbon.—
The caflets of this are near three inches long, tapering at
each end, very acute, fhining, elegantly veined ; fomewhat
crifped at the edges. Panicle terminal, many-flowered,
with hairy ftalks. We have in the Linnean herbarium a
fpecimen, which feems to be this plant in fruit, with rather
lefs tapering leaflets. The cap/ules have three, four, or five
cells, and are, like the /eaves, befprinkled with glandular
dots. By aticket annexed, it fhould feem that this {pecimen
came from the Cape of Good Hope. ¢

Anyi

pe O

4. 8. anguftifolia. Narrow-leaved Scopolia. (Toddalia
anguttifolia; Lamarck Did. n. 4.)—Stem without prickles.
Leaflets linear-lanceolate, rather acute. Branches downy.
Clufters axillary, much fhorter than the leaves.—Gathered
by Sonnerat in the Eait Indies.—The leaflets are defcribed
by Poiret, in Lamarck’s work, as narrow, fhining, veiny,
efpecially beneath, entire. Cl/uflers {mall, very much fhorter
than the leaves, moderately branched. Flowers five-cleft.
Fruit very {mall, with four or five cells. :

SCOPPELLO, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Sefia; 10 miles W. of Vercelli.

SCOPS, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Strix ; which fee.

SCOPULUS, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of the
Ionian fea, near that of Cephalenia.

SCOPUS, in Ornithology, a genus of birds of the order
Grallz. Bill long, thick, comprefied, a little hooked;
the noftrils are linear and oblique; the feet are four-toed
and cleft. There is but a fingle

Species.

Unesretra; Tufted Umbre. It inhabits Africa, and is
twenty inches long. The bill is brown, with a longitu-
dinal furrow on each fide, in which are placed the noitrils ;
the lower mandible is narrower towards the end, and a
little truncate ; the creft is thick, tufted, and lax; the
body is brown; the tail is obfcurely barred; legs longih,
brown; toes connected at the bafe. The female is not

crefted.

SCORBOLO, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Parma; 6 miles E.N.E. of Parma.

SCORBUTUS, in Medicine. See Scurvy.

SCORCHING Fewnet, in Botany. See Tuapsta.

SCORDA, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia, in
BaGtriana, S. of the Tochares, or Trochares. Ptolemy.

SCORDICES, a Celtic or Gaulifh people, who in-
habited the territory S. of the Danube, and were fome
of the moft warlike people in all Illyria. Some of them
occupied the banks of the Noarus, on the coaft of the
town of Segefte; and others were fituated near the con-
fluence of the Danube and Save. Their limits extended
to the mountains of Thrace and of Macedonia. Thefe
people were ultimately fubdued by Tiberius, when he com
manded the armies of Auguftus in Pannonia.

SCORDISCUS Mows, a mountain of Cappadocia.
Ptolemy.

SCORDIUM, in Botany. See GenmManver.

SCORE, in Agriculture, aterm fignifying twenty pounds
re fpeaking of the weight of cattle, {wine, and many other
things.

Score, in Mufic, the parts of a compofition placed
over each other, and a perpendicular line or bar drawn
through the whole, whence the term /core ; in which with
a glance may be feen the movement and agreement of the
feveral parts in the melody, and combination in the har-
mony. See Partition and Bars.

SCORF, in Geography, a river of France, in the de-
partment of the Morbihan, which runs into the fea about
fix miles 8. of L’Orient.

SCORIA, in Metallurgy, the recrementa of metals in
fufion, or, more determinately fpeaking, the mafs, or part
of the mafs, of a melted metal, converted by the aétion of
the fire into a body, which, when cold, is brittle, fixed,
not diffoluble in water, but melts again when expofed to
the fire, and is properly a kind of glafs.

Some authors call by this name that faline mafs, which
is produced by melting ores and metals together, with faline
and reducing fluxes. But the word fcoria is not properly

Vou. XXXII.

sCcO

to be underftood of all this mafs, but only of the vitrified
particles which are lodged between, and adhere to the {mall
maffes of the falts, and which may be feparated from them
by water.

SCORIFICATION, the art of reducing a body cither
entirely, or in part, into feoriz.

It is ufed by metallurgifts, in order that any metal, im-
prifoned in a folid body, may, on account of its weight,
defcend and feparate itfelf from it, and finally if that be
required by itfelf either wholly or in part, converted inte
feoriz.

All fixed bodies are fubje& to this alteration, not to-
tally excepting even gold and filver. There are alfo, among
the volatile bodies, fome that may be fixed, and which afflume
the form of fcorix, by adding fixed bodies to them.

It is often proper to make this feorification in a veflel
that may abforb the fcoriz, and retain only the metallic
part of the mafs under trial. In this cafe the operation is
called coppelling, and vellels made of afhes, called tefts and
coppels, terve for this purpofe. It is evident in thefe pro-
cefles, that a great attenuation of the {cori is neceflary,
that they may be able to pafs through the veflel; nor is
there any fitter body to promote this operation than lead,
which, by its undergoing itfelf a like attenuation in the fire,
difpofes other bodies to be reduced into fubtle fcoriz for
the fame attenuation.

SCORING, in Agriculture, a provincial term, fignifying
the glazing, glofling, or making the furrow-flice fhine in
ploughing or turning land up, by the plough ating as a
trowel. Mr. Marfhall fays it may be prevented by the ufe
of a ftrong rope-yarn round the mould-board. It is fome-
times written fcowring. Ploughs fhould be prevented, as
much as poffible, from having this effe@, as the friction
or power of draught is thereby greatly increafed. See
Pious.

SCORITH, a word ufed by the chemical writers te
exprefs fulphur.

SCORODOPRASUM, in Botany, compounded of
oxopodov, garlick, and xpacev, a leek, becaufe the plant which
bears this name is fomewhat intermediate, in appearance
and chara&ter, between both. See ALLIUM, n. 16.

SCORPENA, in Ichthyology, a genus of fifhes of the
order Thoracici. The generic Carats is as follows: the
head: is large, aculeate, cirrous, obtufe, without fecales,
fubcomprefled ; the eyes are near to each other; teeth in
the jaws and palate; the gill-membrane is feven-rayed; the
body is thick and flefhy ; the dorfal fin is fingle, long; the
anterior rays are {pinous. According to Gmelin there are
nine fpecies, but by other naturalifts fixteen have been enu-
merated.

This genus is diftinguifhed by a peculiar uncouthnefs of
appearance; the beats in fome {pecies, being abruptly
truncated in front, of vatt fize, and armed with protube-
rances and fpines.

Species.

Porcus. Cirri near the eyes and noftrils. This {pecies
is common in the Mediterranean, where it chiefly frequents
the fhores, lying in ambufh among ftones, fea-weeds, &c.
and preying on the {maller fifhes and fea-infeéts ; the head
is large; ‘Be mouth is wide, with many rows of {mall fhar
teeth; the eyes are large; the gill-covers are armed wit
ftrong {pines racer nee with cirri; the body is covered
with fmall rough feales of a dufky colour, varied with
black on the back, and beneath cid with a reddifh caft.
The dorfal fin is furnithed with very ftrong {piny raya,
which the fith when caught ereéts, and thus wounds ite

5C adverfary,

SCORPAENA.

adverfary. It is generally, when full grown, from twelve
to fifteen inches long. ‘

Scrora. The lower lip has two cirri. This, in its
general appearance, is very nearly allied to the porcus, fo
much fo that it might be miftaken for it; but it is larger,
and has larger fcales; it has alfo feverai cirri or procefles
difpofed along the lateral line ; the colour likewife is rather
rufous than brown, asin the former kind. Of this {pecies
it is reported, that it preys not only on the fmaller fifhes,
but even on marine birds, that happen to come within its
reach. It fometimes attains the length of four feet; it
mutt, confequently, prove a formidable enemy to {maller
marine animals. It is faid to be an edible fifh, notwith-
ftanding its forbidding appearance.

Horrma. The body of this is befet with callous
tubercles. It inhabits and is found about the coafts of
India. The body is variegated with brown and white, de-
void of {mall feales, and all fides rough with cri. The
head is very large, covered with tubercles and prickles,
and disfigured with cavities ; eyes very {mall, the pupil is
black, iris yellow, placed above a deep hollow; the mouth
above is large, the infide is armed with numerous {mall
fharp teeth; the lateral line beginning at the nape and
bert downward near the anal fin, and ending in the middle
of the tail; the fins are covered with a thick fkin; the rays
are forked. This is {aid to be one of the moft uncouth
and hideous animals embofomed in the deep, refembling
rather fome imaginary moniter than a natural deformity or
unfightlinefs.

Vorirans. Peétoral fins are larger than the body. It
inhabits the frefh waters of Amboina and Japan. It is lefs
than the river perch ; it has the power of raifing itfelf out
of the water, and fufpending itfelf in the air a fhort time by
means .of its long peétoral fins, when purfued by larger
fifh; the body is varied with brown bands, and inter-
mediate orange and white lines, and covered with {mall im-
bricate feales. The flefh of this fpecies is reckoned ex-
tremely delicious. It probably ufes its fins for the pur-
pofes of occafional flight.

Antennata, This is known chiefly by a band acrofs
the eyes; it is variegated with brown and yellow; it has
large violet-coloured pectoral fins. It is nearly allied to
the volitans in its general appearance, but is fomewhat
larger, and with a floping head; the body is variegated
with numerous brown and yellow tranf{verfe ftripes; the
eyes are larger than thofe of the preceding fifh, and im-
mediately over the eyes are feated two long cylindrical ten-
tacula or cirri, furrounded by feveral fibrous brown bars ;
upper jaw is longer than the lower; pectoral fins fmaller
than the flying fcorpena, and of a deep violet colour, with
the rays projected greatly beyond the membrane ; the fcales
on the body are larger than thofe on the flying fcorpena,
and the head is nearly plain or whitifh in front. It isa
native of the rivers of Amboina.

Dinactyia; Brown Scorpena. Blotched and fpotted
with yellow, with two diftin&t appendages near the pectoral
fin. ‘This is not more than about a foot long ; the form is
extremely grotefque ; the general colour is a dufky brown,
varied above by tranfverfe yellow {treaks, and beneath by
roundith {pots of the fame colour; the fkin is deftitute of
fcales; the head is depreffed, and furnifhed on different
parts with feveral abrupt flefhy cirri; the eyes are large,
and fituated on two protuberances ; the fnout is truncated,

and marked on the fides by feveral angular wrinkles, as are
alfo the lower parts of the gill-covers ; the lower jaw is
longer than the upper; the tongue is prominent, and

marked with yellow granulations and black ftreaks; the

cirri are flefhy, a very large one on each fide on the lower
jaw ; the lateral line is parallel with the back ; the vent is
placed behind the end of the ventral fins; the fins are
formed of numerous rays terminating in filaments; the pec-
toral fins are large, oval, and with rounded tail barred with
black ; the dorfal reaching from the head to the tail. This
fith was firft defcribed by Dr. Pallas. It is a native of the
Indian feas, and preys on the {maller fithes, fea-infe&ts, &c.
It is an edible fith. '

Cavensis. The head of this {pecies is marked on each
fide over the eyes with four teeth or proceffes, and nearl
an even tail. This is about a foot long; it is covered wit
fmall, rough, imbricated feales; the head is large ; fo alfo
are the eyes, which are fituated on each fide; the mouth
is wide; the jaws are equal; the gill-covers are each com-
pofed of two very large fealy plates, the upper of which
terminates in four denticulations, and the lower in a fingle
point; the back is arched and carinated ; the peétoral
are large and ovate. It is a native of the Cape of Good
Hope, and was defcribed by Gronovius.

Sprnosa. The dorfal fin of this is continued from head
to tail, and it has a fpiny lateral line. According to Dr.
Shaw, the body is comprefled ; the head is {piny, and the
lateral line is marked with fpiny points; the dorfal fin is
longer than in moft of the genus, reaching from between
the eyes to the tail.

Americana. The mouth of this is bearded; the head
fpiny, and the peétoral fins fuborbicular. The head is
armed with protuberances and {pines ; it has two {pines on
the upper lip, and five or fix on the lower ; the lait fifteen
rays of the dorfal fin form a portion more elevated than the
re{t of the fin, and they are of a rounded figure; the anal
fin, which is fituated juft beneath this part, is of a fimilar
fhape ; the pectoral fins and tail are alfo rounded. It is
a native of the American feas.

Such are the {pecies defcribed by Gmelin; the following
have been added fince. :

Prumierr. Blackifh, with feathered cirri on the head
and lateral line. The upper part and fides of the head,
ea with the gill-covers, armed with triangular, flat,
and fharp {pines ; between the eyes are fituated four fringed
cirri; and four others of fimilar form, but fimaller, are
placed on the upper lip ; while feveral are difpofed along a
lateral line; the body is covered with fcales of a moderate
fize ; the firft part of the dorfal fin, which is of a rounded
form, is furnifhed with fpiny rays, and the tail is alfo
rounded ; the general colour of the fifth is of a very dee
or blackifh-brown, and on the peétoral fins are a few fmalt
brown {pots. It is a native of the American feas,

Commersonu. The body and fins of this fpecies are
tranfverfely banded with brown and yellow ; the eye-brows
are ferrated, and the upper lip bearded. This fpecies has
been defcribed by M. Cépéde from the manufcripts of
Commerfon. The back is arched and carinated; the
lateral line curving downwards; the body is coveréd with
{mall feales ; the head is large, and armed with numerous
{pines ; the orbits of the eyes are elevated, and forming
two denticulated crefts, with a furrow between them; the
lower is fomewhat longer than the upper, which is extenfile,
and furnifhed on each fide with three or four beards; the
teeth are very {mall and clofe ; the noftrils are each marked
with a {mall filament; the gill-covers are compofed of two
plates; the dorfal fin is marked in different parts by large
unequal finuations ; the peétoral fins are fo long as almoft
to reach as far as the extremity of the back fin, and the
tail is of a rounded fhape; the body is railed with brown
and yellow tran{verfe bands, and all the fins are vee

8

sco

This fpecies was obferved by Commerfon about half a cen-
tury ago near the iflands of Mahe.

BicapmtaTa. This {pecies has an abrupt fubdepreffed
head, furnifhed at the back part with two extremely long
filaments. It is about four inches long; the body is rather
thick, and covered with minute fcales; the head is large,
and fomewhat deprefled, and marked with protuberances ;
the lower lip is much elevated, fo as to make the head ap-
pear truncated in front; the eyes are fmall and near ; and
the peGtoral fins very large, and fo long as to reach as far
as the middle of the body. It is a native of the Indian
feas. The colour is not mentioned by Cépéde, whofe de-
{cription is taken from Commerfon.

Bracutata. The head of this is abrupt and depreffed ;
the ventral fins are attached to a brachial procefs. It is
allied to the laft, which it refembles in the fhape of the
head ; the fize and fituation of the eyes; the conformation
of the jaws; the {mallnefs of the fcales on the body, and
rounded tail; but it differs in being deftitute of the two
filaments, fo remarkable in the other fpecies, as well as in
having the membrane of the dorfal fin much lefs deeply
fcalloped ; while each of the pectoral fins forms as it were
a band, which reaches from the fore part of the branchial
aperture to the vent.

Acureata. The fpecific chara&er of this fifh is, that
it has four {pines aboye the eyes; and both plates of the
aren are fpiny. This is diftinguifhed from the other
pee by note trate very ftrong recurved {pines above

eyes; both plates of the gill-covers are aculeated ; the
dorfal and anal fins are more elevated on one part than the
other; the elevated part being of a rounded form, as well
as the peétoral fins and tail. This is defcribed by M.
pc “its who does not mention its colour or country.

ARBATA. The head of this fpecies is marked in fome
parts by feveral protuberances, and in others by pretty
large depreffions or cavities; on the upper lip are two
beards; and the peétoral fins are united to each other by a
fmall membrane ; the tail is almoft reGilinear.

SCORPIACA, the name of an antidote recommended
by Galen =e the ftinging of fcorpions.

SCORPIO, Scorpion, in Affronomy, the eighth fign of
the zodiac, denoted by the charaGter 1.

The ftars in Scorpio, in Ptolemy’s catalogue, are 24;
in that of Tycho, 10; in that of Hevelius, 20; in that of
Mr. Flamfteed and Mr. Sharp, 44. See ConsTELLATION.

Scorpio, in Botany, a name by which fome of the old
authors have called the genifla Jpinofa, or common furze
buh. Ger. Emac. Ind. 2.

Scoxrio, Scorpion, in Entomology, a genus of infects of
the order Aptera. The generic chara¢ter is, that it has
eight legs, befides two sticlors or hands, feated on the fore-
part of the head; the eyes are eight in number; three of
them are placed on each fide of the thorax, and two on the
back ; it has two feelers, projecting cheliform ; lip bifid and
uo antenna; the tail is long, jointed, and terminated by a
fharp crooked fling ; on the underfide, between the breaft
and abdomen, are two inftruments refembling acomb. The
infeéts of this tribe are all armed with a flightly pungent
fing ; none of them, however, are dangerous, except thofe
in very hot climates; they prey upon worms, {piders, flies,
&c. ; and even on one another ; the larva and pupa are cight-
footed, nimble, and refembling the perfeét infe&t. ‘There are
ten {pecies, all of which are m Jen ae climates than our own.

Species.
Avstnarasta. Combs with fix teeth; the hands are
fmooth. {t inhabits the Pacific lands, and is a very {mall

SCO

infe&. The body is deprefled, above it is of a brewn
colour, the laft joint of the tail is paler ; beneath and legs
are of a paler hue.

Carparnicus. Combs with fix teeth; hands flightly
heart-fhaped and glabrous. ‘This fpecies”is found in the
Carpathian and Helvetic mountains, and by fome authors is
thought to be a variety of the auftralafia.

Maurvus. This fpecies has combs with eight teeth ; the
hands are flightly heart-fhaped and pun&tured. It inhabits
Africa.

Arer ; African Scorpion. The combs of this fpecies
have thirteen teeth; the hands are flightly heart-fhaped and
hairy. It inhabits Perfia, India, and fome parts of Africa.
The body is of a gloffy brownifh-black ; the incifures of
the abdomen are yellow ; the firft joint of the tail ferrate.
Of the feveral fpecies of the {corpio, none are fo remarkable
for fize and the malignity of their poifon as this. It has
been feen ten inches long, when meafured from the end of
the claw to the extremity of the tail, The general colour
being of a dark brown, it is not eafily diftinguifhed from the
rotten wood and furniture under or within which it lurks.
The tail is the inftrument which renders this animal formi-
dable ; and the refervoir which contains the poifon is fituated
near the extremity, from whence it is ejected through two
very {mall holes, one on each fide the tip of the fting.
Thefe holes are fo very minute, as to elude the fight of any
but a very accurate obferver, with the affiitance of glafles.
This fpecies is dreaded in Africa, where the aétivity of the
venom is frequently produétive of very ferious evils ; and in
fome cafes, where the evil has been neglected, the confe-
quences have proved fatal.

AMERICANUS. Combs with fourteen teeth ; the hands
are fubciliate, with filiform claws. It inhabits South Ame»
rica. The body is {potted with brown.

Cuitensis. This fpecies has combs with fixteen teeth 5
the hands are fubangular. It inhabits Chili, as its {pecific
name denotes.

Evropzus; or Italian Scorpion. This has combs with
eighteen teeth; the hands are angular. It inhabits the
fouthern parts of Europe, and is faid to be viviparous, and is
remarkably fond of fpiders as a food, but with the larger
kinds it has often very fevere contefts. The fcorpion, after
having ftung its adverfary to death, cuts off his limbs with
his claws, and fucks the juice from his body.

Horrentorra. Combs with twenty-two teeth only 5
the hands are {mooth, and the tail is rough. It is found in
Sierra Leona. The body is brown, and covered with {mall
raifed dots; the tail is marked with rough raifed lines ; the
legs are paler.

Criseus. Combs with twenty-five teeth ; the hands are
fubciliate and ovate. It inhabits the American iflands ; body
pale teftaceous ; the tailis as long asthe body. ,

Avusrrauis. The combs of this {pecies are divided into
thirty-two teeth; the hands are fmooth. The body is
brown ; the legs are rufous ; the hands are long and rufous,
with filiform claws. ata

All the fpecies of this genus are capable of flinging ina
lefs or greater degree, indithey all feem actuated by a imilar
malignant {pirit, for they will attack each other with fury if
confined in the fame glafs, and the furvivor will devour the
conquered. We are indebted to M. Maupertuis for the firft
accurate and philofophical account of the habits of thefe
animals. According to him they are all viviparous; the
body of the pregnant female exhibiting, when difleéted,
between 40 and 50 young. Each of thefe is {eparated

from the reft by a thin membrane, while all are united by @
common filament. ‘This philofopher, in order to afcertain
5Cz the

sco

the ftrength of their venom, bred a great number together ;
and let them loofe upon dogs and other animals, and he found
that fometimes the fting was fo poifonous as to caufe the
whole body of the wounded animal to {well, the confequences
of which were ffequently violent reaching, convulfions, and
death. At other times he found the {tings of the fame
{pecies almoft harmlefs.

Thefe animals are faid to caft their fkins from time to
time, and to live chiefly on worms and infeés, with which,
if they are well provided, they will live a long time ina
ftate of confinement.

The opinions of authors are very different as to the {ting
of the feorpion ; fome aflerting that there is an opening in
it, through which a poifonous liquor is thrown into the
wound made by it, as is the cafe in the tooth of the viper,
&c. and others affirming that there is no fuch opening.

Galen affirms that there is none, but moft of the writers
of the middle ages affert that there is. But the whole is
fet in the clearett light by fignior Redi, who took the pains
of examining microfcopically the ftings of {corpions, brought
alive from Tunis, Egypt, and Italy, and found in all the
trials which he made with feveral of them, a {mall drop of
white liquor upon the tting. And Mr. Leeuwenhoek dif-
covered an opening on each fide of the fting of this creature,
for the emiflion of the poifon, which he fuppofes is not dif-
charged till the fting is buried in the wound. Baker’s Mi-
crofcope, p. 213.

M. de Maupertuis having caufed {corpions to bite feveral
animals, of which very few died, or fuffered any more than
the pain of the fting, is of opinion, that oil of {corpions, and
ether vulgar antidotes to the poifon of thefe animals, have
rather got their reputation from the innocence of the fting
of thefe creatures than from any confiderable virtue in the
medicines. Mém. de l’Acad. des Sciences, 1731.

However this be, moft families in Morocco, which is
much infefted with this reptile, keep a bottle of {corpions,
infufed in olive oil, which is ufed whenever any perfon is
flung by them ; for though, it is faid, the {corpion carries
an antidote in itfelf, it isnot always to be caught, as it often
ftings a perfon while afleep, and difappears before he awakes,
or thinks of looking for it; in which cafe the body of the
live fcorpion cannot be procured. It is ueceflary to bind
the part, if poflible, above the place itung, then to cauterize,
and afterwards {carify the puncture, to prevent the venom
from pervading the fyitem: this method is fometimes
effeGtual, and fometimes fails, according to the fituation of
the part wounded, or the natuge of the {corpion, fome being
more poifonous than others; but where the flefh of the
reptile can be procured, the cure is faid to be certain and
effe€tual.

Scorpio, a fpecies of Curculio; which fee.—Alfo, a
{fpecies of Cerambyx ; which fee. See alfo the preceding
article.

Scorpio, in Ichthyology. See Scorr=na.

SCORPIOIDES, the name of the Brennius Ocellaris,
defcribed by Artedi as having a furrow between the eyes,
and a large fpot on the dorfal fin, being of a faint green,
variegated with black fpots; and either wanting the eye
fins, or elfe having them extremely minute.

Scorpiorpes, in Botany, fo named by Tournefort, from
the refemblance of its contorted and jointed legume, to the
tail of a {corpion. See Scorriurus.

SCORPIOFERA Recta, in Ancient Geography, a
country of Afia, in Aria, according to Ptolemy.

SCORPION, in Entomology. See Scorpio.

Scorrion, Water, Scorpio paluftris, a name given to a
very remarkable genus of water-infects. See Nara.

Sco

Scorrion Fly, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by
Mouffet, and other writers, to a kind of fly, remarkable
for carrying the end of its tail turned up in the form of the
f{corpion’s ie

Its diftinguifhing charaéters are thefe ; its roftrum, or
trunk, is of a cylindric figure, and of a horny itruéture ;

~and its tail is furnifhed with a weapon of the cheliform

kind.

There are two very beautiful {pecies of thefe. The one
has filvery wings, variegated with three tranfverfe ftreaks of
black towards the ends; the head is black ; and the breatft,
fhoulders, and feet, whitifk ; the reft of the body is black ;
the tail, which reprefents a fting, has five joints, three of
which are red, and the others black; the end of the tail alfo
is forked, and the forks black, and turned up like the fting
of a fcorpion.

The other refembles this in many refpeéts ; but the end of
the tail is thicker, and the forks blunter ; the head is dun-
nifh, the mouth long, and each wing variegated with fix
black fpots, of a large fize.

Scorpion, Scorpio, is alfo the name of an ancient mili-
tary engine, ufed chiefly in the defence of walls, &c.

Marcellinus defcribes the {corpio, as confilting of two
beams bound together by ropes. From the middle of the
two, rofe a third beam, fo difpofed, as to be pulled up and
let down at pleafure ; and on the top of this were faftened
iron hooks, where was hung a fling, either of iron or hemp >
and under the third beam lay a piece of hair-cloth full of
chaff, tied with cords.

To ufe the engine, a round ftone was put into the fling,
and four perfons on each fide, loofening the beams bound
by the ropes, drew back the ere& beam to the hook ; when,
the engineer ftanding on an eminence, giving a ftroke with a
hammer onthe cord to which the beam was faftened with its
hook, fet it at liberty ; fo that hitting againft the foft hair-
cloth, it ftruck out the ftone with a vatt force.

It had its name /corpio, becaufe when the long beam or
tiller was erected, it had a fharp top, in manner of a fting.
More modern times have given it the name onager, wild ais
becaufe that animal, when hunted, flings back ttones. For
a defcription of the {corpion, which was only a large crofs-
bow, and a figure iluftrating it, as this inftrument was con-
ftruGted and fed about the time of the Norman invafion, we
refer to Grofe’s Mil. Antiq. v.i. p. 367-

Scorpion Gra/s, in Betany. See ScORPIURUS-

Scorpion Grafs, Moufe-ear. See Myosoris.

Scorpion Senna. See CoRONILLA.

Scorpion’s Thorn. See Furze.

Scorpion, Mountain of, or of Acrabim, in Ancient Gee-
graphy, a place of Palettine, towards the extremity of the
Dead fea, S. of the tribe of Juda, according to the book
of Jofhua.

SCORPIURUS, in Botany, a name which occurs in
Pliny, borrowed from the Greeks. xogmiseos, having the
tail of a fcorpion, alludes to the twifted fhape of the legume.
The Englifh name of this genus, Caterpillar, has a fimilar
meaning.—Linn. Gen. 382. Schreb. 504. Willd. Sp. Pl.
v. 3. 1159. Mart. Mill. Di@. v. 4. Sm. Prodr. Fl.
Grec. Sibth. v. 2. 81. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 335. Juifl.
Gen. 361. Lamarck LIlluftr. t. 631. Gartn. t. 155.
(Scorpioides; ‘Tournef. t. 226.)—Clafs and order, Dia-
delphia Decandria. Nat. Ord. Papilionacea, Linn. Legu-
minofe, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, ereét,
inflated, very flightly comprefied, acute, cloven half wa
down into five, nearly equal, teeth, the upper ones lets
divided, Cor. papilionaceous: Standard roundifh, emar-

9 ginate,

sCcO

ginate, reflexed, fpreading: Wings nearly ovate, lax, with
an obtufe appendage: Keel crefcent-fhaped, or gibbous,
pointed, ereé&t, cloven at the lower part. Stam. Filaments
in two parcels (one and nine) afcending ; anthers fmall.
Pif. Germen fuperior, oblong, round, a little reflexed ;
ftvle inflexed upwards; ftigma a terminal point. erie.
Legume oblong, roundifh, leathery, ftriated, rough, revo-
lute, divided internally into numerous tran{verfe cells, knotted

ebfcurely at the outfide, with contracted joints. Seeds foli-
tary, roundifh.
Eff. Ch. Legume jointed, divided by tranfverfe parti-

tions, revolute, cylindrical.

1. S. vermiculata. Common Caterpillar. Linn. Sp. Pl.
1050. (Campoides; Riv. Tetrap. Irr. t. 96.)—Stalks
fingle-owered. Legumes covered all over with obtufe
fcales.—Native of the fouth of Europe, flowering in June
and July.—Root annual, fibrous. Stem from fix to twelve
inches in height, trailing, jointed. Leaves alternate, ftalked,
lanceolate, decurrent, hairy, pointed, entire. BraGeas in
pairs, ere&t, narrow, attenuated. Flower-flalks axillary,
each bearing a fingle yellow flower, which is fucceeded by
a thick, twifted /egume of the fize and appearance of a large
green caterpillar.

2. S. muricata. Two-flowered Caterpillar. Linn. Sp.
Pl. to50. (Scorpioides bupleuri folio, corniculis afperis et
rugolis five rigidis, ftriatis five fulcatis, litui inftar contortis
et in fe convolutis ; Morif. Hift. v. 2. 127. fe&. 2. t. 11.
f. 4.)—Stalks two-flowered. Legumes prickly on the
outfide.—Native of the fouth of Europe, flowering with
the lait. —Root annual, flender. Stems fimilar in habit, but
ftronger, than in the Common Caterpillar. Leaves broader.
Flowers fomewhat imaller, two ona ftalk. Legumes longer,
and more twifted, {pinous externally, or rough with angular,
ciliated lines.

3- S. levigata. Smooth Caterpillar. Sm. Prodr. Fi.
Grec. Sibth. n. 1743. Fl. Grec. t. 718, unpublifhed.
(Scorpioides bupleuri folio, filiquis lenibus; Tourn. Init.
402.)—Stalks three or four-flowered. Legumes furrowed,
perfe&tly {mooth. Found by Dr. Sibthorp in the fields of
the Archipelago. In the Prodromus Flore Grecez, it is
faid “ fcarcely to differ from S. muricata, except in the
Legumes being altogether fmooth ; the flowers two, three,
or four together, according to the luxuriancy of the plant.’
Hence it may poffibly be only a variety of that fpecies.

4- S. fulcata. ‘Three-flowered Caterpillar. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 1050. Fil. Grac. t. 719, unpublifhed.—Stalks gene-
rally three-flowered. Legumes with diftin, acute {pines
on the outfide.—Native of the fouth of Europe, and in the
iflands of the Archipelago, flowering in June and July.—
Root annual, flender, fibrous. Stems rather proftrate, {mall,
{mooth. Leaves on fhort ftalks, decurrent, lanceolate,

inted, fringed. Flower-flalks long, flender, moltly bear-
ing three yellow flowers. Legumes {carcely fo much twifted
as in the foregoing fpecies.

5- 8. fabvillofa. Four-flowered Caterpillar. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 1050. “ Schkuhr. Handb. v. 2. 382. t. 208. «.’?—
Stalks moftly four-flowered. Legumes with numerous,
acute {pines on the outfide.—Native of the fouth of
Europe, and of Algiers. It flowers in June and July.—
Root annual. Stems ttriated, villous, procumbent. Leaves
_ ftalked, broadly lanceolate, entire, acute. Stipulas narrow.
Flower—flalhs axillary, naked, ftriated, much longer than the
leaves. Flowers moltly four together, terminal, yellow.
Legumes very much twilted.

Jesfontaines has another fpecies which he calls S$. pur-
purca. It is nearly allied to the firlt, having like that a
folitary flower, but of a purpke colour ; the flems and leaves

SCO

parte ; the legume grooved, and very fhortly muricate, not
caly.

Miller mentions one of rather a dwarfifh habit and with
pinnate /eaves, which he therefore calls S. pinnata.

Linnzus was of opinion that all the plants of this genus,
which were known to him, were originally derived from
one and the fame {pecies.

Scorpiurus, in Gardening, contains hardy herbaceous
plants of the annual kind, ef which the fpecies cultivated
are, the common caterpillar (S. vermiculata) ; the two-
flowered caterpillar (S. muricata) ; and the furrowed cater-
pillar (S. fulcata).

Method of Culture—Thefe plants may be increafed by
fowing the feeds in the places where they are to remain ir
the early {pring months, three or four feeds being put in
in a place, the plants fhould be thinned properly, and kept
clean from weeds afterwards, when they will produce flowers,
and pods having the refemblance of caterpillars, about the
month of June. The firft fort is moft deferving of culti-
vation, as being the largeft in the pods, and mot perfetly
formed.

They afford ornament and variety in their curious pode
in the different garden departments.

SCORPIUS. See Scorrana.

Scorrius Marinus, in Ichthyology. See Corrus, and
Fatuer-lafher.

SCORTICK, in Geography, a lake of North America.
N. lat. 62° 5’. W. long. 106° 20’.

SCORTIUM, among the Romans, a meafure of capa-
city of a round form, which ufed always to be heaped. ~

SCORTUM. See Scrotum.

SCORZAROLA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
department of the Mincio; 14 miles S.S.W. of Mantua.

SCORZONERA, in Botany, a word of barbarous origin,
which neverthelefs has been generally received by all the
mott claffical writers in this fcience. Tournefort gives its
derivation from the Catalan name of a viper, e/corfo; De
Theis writes it /curzon, adding that this plant pafles in Spain
for a certain remedy againit the bite of that reptile ; an idea
whieh, as he juftly on may have arifen from the {nake-
like form of the roet, rather than from any powerful qua-
lities in that, or any other part of a plant, which is in fuch
common ufe as a mild efculent vegetable.—Linn. Gen. 399:
Schreb. 526. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 1498. Mart. Mill.
Di&. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 434. Sm. Prodr. Fl.
Grec. Sibth. v. 2. 122. Purfh v. 2. 497. Juff. 170.
Tourn. t. 269. Lamarck Illuitr. t. 647. Poiret in La-
marck’s Dict. v. 7. 14. Gaertn. t. 159.—Clafs and order,
Syngencfia Polygamia-equalis. Nat. Ord. Compofita femi-

fofeulo, ‘2, Linn. Cichoracea, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx imbricated, long, nearly cy-
lindrical, of about fifteen {cales, with membranous edges.
Cor. compound, imbricated, uniform; florets all perfeét,
monopetalous, ligulate, linear, abrupt, five-toothed, the
outermolt rather the longelt. Stam. Filaments five, capil-
lary, very fhort; anthers united into a cylindrical tube.
Pift. Germen oblong; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of
the ftamens; ftigmas two, reflexed. Peric. none, except
the ovate-oblong clofed calyx, finally f{preading and re-
flexed. Seeds liter, oblong, cylindrical, ttriated, half ae
long as the calyx ; down feathery, its points more or lef
naked. Recept. naked.

Eff. Ch. Socaialle naked. Down feathery, with naked
pointy. Calyx imbricated; its {cales with membranous
edges.

he thirty-two {pecies in Willdenow, and their fynonyme,
require confiderable correétions, and feveral additions,

1. S.

SCORZONERA.

x. S. somentofa. White Viper’s-grafs. Linn. Sp. Pl.
z11z. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. 1. Prodr. Fl. Gr. n. 1876.
(S. orientalis latifolia, nervofa, candidiffima et tomentofa ;
Tourn. Cor. 36.)—Stem fimple. Leaves feffile, ovate,
ribbed, downy, entire.—Gathered by Tournefort in Ar-
menia; by Pallas on the banks of the Don; and by Sib-
thorp on the little ifland, or rather rock, in the Archipelago,
called Caloiera, or Caloyero. We know of no figure of
this rare, and very diitin@, f{pecies, thougli it was intro-
duced at Kew, in 1789, by fir Jofeph Banks, and is a hardy
perennial. The /fem is about one or two feet high, round,
ftriated, leafy, fomewhat corymbofe at the top, clothed,
like every other part of the herb, with foft hoary down.
Leaves numerous, alternate, two inches long and one broad,
acute, entire, many-ribbed, half clafping the ftem with their
bafe, which in the lower ones is elongated into more or lefs
of a broad footftalk. Flowers feveral, terminal ; their /alés
and bafe of the calyx thaggy, with filky hairs. The corolla
we have not feen. Tournefort gathered the plant in feed
only. The feeds are ftrongly furrowed, each crowned with
a copious tuft of fhining, feffile, rough, fearcely feathery,
down, nearly an inch long.

z. S. auffriaca. Aiden Viper’s-grafs. Wilid. n. 2.
&: humilis; Jacq. Auftr. v. 1. 24. t. 36. S. n. 10;

all. Hift. v. 1. 6. S. humilis latifolia pannonica ; Cluf.
Hitt. v. 1. 138. Viperaria pannonica ; Ger. Em. 737.)—
Stem nearly naked, fingle-flowered. Leaves lanceolate,
many-ribbed, {mooth, oblique, fomewhat undulated.—
Native of the mountains of Switzerland, Auftria, Hun-
gary, and Greece, flowering early in the fpring. Root
perennial, long and thick, black, crowned with fibres of
decayed leaves. Stem ufually folitary, from three to twelve
inches high, fimple, ere&t, bearing a few fcattered braéeas,
and one large yellow flower, the fcales of whofe calyx, efpe-
cially the edges of the inner ones, are generally woolly.
Leaves eeerals radical, ftalked, four or five inches long, and
nearly one broad, taper-pointed, oblique or twifted, moftly
very much undulated, rather glaucous, with numerous irre-
gular longitudinal ribs and veins.

3- S. Aumilis. Humble Viper’s-grafs. Linn. Sp. Pl.
aziz. Willd. n. 3. Ait.n.2? (S.n.11; Hall. Hitt.
vy. 1. 6. §. humilis anguftifolia pannonica; Cluf. Hitt.
v. 2. 138. S. lufitanica, gramineo folio flore pallidé luteo ;
Buxb Cent. 2. 26. t. 21. Viperaria pannonica angitti-
folia; Ger. Em. 737.)—Stem nearly naked, fingle-flowered.
Leaves linear-lanceolate, even, fmooth, fomewhat channelled.
— Native of the mountains of Switzerland, but rare. Our
{pecimens were gathered by Mr. Davall, in the Tombey, a
road near Aigle, as mentioned by Haller, who miftook this
plant for the Linnzan anguffifolia. The Linnzan {pecimen
came from Siberia. Buxbaum gathered his near Conttan-
tinople. Differs from the laft in having longer, narrower,
fomeWhat channelled and convoluted, but not undulated
leaves. lower rather fmaller and paler, with fewer fcales
in the calyx, and thofe almott perfe&ly fmooth. Haller
doubted whether the two f{pecies were diftin@&, and Linneus
has referred fome of the fynonyms of the prefent to his
anguflifolia, 4 very different plant from both. The figure
in F}. Dan. t. 816, might be taken for §. humilis, did not
the great breadth of the lower /eaves more accord with
auffriaca. Willdenow’s charaGters and defcriptions of the
two are not fufliciently correét to afcertain what he meant,
nor is it clear to us that he did not take the one for the
other. They feem intentionally united in Hort. Kew.
Schleicher has called our Aumilis, intermedia.

4- 5. pygmea. Dwarf Alpine Viper’s,grafs. Sm. Prodr.
Fl. Grac. Sibth. n. 1878. Fl. Grae. t. 783, anpublifhed.

Lai

‘fide.—Gathered by Dr. Sibthorp on the

—Stem nearly naked, fingle-flowered, the length of the
foliage. Leaves recurved, channelled, woolly on the upper
ummit of the
Bithynian Olympus. The root is perennial, black, very
long, divided at the crown into many thick knobs. Leaver
feveral from each knob, radical, lanceolate, channelled, rigid,
recurved, rather more than an inch in length, woolly on the
upper fide towards the bafe. Stems folitary, an inch high,
woolly, with one or two little bra@eas. Flowers large,
yellow. Outer feales of the calyx woolly ; inner fmooth,
each with a purple rib. Limb of the florets broad, and
rather fhort.

5. S. hi/panica. Garden Viper’s-grafs, or Common Scor-
zonera. Linn. Sp. Pl. t112. Willd. n. 4. Ait. n. 3
Matth. Valgr. v. 1. 492. Camer. Epit. 314. (S. major
hifpanica ; Glut Hitt. v. 2.137. Viperaria, five Scorzonera
hifpanica; Ger. Em. 736.)—Leaves lanceolate, undivided,
{mooth, minutely ferrated, clafping the branched ftem.—
Native of Spain, Hungary, and Siberia. Cultivated here
in the year 1576, and till preferved in the kitchen gardens
of the great and luxurious, though not much in general ufe.
The roots are perennial, long, cylindrical, and when boiled,
and dreffed with cream, make a delicate, ratlier infipid, difh.
Stem branched, leafy, three or four feet high, {mooth, an-
gular and furrowed. Leaves a {pan long, pointed, pale and
rather glaucous. Flowers yellow, folitary at the ends of
the long naked branches. ‘The whole plant is milky when
wounded, but not acrid, though bitterifh.

6. S. alba. White-flowered Viper’s-grafs.—Stem fome.
what branched and leafy. Leaves lanceolate, flat, entire,
fmooth, glaucous; tapering at each end; the upper ones
ovate at the bafe, and clafping the ftem.—Gathered by
Commerfon at Monte Video. Root fomewhat tuberous.
Stem a foot high, flightly branched at the lower part only.
Lower leaves tapering at the bafe and fomewhat ftalked,
four or five inches long, rather more than half an inch
broad, glaucous, efpecially beneath, with one ftrong rib,
and many fine branching veins ; upper ones gradually {maller,
dilated and rounded at their bafe, clafping the ftem.
Flowers white, folitary at the ends of the few long, flightly
bracteated, branches. Calyx {mooth. No author feems to
have noticed this {pecies, which was given by M. Thouin
to the younger Linnzus.

7. S. glaftifolia. Woad-leaved Viper’s-grafs. Willd. n. 5.
(S. graminifolia; Hoffm. Germ. 272. Roth. Germ. v. 1.
334. v. 2. p. 2. 249. S. anguttifolia altera; Buxb. Hal. 298.
Rupp. Jen. ed. Hall. 207. Nonn. Erf. 11o.)—Stem nearl
fingle-flowered, leafy. Leaves linear lanceolate, patel
fmooth, ribbed, flat.—Found on, hills and in woods, in
Germany, Bohemia, and Silefia. Root perennial. Plant
variable, with from one to three or four flowers, and leaves
either linear-lanceolate, or oblong-lanceolate. It is like §.
hifpanica, but differs in the fewnets of its fowers, the very
long-pointed /eaves, tapering greatly at each end, and not
ferrated. ‘The narrow-leaved variety differs from S. angu/li-
folia in having the flem-leaves fhorter, not keeled, nor rigid,
and the radical ones very loug. The calyx moreover is naked
and {mooth.—Such is Wilidenow’s account, on whom we
rely for the quotations, having feen no {pecimen nor figure
of this fpecies; unlefs S. latifolia altera, Bauh. Pin, 275
be its true fynonym ; in which cafe it is S. boemica ; Matt
Valgr. v. 1. 493- §&. major pannonica prima; Cluf. Hitt.
v. 2. 138. Viperaria humilis; Ger. Em. 736. Willdenow
furely could not overlook thefe figures, which are not ap-
propriated either by him or Linnzus.

8. S. caricifolia. Carex-leaved Viper’s-grafs. Pall. It.
v. 3. 756.t. Li. f. 1. Willd, n, 6.—Stem a

SCORZONERA.

leafy, afcending. Leaves lanceolate-fwordfhaped, fmooth,
flat, many-ribbed. Corolla fomewhat longer than the calyx.
—Gathered by Pallas in the low falt-marfhes of Siberia,
flowering in June. Root tuberous, perennial, fending down
many juicy, very {weet, radicles, as thick as areed. Radical
leaves afpan long, pliant. Stem a foot and half high, fur-
rowed, bearing about three diftant fmall leaves. Flower
comparatively imall, yellow; the corolla but lightly {pread-
ing, and not much exceeding the calyx, whofe outer fcales
are purple. Sced-down {effile, finely feathery. Pallas.

g. 8. parviflora. Small-flowered Viper’s-grafs. Willd.
n. 7. Jacq. Auftr. v. 4. 3. t. 305.—Stem branched, leafy,
afcending. Leaves lanceolate-fwordfhaped, {mooth, fiat,
ribbed. Corolla fcarcely longer than the calyx.—Native of
open, funny, rather boggy, places in Auitria, flowering in
May, June, and July. The flowers are rather fmaller than
the laft, but from all we can gather, the two plants appear
to conftitute one f{pecies; neverthelefs, having never exa-
mined a {pecimen of the former, we leave them as we find
them.

10. S. undulata. Wavy-leaved Viper’s-grafs. Wahl. Symb.
v. 2.86. Willd. n.8. Desfont. Atlant. v. 2.219. (S.

a faxatilis, foliis anguftis undulatis tomentofis ; Tourn.

r. 36.)—Stem flightly branched. Leaves linear-lanceo-
late, tapering, wavy, downy. Outer fcales of the calyx
with fpreading points.—Native of fandy ground in Bar-
bary; and according to Tournefort’s fynonym, in Greece,
though Dr. Sibthorp does not appear to have found it.
Root perennial, as thick as the thumb, crowned with briftly
remains of leaves. Stem from fix to ten inches high, downy,
leafy below ; fometimes fimple ; fometimes bearing three or
four fingle-flowered branches. Leaves from one to three
inches long, downy or mealy, rarely {mooth; the upper
ones dilated at the bafe. Flower the fize of S. humilis.
Calyx with lax, reflexed, pointed fcales. Corolla purple.
Down feffile, feathery, cohering together like a cobweb.—
Our account is taken from Desfontaines and Vahl. The

* latter defcribes the flowers as pale red.

11. S. graminifolia. Graf{s-leaved Viper’s-grafs. Linn.
Sp. Pl. r11z. Willd. n.9. Ait. n.4. Jacq. Obf. fafc. 4.
13.t.100. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. t. 784, unpublifhed.—
Stem branched, many-flowered. Leaves linear-lanceolate,
taper-pointed, entire, keeled, fmooth. Calyx fomewhat
downy at the bafe; its inner fcales thrice as long as the
outer. Florets bearded.—Native of Portugal, Siberia,
Afia Minor, and Zante. Miller is faid to have cultivated
this fpecies, and it flill finds a place in catalogues, but is

feen in gardens. ‘The habit of the plant is tall and
branching, like S. hi/panica, but the leaves are much nar-
rower, and entire. Flowers large, yellow, purplifh at the
back. Anthers brown. Each floret is bearded at the out-
fide, round the fummit of the tube, with fpreading yellow
filaments, which feem charaéteriftic of this fpecies. The
five equal inner f{cales of the calyx, edged with purple, are
about three times the length of the imbricated ones at the
bafe. Thefe laft are fometimes, not always, villous or
ee Sced-down feathery, with naked points, as in feve-
ral others of this genus.

12. S. tuberofa. Tuberous Viper’s-grafs. Pall. It. v. 3.
757-t.Y.£.3. Willd. n.10. (5S. Aa Wheler’s Tra-
vels 416, with a plate. §. humilis tuberofa fyriaca; Morif.
feét. 7. t. 6. £. 16. Chondrilla altera; Rauw. It. 117, with
a figure. )—Stems fingle- flowered, fomewhat leafy. Leaves
linear; downy beneath. Root tuberous, aisbote, Scales
of the calyx with recurved points —Native of Syria, Greece,
and of the barren muddy abrupt banks of the fochent part
of the Wolga, flowering in the middle of April, and difap-

pearing in May, except the perennial, tuberous, milky,
neatly globular roof, about as big-as a walnut, which is
eaten by the Calmucks. Stems one or more, united under
ground, fix inches high, leafy in their lower part, and in-
vefted with membranous fheaths. Leaves as tall as the ftem,
narrow, acute. FJowers folitary, {mall, yellow, externally
purplifh, drooping before they expand. Inner fcales of
the calyx equal, ere€t; outer imbricated, with recurved
points, downy.

13. S. araneofa. Cobweb Viper’s-grafs. Sm. Prodr. Fl.
Grec. Sibth. n. 1880. Fl. Graec. t. 785, unpublifhed.
—Stems fingle-flowered, leafy. Leaves linear, recurved,
fhaggy, as well as the calyx, whofe {cales are all erect.
Root tuberous, oblong, very large.—Gathered by Dr.
Sibthorp in Cyprus. We were at firft inclined to refer
Wheler’s fynonym to this {pecies, inftead of the laft, but it
feems to agree beft with that. The prefent has an ovate or
oblong flefhy root, perhaps of a pound weight, encompaffed
with two or three zone-like furrows. Stems numerous, a
{pan high, moftly fimple and fingle-flowered, clothed with
long, narrow, recurved /eaves, which are fhaggy with long,
loofe, white, cobweb-like fibres. The ca/yx is villous ; its
feales all ere&i and clofe-preffed ; not with recurved points,
as in §. tuberofa. The corolla is large, yellow. Llorets
without any fibres round the top of the tube. Sved-down
rough throughout, fearcely feathery. Seeds clothed with
briitly hairs. ,

14. S. crocifolia. Crocus-leayed Viper’s-grafs. Sm.
Prodr. Fl. Grac. Sibth. n. 1881. Fl. Grec. t. 786, un-
publifhed.—Stems fingle-flowered, leafy. Leaves linear,
lax, quite fmooth, as well as the calyx; their mid-rib
dilated, pale.—Found by Dr. Sibthorp in Zante, and fome
parts of Greece. The inhabitants of that ifland know it
by the name of Sxogcov’ex, in common with S. graminifolia.
The prefent is a perfectly {mooth perennial plant, with a
long cylindrical root, probably efculent, like that of the
common S. hifpanica. Stems afoot high, each bearing a
yellow flower, of a middling fize, externally purplifh. The
calyx is flender ; its fix or feven inner fcales equal, thrice as
long as the few pointed, clofe, imbricated ones at the bafe.
The radical /eaves are long, narrow, loofely {preading and
deflexed, quite entire and {mooth, each marked by a broad
pale mid-rib, almoft as confpicuous as in the Crocus. The

SJlem-leaves are much fhorter, alternate, diminifhing gradually
upwards to a {mall dradea. The florets have no beard-like
filaments round their tube, by the want of which this plant
differs effentially from S. graminifolia, as well as in its
humbler growth, fimple flems, linear Jeaves, and {maller
flowers.

15. S. pufilla. Curled-leayed Viper’s-grafs. Pall. It.
v. 2. append. n. 122. t. L.”? Willd. n. 11.—* Leaves thread-
fhaped, curled at the points. Stem branched.’’—Native of
the promontories of the Cafpian fea. Root perennial, crowded
with a fibrous fubftance, like moft of the perennial plants
of the fouthern defarts of Siberia. Stems of humble growth,
feveral, afcending or nearly ereét, leafy, branching at the
top into three or four flower-/la/ks. Leaves long, linear, with
curling points. Calyx with broad feales; the inner ones
gradually narrower and longer, but not fo long as the corolla,
which is pale, and not expanded. Seeds {mooth, {triated.
Down very long, feathery, with naked capillary points,
Pallas. Willdenow.

16. §. rofea. Rofe-coloured Viper’s-grafs. Willd. n, 12.
(S. purpurea; Scop. Carn. (n. 949.) ¥. 2. 96. t. $s 5.
fylveftris, foliis angullis, flore ceruleo, minor; Mentz,

Pogill. t.1. f. 1. T'ragopoginis {pecies, five Scorfonera
major anguftifelia, fubewruleo flore; Bauh. Hilt. v. 2. aly
—* otem

SCORZONERA.

— Stem fingle-flowered. Leaves lanceolate-linear, flat ;
thofe on the ftem linear and keeled.’’—Native of groves in
Brandenburg, and of the mountains of Hungary and Car-
niola. Perennial. The /lem ufually bears but one flower,
very rarely two. Radical /eaves flat; thofe of the ftem
narrower, with a triangular keel; their bafe hairy. Willd.

17. S. purpurea. Branched Purple Viper’s-grafs. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 1113. Willd. n. 13. Ait. mn. 5. Jacq. Auftr.
Vv. I. 23. t. 35. (S.n.5; Gmel. Sib. v.2. 7. t. 2. S. an-
guitifoliaelatior pannonica; Cluf. Hift.v. 2.139. Vipera-
ria angu(tifolia elatior; Ger. Em. 737.)—-Stem branched.
Leaves linear-awl-fhaped, channelled, triangular, fomewhat
hairy. Calyx downy ; its outer fcales blunt.—Native of
Siberia and Auftria, flowering in June. Willdenow fays
this has always a branched /lem, adding, that all the aves
are linear-thread-fhaped, moitly hairy. Our {pecimens from
Gmelin anfwer to this defcription, and yet feem to want
the peculiar denfe hairinefs, at the bafe of the aves, fo
confpicuous in Mentzelius’s figure of the foregoing. The
flowers are fragrant, purple, and rather large. Outer fcales
of the calyx peculiarly broad and blunt ; all the fcales finely
downy. By Scopoli’s figure, the calyx of rofea feems to
have nothing but acute f{cales; but of that we have feen no
{pecimen.

18. S. anguflifolia. Narrow-leaved Viper’s-grafs. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 1113. Willd.n. 14. Ait. n. 6. “ Waldft. and
Kitaib. Hung. v. 2. 128. t. 122.” (S. pinifolia; Gouan.
Illuftr. 53. Willd. n. 15. Tragopogon pinifolium hifpa-
nicum; Barrel. Ic. 496, good.)—Stem fingle-flowered,
downy, leafy, {welling near the top. Leaves awl-fhaped,
acute, ribbed, entire, crowded. Calyx downy, with blunt
{cales. Seeds {mooth.—Native of Spain, and the fouth of
France; perhaps alfo of Hungary; but we truft to the
Hort. Kew. for the quotation of the Fl. Hungar. not hav-
ing that book within our reach. Nor are we fure that the
authors of either of thefe works knew the true anguftifolia.
They may poffibly intend Haller’s n. 11, which we have
proved to be humilis, fee n. 3; to which may alfo belong
Gmelin’s n. 2. t. 1, though the hairinefs of the ftem in his
figure feems an obje&tion. We have no authentic {pecimen
E his plant, to decide the queftion. All we here anfwer
for is the original anguffifolia of Linneus, which Gouan,
mifled by Haller, defcribed as new. The roof is tapering.
Stem folitary, three or four inches high, ereé, fimple,
fingle-flowered, round, furrowed, more or lefs downy, pale ;
{welling, or club-fhaped, at the top; leafy in the ae
pat. Leaves very numerous, about as tall as the ftem,
inear, keeled, very narrow, downy at the bafe only; the
radical ones longeft and moft numerous; thofe on the lower
part of the {tem much crowded; one or two remote ones,
about the middle, fpreading, dilated at their bafe. Flowers
as large as any of the genus, or larger, fulphur-coloured ;
of a Ene purple beneath, though, as Gouan well obferves,
the tubes of all the florets are yellow. Calyx regularly im-
bricated throughout ; its fcales all obtufe, finely downy ;
the innermoft above an inch long. Seeds long, flender, an-
a fmooth, with feffile, Pather » naked-pointed down.

his is a very handfome plant, as il as totally diftinét from
all the foregoing.

19. 5. hirfuta. airy Viper’s-grafs. Linn. Mant. 278.
Willd. n. 16, (S. eriofperma; Gouan. Illuftr. 52? S. ori-
entalis anguftifolia, femine longo afpero ; Tourn. Cor. 36.
J ragopogon calycibus corolla brevioribus, foliis integris
ftri€tis ciliatis, caule hirto, pedunculis fuperné incraffatis ;
Gerard. Gallo-Prov. 258. TT. hirfutum; Garid. 469.
t. 106. T.apulum humile hirfutum luteum; Column.
Ecphr. 234. 233-)—Stem fingle-flowered, hairy, as well

as the linear channelled leaves. Calyx downy, with acute
{cales. Seeds hairy.—Native of Italy, the fouth of France,
and the Levant, in open dry ground. Gerarde mentions
it as biennial. The /lems are ufually folitary, fometimes
two or three from one root, which may perhaps account
for Gouan’s faying the ftem is branched and many-flowered,
The hairinefs of the herbage, but efpecially of the Seeds,
diftinguifhes this fpecies clearly from the latt. The flowers
moreover are not half fo large. The naked points of the
feed-down, which is tawny, are much longer than in that
{pecies.

20. S. villofa. Shaggy Viper’s-grafs. Scop. Carn.
Vv. 2. 952. t. 46. Willd. n. 17.—Stem branciied, {triated,
villous, as well as the calyx, and linear ~keeled leaves.
Seed-down obfcurely feathered.—Native of the neighbour-
hood of Triefte. Stem a foot high, ere&t. Leaves falcate,
half embracing the ftem and branches. F/owers an inch in
diameter, yellow; reddifh beneath. Scales of the calyx
fifteen, flightly downy, red at the back, yellowifh at the
edges. Seed-down tawny. Scofoli.

21.8. erin fern. Woolly-feeded Viper’s-grafs, Marfch,
in Sims and Kon. Ann. of Bot. v. 2. 458, excluding the
fynonym. Willd. n. 18.—Stems fimple, afcending, partly
woolly, fingle-flowered. Leaves linear anlieaees chan-
nelled, ribbed, nearly {mooth. Calyx woolly, with pointed
feales. Seeds clothed with white down.—Native of grafly
hills towards mount Caucafus, as well as of the pre
fhores of the Cafpian fea. We have received wild fpeci-
mens from Dr. Fifcher of Mofcow, by the name of Lafo/-
permum anguftifolium, accompanied with the above fynonym.
The frems are a foot high, round, flender, leafy in the
lower part, remarkable for a denfe patch of wool facing
the diflk of each leaf; {mooth and naked above, each bear-
ing one flower, about an inch broad, of a delicate pale
yellow, with pink or purple ribs. Scales of the calyx red
or brownifh, fharply pointed, woolly at the back and
Fae Leaves grafly, curved, tapering, woolly at the
bafe, though lefs fo than the ftem. The /eeds are faid to
be entirely covered with very white filky pubefcenee. Their
down is Pottery,

22. S. cretica. Cretan Viper’s-grafs. Willd. n. 19.
(S. cretica anguftifolia, femine tomentofo candidiflimo ;
Tourn. Cor. 36.) —‘ Leaves linear, flat, fomewhat fringed.
Stem branched at the bafe. Seeds downy.’’—Native of
Crete; where it was found on the Sphaciotic mountains,
by Dr. Sibthorp, according to his manufcripts; but we
have not found a fpecimen in his herbarium. Willdenow
diftinguifhes this from the preceding, having feen both, by
the following defcription. Root as thick as the finger,
with many Neate Leaves linear, fringed, efpecially to-
wards the bottom, flat, ribbed, as long as the whole plant.
Stems afcending, a finger’s length, divided at the bafe into
two or three branches, with a fhort leaf at each divifion ;
naked in the upper part, except a few difperfed fcales.
Calyx imbricated ; its outer fcales very fhort, membranous
at the edge, downy; the inner ones elongated, membranous,
Willd.

23. S. capenfis. Cape Viper’s-grafs. Thunb. Prodr.
141, Willd. n. 20.—* Leaves linear-lanceolate, {mooth.
Stem panicled.’’—Gathered by Thunberg, at the Cape of
Good Hope.

24. S. chondrilloides. Scaly-ftalked Viper’s-grafs.—
Willd. n. 21.— Leaves linear, obtufe, fomewhat toothed,
Stem much branched. Flower-ftalks fcaly.”’—Native of
Spain, Pourret,—Stem four to fix inches high divaricated,
almott leaflefs, or only bearing fome {cattered, linear, moftly
entire, /eaves, fhorter than the reft. The radical ~ are

near,

SCORZONERA.

linear, obtufe, erally runcinate, fometimes merely fur-
nifhed with fhallow wavy teeth, occafionally quite entire.
Of the two latter defcriptions are fuch as grow on the
lower part of the ftem. Sved-dozwn feflile, feathery. The
plant has the afpe& of a Chondrilla. Willd.

25. S. refedifolia. Spreading Viper’s-grafs. Linn. Sp.
Pl. r11g. Willd. n. 22, excluding Boccone’s fynonym.
Ait. a. 7. (S. calcitrapifolia; Wahl. Symb. v. 2. 87.
S. laciniatis foliis fupina; Barrel. Ic. 94. n. 1050. t. 800.
S. pratenfis, foliis laciniatis glabris; Buxb. Cent. 2. 27.
t. 22.)—Stems flightly branched, decumbent, leafy. Leaves
pinnatifid, fmooth, fomewhat lyrate. Scales of the-calyx
woolly at the points. — Native of Spain and Armenia.
Root annual, or biennial. Stems feveral, decumbent, a {pan
long, ftriated ; roughifh and leafy in the lower part; afcend-
ing and naked at the top, each bearing a folitary, pale-
yellow flower, of a moderate fize. Segments of the deaves
various in breadth, linear or obovate, channelled, wavy, and
fomewhat toothed. Scales of the calyx numerous, regu-
larly imbricated, ovate-oblong, very flightly downy at the
back, ribbed, keeled, each tipped with a remarkable tuft
of denfe white cottony wool. The exiftence of this wool
is denied by Vahl; who, by his defcription of S. refedifolia,
his transfer of the Linnzan fynonym to the following, and
his citation, with approbation, of another fynonym, which
belongs to Willdenow’s Sonchus chondrilloides, Sp. Pl. v. 3.
1515, appears to have miltaken the plant. . The true re/édi-
folia is here defcribed from the Linnzan fpecimen, and its
calyx, except the woolly tips, is well delineated in Barre-
lier’s t. 800. The /eed-down is feffile, and feathery almoft

~ to its very points.

26. S. calcitrapifolia. Star-thiftle-leaved Viper’s-grafs.
Willd. n. 23, excluding Barrelier’s and Buxbaum’s fyno-
nyms. Sm. Fl. Gree. Sibth. t. 787, unpublifhed. (S.
orientalis, foliis calcitrape, flore flavefcente; ‘Tourn.
Cor. 36?)—Stems afcending, villous, fearcely branched ;
re} at the bafe. Leaves doubly pinnatifid, with villous
ftalks. Calyx downy; its fcales linear-lanceolate; the
innermolt equal, twice the length of the reft. Found by
Dr. Sibthorp on the fummit of the Bithynian Olympus.
Root perennial, long and cylindrical. Stems feveral, {pread-
ing, afcending, about a finger’s length, round, reddifh,
clothed with white thaggy down, more or lefs leafy at the
bottom, partly fimple, partly fubdivided. Leaves rather
hoary, with very thaggy ftalks, deeply pinnatifid, two or
three inches in length; their fegments decurrent, elliptic-
oblong, entire at the edges, either fimple, two-lobed, or
pinnatifid. Flowers folitary, yellow, green underneath,
about an inch broad, with a cylindrical calyx, whofe fcales are
narrow, acute, purplifh, and {mooth upwards, downy in the
lower part ; the inner row equal, twice as long as the outer.
Seed-down feathery.—The doubts of Retzius and Vahl,
with the emendations of the latter, have fo embroiled the
hiltory of 5. refedifelia, that although we can very clearly
determine that {pecies, we cannot be certain of what they
have contrafted or confounded therewith. The prefent very
diftinét plant we have confidered as the calcitrapifolia of
Vahl, and confequently perhaps of Willdenow ; but on more
mature inveltigation, it appears that Vahl’s plant is un-
doubtedly the Linnawan refedifolia. What the plant of
Tournefort may be, we have no precife Ciapiates; but
the name of calcitrapifolia, not being otherwife occupied,
may as well remain with our prefent plant, to which it is
very fuitable. Willdenow, who had feen dried {pecimens
of what he judged refedifolia and calcitrapifolia, may pollibly
a Tournefort’s plant, and have underflood them as
we do.

Vor. XXXI.

27. S. laciniata. Cut-leaved: Viper’s-grafs. Linn. Sp.

Pl. rig. Willd. n. 24. Ait. n. 8. Jacq. Auftr. v. 4
29. t. 356. Sm. Fl. Gree. Sibth. t. 788, unpublithed.
Mos n.12; Hall. Hift. v. 1. 6. Tragopogon laciniatis
oliis; Column. Phytob. p. 2. 22. t. 21.)—Stem erect.
Leaves pinnatifid, with linear parallel fegments ; the upper
and lowermoft undivided. Calyx nearly {mooth; its {cales
{purred at the top.—Native of the fouth of Europe, in
dry waite places, flowering all fummer long. The root is
biennial, cylindrical, as thick as the finger. Stems very
various in height and luxuriance, hollow, leafy, furrowed, -
fomewhat downy ; in favourable circumftances above a foot
high, with feveral alternate branches; in barren or lofty
{pots not more than three or four inches in length, partly
decumbent, fimple and fingle-flowered. Leaves numerousy
fmooth, linear-lanceolate, entire; moft of them peétinatey
as it were, at the fides, with very narrow fegments: the
firft radical /aves, as well as thofe on the top of the
{tem, have none of thefe lateral fegments. Flowers folitary,
terminal, rather larger than the lalt, yellow; purplifh or
livid underneath. Calyx imbricated, a little downy ; each
feale furnifhed with a dorfal fpur, or incurved point, near
the top. Seeds long, pale, angular, curved, {mooth, with ©
feathery down. The whole herb is full of a bitter milky
uice.
‘ 28. S. odangularis. OGangular Viper’s-grafs. Willd.
n. 25. (S. refedifolia; Gouan. Iluftr. 53? Willd.) —
« Lower leaves decurrently pinnatifid, lanceolate; upper
linear-lanceolate. Calyx o€tangular in the bud.’’—Native
of the fouth of Europe. Willdenow defcribes it as fimilar
to the preceding, but with broader radical leaves, whofe
fegments are lanceolate and decurrent ; and hoary calpxes,
which before they expand have eight angles. He confiders
Gouan’s plant as probably the fame, though defcribed as
procumbent, while his own is ereét. We can form no opi-
nion, having feen neither.

29. S. pumila. Little Briftle-pointed Viper’s-grafs.
Cavan. Ic. v. 2. 19. t. 121. f. 2. Willd. n. 26.—Stems
fimple, fingle-flowered, leaflefs, fcaly. Leaves pinnatifid,
acute, linear, with callous briftly-pointed teeth.—Native of
Spain, flowering in May and June. The radical /eaves are
feveral, {preading, flefhy, fmooth, regularly and deeply
pinnatifid; their fegments acute, bordered and terminated.
with callous white teeth, each of which bears a briftle.
Stems rather longer than the leaves, afcending, clothed with
many alternate fimple fcales, or {mall leaves, and each bear-
ing one large yellow flower, whofe calyx-/cales are imbri-
cated, narrow, reddifh. ‘The /eed-down is fimple, according
to Cavanilles, fo that the plant appears f{carcely to belong
to this genus. We know it not.

30. S. coronopifolia. Buck’s-horn Viper’s-grafs. Des-
font. Atlant. v. 2.220. t.212. Willd. n.27. (S. brevi-
caulis; Vahl. Symb. v. 2. 88. t. 44.)—Stem fimple, fingle-
flowered, flightly leafy. Leaves ae unequally pinna-
tifid and jagged, obtufe.— Native of hills in Barbary ;
perennial. A dwarf downy plant, with numerous ver
irregularly divided /eaves, as tall as the flem, which is folt-
tary, and bears a large yellow flower. The {cales of the
calyx are broad, acute, downy, efpecially at their edgea,
Seed-down feathery.

31. S. afpera. Rough Viper’s-grafs. “ Desfont. Ann.
du Muf. v. 1. 133. t. 9.’ Poiret in Lamarck’s Dit,
Ve 7» 24-—Stems alcending, branched, Leaves rough, lan-
ceolate, toothed or pinnatifid. Calyx fmooth, Florets
with a downy tube, Seeds downy.—Native of the Levant,
Root perennial. Stems feveral, divided from the very bate
into feveral ‘downy, fingle-flowered branches, 18 iwehes

5D long,

SCORZONERA. |

long, leafy at the bottom, {caly upwards. Leaves roughith,
hoary ; the lower ones fpatulate, toothed, or almoft pinna-
tifid, with {mall intermediate teeth; each fegment and tooth
tipped with a ftiff briftle. Flowers folitary, terminal,
yellow. Calyx oval, fmooth, imbricated. Forets crowded
towards the circumference, fo as to leave a {pace in the middle
of the flower. The /yles are remarkably curved. Seeds
long, channelled, pubefcent ; their down feffile, reddith,
feathery in its upper half. Desfontaines.

32. S. afperrima. Hifpid Viper’s-grafs. Willd. n. 29.
—Leaves runcinate, hifpid. Stem fomewhat leafy, hifpid,
bearing about two flowers. —Native of Galatia. The /eaves
are compared by Willdenow to thofe of his Apargia hi/pida,
(Leontodon hifpidum of Linneus,) being denfely clothed
with thick, white, rigid, forked hairs. Stem ere&, covered

with fimilar hairs, and bearing one or two, very rarely three,

flowers, as well as two or three leaves. The /fla/é is tumid
under each flower. Seeds long, linear, with a feathery,
flightly ftalked, down. Willdenow.

33- S. taraxacifolia. Daudelion-leaved Viper’s-grafs.
Jacq. Coll. v. r. 52. Ic. Rar. t. 160, not 106. Willd.
n. 30. Ait.n.g. Murr. in Linn. Syft. Veg. ed. 14. 711.
—Stem branched, almoft naked. Leaves runcinate, obtufe,
fmooth. Stalks fwelling under the flowers. Seed-down
feathery, with intermediate hairs.—Native of Bohemia. A
hardy perennial, flowering from June to Auguit. Root
fpindle-fhaped. Stems feveral, a foot and a half or two
feet high, ere€&t, branched, round, hollow, very fmooth,
bearing one-or two {mall feales, but no leaves, fo that they
are perhaps rightly denominated /capi by Jacquin and Will-
denow. Leaves feveral, radical, deprefled, with many
ftrong blunt teeth, pointing backwards; the upper furface
quite fmooth ; under roughifh; margin minutely fringed.
Flowers rather fmall, yellow ; orange-red beneath. Calyx
green, aud {mooth, except a few teeth along the upper part
of the mid-rib. Seeds ftriated ; their doqwn ftalked.

34. S. acaulis. Stem-lefs Viper’s-grafs. Willd. n. 31.
(S. taraxaci; Roth. Beitr. fafe. 1. 120. Catal. fafe. 1.
95-)—Stalk radical, naked, fingle-flowered. Leaves lan-
ceolate, acute, with runcinate teeth. — Native of Silefia.
Root biennial. - Plant like a Dandelion, but larger and
fmooth. “Leaves narrower and longer, reddifh, fearcely
running down into the footfiaik. Stalk hollow, ftriated,
ptirlith, rarely two feet high, ere€&t when in flower, then
decumbent till the feed is ripe, when it rifes again, and the
whole calyx becomes reflexed. The inner feales of the
calyx refemble Leontodon Taraxacum, but the outer are much
fhorter, roundifh or oval, pointed, keeled, dark green, un-
equal, with a membranous, pellucid, coloured margin, and
clofely preffed to the inner ones. Seed-down fimple, {talked.
Roth. The genus of this plant appears to us, at beit, very
doubtful.

35. S. elongata. _ Long-ftalked Greek Viper’s-grafs.
Willd. n. 32. Sm. Fl. Grac. Sibth. t. 789, unpublifhed.
(S. greca, faxatilis et maritima, foliis varié laciniatis ;
Tourn. Cor. 36. Voy. vy. 1. 86, with a plate. Cata-
nanche greca; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1142.) —Stem branched,
leafy. lenes interruptedly pinnatifid, cut; downy be-
neath. Scales of the calyx imbricated, elliptical, obtufe,
very {mooth. Seeds hairy.—Native of the rocky fhores of
the Greek iflands. Gathered by Tournefort in Naxia; b
Sibthorp in Milo, Amorgo, &c. The root is pacer
fpindle-fhaped. Stem ereét, flightly branched from the
lower part, leafy, round, {triated, downy. Radical leaves
numerous, more or lefs deeply cut, fomewhat lyrate, each
fegment or tooth tipped with a briftle; both fides a little
downy ; the under one moft fo, and palett. Stem-leaves {cat-

tered, {maller and lefs divided. Flowers folitary at the top

of each branch, large, of a fine golden yellow, with brown

anthers ; florets broad, elliptical, near an inch long, itrongly
toothed at the extremity. Calyx oval, with clofe, elegant,
rounded f{cales, white and membranous chiefly at their upper
part. Seed covered with foft hairs; down feathery. —
Tournefort fuggeited that this fine plant might perhaps be a
Catananche, and Vaillant referred it to that genus, in which
he was followed by Linnzus. But Willdenow has very
juttly brought it back to its moft natural place, neither the
receptacle nor feeds having the charaGters of Catananche, thou gh
we mutt confefs its habit and calyx do not exactly anfwer to
the ufual appearance of a Scorzonera.

36. S. pinnatifida. Carolina Viper’s-grafs.
Boreali-Amer. v. 2. 89. Purfh n. 1.
linianum ; Walt. Carol. 192. )—** Stem ereét, three-flowered.
Flower-ftalks clongated. Leaves lanceolate, very acute,
fharply pinnatifid, or diftantly toothed.’’—Native of Caro-
lina, in wafte ground. Michaux.

The reader will perceive that fome Linnzan fpecies of
Scorzenera are here omitted. Thefe are the following.
S. tingitana, Sp. Pl. 1114, moft obvioufly and certainly, in
habit and charaéters, a Sonchus, to which genus it is removed
by Willdenow. §. orientalis, Sp. Pl. 1113, which is proved
by the Linnean herbarium to be merely a ftarved fpecimen
of the fame f{pecies. §. picroides, Sp. Pl. 1114, juftly ree
ferred likewife, by Willdenow and Lamarck, to Sonchus.

So the Scorzonera crepioides of Pourret in Lamarck’s Di&.
V+ 7. 25, appears, by that author’s defcription of the /eed-
down, to be a Sonchus ; nor does any thing occur, in his ac-
count of the ca/yx, to invalidate this. Indeed fome of the
{pecies which we have retained, in the genus under confider-
ation, are defcribed as wanting the proper feathery crown
of the feed, which makes an important part of its charaéter,
and perhaps when fuch fpecies are better known, they may
require to be placed elfewhere.

Dr. Fifcher, of Mofcow, feems, by fome of his com-
munications wrth us, to have feparated certain fpecies from
Scorzonera, asa diltin&t genus, by the name of Lafio/per-
mum ; and we prefume, from this appellation, that the woolly
feeds make a part, at leait, of the generic charaéter; but
we have no further information on the fubje& ; fee n. 21.

Scorzonera, in Gardening, contains a plant of the tap-
rooted efculent kind ; of which the {pecies cultivated is the
garden viper’s-grafs, or Spanifh fcorzonera (S. hifpanica.)

This plant is cultivated in the garden for the root, which
is boiled and eaten as carrots, or it may be fried in batter,
which is probably the better way of ufing it. The roots
are ready for ufe in the autumn and winter feafons.

Method of Culture.—Thefe crops fhould be raifed from
feed fown either in the autumn or {pring feafon, about April,
in an open fpot of ground, where the foil is light and fine,
the earth being previoufly dug over to a good depth. Tlie
beft mode of {owing them is in fhallow drills, about a foot
apart, in a thin manner, covering them in to the depth of
half an inch: the plants, when of fome growth, fhould be
thinned out, when they are too thick, to the diftance of fix
or eight inches, keeping them clean from weeds by hoeing.

Some alfo raife them by fowing the feed broad-caft over
the furface, and afterwards thinning the plants, or tranf-
planting them into other beds; but the firft is the moft fue-
cefeful method, and tranfplanting fhould never be praétifed
with tap-rooted plants.

The roots may be taken up in the autumn, and preferved
in the fame manner as-thofe of carrots ; but they are fome-
times left in the ground to be pulled occafionally as they are
made ule of,

Michaux

‘Tn

(Leontodon caro-

.

4

P\\

seo

In order to fave feed, fome of the beft plants fhould be
left where fown, to run to feed, which, when perfeGly
ripened, fhould be colleGed and preferved in a dry fituation

till w

SSOSO, in Geography, a mountain of Naples, in
zzo Citra; 15 miles N.E. of Civita Borella.
COT, Scorra, or Safius, a cuftomary contribution

_ © Taid upon all fubje€ts, according to their ability.

Whoever are aileffed to any contribution, though not by

ual portions, are faid to pay /cot and Jot.

Affeffments by commiffioners of fewers are called /cots.

Scot, Church and Soul. See Cuurcu and Sout-/cot.

SCOTAL, or Scorate, is ufed where any officer of a
fore keeps an ale-houfe within the foreft by colour of his
office caufing people to come to his houfe, and there {pend
their money, for fear of his difpleafure. We find it men-
tioned in the Charter of the Foreit, cap. 8. ‘ Nullus
foreftarius faciat {cotallas vel garbas colligat, vel aliquam
colle&am faciat, &c.’’ Manwood, 216.

The word is compounded of /eot and ak, and by tranf-

fition of the words, is otherwife called ale/bot.

SCOTANO, in Geography, a mountain of Naples, in
Otranto; 15 miles N.E. of Tarento.

SCOTCH Fir, in Gardening, the common name of this
fort of pine. See Pinus.

Scorcen Fir, in Planting, a term fometimes applied to
the common fir-tree. See Pine.

Although the fuperiority of planted firs over the whole
of Scotland is well known, it is {tated in the ‘* Tranfa€tions
of the Highland Society,” that the opinion of the beit
judges, and thofe moft informed on the fubjeét, is, that the
planted fir does not differ from the pine of the Highlands
in any thing except management and habit. By fowing
the feeds in rich foil, tranfplanting the young plants into
manured beds, and then, for good and all, fetting them out
in deep fertile ground, the growth is haftened too much, the
plants come too foon to their fize, and the decay of them is
proportionally rapid. Nature, it is faid, takes the length
of two hundred and fourteen years to bring up a Scotch
fir-tree to meafure thirty inches in diameter; while the
fame fort of plant, when forced forward in an unnatural
manner, will attain that fize in fifty years, though it may
not have rifen to the fame height ; as Nature fows thick,
and the trees become tall in confequence, lafhing off
the lateral branches, until fome gain a final victory, and
tower above fixty feet high; whereas in the common way
of planting they grow much into lateral branches, and never
reach the height of the natural tree. It is fuggefted by
Mr. Farquharfon, in a paper in the ‘“ Georgical Effays,”’
that a hard gravelly foil, and northerly expofure, fuit thefe
trees the belt ; that the feeds of them fhould be fown very
thick, in light earth trenched, without any manure ; and
that at cighteen months and two years old the plants fhould
be fet out where they are to ftand, at the diftance of about
three fect from each other. It is thought, however, that
it would undoubtedly be an improvement on this plan to
have the ground inclofed, and then to prepare it, if wanted,
and fatter the feeds or the cones over it, {o as to avoid the
neceflity of every fort of tranfplantmg, as is done by
Nature in the Highlands. There may be fome fpots, it is
Suppofed, in thele parts, which may only require inclofing
to rife into a forelt, the feeds being already in the ground ;
and in others, when feattered on the unprepared furface,
various methods might be contrived for covering them, pro-
vided that were found neceflary, which in fome foils might
be the cafe, and in others not. At all times the feeds or

\ cones of the real Highland red fir thould alfo, it is thought,
1

SCO

be preferred ; as even the feeds of the planted fir may pof-
fefs the degeneracy of their /uxury-debilitated parent trees.
It is, in fhort, confidered of immenfe importance to sthis
country, but efpecially to the highland parts of it, to {train
every nerve to preferve this ftately and valuable native of
the northern mountains. And this importance and necef-
fity become till more imperious, as the want and fcarcity
of other forts of timber become more general.

Scorcu Fir Point, in Geography, a cape on the W. coaft
of North America, in the gulf of Georgia, fo called by
captain Vancouver, from the Scotch firs found there, being
the firft trees feen on that coaft. It lies on the N. at
the entrance into Jervis’s canal. N. lat. 49° 42'. E. long.
Zs 17s

sstones Plains, a town, or rather village, of America, in
New Jerfey, in the county of Effex, on a N.E. branch of
Rariton river, between Wellfield and Turkey ; 11 miles N.
of Brunfwick. f

SCOTCHES, in Agriculture, a term fignifying fcores or
notches. It is fometimes employed as a mode of reckoning
by farmers.

SCOTER, in Ornithology, the name of a fpecies of duck
anus nigra, called alfo in fome places the black diver.

It is nearly of the fize of the common duck, but of a
rounder body, and is all over of a deep fhining and beautiful
black. It is very common on the fhores of Lancafhire, and
fome other counties. It lives only about falt waters, and
is a very great diver. This bird is the macreufe of the
French, and allowed, in the Romifh church, to be eaten in
Lent. See Duck.

SCOTHOLM, in Geography, one of the {mall Shetland
iflands. N,. lat. 60° 36’. W. long. 1° 8!. .

SCOTIA, in Architedure, a femicireular cavity or channel
between the tores, in the bafis of columns.

The fcotia is a concave dark moulding ; whence its name,
viz. from cxoro:, obfcurity, darkne/s.

The fcotia has an effe&t juit oppofite to that of the
quarter-round, Our workmen frequently call it the ca/e-
ment.

It is alfo called trochilus, partly from its form.

In the Ionic and Corinthian bafe there are two {cotias,
the upper of which is the {maller.

According to Felibien, the cavetto is a fourth part of the
{cotia.

Scotia, Nova, in Geography, a large peninfula on the
E. coaft of North America, feparated from Cape Breton
by a narrow ftrait. In the year 1616 it was pofleffed by
the French, who attempted to colonize it from their new
fettlement in Canada, and by them it was called Acadia.
The Englifh, who deemed it a part of North Vir inia,
expelled the French; and it was granted by James I. to
fir William Alexander in 1621, on condition that he would
form a fettlement there. It then received the title of Nova
Scotia. In order to encourage fir William, he planned the
order of baronets, which is called after the country. To
every knight who would engage to colonize any part, a
grant was to be made of certain portions of land. The
order was not inflituted till 1625, when feveral baronets
were created, and they held their lands from the crown of
Scotland as a free barony, with great pee to all who
would fettle in the country. (See Baronets of Nova
Scotia.) Whe defign failed, and the French gained repof-
feflion of the province. In 1713 it was furrendered to
England by the treaty of Utrecht; and in 1784 it was
divided into two provinces, viz. New Brunswick (which
fee), and Nova Scotia. The latter province is about 300
miles long, and about 80 in medial breadth, being inferior in

extent

SCO

extent to the former. It has feveral confiderable rivers,
among which that of Annapolis is navigable fifteen miles
for fhips of roo tons. The bay of Fundi, which lies be-
tween New Brunfwick and Nova Scotia, extends 50 leagues
inland, the ebb and flow of the tides beipg from 45 to 60
feet. The capital of Nova Scotia is Halifax (which fee) ;
and to the eaft of Halifax refides a tribe of Indians, having
about 300 warriors, called Micmacs. Shelburn, fituated
towards the S.W., once contained 600 families, and Guif-
bury about 250. The harbour of Annapolis is excellent ;
but it is an inconfiderable hamlet. During a great part of
the year the air is foggy and unhealthy ; and for four or
five months intenfely cold. This province contains many
forefts ; and the foil near the rivers is fertile in grafs, hemp,
and flax, but generally barren; fo that it derives its fup-
plies of grain from England. Britain alfo fends to thefe
provinces linen and woollen cloths, and other articles, to
the amount of about 30,000/., and receives timber and fifth
worth about 50,000/. The chief fifhery is that of cod, on
the Cape Sable coaft. Near Cape Canco are remarkable
cliffs of white gypfum; and about 23 leagues from that
cape is the //le de Sasie; which fee.

SCOTINUS, in Botany, the name of a fhrub called by
the Latins cotinus, and cotinus coriaria, to diitinguith it from
the cotinus, xwtwo:, of the Greeks, which was the olea/ler, or
wild olive.

SCO

The Italians call the cotinus coriaria, fometimes Seotinus,
and fometimes /eotanus ; the latter word deems an erroneous
way of writing the former, which is only the Roman name
of the fame tree, with an / put before the firft letter: and
this is very common with the Italians, in their adoptin
Latin words. &

SCOTISTS, a fe& of {chool divines and ya Sly

>

thus called from their founder, J. Duns Scotus, a Scotti
or, as others fay, an Irifh Cordelter; who, in the fo
teenth century, maintained the immaculate conception of the
Virgin, or that fhe was born without original fin; in op-
pofition to Thomas Aquinas, and the Thomifts. As to
philofophy, the Scotilts were, like the Thomilts, Peri-
patetics ; only diftinguifhed by this, that in each being, as
many different qualities as it had, fo many different forma-
lities did they diftinguifh ; all diftin@ from the body itfelf,
and making, as it were, fo many different entities ; only
ai were metaphyfical, and, as it were, fuperadded to the
eing. j
The Scotifts and Thomifts likewife difagreed about the
nature of the divine co-operation with the human will, the
meafure of divine grace that is neceflary to falvation, and
other abftrufe and minute’ queftions, which it is needlefs to
enumerate. ; ;
ee ee in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Afia
inor.

END OF VOL. XXXI.

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